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Shakey: from Conception to History

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Shakey: from Conception to History Articles Shakey: From Conception to History Benjamin Kuipers, Edward A. Feigenbaum, Peter E. Hart, Nils J. Nilsson I Shakey the Robot, conceived 50 years An Introduction ago, was a seminal contribution to AI. Shakey perceived its world, planned Benjamin Kuipers how to achieve a goal, and acted to car- At AAAI-15 (25–29 January 2015) in Austin, Texas, we met to ry out that plan. This was revolution- ary. At the 29th AAAI Conference on celebrate the impact of the Shakey project, which took place Artificial Intelligence, attendees gath- from 1966 to 1972 at the Stanford Research Institute (now ered to celebrate Shakey and to gain SRI International) in Menlo Park. insights into how the AI revolution We researchers in artificial intelligence during this time in moves ahead. The celebration included history have the privilege of working on some of the most a panel that was chaired by Benjamin fundamental and exciting scientific and engineering prob- Kuipers and featured AI pioneers Ed lems of all time: What is a mind? How can a physical object Feigenbaum, Peter Hart, and Nils Nils- have a mind? son. This article includes written ver- Some of the work going on today will appear in future text- sions of the contributions of those pan- elists. —ed. books, even centuries from now. We gain insights into our own struggles in the field today by learning about the his- torical struggles of great scientists of the past about whom we read in today’s textbooks. The textbooks tempt us to think that they moved surely and confidently from questions to answers. In reality, they were frequently as confused then as we are now, by the mysterious phenomena they were trying to understand. When we read their history, we know the 88 AI MAGAZINE Copyright © 2017, Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence. All rights reserved. ISSN 0738-4602 Articles answers they were seeking, and we can learn from the ber Shakey as slowly and laboriously computing blind alleys they spent time in, and the insights that models of its environment; planning; moving and led them to the right paths. navigating its way around obstacles toward a goal on Artificial intelligence marks its birth at the 1956 the far side of one large room. Dartmouth Conference. There have been many Fast forward to some recent news about grandchil- important milestones along the way. The important dren of Shakey, from Manuela Veloso at Carnege Mel- milestone we will celebrate today is the Shakey proj- lon University (CMU): ect, which created a physical robot that could per- I am very pleased to tell you that today, on November ceive its environment and the objects within it. 18, 2014, the CoBot robots (3 of them) have jointly Shakey could make a plan to achieve a goal state. And autonomously navigated for 1,000 km in our multi- it could carry out that plan with physical actions in floor SCS buildings at Carnegie Mellon University! the continuous world. The Shakey project laid a A great-grandchild of Shakey, Stanford’s self-dri- foundation for decades of subsequent research. We ving car Stanley, the car that drove itself across the are here to celebrate and understand that project. Mojave Desert, is in the Smithsonian National Air The centerpiece of the Shakey celebration was a and Space Museum in Washington, DC. Other cars panel presentation at AAAI-15, designed to give the like Stanley, built at Google, have driven more than audience an understanding and appreciation of the 700,000 miles, navigating the San Francisco Bay Area process of the research in the Shakey project, and of and other roads, according to the San Jose Mercury the long-term impact of that work on the larger field News of November 12, 2014. (Consider this: Shakey’s of AI. The goal was to have three speakers address (1) traversal, integrated over the whole life of the exper- the state of the art in AI before the Shakey project (Ed iment, probably never made it to one kilometer). Feigenbaum); (2) the progress of the Shakey project Shakey’s grandchildren on Mars are still having a itself (Peter Hart); and (3) the impact of the Shakey productive long life — 11 years into a planned 90-day project on the future of AI (Nils Nilsson). visit, semiautonomously assisting planetary scien- tists. Celebrating Shakey and Its Builders I would now like to tell you personal stories that together made the importance of Shakey research Edward A. Feigenbaum vivid to me. The history of science is a source of knowledge of the First Story complex search for solutions to difficult problems. Not only is this history endlessly intriguing and awe- In 1993, a major Japanese corporation asked me to inspiring; but also it should be of particular interest do an evaluation of the quality of a robotics project to AI scientists because this kind of complex problem that its research lab been working on for several solving and discovery is at the heart of many of our years. After signing a nondisclosure agreement, I was theories of mental activity. shown a robot that was “humanoid,” but very big Life is lived in the moment. Everything else is (scary, actually). Tethered to a power source, its memory and stories. The word history itself contains motion was fluid, a marvel of modern electro- the word story. This talk is constructed as several sto- mechanical engineering. ries of the Shakey project situated in its time, and Though heavy, it could walk reliably without among other landmark AI projects. falling, and it could even climb a flight of stairs. But I have been lucky enough to have lived and this creature had no Mind. It did no symbolic pro- worked through the entire 60 years of AI, from early cessing, no problem solving. It did not have goal- 1956, months before the famous “founding” Dart- directed behavior. mouth Conference, to today’s AAAI-2015. My stories There was more than enough space inside for a PC- are drawn from those 60 years of memories, helped, sized computer and there was plenty of power. What but only a little, by the best memory assistant ever, this project lacked were scientists and engineers the web. trained in AI, or even trained in software systems. My role today is to set the historical context in There were no young Nils Nilssons, no young Peter which the Shakey project was born, lived a remark- Harts, no young Bert Raphaels or Richard Fikes — able but short life, and was terminated. Shakey and of course no visionary like Charles Rosen to inte- research set the stage for decades of important exper- grate AI with electromechanical engineering. imental work in AI and robotics, and in other AI And this was 1993, twenty years after the end of the applications that will be mentioned later by Nils Nils- Shakey project! It can be perilous to ignore scientific son. history. I phoned several well-known robotics scientists to ask about the grandchildren of Shakey. All of them Second Story said the robots they developed were grandchildren of The Computer History Museum in Mountain View, Shakey. California, is the world’s premier museum for the his- As shown in an original Shakey video, we remem- tory of computers and information technology and is SPRING 2017 89 Articles recognized for its interpretation of that history. In The AI science had a workable set of ideas about January 2011, the museum opened its permanent how to use heuristic search to solve problems. But exhibition, called Revolution. Here is a quote from proving things about heuristic search had to wait the museum’s press release: until later (the Shakey group’s A*). Some powerful Ten years in the making, Revolution is the product of successful experiments had been done: the Logic the Museum’s professional staff collaborating with Theorist; Gelernter’s Geometry Theorem Proving designers, content producers and more than 200 program; Slagle’s calculus problem solving programs experts, pioneers and historians around the world. are examples. These were all on the “cognitive” side Revolution showcases 20 different areas of comput- of AI work. On this side, much discussion and ener- ers, computer science, semiconductors, and commu- gy was focused on generality in problem solving: nications, from early history to futuristic visions. Newell and Simon with means-ends analysis; Among those 20 areas is one called AI and Robotics. McCarthy and other “logicists” with theorem prov- For each area, the museum staff has chosen one ing. historical artifact to be the icon exhibit for the area. On the “perceptual” side of AI work, a similar sto- For AI and Robotics, the icon is Shakey the Robot, ry can be told about research on vision. There were beautifully exhibited. several basic workable techniques involving line find- The museum could have chosen any one of a ing, curve finding, and putting elements together dozen or more landmark AI artifacts. It could have into logical descriptions of objects. Generality of the chosen AI’s first heuristic problem-solving program techniques was also an issue, as it still is today. (the Logic Theorist of Newell, Shaw, and Simon); or a What did we have with which to do this work? Our speech-understanding program from Reddy; or one programming languages were great! List processing of the early expert systems from our Stanford group; was invented at CMU and then made more powerful or Deep Blue, the AI system that beat the world’s and beautiful in LISP at the Massachusetts Institute of chess champion. It could have … but in the end the Technology (MIT).
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