CYBORG MIND What Brain‒Computer and Mind‒Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics CYBORG MIND Edited by Calum MacKellar Offers a valuable contribution to a conversation that promises to only grow in relevance and importance in the years ahead. Matthew James, St Mary’s University, London ith the development of new direct interfaces between the human brain and comput- Wer systems, the time has come for an in-depth ethical examination of the way these neuronal interfaces may support an interaction between the mind and cyberspace. In so doing, this book does not hesitate to blend disciplines including neurobiology, philosophy, anthropology and politics. It also invites society, as a whole, to seek a path in the use of these interfaces enabling humanity to prosper while avoiding the relevant risks. As such, the volume is the fi rst extensive study in cyberneuroethics, a subject matter which is certain to have a signifi cant impact in the twenty-fi rst century and beyond. Calum MacKellar is Director of Research of the Scottish Council on Human Bioethics, Ed- MACKELLAR inburgh, and Visiting Lecturer of Bioethics at St. Mary’s University, London. His past books EDITED BY What include (as co-editor) The Ethics of the New Eugenics (Berghahn Books, 2014). Brain‒Computer and Mind‒Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY EDITED BY CALUM MACKELLAR berghahn N E W Y O R K • O X F O R D Cover image by www.berghahnbooks.com Alexey Kuzin © 123RF.COM Cyborg Mind This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale. This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale. CYBORG MIND What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics Edited by Calum MacKellar berghahn N E W Y O R K • O X F O R D www.berghahnbooks.com This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale. First published in 2019 by Berghahn Books www.berghahnbooks.com © 2019 Scottish Council on Human Bioethics All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of criticism and review, no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A C.I.P. cataloging record is available from the Library of Congress Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Control Number: 2019006917 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-78920-014-0 hardback ISBN 978-1-78920-015-7 open access ebook An electronic version of this book is freely available thanks to the support of libraries working with Knowledge Unlatched. KU is a collaborative initiative designed to make high quality books Open Access for the public good. More information about the initiative and links to the Open Access version can be found at knowledgeunlatched.org. This work is published subject to a Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial No Derivatives 4.0 International licence. The terms of the licence can be found at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc-nd/4.0/. For uses beyond those covered in the licence, contact Berghahn Books. This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale. CONTENTS Acknowledgements vii Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Why Use the Term ‘Cyberneuroethics’? 9 The ‘Cyber’ Prefix 9 The ‘Neuro’ Prefix 15 Ethics 16 Neuroethics 17 Cyberneuroethics 18 The erminologyT Being Used 19 Chapter 2. Popular Understanding of Neuronal Interfaces 25 Public Understanding in the Media 27 Chapter 3. Presentation of the Brain–Mind Interface 31 The Central Nervous System 31 The Mind 37 The Brain–Mind nterfaceI 38 Chapter 4. Neuronal Interface Systems 43 Developments in Information Technology 44 Developments in Understanding the Brain 45 Developments in Neuronal Interfaces 46 Procedures Involved in Neuronal Interfaces 47 Output Neuronal Interface Systems: Reading the Brain and Mind 49 Input Neuronal Interface Systems: Changing the Brain and Mind 57 Feedback Systems of the Brain and Mind 67 Ethical Issues Relating to the Technology of Neuronal Interfaces 84 This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale. vi • Contents Chapter 5. Cyberneuroethics 99 General Ethical Considerations Relating to Neuronal Interfaces 101 Online Humans 106 Changing Cognition 113 Changing Consciousness 131 Escaping Reality 135 Changing Mood 140 Changing Personality 142 Changing Identity 144 The Concept of Humanity 154 Uploading a Mind 167 Issues of Privacy 184 Chapter 6. Neuronal Interfaces and Policy 217 New Cybercrimes 218 Policy Concerns 223 Conclusion 229 Human Autonomy 232 Resistance to Such a Development 234 Risks of Neuronal Interfaces 234 Appendix. Scottish Council on Human Bioethics Recommendations on Cyberneuroethics 239 Glossary 244 Index 251 This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The book is indebted to the following (though it should not necessarily be assumed that they would endorse all of its contents): Susan Holloway, Robert Minns, Anne Williams, Adele Pilkington, Sheila McGettrick, Matthew James, Audrey Sheridan, Lesley Ward, Susanna Lacey, Emily Murtagh, Pete Moore and Fabrice Jotterand. This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale. This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale. INTRODUCTION I The seventeenth-century French architect, physician, anatomist and inven- tor Claude Perrault (1613–1688) is best known for designing the front of the Louvre Museum in Paris. But he left another legacy. Eleven years after his death, a small book was published entitled Recueil de plusieurs machines, de nouvelle invention (Collected Notes of a Number of Machines, of New Invention). The book contained a description for creating an advanced form of abacus, an ingenious calculating machine. This piece of equipment would, Perrault believed, be of great use to a ‘computer’ – a physical person who performs mathematical computations. In coining the term ‘computer’, therefore, he had in mind a physical person rather than an object. But history has a curious way of reassigning the use of language. For Perrault, the person was still the principal calculator, while his machine was a tool to help the user perform calculations. Though he believed the machine would have its uses, the person was clearly more capable. Time, however, has moved on! A half-decent office computer now per- forms more than a billion calculations every second, selecting data from many billions of items stored locally on computer disks or chips. As a result, for some kinds of tasks, the machine can outstrip its master. No longer is it appropriate to think of the physical person as the computer; instead, the term is more appropriately assigned to the machine. Moreover, until now, the two have been discrete entities. On the desk sits a machine – an object. At the desk sits a person – an agent. This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale. 2 • Cyborg Mind However, the boundary is again beginning to change and become less distinct. With direct interfaces slowly being developed between the human brain and computers, a partial return of the term ‘computer’ to the human person may, at present, be seen as a plausible prospect. Given this, what possible ethical and anthropological dilemmas and chal- lenges would exist for such a machine-person? What would it then mean to be human? Many studies have examined the brain and nervous systems, which are often characterised by the prefix ‘neuro’. Many others have consid- ered computers as well as the information and network technologies charac- terised by the prefix ‘cyber’, and many more have discussed ethics. However, this introductory work is the first to draw on all three together in order to address the ethical and anthropological questions, challenges and implica- tions that have arisen with respect to the new neuronal interface systems in both medical and nonmedical contexts. These describe devices that enable an interface between any neuronal network (including the brain) and an electronic system (including a computer), which may facilitate an interface between the mind (which makes persons aware of themselves, others, their thoughts and their consciousness) and cyberspace. In this context, direct interfaces will be defined as those that enable an interaction between a neuronal network and an electronic system that does not require any traditional form of communication, such as the use of voice, vision or sign language. At the very heart of this revolution in neuronal interface systems lies the computer. This is because computing power has increased exponentially over the last few decades and is certain to continue into the future. As a result, computing technology will invade the lives of nearly all Homo sapiens on the planet. This means that new interfaces may provide fresh possibilities for human beings, enabling them to access new functions, information and experiences.