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Abigail Manville Annie Bourneuf Writing Art History May 2018 Tracing Threads:

A Harrowing of Embroidery from the Netherlands

The Netherlands between the 15th and late 16th centuries was a complicated era of change and power struggles. With external fighting between the Netherlands and other powers, as well as internal struggles between classes, ideologies, and territories, symbolism found in art formed meaning through these factors. With this time period especially, it is important to know when pieces were made because the constantly changing political and social climate would have changed the intent and interpretation of the pieces drastically. While many embroideries of the time lack attribution to a date or author, we see a number of distinct changes in painting styles during this time which can help to date works of embroidery. This is due to the fact that the embroideries themselves were oftentimes designed by a painter’s workshop, where the current painting styles were inevitably incorporated.1 As they often shared the same creators in terms of who designed the embroideries as well as the same people commissioning the works (namely the church and wealthy patrons), they also had similar social influences and interpretations

The political and social climate of the Netherlands during the reign of King Charles V (1506-

1555) was one marked by conflict. Coming into power over the Netherlands as a young child, his territory was originally controlled in his name by his aunt Margaret de Parma. While the early years were relatively peaceful thanks to his aunt’s guardianship, a feud with France as well as frequent revolts from the many individual states which made up the Netherlands lead to a period of war for the majority of Charles V’s reign. Due to these revolts, in addition to Charles’s Manville 2 wars to expand the empire, there were periods of famine, corruption, and general unrest among the territories.2

As Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, Charles V maintained a strong connection to the and exercised a strong presence in regards to commissioning religious art.

He followed in the tradition of previous rulers by commissioning new religious works of art in his name for various churches in the Netherlands.3 While not every work of art was commissioned by the royals, the artisans who made the art works, the church who received the art works, and the politics of the time were heavily intertwined. Just as the church has historically influenced political decisions and policies, politics also influenced the trends found in religious art. Therefore, knowing the dating of the pieces becomes important to understanding the subtler messages of these works.

The Harrowing of Hell embroidery at the Loyola Museum of Art is an excellent example of

Or Nue Netherlandish embroidery (Figure 1). This piece is in the Museum records as being dated to ca 1525. Unfortunately, there is no record as to the method of dating used or when it was dated. This central question of when becomes important in regards to the interpretation of the piece, and without a definitive answer as to how it was dated to 1525 by the museum, it becomes essential to investigate its provenance to truly understand its meaning. Since embroidery has a close relationship to other figural arts such as painting, we are able to look at stylistic movements and trends in subject matter as clues for when embroideries may have been made or at least when the designer (usually a separate artist such as a painter) would have created the cartoon from which the embroidery would have been created. Using clues from these related figural arts, as well as comparisons from other ecclesiastical embroideries from the

Netherlands which have more research and dating done, we are able to date the Harrowing of Manville 3

Hell. In my paper, I will argue that the Harrowing of Hell cope shield embroidery dates to between 1517 and 1530 in the Netherlands.

The opulence of the Harrowing of Hell embroidery piece shines through even after the years have faded its brightly colored silk. The embroidery measures only 21 in by 18.5 according to the object card at the Loyola Museum of Art. Its depiction of the Harrowing of Hell relates back to many Renaissance era paintings of the same subject, such as The Harrowing of Hell by

Jacob van Swanenburg or The Descent of into by Gerolamo di Romano, showing

Jesus’s descent into Hell. We find evidence of this period in Christ’s life through the brief mentions of his descent into hell in the , as well as the more thorough accounting in the apocryphal book the of . This gospel, while not included in the biblical cannon, was a popular apocryphal book in medieval and renaissance periods. According to the

Gospel of Nicodemus, descended to hell after being crucified. After 3 days of fighting in

Hell to free the souls contained within the realm of the dead, Christ then ascended to the dead, taking with him the souls saved through his sacrifice. Within the piece, we see Christ in flowing robes reaching out to the damned souls and pulling them out of the fires of Hell. Christ is clearly denoted by his clothing, as the damned souls appear to be mostly naked, and the golden halo around his head. Among the souls in Hell is one surrounded what appears to be surrounded by cool blue waters, or a blue draped robe. In the , is mentioned as preaching to the souls in Hell that Jesus will come to save them, preparing them for

Jesus’s coming much like he did on Earth. Then, when Jesus makes his descent into the realm of the dead, John the Baptist is saved from the depths of hell by him. Based of this biblical Manville 4 evidence and the depiction of robes which allude to the waters of around this one man, I am lead to believe that the man who Christ is reaching out to is in fact John the Baptist.

The Flemish piece itself is sewn with gold metal thread and brightly colored silk thread.

Using a technique couching technique known as Or Nue (shaded gold), the figures in the pieces are creating by laying gold thread down on the linen base fabric and sewing them down using the silk flat thread. By placing the silk colored thread closer together or more spaced out so that the gold thread can be seen in varying degrees, the artist is able to create the effect of shading on the surface of the embroidery. We can see this in areas such as on the folds of the fabric of Jesus’s robes and the flames where the gold shows through the silk fibers and creates a glow within the shaded regions. In areas such as the border (which very much resembles the gilded frames of the

Renaissance) and the sarcophagus or tomb lid in the foreground with the blue ring shaped handle, the gold threads are shown without the interference of any colored threads. This allows the viewer to see the precisely lain double gold threads that run horizontally to one another. The precision of the laying process requires many years of study to ensure that the gold threads are far enough away to allow for the silk thread without buckling, but close enough together that the background fabric does not show through. When looking closely at the embroidery, you can see the flat silk laying flat and hugging the ridges of the gold thread. When embroidering this piece, the artist would use a special laying tool which is essentially a smooth metal or wood stick that an artist would use to smooth the delicate silk threads into place to ensure they were all flat and laying the same way, thus creating a smooth and uniform reflective surface. Based on personal experience, silk thread is very delicate and tends to snag on the slightest rough material. To prevent this, embroiderers ensure that their hands are smooth with no hangnails, cracks, etc and that their tools are carefully sanded and smooth, often preferring gold needles and laying tools Manville 5 for this reason. Because of the nature of the medium, a piece this size and of such high caliber would have taken many years and a highly skilled artist to create.

In the embroidery The Harrowing of Hell, we see the naturalism which the Early

Netherlandish style is known for (15th -16th century).4 We can see the hair of the figures detailed in single strand threads so as to provide as detailed of a depiction as possible. We can also see the connection to Early Netherlandish painting portrayed through the play of light and shadow in the robes of Jesus Christ. Movement and drama is created in the scene with light playing over

Christ’s robes as he reaches out to the damned souls and the blowing of the pennon which Christ is holding. The frame formed by the gold cording around the embroidery creates a window into the biblical scene, much like many of the Early Netherlandish paintings as well as many Italian

Renaissance paintings (Figures 2 and 3).

While the embroidery has many characterizes of Early Netherlandish paintings, it also shares characteristics with Antwerp Mannerist paintings (early 16th century). This style of painting overlapped with the early Netherlandish painting style in both time frame and in the elements used. Antwerp Mannerists took some cues from Early Netherlandish painters such as their preference for drama and movement, as well as their fascination with light. In Antwerp mannerism, light and shadow was more exaggerated than in the Early Netherlandish style. The setting in which a scene is depicted can give many clues as to the style of art which the piece is made in. Oftentimes, in Antwerp mannerist paintings we see a scene set in the dark, either at night or in twilight, with strong light sources to cast shadows such as fires and lamps. In the

Harrowing of Hell embroidery, the sky itself is very degraded making a time of day difficult to ascertain. However, we do have some threads that show a gradation from dark blue up top to lighter blues and finally into a yellowy orange hue above the mountains. This leads me to Manville 6 believe that it is either sunrise or sunset in the scene. The embroidery exemplifies the use of a strong light source which carried over from the Early Netherlandish style into the Antwerp mannerist style through its use of the flames of Hell on the right side of the embroidery. This strong light source exaggerates the shadows in the folds of Christ’s and John the Baptist’s robes and the pennon, as well as the shadows cast by Christ and the sarcophagus lid. In the background, we can see some vague mountainous shapes. These shapes are very similar to the landscape features seen in Antwerp mannerist paintings in their indistinct, boulder-like shape

(see figure 4). This lack of specific landscape features creates the sense of an imagined setting as opposed to a real setting, a common trend in portraits as well as religious scenes during the 15th and 16th century, as many times artists would only depict landscapes through small windows, with the people themselves the main focus of their effort.5 This drew a line between figural works and later interest landscape (a field which developed around the mid 1500s).6 The setting also gives us clues to its provenance through the architectural features shown. In the 15th century, we see many embroidered and painted scenes set indoors with ornate classical columns and arches, or outdoors framed by arches and columns (Figures 5 and 6). Later on in the 16th century with the advent of Antwerp mannerism, we see more architectural ruins in outdoor scenes, especially classical arches. While earlier, an arch might be used to frame a piece, in the

Antwerp Mannerist style arches and architectural features were used as object as opposed to the setting. We see an example of this in the Harrowing of Hell embroidery, where behind the opening of hell we see an arch which bears a resemblance to classical arches such as the Arch of

Titus.

The figures in the scene take up most of the area of the embroidery. We can see Jesus on the left hand side with the figures from Hell such as John the Baptist and the two unidentifiable nude Manville 7 figures on the right.7 The positioning of Jesus with his body leaning over and crossing the middle divide of the embroidery, as well as symbolically crossing the divide between the living and the dead, the artist who designed the cartoon for this embroidery stressed the direct intercession of the divine. By having Christ break that boundary and reach out directly to the souls in a more active scene as opposed to depicting it in a more passive way through the aftermath of the

Harrowing of Hell with Jesus leading the souls in a procession out (such as in ’s

Harrowing of hell form the early 16th century), we can see the direct influence of the Divine and therefore get a sense of a greater power of the divine. This emphasis on direct intercession was a common theme for Antwerp mannerist paintings, and was a reflection of protestant thinking in the Netherlands. This was a fundamental difference between protestants (especially Calvinists who later controlled much of the Netherlands) and Catholics, in that the protestants believed that there was no such thing as intercessors, but rather that God intervened through direct prayers.

They even went to far as to say that using intercessors such as saints was sacrilegious because it goes against the second commandment (Exodus 20: 4-5a).8

Another trend in Antwerp mannerist style which shows through in this embroidery is their use of bright contrasting colors which draw the eye, especially in areas such as clothing. We can see this color palette in the Harrowing of Hell embroidery through St John the Baptist’s robe against the fires of hell. With Saint John the Baptist, his cool blue robes show vividly against the reds and oranges of the fires in Hell. We can also see this use of heavy contrasting colors in

Christ's robes against the background and the plants at his feet. In this depiction of Christ in the

Harrowing of Hell embroidery, we see his bright red robes shown against the serene green of the grass and bold greens of the plants at his feet. This coloring makes the figures more noticeable against their background while still maintaining a relatively limited color palette. It also makes Manville 8 the people in the image a more central focus in the piece as opposed to the landscape. This relates back to changes in social thinking, where more focus is placed on the humanity of figures in the bible in order to relate better to the masses.

While looking at painting styles can be useful in determining an embroidery’s provenance, we can also glean a significant amount of information from looking at embroideries and other specific pieces such as the Margaret de Parma’s stained glass windows in Ghent, for which we have known dates and locations. In looking at embroideries from the mid to late 15th century in the Netherlands, we see specific trends such as the use of heavy lines around architectural features which are absent in the Harrowing of Hell embroidery from the LUMA. In looking at embroideries such as that of the cloak Hood from the late 1400 Netherlands shown in figure 6, we see a dark line around features such as columns, arches, and important figures. Look closely at the arches above the scene, as well as at the columns. there you will see a dark black line which separates the architectural work from the scene itself. This creates an artificial distance between the viewer and the embroidery scene. By using this dark line, the artist gives off the illusion of a picture frame or a window through which the artist is viewing the scene from. This contrasts with the lack of said line and architectural features which frame the piece in its entirety in the Harrowing of Hell embroidery. Instead, the Harrowing of Hell embroidery uses changes in color as opposed to hard lines in order to separate objects in the picture plane. This creates a less voyeuristic feeling to the piece as there is less of a sense of peering into a window, but rather creates the sense that the viewer is part of the scene. This feeling is very much in line with early

Protestant thinking that the common people needed more of a connection to the divine then previously allowed for both literally (with the lack of service in the vernacular and therefore lack of understanding of the church services) and in terms of religious art, as both were seen to be Manville 9 above the common people as opposed to for the common people.9 This also fits with the social discontent in the Netherlands during the early 1500s, where peasant revolts sought to express the needs and desires of the common people to the out of touch and unreachable ruling class.10

As we look further and further into the embroidery itself we can determine that the embroidery is almost certainly after the 15th century due to the progression of Antwerp

Mannerist style from Early Netherlandish Style, as well as due to its humanist features, which began to develop in the 16th century. This timing is further supported when comparing the

Harrowing of Hell embroidery to other embroideries from the Netherlands during the 15th century. We also know that the reformation and counter-reformation in the Netherlands didn't truly begin until the till the mid 16th century after the Council of Trent. Our embroidery cannot fit into this later reformation time period, as the Council of Trent implemented very specific rules regarding the images found in churches, especially in regards to the depiction of Christ.11 Not to mention, the translation of the Council of Trent’s edicts into understandable artistic guide and the implementation of it didn’t truly start until later. The Council of Trent instituted a counter reformation of Catholic imagery in part to curb reformatory propaganda in religious art.12 In the

Council of Trent, the Catholic Church specified that religious scenes were to be straightforward and not confusing rearranged. There were to be no lewd or lasciviousness aspects and ornamentation such as the use of gold and bright colors was to be used conservatively.

Theologians later expanded on the Council of Trent’s declaration, and used its decree as a basis to attack mannerist works of religious art for being disorderly and purposefully confusing and even profane.13 Because of this, we can assume that the Harrowing of Hell embroidery was created before the attack on Mannerism by the Catholic Church as well as before the waves of iconoclasm which rippled through the Netherlands. Based off of the imagery and ornate Manville 10 techniques shown in the Harrowing of Hell embroidery, we might guess that the embroidery was part of the early use of biblical scenes as propaganda for the Catholic Church against reformatory ideas. This however cannot be certain as the protestants also used the same imagery (however in less ornate forms than gold embroidery). In studying counter reformation art, a common trend depicted the divine triumphing over evil beings such as demons and monsters. This was a metaphor for the Catholic church and “good Christians” triumphing over the protestant heretics, as well as the protestants triumphing over the -influenced Catholics who have been lead astray.14 This fact leads me to believe that while the embroidery was before the official Counter

Reformation and the Council of Trent which standardized Christian depictions, it is also after the start of the Reformation itself in 1517 which began with 's 95 Theses. this closes the time frame of the embroidery from between 1517 when the Reformation began to about 1530 with the end of the Antwerp Mannerist Style, which the cartoon the embroidery is based off of was designed in.

The dating of this piece significantly affects its interpretation, as the political and religious climate in the Netherlands was constantly changing. Rulers and the wealthy in the

Netherlands used their art patronage to solidify their standing and communicate their policies.

This influence of politics on the interpretation of religious art would have been especially true in periods of turmoil such as the 16th century. We see an example of this in Margaret de Parma and

King Phillip’s gifts of stained glass windows to St John’s in Gouda. As Regent over the

Netherland’s in her half brother Phillip’s name, Margaret was in charge of enforcing the King’s rule over the Netherlands. This meant she also had the task of commissioning works from artists to show the crown’s wealth and power, as well as to show their support of the Church. This window is important for the understanding of Margaret’s rule in the Netherlands because of her Manville 11 lack of public image and her seeming reluctance or disinterest in commissioning works of art which depicted herself, instead preferring to commission works in the name of the King.15 There remains very little biographical knowledge about her, leaving scholars few clues as to the public’s perception of her.16 This lack of publicity is especially unusual considering the turmoil that marked her time as regent , with the beginning of the reformation and iconoclasm. The stained glass windows of both Margaret de Parma and King Phillip in St John’s at Gouda both show similar iconographic and stylistic markings, making their messages complimentary. They are meant to show the power and unity of the King and his regent Margaret. By the King choosing the scene of The Dedication of the Temple, he is portraying himself as wise and just, just as the ruler in the biblical story. In Margaret de Parma’s window, the message is more in line with counter reformatory propaganda. Her stained glass window draws the comparison between the protestant heretics and the Catholic Church through the scene of Elijah’s sacrifice, where Elijah, a good and God fearing Christian, succeeds in calling upon God before the heretical priests of Baal who contorted their religion. She also includes an inscription espousing her virtues as a women who was a careful in following the proper divine as a

Christian.17 These inscriptions and iconographic choices would have been understood in their original context.

This example of use of religious art as propaganda for political reasons can also be used to understand the Harrowing of Hell embroidery. While on the surface the embroidery would have been just a visual representation of a biblical story, the dating of the piece can change its context and underlying message. In 1517 to 1530, the Netherlands were experiencing a period of rebellions and the beginnings of reformatory feelings in their population. As the crown fought to put down any rebellious pockets in their midst, this cope embroidery and others like it could Manville 12 have been used to remind the church goers of the fight between the good God fearing Christians of the crown and those who were not only fighting against the natural order of things by rising up against the Crown, but also by doubting the Catholic church. The state in this instance would have taken the place of Jesus, with the Catholics standing in as those saved from and the rebellious heretics compared to the demons of Hell which the Catholic church and Crown vanquishes. As the cope shield would have been seen only when the clergyman was processing to and from the altar, or when he was speaking directly to God by facing the altar, the embroidery would have been the first and last thing seen during service, and the imagery shown during the most holy moments of direct prayer to God. This would have made it a prominent image in the minds of the congregation, reminding them of their duty to stay true to the Catholic church “or else”.

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List of Figures.

Figure 1. The Harrowing of Hell, ca. 1525, Flemish, Gold metal and colored silk threads on linen, 21 x 18.5 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. John Scheid in honor of Rev. James Mertz, S.J., Martin D'Arcy, S.J. Collection, Loyola University Museum of Art, 1976:06 Manville 14

Figure 2. Early 16th century, Italian Renaissance tabernacle frame. Wood and Gold Gilding. Manville 15

Figure 3. The . ca 1515-1520. Netherlands. central panel 47 x 33 3/4 in. (119.4 x 85.7 cm); left wing 47 x 16 7/8 in. (119.4 x 42.9 cm); right wing 47 1/8 x 17 in. (119.7 x 43.2 cm). New York: New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Figure 4. Pieter Bruegel the elder, Landscape with the ,16th century. Netherlands. 14.6 x 21.8 in. Oil painting. Manville 16

Figure 5. Finely embroidered cope, Saint Bavo Cathedral, Ghent, 15th century. Note the columns and architectural features, as well as the cold “framing” around the edge.

Figure 6. Jan van Eyck, Madonna of Chancellor Rolin, c. 1435 Manville 17

Figure 7. Cloak hood, late 1400s, Netherlands.

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Works Cited. Ainsworth, Maryan W. “Early Netherlandish Painting.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. For a resource on early Netherlandish art. Council of Trent, Session 25, ON THE INVOCATION, VENERATION, AND RELICS, OF SAlNTS, AND ON SACRED IMAGES, (March 1547), in The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent ... (London: Burns and Oates, 1888).ed and Translated by J Waterworth. 233-236 Eire, Carlos M. N. War against the Idols: The Reformation of Worship from Erasmus to Calvin (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 2003). Freedberg, . "The Representation of Martyrdoms during The Early Counter-Reformation in Antwerp." The Burlington Magazine118, no. 876 (1976): 128-38 Freeman. Margaret B, The St. Martin Embroideries: A Fifteenth-century Series Illustrating the Life and Legend of St. Martin of Tours (New York: New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1968) Harbison, Craig S. "Counter-Reformation in Titian's Gloria." The Art Bulletin 49, no. 3 (1967): 244-46. doi:10.2307/3048474. Kennedy. James C, A Concise History of the Netherlands (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017). Liedtke, Walter. “Landscape Painting in the Netherlands.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/lpnd/hd_lpnd.htm (December 2014) Van Eck, Xander. "Margaret of Parma's Gift of a Window to St John's in Gouda and the Art of the Early Counter-Reformation in the Low Countries." Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art 36, no. 1/2 (2012)

1 Mentioned as well as alluded to numerous times, especially in Margaret B. Freeman, The St. Martin Embroideries: A Fifteenth-century Series Illustrating the Life and Legend of St. Martin of Tours (New York: New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1968), for example on pages 106 as well as the section on Roundels: Style which discusses how there were not only different designers for the series, but also different embroiderers. 2 For a complete history of the Netherlands which details the sources of discontent in the area, read James C. Kennedy, A Concise History of the Netherlands (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017). 3 Xander Van Eck. "Margaret of Parma's Gift of a Window to St John's in Gouda and the Art of the Early Counter-Reformation in the Low Countries." Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art 36, no. 1/2 (2012): Pp 66 4 See Maryan W Ainsworth. “Early Netherlandish Painting.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. For a resource on early Netherlandish art. 5 See Maryan W Ainsworth. “Early Netherlandish Painting.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. 6 Walter Liedtke. “Landscape Painting in the Netherlands.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/lpnd/hd_lpnd.htm (December 2014) Manville 19

7 Unidentifiable because of the lack of specific features. Depictions of the Harrowing of Hell vary, but generally depictions show Jesus leading out the Patriarchs of first, often and , but also Kind David, Moses, and others in the Bible. 8 David Freedberg. "The Representation of Martyrdoms during The Early Counter-Reformation in Antwerp." The Burlington Magazine118, no. 876 (1976): 128-38 9 See Carlos M. N. Eire, War against the Idols: The Reformation of Worship from Erasmus to Calvin (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 2003). For information. While Calvinists destroyed all religious art (hence the iconoclastic purges in the Netherlands), Lutherans believed that church could have art, but that the Catholic church took the patronage of art too far. They believed that in addition to being too opulent, it also served as a form of idolatry because of its excessive ornateness. This is one idea that the council of Trent also used in their counter reformation by decreeing that religious art should not contain any excessive ornateness. 10 James C. Kennedy, A Concise History of the Netherlands (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017). 11 The Council of Trent instituted strict controls over religious art, with all art needing to be approved by a bishop first. Many artists were forced to face inquisitions due to these strict controls. Infractions included depicting Christ when he was not standing or bearded, nudity, excessively ornate pieces, and “confusingly arranged pieces”. The mannerists especially were attacked because of their use of bright colors and disorganized arrangements of figures. Council of Trent, Session 25, ON THE INVOCATION, VENERATION, AND RELICS, OF SAlNTS, AND ON SACRED IMAGES, (March 1547), in The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent ... (London: Burns and Oates, 1888).ed and Translated by J Waterworth. 233-236 12 Council of Trent, On the Invocation. ed J Waterworth. 233-236. 13 “...every superstition shall be removed ... all lasciviousness be avoided; in such wise that figures shall not be painted or adorned with a beauty exciting to lust... there be nothing seen that is disorderly, or that is unbecomingly or confusedly arranged, nothing that is profane, nothing indecorous, seeing that holiness becometh the house of God. And that these things may be the more faithfully observed, the holy Synod ordains, that no one be allowed to place, or cause to be placed, any unusual image, in any place, or church, howsoever exempted, except that image have been approved of by the bishop ...” Council of Trent, On the Invocation. ed J Waterworth. 233- 236. 14 Many sources reference this symbolism. See Craig S Harbison. "Counter-Reformation Iconography in Titian's Gloria." The Art Bulletin 49, no. 3 (1967): 244-46. doi:10.2307/3048474. And Van Eck, Xander. "Margaret of Parma's Gift of a Window to St John's in Gouda and the Art of the Early Counter-Reformation in the Low Countries." Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art 36, no. 1/2 (2012) 15 Van Eck, Xander. "Margaret of Parma's Gift of a Window to St John's in Gouda” p70. 16 Arnade, Peter. Beggars, Iconoclasts, and Civic Patriots: The Political Culture of the Dutch Revolt. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008. p56. 17 Van Eck, Xander. "Margaret of Parma's Gift of a Window to St John's in Gouda” p74