The Agta of the Northern Sierra Madre. Livelihood strategies and resilience among Philippine hunter-gatherers Minter, T. Citation Minter, T. (2010, May 19). The Agta of the Northern Sierra Madre. Livelihood strategies and resilience among Philippine hunter-gatherers. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/15549 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) Licence agreement concerning inclusion of doctoral thesis License: in the Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/15549 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). In memory of Royel Wagi To Winner Wagi Promotie commissie Promotores Prof. dr. G. Persoon Prof. dr. R. Schefold Overige leden Prof. dr. L. Duhaylungsod, De La Salle University Prof. dr. J. Eder, Arizona State University Prof. dr. P. Nas, Leiden University Prof. dr. L. Visser, Wageningen University The Agta of the Northern Sierra Madre Livelihood strategies and resilience among Philippine hunter-gatherers Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof. mr. P.F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op woensdag 19 mei 2010 klokke 15:00 uur door Tessa Minter geboren te Amsterdam in 1977 CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES, MAPS, FIGURES AND PHOTOS viii LIST OF ACRONYMS xi I. INTRODUCTION 1 The Agta: hunter-gatherers 3 The tribal extinction paradigm 6 Indigenous peoples and rights to natural resources 19 The study area 22 Research questions and methodology 30 II. THE AGTA 35 History 35 Demography 41 Family 59 Belief system 70 Social organization, mobility and livelihood 83 Conclusion 98 III. HUNTING, FISHING AND GATHERING 101 Introduction 101 Hunting 102 Fishing 129 Gathering 148 Conclusion 164 IV. LOGGING 167 Introduction 167 Corporate logging 168 Non-corporate, illegal logging 172 Agta involvement in logging 175 Environmental and social impacts 180 Conclusion 185 vi vii V. FARMING 187 Introduction 187 Similarity and variability of Agta farming systems 189 Disabungan 194 Diangu 209 Conclusion 224 VI. INTERVENTIONS 231 Change agents and their interventions over time 231 Christianization 240 Health and education 241 Livelihood and sedentarization 246 Sustainable resource use 253 Ancestral land rights 258 Empowerment 263 Conclusion 268 VII. CONCLUSIONS 275 The Agta in the foraging spectrum 275 The Agta as indigenous resource managers 285 Conclusion 295 APPENDIX: METHODOLOGY 297 REFERENCES 318 SAMENVATTING 347 SUMMARY 353 CURRICULUM VITAE 359 LIST OF TABLES, MAPS, FIGURES AND PHOTOS Tables 1.1 Population growth 1980-2000 24 1.2 Population and land area per municipality 2000 25 1.3 Average annual per capita incomes 2000 25 2.1 Distribution of Negrito populations 43 2.2 Distribution and size of Agta populations 43 2.3 Agta population of the NSMNP per municipality 47 2.4 Non-Agta and Agta population of the NSMNP 2000-2005 50 2.5 Historical populations in the study area 1918-2000 51 2.6 Population projections for the study area 2010-2030 51 2.7 Agta population in Isabela province 1980 and 2005 53 2.8 Agta child mortality in the NSMNP 54 2.9 Causes of death mentioned by Agta parents 54 2.10 Characteristics of three residential groups 87 2.11 Time investment by the coast-dwelling Dimasalansan Agta 2005 90 2.12 Time investment by the river-dwelling Diangu Agta 2004-2005 94 2.13 Time investment by the river-dwelling Disabungan Agta 2004-2005 97 3.1 Hunting grounds and hunting success rates 2004-2005 104 3.2 Agta households involved in hunting 112 3.3 Hunting success rates 2004-2005 114 3.4 Hunting tool use 118 3.5 Hunting tools used in past and present 119 3.6 Effectiveness of hunting tools and strategies 2004-2005 121 3.7 Trap ownership and trap checking frequency 123 3.8 Hunting patterns 1979-1982 and 2004-2005 127 3.9 Freshwater species caught by Disabungan and Diangu Agta 130 3.10 Marine species caught by Dimasalansan Agta 131 3.11 Fishing grounds exploited by three residential groups 2004-2005 132 3.12 Income from lobster trade in Divilacan May - October 2004 136 3.13 Fishing success rates in three residential groups 2004-2005 139 3.14 Fishing strategies and returns in three residential groups 2004-2005 140 3.15 Time investment in gathering 1979-2005 149 3.16 Wild tubers collected 151 3.17 Time investment in rattan collection and processing 2004-2005 155 viii ix 4.1 Agta and non-Agta loggers per municipality and Agta settlement 177 4.2 Time expenditure in logging among the Disabungan Agta in 2004-2005 178 4.3 Average daily wage of Agta loggers 2003-2005 179 5.1 Time investment in farming and farm labour 2004-2005 192 5.2 Crops in Disabungan swiddens 2004 201 5.3 Area per crop on Disabungan swiddens 2004 202 5.4 Planted and unplanted area on Disabungan swiddens 2004 203 5.5 Planting and harvesting ratio of upland rice on Disabungan swiddens 2004 208 5.6 Planting and harvesting data Diangu 2004-2005 218 5.7 Gross and net Diangu rice harvests 2004-2005 220 5.8 Contribution of own harvest and labour to Diangu rice stocks 2004-2005 222 5.9 Debts paid by Diangu Agta after the 2004 and 2005 harvests 223 6.1 Enrolment in primary and secondary education 2003-2005 243 6.2 Awareness on the NSMNP 255 6.3 Awareness on ancestral domain claims and titles 260 7.1 Returns of livelihood options per residential group in Ph. Peso per hour 281 7.2 Child mortality for river-dwelling and coast-dwelling Agta in the NSMNP 283 A. Time allocation categories 302 B. Participants and recorded person-workdays per study site and age category 305 C. Rice fields and swiddens Diangu Agta 2004 308 D. Swiddens Disabungan Agta 2004 311 Figures Figure 2.1 Age-sex structure of the study population in 2005 48 Maps 1.1 Study area 2 1.2 Region 2 (Cagayan Valley) 23 1.3 The NSMNP and its management zones 28 2.1 Negrito populations in the Philippines 44 2.2 Agta settlements in and around the NSMNP 46 3.1 Disabungan hunting and fishing grounds 106 3.2 Diangu hunting and fishing grounds 108 3.3 Dimasalansan fishing and hunting grounds 110 x 5.1 Situation of Digud swiddens 2004 198 5.2 Situation of Dipili swiddens 2004 199 5.3 Situation of wet rice fields and swiddens in Dibulo 2004-2005 214 Photos 2.1 Settlement at Blos River, Maconacon, April 2004 64 2.2 Wooden house at Dipili, San Mariano, February 2007 64 2.3 Coastal settlement at Dimatog, Palanan, May 2005 65 2.4 River-dwelling settlement at Diangu River, Maconacon, March 2004 65 2.5 The birth of Kristopher Mariano at Digud, December 2004 68 2.6 Kristopher Mariano with his uncle and mother, December 2004 68 2.7 Agta boy’s grave at Batag, San Mariano, September 2004 75 2.8 Disabungan Agta shifting camp, San Mariano, September 2004 75 2.9 Gaygay in Diwagao, Dinapigue, July 2003 77 2.10 Gaygay in Dimabigao, San Mariano, August 2004 77 3.1 Disabungan watershed, January 2005 107 3.2 Diangu watershed, October 2004 109 3.3 Dimasalansan reef and beach, December 2004 111 3.4 Emoy Wagi showing his hunting catch, Dipili, San Mariano, August 2004 117 3.5 Josephine Matias fishing, Dipili, San Mariano, August 2004 137 3.6 Agta fisherman showing his lobster catch, Dibubun, Divilacan, April 2005 146 3.7 Repairing lobster traps, Dikaberitbitan, Divilacan, July 2005 147 3.8 Winner Wagi straightening rattan, Digud, San Mariano, April 2005 157 3.9 Scrap metal collection, Blos, Maconacon, July 2006 163 4.1 Logging operations in LUZMATIM concession, Dinapigue, August 2003 170 4.2 Agta guarding LUZMATIM equipment, Dinapigue, August 2003 170 4.3 Log transportation at Disabungan River, San Mariano, August 2004 176 4.4 Agta chainsaw operator at Dipili, San Mariano, August 2004 176 4.5 Etong Mariano and Winner Wagi, Disabungan River, January 2004 184 4.6 Computation of payment for logs, Disabungan River, January 2004 184 5.1 Swidden in Dipili, San Mariano, August 2004 205 5.2 Carmen Matias weeding her field at Dipili, San Mariano, January 2004 206 5.3 Berning Ignacio ploughing his land in Dibulo, Maconacon, March 2004 217 5.4 Evelyn Aluad cleaning rice, Dibulo, July 2005 221 5.5 Planting rice for non-Agta neighbours, Diangu, April 2005 221 6.1 Agta elementary students, Sta. Marina, Maconacon, March 2004 246 6.2 Fidela Impiel presenting health issues, Cabagan, August 2005 274 LIST OF ACRONYMS CADC Certificate of Ancestral Domain Claim CADT Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title CDF Community Development Facilitator CLUP Comprehensive Land Use Plan CML Institute of Environmental Sciences CNI Commission on National Integration CPPAP Conservation of Priority Protected Areas Project CSC Certificate of Stewardship Contract CVPED Cagayan Valley Program on Environment and Development DAO Departmental Administrative Order DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources DGIS Netherlands Directorate-General for Development Cooperation IPRA Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act ISU Isabela State University IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature LGU Local Government Unit NCIP National Commission on Indigenous Peoples NGO Non-Government Organization NIPAS National Integrated Protected Areas System NORDECO Nordic Agency for Development and Ecology NPA New People’s Army NSMNP Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park NSMNP-CP Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park Conservation Project NSO National Statistics Office OMA Office of Muslim Affairs ONCC Office of the Northern Cultural Communities OSCC Office of the Southern Cultural Communities PAMB Protected Area Management Board PANAMIN Presidential Assistant for National Minorities PLAN PLAN International Philippines SIFMA Socialized Integrated Forest Management Agreement SIL Summer Institute of Linguistics WWF World Wildlife Fund xi I.