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Moral Bioenhancement: an Ethical and Philosophical Investigation Moral Bioenhancement: An Ethical and Philosophical Investigation by Andrea C Palk Dissertation presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University Supervisor: Prof Anton A van Niekerk March 2018 The financial assistance of the National Research Foundation (NRF) towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed, and conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to the NRF Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za DECLARATION By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety, or in part, submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Signed – Andrea Palk (March 2018) Copyright © 2018 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract It has been argued, in the bioethics literature, that traditional forms of moral instruction and development are no longer adequate in equipping humanity to address the urgent nature of the ethical problems facing contemporary societies. Rather than continuing to rely upon these supposedly ineffective methods, we should explore the possibility of biologically enhancing our morality. This would entail both decreasing the likelihood that we would wish to cause harm to others as well as increasing our motivation to do good. The proponents of moral bioenhancement argue that the best way of achieving this would be to isolate which affective dispositions, that are associated with moral traits, are susceptible to biological modification and to biologically enhance these dispositions. However, despite the presence of strong consequentialist arguments in favour of moral bioenhancement, it has elicited a variety of ethical concerns as well as conceptual and practical problems that would have to be addressed for it to become a coherent possibility. An ethical concern that has been raised in the literature is the concern that moral bioenhancement is wrong, in principle, and regardless of any benefits it could produce, because it risks negatively impacting phenomena that are regarded as intrinsically valuable. In particular, the concern is that moral bioenhancement could impact our moral autonomy, and thus, threaten human morality as such. This concern is based upon the view that the conditions for the exercise of autonomous moral behaviour, and thus morality itself, lie in the deliberation and choice that must be freely made in the face of competing demands. In other words, if it became possible to biologically increase our motivation to do good, thereby increasing the likelihood that we act in a way that is regarded as morally desirable, could our resultant behaviour still be regarded as morally autonomous; or, is morality solely a product of our given, unaltered biological predispositions, working in conjunction with traditional mechanisms of moral education? Will morality as we know it disappear if moral bioenhancement becomes a possibility? This dissertation contributes towards the literature through a comprehensive review in which particular conceptual, philosophical and empirical problems are addressed, as well as by providing a structured discussion of the practical and theoretical ethical concerns regarding moral bioenhancement. The dissertation includes a substantive definition of moral bioenhancement and makes further independent contributions through the analysis and application of a coherence theory of autonomy to ascertain the status for moral autonomy of various outcomes of moral bioenhancement interventions. From this analysis, a checklist of interventions that could be potentially inimical to autonomy, in terms of their outcomes, is constructed. The conclusion is that in certain cases, moral bioenhancement could produce an increase, rather than a decrease, in the level of autonomy experienced by individuals. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming Dit is al meermale in die bio-etiek literatuur beredeneer dat tradisionele vorme van morele onderrig en ontwikkeling nie meer voldoende is om die dringende morele probleme wat teenswoordige samelewings moet aanspreek, die hoof te bied nie. Eerder as om voort te gaan om op hierdie skynbare oneffektiewe metodes peil te trek, moet ons liewer die moontlikheid ondersoek om ons morele sensitiwiteit biologies te verbeter. Dit sal behels dat sowel die waarskynlikheid om kwaad aan ander te doen as die toename van ons motivering om goed te doen, aan die orde moet kom. Die apologete van morele bio-verbetering argumenteer dat die beste manier om laasgenoemde te bereik, sou wees om dié affektiewe disposisies wat geassosieer is met morele kenmerke, te isoleer, te bepaal hoe vatbaar hulle is vir biologiese modifikasie, en om dan hierdie disposisies biologies te verbeter. Ten spyte van sterk konsekwensialistiese argumente ten gunste van morele bio-verbetering, het laasgenoemde moontlikheid ‘n verskeidenheid van etiese vraagstukke sowel as konseptuele en praktiese probleme opgelewer wat aangespreek sal moet word alvorens sodanige verbeteringe ʼn koherente moontlikheid kan word. ʼn Etiese probleem wat in die literatuur vermeld word, is die vraag of morele bio-verbetering nie miskien as sodanig (in beginsel) verkeerd is nie - ongeag enige voordele wat dit kan oplewer - bloot op grond van die feit dat dit negatief sal impakteer op verskynsels wat inherent waardevol is. Hierdie besorgdheid is veral die vraag of morele bio-verbetering ʼn beduidende effek sou kon hê op ons morele outonomie, en dus ʼn bedreiging vir menslike moraliteit as sodanig sou kon inhou. Hierdie vraagstelling is gebaseer op die beskouing dat die voorwaardes vir die uitoefening van outonome morele gedrag, en dus van moraliteit as sodanig, geleë is in die deliberasie en keuses wat vryelik gemaak moet kan word ten aansien van kompeterende eise. Met ander woorde: indien dit moontlik is om ons motivering om goed te doen, biologies te verbeter, en om daardeur die waarskynlikheid dat ons op ‘n manier sal optree wat moreel wenslik is, te verhoog, is die vraag of ons resulterende gedrag steeds as moreel outonoom beskou sal kan word. Of, moet ons in so ʼn geval, argumenteer dat moraliteit suiwer ʼn produk is van ons gegewe, onveranderde biologiese disposisies wat slegs saamwerk met die tradisionele meganismes van ons morele opvoeding? Kortom: sal moraliteit, soos ons dit ken, verdwyn indien morele bio-verbetering ʼn moontlikheid word? In hierdie verhandeling is die gevolgtrekking dat die vlak van bedreiging vir morele outonomie wat morele bio-verbetering inhou, afhang van ʼn aantal faktore, wat die aard van die intervensie en die interpretasie van die betekenis van outonomie, insluit. Die argument word verder ontwikkel dat, in sekere gevalle, morele bio-verbetering ʼn toename, eerder as ‘n afname, in die vlak van outonomie wat individue ervaar, kan meebring. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements and Dedication I would firstly like to extend my gratitude towards the National Research Foundation (NRF) for their generous financial assistance towards this research. In addition to the three years of financial assistance that I was awarded, the NRF also provided me with a further travel grant to present my work at a conference in Prague in July 2017 for which I am extremely grateful. I would also like to extend my heartfelt thanks towards my supervisor and mentor, Professor Anton van Niekerk, who has challenged me, always in a supportive manner, throughout the three years that I have been engaged in writing this dissertation, to find my own voice. It is his confidence in my abilities that has enabled me to have the courage to make my own unique contribution to the literature. In addition, Professor van Niekerk’s comprehensive, nuanced and timely feedback on my work, despite the demanding nature of his own responsibilities and work-commitments, is highly appreciated. On a personal level, thanks must go to Debbi for her support, love and understanding, which gave me the freedom and peace of mind to be able to focus on my writing without any distractions. Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Lawrence and Valerie, for their unwavering support in every aspect of my life. Without their encouragement and affirming presence in my life this doctorate would not have been possible. I therefore dedicate my work to them. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Table of Contents Declaration Abstract Opsomming Acknowledgements and Dedication Table of Contents Chapter 1 – Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction and overview 1 1.2 Persson and Savulescu’s argument in support of moral bioenhancement 2 1.3 Motivation for the research focus 5 1.4 Research approach and aims 6 1.5 Research questions and problem statement 9 1.6 Overview of chapters 10 Chapter 2 – Definitions, moral content and scientific feasibility 12 2.1 Introduction and overview 12 2.2 The problem of competing definitions 14 2.2.1 Outcomes-based definitions versus neutral definitions 16 2.2.2 Target-based, normative definitions 17 2.2.3 Moral bioenhancement versus moral treatment 21 2.2.4 Other definitional distinctions 24 2.3 The problem of moral content 25 2.3.1 Moral motivation – the view of the supporters 26 2.3.2 The emotion/reason
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