Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Blanchard's cricket frog Location: Acris crepitans Baird, 1854 Weather: Time of Day:

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Overview General Description Acris crepitans is 1.6-3.5 cm long and has a blunt, pointed head with an occasional triangular marking. Its back and legs are covered with various dark markings. It has a middorsal bright green or brown stripe and the rear of its thigh has a distinct ragged dark stripe. A white bar extends from its eye to its foreleg. The body is slim-waisted and small while the skin is granular and warty. Hind toes are extensively webbed and toe pads are poorly developed (Stebbins 2003). Acris crepitans paludicola and Acris crepitans blanchardi are recognized as subspecies. A. c. paludicola has smooth skin with a pinkish patterned coloration. The throat Write down questions that you have for further exploration. remains pink, even for males during breeding season. A. c. blanchardi by comparison is wartier, bulkier, and heavier with a light brown or gray uniform coloration (Conant and Collins 1991). Males have more ventral spotting than females (Stebbins 2003). Distribution Unlike most small frogs in its range, A. c. crepitans does not leave the vicinity of water in its adult stage. It is found at the edge of ponds and slow-moving streams, tending to avoid wooded areas and dense vegetation (Hulse McCoy and Censky 2001). A. c. blanchardi is found in Michigan, Ohio, Nebraska, eastern Colorado, and most of Texas. A few have been spotted in Minnesota and New Mexico as well. A. c. paludicola is found in marshes ranging from southwestern Louisiana to southeastern Texas (Conant and Collins 1991).

Physical Description Morphology Acris crepitans is a small (0.75 to 1.5 inches), slim-waisted frog with slender webbed toes and a triangle mark on the head. Dorsal coloration can be gray, light brown with dark bands on legs. There is a white bar from eye to base of foreleg. The skin is bumpy. Males have a single vocal pouch. Acris crepitans is a non-climbing Page 1 member of tree frog family (Barket 1964, Stebbins 1966). It may be confused with the Striped Chorus Frog which has a whitish stripe along upper lip and length-wise brownish stripe on sides and back, toes slightly webbed. Northern Spring Peeper has smooth skin and x-shaped marking on back (Harding 1997).

Ecology Habitat Acris crepitans lives on the edges of ponds and streams with submerged or emergent vegetation (Stebbins 1966). Aquatic Biomes: Lakes and Ponds; Rivers and Streams Trophic Strategy Main diet is insects, including mosquitos.

Life History and Behavior Behavior Life span averages four months. With a such a short life span, populations can have a complete turn over in six months. Activity is diurnal. They can jump more than three feet. This would be like a six foot person jumping 200 feet. They can be found basking on sunny banks of shallow pools in groups. Predators include fish, snakes, herons, and minks. To escape predators they jump in a series of zig-zag motions (Barket 1964). Life Expectancy Maximum longevity: 4.9 years (captivity) Observations: In the wild, these animals are short-lived. Even so, their maximum longevity may be underestimated as it is based on only a few captive animals. Reproduction Acris crepitans reaches sexual maturity at one year. Winter to summer, active all year except midwinter in the north. Female responds to male calls April through May and beginning of August. Call sounds like a metallic "gick, gick," resembles steely marbles, lasting approximately one second long. Eggs are less in number than other frogs. One at a time are laid and attached to plants in a pond or pool, while the male releases his sperm. Eggs hatch in a few days. Tadpoles have a black tipped tail unlike any other tadpole. Metamorphosis occurs between July and August (Conant & Collins 1991, Harding 1997).

Conservation Conservation Status This species was common until the early 1970's. It is uncertain why the decline happened so quickly. Suspected reasons are drought, increased use of pesticides, fertilization, highway salts and other pollutants. Low populations and short life span limit recovery. Acris crepitans blanchardii disappeared in some sites, but remains common in southern and western regions. This subspecies is listed as special concern in the state of Michigan. It is important to monitor existing populations and to identify and preserve known habitats. MI has a volunteer frog survey program, through the MDNR wildlife division, Lansing. Residents in other states can contact their local DNR.(NPWRC 1999, Harding 1997). IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: Special Concern Management Conservation Actions The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas. Threats Acris crepitans has declined in the north and northwestern part of its range for various reasons revolving around habitat change (Stebbins 2003). Trends Vocal calls are like the rapid clicking of pebbles, making a "metallic gick gick gick" sound. Rate of vocals is about 1 to 3 calls every second. Breeding period usually lasts from April to July (Conant and Collins 1991). Males can be seen calling from floating vegetation mats or from the banks of ponds. Females seem to prefer males that call at a low pitch. It is active during both day and night in warm weather but only active during the day in spring and autumn. Acris crepitans is an extraordinary leaper and can leap up to 38 times their standard body length (Hammerson 1999). It is carnivorous, eating various invertebrates and arthropods such as beetles, flies, spiders, ants, and true bugs (Hulse McCoy and Censky 2001).

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits Important to humans for research and management. Used as an indicator species of water quality. Also used to measure pond and stream ecological standards (NPWRC 1999). Risks A. c. blanchardi or Blanchard's Cricket Frog is named after the herpetologist at the University of Michigan, Frank Nelson Blanchard (Conant and Collins 1991). Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Fowler's toad Location: Anaxyrus fowleri (Hinckley, 1882) Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview Distribution This species range occurs throughout most of eastern USA and northern shore of Lake Erie in Canada (Conant and Collins 1991). It is absent from northern New England and Florida peninsula.

Ecology Habitat Write down questions that you have for further exploration. Habitat and Ecology It can be found in wooded areas, river valleys and floodplains, agricultural areas, usually in areas with deep friable soils. It burrows underground or hides under rocks, plants, or other cover when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water of marshes, rain pools, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, flooded areas, and other bodies of water lacking a strong current. Systems Terrestrial Freshwater

Conservation Management Conservation Actions No conservation measures are needed. Threats Major Threats It is not threatened range wide. Trends Population The population is widespread, generally common and relatively stable, with local declines. Population Trend Stable

Page 2 Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Cope's gray frog Location: Hyla chrysoscelis Cope, 1880 Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description Hyla chrysoscelis is often confused with Hyla versicolor. The two species are actually identical except in distribution, call, and chromosomal count. H. chrysoscelis is diploid (N=2), where as H. versicolor is tetraploid, (N=4). H. chrysoscelis is a relatively large treefrog that is usually gray or green in color. The exact coloration is determined by the activities and environment of individuals and can therefore vary within the species. All individuals, however, have bright orange or yellow bits of color spotted with black along their hind legs (Conant and Collins 1998). Distribution Write down questions that you have for further exploration. This frog occurs widely across much of the eastern United States. They range from central Texas in the south, as far north as Ontario, Canada and all the way out to the east coast, where they can be found in the panhandle of Florida and up north into Maine (Conant and Collins 1998). H. chrysoscelis is usually found in wet woodlands, such as ponds or swamps (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999) .

Physical Description Morphology Cope's gray treefrogs typically measure 3.2 to 5.1 cm long. The largest gray treefrog holds a record of 6 cm. There is no sexual dimorphism. The dorsal surface of gray treefrogs is rough and lightly sprinkled with warts, although smoother than most Bufo. The large toepads produce mucous to adhere to surfaces, including smooth bark or man-made structures, and are characteristic of the family Hylidae. The color of gray treefrogs varies. Factors affecting coloration are substrate, season, and humidity. Shades of gray are most common, with black blotches on the back. Variations of brown, green, and pearl-gray colors have been noted. Green colors are more prominent during the breeding season and in yearling frogs. Usually, there is a white mark beneath the eye. In the region of the groin, the ventral skin on the hind legs may appear orange to golden-yellow with black speckles. The Page 3 remainder of the belly is white. If the coloration is in question, place the treefrog in a box, allow it to sit quietly, and later re-examine the specimen. Yearling frogs are about half the size of the older H. chrysoscelis, but otherwize have the same physical characteristics. Gray treefrogs continue to grow each year until they achieve the physical limit of the species. (Collins and Conant, 1998; Harding, 1997) Both gray treefrog species possess the same larval traits, but H. versicolor was used to exemplify the tadpole stage in A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of East Central North America (Collins and Conant 1998). These data, therefore, although applicable to both species, are technically derived from H. versicolor. The tadpoles are small, but colorful, measuring 3.2 cm to 3.8 cm. The tip of the tail is well-defined with a 5 mm narrow tip. The oral disc is comprised of 2 upper and 3 lower labial tooth rows, serrated jaws, and an overhanging upper jaw. The intestinal coil is also visible. The background color is light green to yellow. The tallest section of the tail fin is the middle, and heavy black dots are scattered along the margin on a red or orange background. (Collins and Conant, 1998; Harding, 1997) Other Physical Features: Ectothermic; Heterothermic; Bilateral symmetry Sexual Dimorphism: Sexes alike

Ecology Associations Many assorted species of birds, snakes, other frogs, and small mammals eat gray treefrogs. These frogs are arboreal to avoid predators, and exploit new food resources. They also avoid the attention of predators by calling after dusk and being most active in the evening and night. They use cryptic coloration and rarely leave the trees until the breeding season. Their skin is able to assume most natural colors in which it comes into contact. Larger frogs, such as the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) and green frog (Rana clamitans), have been observed to consume gray treefrogs by stalking calling males. In the water, giant waterbugs (Belostomatidae) also attack Cope's gray treefrog. (Collins and Conant, 1998; Harding, 1997) In the larval state, gray treefrogs are subject to predation by fish and larger amphibian larvae, such as the tiger salamander (Ambystomma tigrinum). When aquatic predators are abundant, gray treefrog tadpoles reduce their activity and feeding. They grow more slowly, and metamorphose at a smaller size. (Skelly, 1992) Anti-predator Adaptations: Cryptic Habitat Cope's gray treefrogs inhabit all elevations of wooded areas near temporary and permanent waters in such diverse surroundings as swamps, ponds, lakes, old fields, thickly wooded suburban neighborhoods, farm woodlots, and mixed or deciduous forests. During the summer months, they rest in damp rotten logs or hollow trees emerging to feed. In winter, Cope's gray treefrogs hibernate on land, and maybe found under woody debris logs, roots and leaf litter. (Harding, 1997) Habitat Regions: Temperate; Terrestrial; Freshwater Terrestrial Biomes: Forest Aquatic Biomes: Lakes and Ponds; Temporary Pools Wetlands: Swamp Other Habitat Features: Suburban; Agricultural; Riparian Trophic Strategy As tadpoles, Cope's gray treefrogs begin life by scavenging excess plant material. They consume algae or underwater plants and filter-feed to clean the water in bottom substrate. Mainly, they are herbivorous. (Harding, 1997) After metamorphosis, H. chrysoscelis prey upon most types of insects and their larvae. Moths, mites, spiders, plant lice, harvestmen, and snails are also eaten. Gray treefrogs mostly hunt insects in the understory of wooded areas in small trees and shrubs, where they may rely upon their camouflage with less risk of predation. However, like most frogs, H. chrysoscelis is opportunitistic and may also eat smaller frogs, including other tree frogs. (Collins and Conant, 1998) Animal Foods: Amphibians; Insects; Terrestrial Non-insect Arthropods; Mollusks; Terrestrial Worms Plant Foods: Algae

Life History and Behavior Behavior Cope's gray treefrogs are territorial when they call during the mating season. When not breeding, they are mostly tolerant of each other, though may cannibalize conspecifics that are small enough to eat. (Duellman and Trueb, 1986) As a member of the genus Hyla, H. chrysoscelis possesses advanced toe pads to adhere more strongly to vertical surfaces of glass, metal, and primarily tree bark. A very low angle between the toe pads and substrate with a combination of mucous glands and surface moisture create surface tension to support the body mass. The toe tips are able to be flexible and grip more firmly due to small bone or cartilage between two terminal toe bones that support the toe pad. These specialized adhesion abilities are disrupted if a detergent is applied to the pad; however, the adhesion will return with the removal of the detergent. Climbing ability is an important adaptive trait of this species and it is central to their survival. (Stebbins and Cohen, 1995) When gray treefrogs hibernate, they appear rigid, and have a high freezing tolerance due to glycerol in the blood. During hibernation, 80% of the body freezes and the eye becomes opaque as breathing and heartbeat are temporarily suspended. Their high tolerance for freezing temperatures enabled the gray treefrogs to expand their territory northward and towards higher elevations. (Duellman and Trueb, 1986) Home RangeThe terrain and food resources vary throughout the eastern United States, and consequently the home range of the Cope's gray treefrog varies considerably. Due to their small size, several frogs may inhabit one tree if there is a sufficient food supply. (Harding, 1997) Key Behaviors: arboreal; scansorial; saltatorial; nocturnal; crepuscular; motile; sedentary; hibernation; solitary; territorial Life Expectancy Maximum longevity: 7.8 years (captivity) Observations: One gray treefrog lived 7.8 years in captivity but it is not clear whether it was a specimen of this species or of the gray treefrog (*Hyla versicolor*). Reproduction In the Great Lakes region, breeding choruses of gray treefrogs begin in late April to early May, after the evening air temperature rises above 15°C. Because of this temperature dependence, timing of breeding choruses varies throughout the range. Interludes of cold weather may temporarily halt male gray treefrog calls. Although these frogs end their hibernation in the early months of spring, they do not have the energy reserves to call yet. Warm, cloudy nights, from dusk to midnight, produce the most intense choruses. Generally, the breeding chorus lasts for several weeks. Sometimes, the breeding calls are continued into late June or early July, depending upon local temperatures and unusual weather phenomena. The two gray treefrog species, although sympatric in many areas and physically similar, do not hybridize due to the different pulse rate and pitch between the two calls. This creates a mating barrier, as females do not approach males with species inappropriate calls. (Harding, 1997) Mating in this species is polygynous. Female choice dominates the mating scheme of gray treefrogs, since the female approaches the male with the most prolonged and frequent calls. If the male detects a nearby female, he will also further entice her with a “courtship call.” This call is longer and more emphatic than the usual advertisement call. Successful calling results in amplexus, the male mounting the female and releasing sperm to fertilize the female's eggs as she releases them into the pond. (Harding, 1997) Cope's gray treefrogs employ their unique call from the safety of vegetation next to the shallow breeding sites, preferably in tree branches that overhang the water. Males aggressively defend their territories, using vocalizations to outline territorial boundaries. Satellite males, often in their first breeding season or otherwise disadvantaged, do not call to save energy. Instead, they lie in wait near a calling male and try to intercept females by claiming the caller’s position after he moves away. Each female only visits the breeding site once per season to lay her eggs. During the last weeks of the breeding season, occasional calls may still be heard as the males slowly retreat from the shoreline and disappear into the foliage. Rare calls may still be heard in the trees in late summer or fall, yet they are unrelated to mating, and occur more often during rain showers. Normally, there is an unequal sex ratio among treefrog populations. Since calling males are more likely to be located by predators, treefrog populations show a female bias. (Harding, 1997) Mating System: Polygynous Females lay eggs once per year. Males, if successful, may fertilize multiple clutches. A single egg mass may contain 1,000 to 2,000 eggs. Almost immediately upon laying, the large egg mass breaks into small, loose egg clusters of 10 to 40 eggs. These attach to plants or other structures within the pond. Depending upon the water temperature, the tadpoles hatch in three to seven days. Tadpoles are independent from the time of hatching. Metamorphosis occurs at about 6 weeks of age. Sexual maturity is reached by the age of 2 years. (Harding, 1997) Key Reproductive Features: Iteroparous; Seasonal breeding; Gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); Sexual; Fertilization; Fertilization :: External; Oviparous Treeforgs breed once yearly. Late April to May or when the temperature rises above 15°C Parental investment is limited. Females provide the eggs with yolk before fertilization. They also choose an egg-laying site in shallow permanent ponds or lakes where egg predation is less likely. (Collins and Conant, 1998; Skelly, 1992) Parental Investment: Pre-fertilization; Pre-fertilization :: Provisioning; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting :: Female; Pre-hatching/birth; Pre-hatching/birth :: Protecting; Pre-hatching/birth :: Protecting :: Female

Molecular Biology and Genetics Molecular Biology Collection Sites: world map showing specimen collection locations for Hyla chrysoscelis

Conservation Conservation Status Hyla chrysoscelis is not currently classified as endangered or of special concern. However, habitat destruction and human pollutants are contributing to the overall decline of amphibians, including frog and toad species. Public support of habitat areas in state parks, nature reserves, and private property continues to promote the survival of amphibian species. Ongoing scientific research also improves our understanding of this dynamic species. (Harding, 1997) IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: No special status Management Conservation Actions No conservation measures are needed. Threats Major Threats It is not a threatened species. Trends Activities Hyla chrysoscelis is often found in small trees or shrubs located near or in bodies of water, and are very well camouflaged against the trunks of these trees. This species of frog is very rarely seen on the ground except during the breeding season (Conant and Collins 1998).

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits People benefit from the substantial amount of insect pests that are eaten by H. chrysoscelis. The spring breeding chorus also provides evening entertainment to re-affirm our connection with nature. We also use the presence of Cope's gray treefrogs as a scientific tool to indicate the overall biodiversity and the level of contaminants in a region. Overall, Cope's gray frog plays an important role in the ecological balance of wooded farmlands and residential areas and contributes to our own well-being. Positive Impacts: controls pest population Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Eastern narrow-mouthed toad Location: Gastrophryne carolinensis (Holbrook, 1835) Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description G. carolinensis is distinguished from other species by foot structure and coloration. The toe tips are round and tapered, and the toes are not webbed. It has a brown or tan dorsum,a mottled venter, and usually has a dark median wedge. Distribution G. carolinensis is found only in the southeastern United States. Its range extends from the east shore of the Chesapeake Bay southward to Key West, Florida, and westward to eastern Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas. The range extends as far Write down questions that you have for further exploration. westward as Tulsa, Oklahoma and as far southwest as Kerr County and Brownsville, Texas. Disjunct populations occur in Maryland, southwestern Mirginia, Kentuchy, Illinois, Iowa and Missouri. In piedmont valleys, G. carolinensis is found up to elevations of 800 ft. (Carter 1934) and 1500 ft. (Bailey 1936) and up to 2400 ft. in Oklahoma.

Physical Description Morphology One distinguishing characteristic of Gastrophryne carolinensis is the fold of skin that runs across the head directly behind their eyes. This flap of skin can fold forward to remove insects that are attacking the eyes. Color varies depending on the habitat. They can range from light tan to brown, red, and even nearly black. They have a broad dark middorsal area with light strips that are commonly covered by patches, spots, and mottlings of dark or light pigment. The stomach is strongly mottled. They also lack a tympanum. The body of Gastrophryne carolinensis is round with a narrow head that is sharp and pointed, and has a small mouth. There is sexual dimorphism in color. Males have a darkly pigmented throat whereas females do not. (Conant and Collins, 1998) Tadpoles of Gastrophryne carolinensis are black and have flecks of dark blue. They also may have a tan lateral line. The tailfins have dark specks on them, as well as Page 4 dark tips (Bartlett, 1999).

Ecology Habitat Gastrophryne carolinensis has a wide variety of habitats with only two requirements. These are shelter and moisture. Narrowmouth toads are very good burrowers, and therefore may be abundant in an area without leaving any visable signs. These toads can be found by over turning boards, logs, or other shelters. Also, they can be found in vegetable debris or sawdust piles (Conant and Collins, 1998). Another place that narrowmouth toads can be found is just under the surface of suburban lawns that are abundant in sand and are watered often (Bartlett, 1999). Terrestrial Biomes: Forest Trophic Strategy The diet of the Eastern Narrowmouth Toad consists mostly of insects like beetles, termites, and especially ants. This toad has been found feeding right at the openings to anthills.

Life History and Behavior Behavior Gastrophryne carolinensis is primarily nocturnal. Its primary breeding season is between March and September, depending on the rain. During the breeding season is the best time to hear the vocalization of Gastrophryne carolinensis. The call of the male has best been described as a penetrating, nasal, sheep-like bleat (Bartlett, 1999). There is no trill-like sound like many other frogs and toads. Life Expectancy Maximum longevity: 6.8 years (captivity) Reproduction Breeding sites are usually in shallow water, but deep water is also used if covered by a mat of floating vegetation. These breeding sites can be anything from shallow ditches, to semipermanent ponds and irrigated agricultural areas. Rains initiate their breeding season, which may occur between early April and October in the south or midsummer in areas farther to the north. Most often the narrowmouth toad will call from the grasses surrounding the breeding pool. The male also will sometimes call the female while floating in the water, although it is more rare. Eggs are deposited in small floating clusters, and up to 800 eggs have been reported coming from a single female (Bartlett, 1999).

Molecular Biology and Genetics Molecular Biology Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats Public Records: 1 Species: 1 Species With Barcodes: 1

Conservation Conservation Status We have no text on this topic for this species. Look to the sidebar on the right for some limited information. IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status Management Conservation Actions No conservation methods are needed. Threats Major Threats It is not threatened. Trends Population It is represented by many and/or large populations throughout most of the range (Nelson 1972). In Florida and eastern Texas, common to abundant even in many suburban situations (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The introduced population on Grand Cayman is very abundant. Population Trend Stable Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Eastern American toad Location: Bufo americanus Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description Generally, the B. americanus is short and fat in body, with a short broad head and broadly circular snout. It's underbelly is granular, and the back is covered with different-sized warts. There are three or four pairs of dark spots down the back, each accompanied by one large wart. The eyes are prominent. The arms and legs are tubular and warty. They are generally olive in color, with parotoids and a brown crest. Males are roughly 54-85 mm in length. Their back, sides and tympanum are of a dull citrine color with olive-citrine or yellow olive color on their hind legs and forelegs. Write down questions that you have for further exploration. The whole pectoral region is covered with scattered black spots, and these spots occur over the entire venter except for the throat and the center of the rear belly. There is some apricot-yellow color across the arm insertion. The pupil is rimmed with a citron yellow color. Females are roughly 56-110 mm in length. The back is of a light brownish or buffy olive. The bigger warts are on the back, and the warts are in the centers of buffy brown colored spots. There is a stripe down the middle of the back, of a deep-olive buff color, yellow, or vinaceous-fawn, that leads from parotoid to groin. In the center of the breast, there is a dark spot (Wright 1949). Distribution Schmidt (1953) states that the Bufo americanus can be found in Eastern North American, from the maritime provinces of Quebec and Ontario in Canada to Minnesota. Its range spans from the northern borders of the Gulf States, excluding Louisiana, and Texas. They can also be found in Arkansas, eastern Oaklahoma, and eastern Kansas. Specifically in Canada, the B. americanus can be found in Ungava, James Bay, and sometimes the coast of the Hudson Bay. It can also be found in Prince Edward Island to East Manitoba, and has been introduced to parts of Newfoundland (Cook 1984). During the periods where the toads are not reproducing, they live in within an area of 100' x 100'. However, during the breeding period, they may move several thousand feet away. Page 5 Physical Description Morphology American toads have short legs, stout bodies, and thick skins with noticeable warts. These warts can be colored red and yellow. The warty skin contains many glands that produce a poisonous milky fluid, providing these toads with excellent protection from many of their predators. This poison is only harmful if it is swallowed or if it gets in the eyes, but it can make many animals very sick. (Dickerson, 1906; Le Clere, 2000; Matson, 2002; Oliver, 1955) The skin color of American toads is normally a shade of brown, but it can also be red with light patches, olive, or gray. The bellies are a white or yellow color. Toad skin color changes depending on temperature, humidity, and stress. The color change ranges from yellow to brown to black. American toads have four toes on each front leg and five toes connected together by a webbing on each hind leg. The pupils of American toads are oval and black with a circle of gold around them. The sexes can be distinguished in two ways. Males have dark colored throats, of black or brown, while females have white throats and are lighter overall. Also, female American toads are larger than male American toads. American toads are between 50 and 100 mm in length but are usually around 75 mm. American toads can be distinguished from other species of toads by the presence of several dark spots on their backs which contain only one or two warts each. These black spots are sometimes circled with white or yellow. Some types of American toads have a prominent ridge on the top of their heads. (Dickerson, 1906; Le Clere, 2000; Matson, 2002; Oliver, 1955) The eggs of American toads are black on top and white on the bottom (countershaded), and embedded in long strings of clear sticky gel. The larvae that hatch from eggs are called "tadpoles." They are dark (almost black) with smooth skin, round bodies, and a somewhat rounded tail. Like adult toads, larvae have defensive chemicals in their skin. They grow to over a centimeter in length before transforming. Newly-metamorphosed toadlets are usually 0.8 and 1.3 cm long when they first emerge. Their coloration is similar to that of adult toads. (Dickerson, 1906; Le Clere, 2000; Matson, 2002; Oliver, 1955) Other Physical Features: Ectothermic; Heterothermic; Bilateral symmetry; Poisonous Sexual Dimorphism: Female larger; Sexes colored or patterned differently

Ecology Associations The main predators of American toads are Serpentes. One species, Heterodon platirhinos, specializes on eating toads. Some snakes, such as Thamnophis, are immune to the poisonous glands of American toads. When these toads are faced with a predator that is immune to their poison they will sometimes urinate on themselves to become a less attractive meal. They also inflate their bodies with air to make themselves more difficult for a snake to swallow. Female toads prefer to lay their eggs in ponds without fish. The eggs they lay are countershaded: lighter on the bottom and darker on the top to blend in with the background when viewed from above or below. Tadpoles avoid predators by swimming in very shallow water, and by swimming close together in schools during the day. They also have toxic chemicals in their skin that discourage some potential predators. Metamorphosed toads are cryptically colored, and are actively mainly at night, making it harder for predators to find them. (Dickerson, 1906; Harding, 1997; Le Clere, 2000) Anti-predator Adaptations: Cryptic Habitat American toads require a semi-permanent freshwater pond or pool for their early development. They also require dense patches of vegetation, for cover and hunting grounds. Given these two things and a supply of insects for food, American toads can live almost everywhere, ranging from forests to backyards. They are common in gardens and agricultural fields. During daylight hours they seek cover beneath porches, under boardwalks, flat stones, boards, logs, wood piles, or other cover. When cold weather comes, these toads dig backwards into their summer homes or may choose another site in which to hibernate. (Le Clere, 2000; Lerner, June 13 1998; Matson, 2002; Rakestraw, 1998) Habitat Regions: Temperate; Terrestrial; Freshwater Terrestrial Biomes: Chaparral; Forest; Rainforest; Scrub forest; Mountains Aquatic Biomes: Lakes and Ponds; Rivers and Streams Wetlands: Marsh; Swamp; Bog Other Habitat Features: Urban; Suburban; Agricultural; Riparian Trophic Strategy Adult American toads are carnivores, but toad tadpoles are considered herbivores, because they graze on aquatic vegetation (algae). Adult American toads are generalists. They eat a wide variety of Insecta and other invertebrates, including Stylommatophora, Coleoptera, Stylommatophora, and Oligochaeta. Unlike most toads, who wait for prey to come along and pounce on it, American toads can shoot out their sticky tongues to catch prey. They also may use their front legs in order to eat larger food. They grasp their food and push it into their mouths. One American toad can eat up to 1,000 insects every day. Toads do not drink water but soak it in, absorbing moisture through their skin. (Harding, 1997; Le Clere, 2000; Lerner, June 13 1998) Animal Foods: Insects; Terrestrial Non-insect Arthropods; Terrestrial Worms Plant Foods: Algae

Life History and Behavior Behavior American toads are mainly nocturnal. They are most active when the weather is warm and humid. They are solitary, congregating only at breeding ponds in the early summer and late spring. During the day American toads hide under rocks or logs or dig into dead leaves and soil. In regions with a cold winter, American toads dig deeper to hibernate. When digging they back in, pushing out dirt with their back legs. (Harding 1997, Mullin, 1998; Dickerson, 1906) (Dickerson, 1906; Harding, 1997) Key Behaviors: diurnal; nocturnal; crepuscular; motile; sedentary; hibernation; solitary Life Expectancy Maximum longevity: 36 years (captivity) Observations: In the wild, these animals do not commonly live more than one year and the maximum reported lifespan in the wild is 10 years. One captive individual lived to the age of 36 before it was killed by accident. Reproduction Breeding occurs in the months of March or April, but may extend into July. It usually triggered by warming temperatures and longer days. The males always arrive on the mating grounds well ahead of females. They congregate in shallow wetlands, ponds, lakes and slow-moving streams. After finding a suitable area, the male toads establish territories and begin calling the females. Females may choose their mates by assessing the males' breeding calls as well as the quality of the defended breeding territory. Male toads get dark horny pads on their first and second two toes on their forelegs. This helps them close their front limbs around a female's abdomen in a posture called "amplexus". Once a female comes close, any nearby male will attempt to mate with her. The male holds on to the female, and she moves to a suitable location in the water to lay eggs. When she releases her eggs, he releases sperm to fertilize them (like most frogs and toads, fertilization is external). Mating System: Polygynous; Polygynandrous (promiscuous) After mating takes place, the females lay their eggs in the water, in long spiral tubes of jelly. They lay 4000 to 8000 eggs in two rows. When each row of eggs is stretched it generally measures between between six and twenty meters long (20 to 66 ft.). Each individual egg is 1.5 mm in diameter. The eggs mature fastest at higher temperatures. They generally hatch in 3 to 12 days. After developing for 40 to 70 days, the tadpoles transform into adults. This usually takes place from June to August, depending on location. They reach sexual maturity at around 2 to 3 years of age. Key Reproductive Features: Iteroparous; Seasonal breeding; Gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); Sexual; Fertilization; Fertilization :: External; Oviparous American toads breed from once yearly. American toads breed from March to July each year, depending on location. Female toads provide nutrients for their eggs inside their bodies. Once the eggs are laid and fertilized, the parents ignore them. Parental Investment: Pre-fertilization; Pre-fertilization :: Provisioning; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting :: Female

Molecular Biology and Genetics Molecular Biology Collection Sites: world map showing specimen collection locations for Bufo americanus

Conservation Conservation Status American toads have no special conservation status, as they are still common in most of their range. Some populations have declined in recent years, possibly due to pollution. IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Migratory Bird Act: No special status US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: No special status Trends According to Oliver (1955) , the B. americanus lays its eggs between the months of April to July. The crest of their breeding season is usually late April (Wright 1949). The breeding sites are usually small ditches, small ponds, or slow, shallow streams. The male grasps the females behind her front legs, and she will begin laying her eggs (Johnson 1987). She usually lays about 4,000-8,000 eggs. These eggs are laid in water such as ponds and streams and are laid in one row. The eggs will incubate for about 3-12 days before hatching. After the young toads hatch, they will migrate in mass numbers away from the water. The tadpoles are dark, almost black, and 27 mm long (Wright 1949).

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits American toads eat many species of pest insects and other invertebrates. They are widely considered friends to gardeners and farmers. The toxins produced by their skin may eventually prove useful in medical research. (Dickerson, 1906) Positive Impacts: research and education; controls pest population Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Green treefrog Location: Hyla cinerea (Schneider, 1799) Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description This moderately large North American frog is a wide-ranging species. The males are usually slightly smaller than the females. A pointed snout and flat head possessing two transverse rows of vomerine teeth are also observed. The toe pads on Hyla cinerea are large. The hind feet display extensive webbing and have two metatarsal tubercles between the toes. Some populations have individuals that lack lateral stripes, but normally H. cinerea exhibits a lateral white or yellow stripe from the jaw to the thigh on either side of the body. White or yellow spots are often scattered on the back. The external, subgular vocal sac is mostly white or yellow in Write down questions that you have for further exploration. males when not inflated. During breeding season, the sides of the sac may turn green. The size of tadpoles ranges from 4.5-5.5 mm from hatching and may grow to 60 mm before metamorphosis in a 28-44 day span. Until tadpoles reach stage 25 or 26, they display continuous ontogenetic color changes. After this period, the body turns green and the venter turns yellow. The tail may have distinct yellow orbitonasal stripes, and dark mottling or reticulations. Large tadpoles sometimes retain the yellow interorbital stripe. A long tail, bulging lateral eyes, dextral anus and sinistral spiracle are other morphological features of the tadpole from this species. Adults of this species normally turn to an ashen gray color when in preservative. The normally unobserved dorsolateral stripes in living species also appear over the subcutaneous insertions of lymph-sac septa. After months in preservation, H. cinerea displays a mostly dark green or brownish color (Conant and Collins 1998). Distribution The habitats most likely to house H. cinerea are swamps, sloughs and weedy margins of lakes and ponds. The lower Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains and the lower Mississippi River drainage are ideal locations of the species' environment (Connant and Collins 1998) . The range in the Mississippi River extends from Louisiana and Mississippi to the floodplains of southern and eastern Arkansas, western Tennessee and Kentucky. Southeastern Missouri and southern Illinois are also in this range. The Atlantic/Gulf Coastal range extends from the Chesapeake Page 6 Bay and Virginia to the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida. Most of Alabama, Mississippi and all of Louisiana complete the range. Introduced populations of this frog have been documented in Puerto Rico (Hedges 1996; 1999; Powell et al. 1996; Rivero 1998; Schwartz and Thomas 1975; Schwartz and Henderson 1985; 1991) , central Missouri (Johnson 2000) , a coastal island in Florida (Smith et al. 1993), and in Brownsville, Texas (Conant 1977; Smith and Kohler 1977). A population in east central Kansas that was once introduced to a fish farm has most likely been extirpated (Collins 1993).

Physical Description Morphology Green treefrogs are long-legged and smooth-skinned Hyla. Most individuals have a bright yellow-green dorsum, but individuals that are reddish-brown to green are also common. Their dorsum frequently has small golden spots which overlay the green color. Ventrally, they are white to cream and have a similarly-colored prominent lateral stripe on each side. Total length ranges from 34 to 62 mm, females tend to be larger than males. (Carter et al., 2007; Martof et al., 1980) Other Physical Features: Ectothermic; Heterothermic; Bilateral symmetry Sexual Dimorphism: Female larger

Ecology Associations Adult green treefrogs are subject to predation by a wide variety of organisms. Snakes, birds, large fish, and even other frogs may prey on Hyla cinerea. Green treefrogs are one of the only species in the genus Hyla in the southeastern United States that typically breeds in areas with large predatory fish. Tadpoles are at even more risk than adults because they have few defensive mechanisms and are easily caught. Predatory aquatic insects such as giant water bugs (Belastomatidae) frequently feed on tadpoles in their early stages as well as smaller fish such as pumpkinseed sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus) and bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus ). Green treefrog adults are exceptionally good at hiding on grasses and other vegetation. When they tuck in their legs and close their eyes they blend in with the color of leaves. (Gunsburger, 2005; Gunzburger, 2005) Anti-predator Adaptations: Cryptic Habitat Green treefrogs are frequently found in small ponds, large lakes, marshes, and streams. They prefer habitats with plentiful floating vegetation, grasses, and cattails. One study suggested that, in an artificial hardwood forest setting, the abundance of Hyla cinerea is related to the openness of the forest canopy. The study noted that 88% of 331 individuals were found in areas of the forest where the canopy was open. The presence of green treefrogs in the open canopy areas was interpreted as a method for finding prey, which concentrate in sunny areas with dense ground vegetation. (Horn, Hanula, and Ulyshen, 2004; Martof et al., 1980) Habitat Regions: Temperate; Terrestrial; Freshwater Terrestrial Biomes: Forest Aquatic Biomes: Lakes and Ponds; Rivers and Streams Wetlands: Marsh; Swamp Other Habitat Features: Riparian Trophic Strategy Green treefrogs are insectivores that commonly consume Diptera, Culicidae, and other small insects. Freed (1980) suggested that prey were not selected by size, but according to their activity; the most active prey were the most frequently eaten. According to Freed, nearly 90% of Hyla cinerea prey were actively pursued, the other 10% were insects walking or close enough to be snatched up by the frog's tongue. (Freed, 1980) Animal Foods: Insects

Life History and Behavior Behavior Green treefrogs are mobile and can be found in large groups during the breeding season, especially during peak times. They make small scale movements between foraging and breeding areas seasonally. Besides their mating calls, alarm and rain calls are important aspects of social behavior. During most of the year green treefrogs are solitary. They are most active when the weather is moist. (Linzey, 2001) Home RangeNo information was available on green treefrog home ranges. Key Behaviors: saltatorial; motile; sedentary; solitary Life Expectancy Observations: These animals have been known to live up to 6.2 years (Andrew Snider and J. Bowler 1992), but considering the longevity of similar species this value is likely significantly underestimated. Reproduction Breeding is strongly influenced by day length, temperature, and precipitation. These relative influence of these factors is not well understood, but these frogs generally breed following rainfall. Males tend to call more frequently as temperature and day length increases. To attract mates, males use a distinct advertisement call which is noticeably different than release or warning calls. Once the male has attracted an appropriate mate they begin amplexus, with the male tightly grasping onto the female to bring their cloacal openings close together for fertilization. Males generally try to mate with as many females as they can attract. (Linzey, 2001; Saenz et al., 2006) Mating System: Polygynous Average clutch size in a Florida population of green treefrogs was observed to be approximately 400 eggs. Although many females may only lay a single clutch in a season, some have been known to lay multiple clutches. Female size was positively correlated with clutch size, but after the initial clutch the number of eggs nearly always decreased. In the Florida population, advertisement calls of males were documented between March and September and pairs in amplexus were observed between April and August. There is some evidence to suggest that breeding season length is correlated with latitude; breeding season length decreases as latitude increases because of temperature limitations. (Gunzburger, 2005) Key Reproductive Features: Iteroparous; Seasonal breeding; Gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); Sexual; Fertilization; Fertilization :: External; Oviparous Most females breed once yearly, although some have several clutches during the breeding season. Breeding occurs from March to September. There is no parental investment beyond the efforts of mating and egg-laying. Parental Investment: No parental involvement; Pre-fertilization; Pre-fertilization :: Provisioning; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting :: Female

Molecular Biology and Genetics Molecular Biology Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats Public Records: 0 Species: 2 Species With Barcodes: 1

Conservation Conservation Status Green treefrogs are common throughout their geographic range. Populations are relatively large and stable at this time. Although, like all frog species, they are reliant on aquatic habitats that are frequently destroyed by human activities. They are listed as a species of Least Concern on the IUCN list. (Linzey, 2001) IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: No special status Management Conservation Actions No conservation measures are needed at present. Its range includes several protected areas. Threats Many human activities negatively impact the populations and habitat of this species. Among the activities are the creation of artificial lakes/ponds (Platt et al. 1999; Redmer et al. 1999), fish introductions (Bancroft et al. 1983; Redmer et al. 1999), highway traffic noise (Barrass 1986), silver nitrate used in marking individuals (Thomas 1975), timber harvest (Hanlin et al. 2000; Phelps and Lancia 1995) and the introduction of the Cuban Treefrog (Wilson and Porras 1983). Trends A series of nasal barks described as sounding like "frank frank frank" or "quonk quonk quonk" have been observed as breeding vocalizations. A complete reference of breeding vocalizations may be found in the Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles.

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits Green treefrogs and other Anura impact populations of mosquitoes and other small insects through predation. They can also be bioindicators of aquatic contamination, including contamination by many synthetic compounds used in pesticides, herbicides, and medications. For example, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have a high affinity for fat and are easily introduced through the digestive system. PCBs continue to accumulate with repeated exposure and should increase with organisms that have more fat. The thin, permeable skin of Anura puts them at a higher risk because compounds are so easily absorbed. Tadpoles and metamorphs are considered to be good indicators of PCB accumulation in sediment because they are usually in more direct contact with contaminated sediment. Adults are considered to be general indicators of contaminated areas but not specific conditions. (DeGarady and Halbrook, 2006) Positive Impacts: research and education; controls pest population Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Gray treefrog Location: Hyla versicolor LeConte, 1825 Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description Males 32-51 mm, females 33-60 mm (Wright and Wright 1949). In general, these frogs have warty skin and prominent adhesive pads on their fingers and toes (Johnson 1987). Their color can vary from green to light green-gray, gray, brown or dark brown (Johnson 1987). Usually, a large irregular star or spot appears on the back (Wright and Wright 1949) A large white spot is always present below each eye (Johnson 1987), although it is less visible and more of an olive color in females (Wright and Wright 1949). The belly is white (Johnson 1987). Males have pale flesh-colored vocal sacs (Wright and Wright 1949). In males, the chin is similar to Write down questions that you have for further exploration. the belly, with blackish spots (Wright and Wright 1949). In males, the legs are yellow or orange-yellow ventrally. (Johnson 1987), whereas in females, the back of the forelegs, hindlegs and sides are a pale olive gray (Wright and Wright 1949). The tadpole is approximately 50 mm long, with a long tail. The coloration is scarlet or orange vermilion with black blotches around the edge of the crests (Wright and Wright 1949).

Hyla versicolor is the sibling species of Hyla chrysoscelis (Cope's Gray Treefrog). These two species are indistinguishable based on external morphology (Conant and Collins 1991). Distinction can be made on the basis of the calls, erythrocyte (red blood cell) size (Matson 1990), and chromosomal complement (Conant and Collins 1991). H. versicolor is a genetic tetraploid, whereas H. chrysoscelis is diploid. The precise distribution of each species is not well established (Conant and Collins 1991). In many areas, these two species live sympatrically (occuring together), and if they do, these species may interbreed (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Perhaps the most striking feature of this frog is its ability to change color to match its environment (metachrosis) - a process which usually requires about half an hour (Logier 1952). Distribution Hyla versicolor can be found in Maine, southern Canada (west to Manitoba), Minnesota, South Dakota, southern Kansas, Oklahoma, the Gulf States and Page 7 northern Florida. It can also be found in parts of Texas and Arkansas (Wright and Wright 1949). In Canada, the frog occurs in southern Quebec, southern, central and northwestern Ontario and south-eastern and central Manitoba. There is also an isolated population in Fredericton, New Brunswick (Cook 1984). This treefrog is found in small wood lots, in trees along prairie streams, in large tracks of mixed hardwood forest, and in the bottomland forests along rivers and swamps (Johnson 1987).

Physical Description Morphology The eastern gray treefrog measures 1.25 to 2 inches (3-5cm) in length. The record length is 2.25 in. (6 cm). There is no sexual dimorphism. The dorsal surface of the gray treefrog species is rough and lightly sprinkled with warts,more than most frogs but less than the average toad. The large toepads produce mucous to adhere to smooth bark or man-made structures near light sources, and are characteristic of the family Hylidae. The colors of a gray treefrog vary with the colors of its background and environmental factors such as season and humidity, but shades of gray are most common with black blotches on the back. Variations of brown, green, and pearl-gray colors have been noted. Green colors are more prominent during the breeding season and in yearling frogs. Usually, there is a white mark beneath the eye. The ventral skin on the hind legs, in the groin region, may appear orange to golden yellow with black speckles and the belly is white. If the coloration is in question, place the treefrog in a box, allow it to sit quietly, and later re-examine the specimen. The yearling frogs are about half the size of the older H. versicolor population, but retain the same characteristics. Gray treefrogs continue to grow each year until they achieve the physical limit of the species. (Collins and Conant, 1998; Harding, 1997) Both gray treefrog species possess the same larval traits, but H. versicolor was used to exemplify the tadpole stage in Conant and Collins' "A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of East Central North America". The tadpoles are small, but colorful, 1.25 in. to 1.5 in. (3.2 cm. to 3.8 cm.) long. The tip of the tail is well-defined with a 5 mm narrow tip. The oral disc is comprised of 2 upper labial tooth rows and 3 lower, serrated jaws, and an overhanging upper jaw. The intestinal coil is also visible. The background color is light green to yellow. The tallest section of the tail fin is the middle and heavy black dots are scattered along the margin on a red or orange background across the tail. (Collins and Conant, 1998; Harding, 1997) Other Physical Features: Ectothermic; Heterothermic; Bilateral symmetry Sexual Dimorphism: Sexes alike

Ecology Associations Many assorted species of birds, snakes, other frogs, and small mammals eat gray treefrogs. These frogs are arboreal to avoid predators, and exploit new food resources. They also avoid the attention of predators by calling after dusk and being most active in the evening and night. They use cryptic coloration and rarely leave the trees until the breeding season. Their skin is able to assume most natural colors in which it comes into contact. Larger frogs, such as the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) and green frog (Rana clamitans, have been observed to consume gray treefrogs by stalking calling males. In the water, giant waterbugs (Belostomatidae) also attack Cope's gray treefrog. (Collins and Conant, 1998; Harding, 1997) In the larval state, gray treefrogs are subject to predation by fish and larger amphibian larvae, such as the tiger salamander (Ambystomma tigrinum). When aquatic predators are abundant, gray treefrog tadpoles reduce their activity and feeding. They grow more slowly, and metamorphose at a smaller size. (Skelly, 1992) Anti-predator Adaptations: Cryptic Habitat Eastern gray Treefrogs inhabit all elevations of wooded areas near temporary and permanent waters in such diverse surroundings such as swamps, ponds, lakes, old fields, thickly wooded suburban neighborhoods, farm woodlots, and mixed or deciduous forests. During the summer months, they are most often found in damp rotten logs or hollow trees. In winter, gray treefrogs hibernate on land under woody debris such as logs, roots and leaf litter. (Harding, 1997) Habitat Regions: Temperate; Terrestrial; Freshwater Terrestrial Biomes: Forest Aquatic Biomes: Lakes and Ponds; Temporary Pools Wetlands: Swamp Other Habitat Features: Suburban; Agricultural; Riparian Trophic Strategy As tadpoles, eastern gray treefrogs begin life by grazing on algae and detritus in their pond. (Harding, 1997) After metamorphosis, H. versicolor prey upon most types of insects and their larvae. Mites, spiders, plant lice, harvestmen, and snails are also eaten. Gray treefrogs mostly hunt insects in the understory of wooded areas in small trees and shrubs, where they may rely upon their camouflage with less risk of predation. However, like most frogs, H. versicolor is opportunitistic and may also eat smaller frogs, including other tree frogs. (Collins and Conant, 1998) Animal Foods: Amphibians; Insects; Terrestrial Non-insect Arthropods; Mollusks; Terrestrial Worms Plant Foods: Algae Other Foods: Detritus

Life History and Behavior Behavior Male eastern gray treefrogs are territorial during the breeding season. During the rest of the year, males and females are tolerant of the presence of conspecifics of similar size. However, they are opportunistic cannibals, and may eat other gray treefrogs if they are small enough to catch and swallow. (Duellman and Trueb, 1986) As a member of the genus Hyla, eastern gray treefrogs possess advanced toe pads to adhere more strongly to vertical surfaces of glass, metal, and primarily tree bark. A very low angle between the toe pads and substrate with a combination of mucous glands and surface moisture create surface tension to support the body mass. The toe tips are able to be flexible and grip more firmly due to small bone or cartilage between two terminal toe bones that support the toe pad. These specialized adhesion abilities would not exist if a detergent were applied to the pad; however, the adhesion would return with the removal of the detergent. Climbing ability is an important adaptive trait of this species and it is central to their survival. (Stebbins and Cohen, 1995) When gray treefrogs hibernate, they appear rigid, and have a high freezing tolerance due to glycerol in their blood. During hibernation, 80% of the body freezes and the eye becomes opaque as breathing and heartbeat are temporarily suspended. Their high tolerance for freezing temperatures enabled the gray treefrogs to expand their territory northward and towards higher elevations. (Duellman and Trueb, 1986) Home RangeThe home range of the eastern gray treefrog varies widely depending on the suitability of the habitat and the available food supply. Due to their small size, several frogs may inhabit one tree if there is a sufficient food supply. (Harding, 1997) Key Behaviors: arboreal; scansorial; saltatorial; nocturnal; crepuscular; motile; sedentary; hibernation; solitary; territorial Life Expectancy Maximum longevity: 7.8 years (captivity) Observations: One gray treefrog lived 7.8 years in captivity but it is not clear whether it was a specimen of this species or of the Cope's gray treefrog (*Hyla chrysoscelis*). Given the longevity of similar species, however, it is likely that maximum longevity of these animals is higher. Reproduction The breeding choruses of gray treefrogs begin in late April to early May after the evening air temperature rises above 15°C, which varies throughout the range. These frogs end their hibernation in the early months of spring, but do not have the energy reserves to call, yet. Warm, cloudy nights, from dusk to midnight, produce the most intense choruses. However, interludes of cold weather may temporarily end the male gray treefrog calls. Generally, the breeding chorus lasts for several weeks. Sometimes, the breeding calls are continued into late June or early July, depending on local temperatures and unusual weather phenomena. (Harding, 1997) Female choice dominates the mating scheme of gray treefrogs, since the female approaches the male with the most prolonged and frequent calls. If the male detects a nearby female he will also further entice her with a “courtship call” that is longer and more emphatic than the usual advertisement call. Successful calling results in amplexus as the female deposits eggs which are externally fertilized by the male. Almost immediately, the large egg mass breaks into small, loose egg clusters of 10 to 40 eggs attach to plants or other structures within the pond. Depending on the water temperature, the tadpoles hatch in three to seven days. Both gray treefrog sp. do not hybridize due to a mating barrier, the different pulse rate and pitch between the two calls. (Harding, 1997; Hausfater, Gerhardt, and Klump, 1990) Mating System: Polygynous Eastern gray treefrogs employ their unique call from the safety of vegetation next to the shallow breeding sites, preferably in tree branches that overhang the water. The males aggressively defend and use their voice to outline their territories with extended calls. Satellite males, often in their first breeding season or otherwise disadvantaged, do not call to save energy. Instead, they lie in wait near a calling male and intercept the female by claiming the caller’s position after he moves away. The female only visits the breeding site to lay her eggs. During the last weeks of the breeding season, occasional calls may still be heard as the males slowly retreat from the shoreline and disappear into the foliage. Rare calls may still be heard in the trees in late summer or fall, yet they are unrelated to mating, and occur more often during rain showers. Calling males are often attacked by predators, and this results in a female-biased population. (Duellman and Trueb, 1986; Harding, 1997; Stebbins and Cohen, 1995) Key Reproductive Features: Iteroparous; Seasonal breeding; Gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); Sexual; Fertilization; Fertilization :: External; Oviparous Treefrogs breed once yearly. Late April to May or until the temperature rises above 15°C Female gray treefrogs invest in their offspring by providing yolk to the eggs, and choosing ponds that are relatively free of predators (they especially try to avoid fish). Males do not invest in the offspring, and female investment ends when she lays her eggs. (Harding, 1997; Skelly, 1992) Parental Investment: Pre-fertilization; Pre-fertilization :: Provisioning; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting :: Female; Pre-hatching/birth

Molecular Biology and Genetics Molecular Biology Collection Sites: world map showing specimen collection locations for Hyla versicolor

Conservation Conservation Status Hyla versicolor is not currently classified as endangered or of special concern. However, habitat destruction and human pollutants are contributing to the overall decline of amphibians, including frog and toad species. Public support of habitat areas in state parks, nature reserves, and private property continues to promote the survival of amphibian species. Ongoing scientific research also improves our understanding of this dynamic species. (Harding, 1997) IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: No special status Management Conservation Actions No conservation measures are needed. Threats This species is classified as Least Concern. However, habitat preservation is still important. Hyla versicolor requires terrestrial habitat adjacent to breeding sites as well as the breeding wetlands, with a minimum suggested terrestrial habitat buffer of 60 m surrounding the main breeding pond (Johnson and Semlitsch 2003). H. versicolor is one of the frog species which has been used to demonstrate the insufficiency of many of the pesticide studies conducted by pesticide manufacturers under current EPA regulations. H. versicolor tadpoles are susceptible to mortality from exposure to low concentrations of the pesticide carbaryl, with 10-60% of carbaryl-exposed tadpoles dying in laboratory experiments. This mortality rate shoots up to 60-90% if the tadpoles are simultaneously exposed to both stress and low concentrations of carbaryl, with stress induced experimentally by placing a caged predator in the water (Relyea and Mills 2001). Thus studies examining only low concentrations of pesticide without considering synergistic effects from other factors may be highly likely to underestimate the negative effects of the pesticide. Trends The orange-yellow coloration on the back of the frog's legs is considered a "flash" coloration - it is only seen when the frog leaps, when it exposes the underside of the leg, and then is covered when it resumes a sitting position. The sudden flash of contrasting color is thought to confuse predators (Cook 1984). Breeding season begins at the end of April and ends in August, with breeding events typically concentrated during spring rains in May and June (Oldfield and Moriarty 1994). The female lays approximately 30 to 40 eggs of a brown and cream or yellow color in small scattered masses or packets on the surface of quiet pools. The eggs, measuring about 1.1-1.2 mm, are attached to the vegetation. Hatching occurs at 4-5 days (Wright and Wright 1949). This frog is freeze-tolerant (Schmid 1982; Storey and Storey 1985). Hyla versicolor has been found to be significantly less prone to infection by the trematode parasite Ribeiroia ondatrae than the sympatric species Bufo americanus, with metamorphic treefrogs harboring far less of a trematode parasite load and little associated mortality or deformities. H. versicolor may have higher immunity to this parasite (Johnson and Hartson 2009).

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits People benefit from the substantial amount of insect pests that are eaten by H. versicolor. The spring breeding chorus also provides evening entertainment to re-affirm our connection with nature. We also use the presence of eastern gray treefrogs as a scientific tool to indicate the overall biodiversity and the level of contaminants in a region. Overall, the eastern gray treefrog plays an important role in the ecological balance of wooded farmlands and residential areas and contributes to our own well-being. (Harding, 1997) Positive Impacts: controls pest population Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Bullfrog Location: Lithobates catesbeianus (Shaw, 1802) Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description This frog is the largest in North America and is distinguished by lacking dorsolateral folds and having very large tympanums, larger than the eye in males. The tips of the fingers and toes are blunt. The webbing is well developed. The skin on the back of this species is rough with random tiny tubercles. There is no dorsolateral fold, but there is a prominent supratympanic fold. The mean snout to vent length for males is 152 mm (range 111-178) and for females it is 162 mm (range 120-183). The males have pigmented nuptial pads. The vocal openings are at the corner of the mouth. The dorsum is green, with or without a netlike pattern of gray or brown on top. The Write down questions that you have for further exploration. venter is slightly white, sometimes mottled with gray or yellow. Coloration varies widely depending on the locality of the bullfrog (Conant and Collins 1975).

See another account at californiaherps.com. Distribution R. catesbeiana is widely distributed in eastern North America, ranging from Nova Scotia to central Florida and west to eastern Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico. It occurs throughout most of Texas and into northwestern Mexico. It has been widely introduced for a variety of purposes, and is now common in many parts of western North America and many other countries, including those in Europe, Asia and South America (e.g., see Lever 2003). Rana catesbeiana is strongly aquatic, and can be found primarily at the edges of lakes, marshes, or cypress bays (Conant and Collins 1975).

Physical Description Morphology North American bullfrogs are the largest true frog found in North America, weighing up to 0.5 kg and 203 mm in length. Typical length ranges from 90 to 152 mm. Page 8 Color varies from brownish to shades of green, often with spots or blotches of a darker color about the back. The hind feet are fully webbed. The sex of an adult bullfrog can be easily determined by examining the size of the tympanum (the external ear of the frog) relative to that of the eye. The tympanum is a round circle located on the side of the head near the eye, and in males it is much larger than the eye. In females the tympanum is as large or smaller than the eye. Also, during the breeding season the throat of the male bullfrog is yellow, whereas the female's is white. Other Physical Features: Ectothermic; Heterothermic; Bilateral symmetry Sexual Dimorphism: Sexes shaped differently

Ecology Associations In Great Britain and/or Ireland: Fungus / infection vector Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is spread by Rana catesbeiana

Habitat North American bullfrogs must live in water and are therefore usually found near some source of water, such as a lake, pond, river, or bog. Warm, still, shallow waters are preferred. Bullfrogs are becoming increasingly common in areas that have been modified by humans. Increased water temperatures and increased aquatic vegetation, which are common factors of lakes polluted by humans, favor bullfrogs by providing suitable habitats for growth, reproduction, and escape from predators. Habitat Regions: Temperate; Freshwater Aquatic Biomes: Lakes and Ponds; Rivers and Streams Wetlands: Marsh; Swamp; Bog Trophic Strategy Bullfrogs are predators. They usually eat serpentes, Annelida, insecta, crustacea, anura, tadpoles, and aquatic eggs of actinopterygii, frogs, insects, or caudata. They are cannibalistic and will not hesitate to eat their own kind. There have also been a few cases reported of bullfrogs eating chiroptera. Bullfrog tadpoles mostly graze on aquatic plants. Animal Foods: Birds; Mammals; Amphibians; Reptiles; Fish; Eggs; Insects; Terrestrial Non-insect Arthropods; Mollusks; Terrestrial Worms; Aquatic Crustaceans Plant Foods: Algae

Life History and Behavior Behavior North American bullfrogs prefer warm weather and will hibernate during cold weather. A bullfrog may bury itself in mud and construct a small cave-like structure for the winter. Their hunting style is 'sit and wait.' Bullfrogs can wait for a long time for some type of prey to come by, then, with a flash of the tongue, they grab it and bring it back into their mouths. Bullfrogs are active both during the day and at night; they are most active when the weather is moist and warm. Home RangeAdult males are very aggressive and defend their territories, which can range from 3 to 25 meters of shoreline, by physically wrestling with others. Key Behaviors: diurnal; nocturnal; motile; sedentary; hibernation; territorial Life Expectancy Maximum longevity: 16 years (captivity) Observations: Increased reproductive output with age has been documented in these animals (Caleb Finch 1990). Record longevity may be underestimated. In the wild, mortality rates appear to rise at later ages. Growth rates also appear to decline (Kara 1994). Reproduction Breeding takes place in May to July in the north, and from February to October in the south. Fertilization is external, with the females depositing as many as 20,000 eggs in a foamy film in quiet, protected waters. Fertilization is usually, but not always, by one male. Tadpoles emerge about four days after fertilization. These tadpoles may remain in the tadpole stage for almost 3 years before transforming into frogs. Adults reach sexual maturity after 3 to 5 years. Key Reproductive Features: Iteroparous; Seasonal breeding; Gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); Sexual; Fertilization; Fertilization :: External; Oviparous Bullfrogs breed once each year. May to July in the north and February to October in the south Females provide the eggs with yolk before they are laid. There is no parental involvement in offspring after the eggs are laid. Newly hatched tadpoles can take care of themselves right away. Parental Investment: Pre-fertilization; Pre-fertilization :: Provisioning; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting :: Female

Conservation Conservation Status Bullfrogs do well with changes in the environment that have occured due to human modification, and are becoming increasingly common in areas modified by humans. Bullfrogs have a much higher critical thermal maximum than most other frogs, meaning that they are able to thrive in higher water temperatures. Bullfrogs have a longer breeding season and a higher rate of pre-metamorphic survivorship, which also allows them to be more successful than other frogs. In some areas, such as California, bullfrogs are driving other frog populations to extinction. One possible reason to explain why bullfrogs in California might have an advantage over other species native to that state is that bullfrogs evolved with a diverse predatory fish fauna in eastern North America. In California there have been attempts to control bullfrog populations by introducing new fish species that are their predators. Bullfrogs have evolved mechanisms to avoid predation by fish, such as less palatable eggs and tadpoles, and tadpoles that are not active much of the time, which reduces their exposure to predators. Native frog species of California are also suffering a decline because bullfrogs are efficient predators of frogs and tadpoles. IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: No special status Management Conservation Actions There are no measures required to conserve this species. Instead, eradication of this species from its introduced range is a conservation priority. In Asia, this species is believed to have a negative impact on the native amphibian fauna. It should be monitored and controlled. Farming activities should concentrate on native Hoplobatrachus rugulosus. Farming of Lithobates catesbeianus should at least be strictly contained, including water discharges from farms that should be carefully controlled or prevented. Ideally, the farming of the species outside its range should be prohibited. Studies of actual and potential ecological impacts should be conducted, perhaps leading to an elimination programme. Awareness of the potential threat posed by this species to native biodiversity must be raised. The Venezuelan government has taken actions to avoid the spread of this species. There has been an eradication program, with participants from the University of Los Andes at Mérida, the Venezuelan Institute of Scientific Research (IVIC) and the Ministry of Environment, instated at the beginning of 2002. Threats Introduced populations present great threats to native frogs, due to the bullfrog's voracious feeding habits and the size and competitive ability of the larvae. Although aquatic species and frogs constitute a major portion of its diet, other native species are also likely affected because bullfrogs have been reported to eat snake, birds, and small mammals as well. Furthermore, as bullfrogs are being introduced worldwide, they serve as carriers of the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chytrid), which causes the lethal disease chytridiomycosis, believed to be a major factor in recent global amphibian declines (e.g., Garner et al. 2006 found that bullfrogs were consistently chytrid-infected in multiple countries). Infected bullfrogs appear to be rather resistant to chytridiomycosis, whereas the disease is lethal to many other amphibians, making the bullfrog an efficient carrier of the chytrid fungus (Daszak et al. 2004). Argentina: Introduced populations of R. catesbeiana have been recently reported in San Juan (Sanabria et al. 2005), Misiones (Pereyra et al. 2006), Buenos Aires (Barrasso et al. 2009), and Córdoba and Salta provinces (Akmentins and Cardozo 2009). Most introductions come from intentional or incidental releases from breeding facilities, except for Misiones where the bullfrogs there are believed to be the result of the range expansion of a Brazilian population (Pereyra et al. 2006). The bullfrog's adaptive ability has allowed it to invade a diversity of environments and disperse throughout Argentina. It has been observed to prey on native vertebrates. Although it has not yet been identified as a chytrid carrier in Argentina, its negative influence as a potential disease carrier remains to be further examined. One Argentinian species greatly affected by the presence of R. catesbeiana is Leptodactylus ocellatus, a generalist predator who shares a similar diet with R. catesbeiana and whose larvae are being preyed on by bullfrogs (Barrasso et al. 2009). The increase in number of captive-breeding facilities due to a large demand for human consumption and the lack of effective governmental control thereof are serious concerns in Argentina (Akmentins and Cardozo 2009). Belgium: Bullfrog larvae have been imported on a large scale for trade in pet shops. Many specimens were released into the wild and were able to survive to reach adulthood (Stumpel 1992). Free-ranging populations of R. catesbeiana have been observed in Belgium (Ficetola et al. 2006). Conservationists are concerned about the potential threat of R. catesbeiana to indigenous species, in particular Rana esculenta, which occupies the same niche (Stumpel 1992). Brazil: Introductions date as early as the 1930's in association with aquaculture. Except for the coldest months of the year, R. catesbeiana reproduces continuously during warm weather such as that of Brazil (Kaefer et al. 2007). This characteristic is shared with the cane toad (Bufo marinus, another invasive species in Brazil. The degree of native population loss brought on by the introduction of bullfrogs is still being speculated, but the reproductive ability of R. catesbeiana is worrisome. Giovanelli et al. (2008) propose that the Brazilian Atlantic Forest biodiversity hotspot in southern and southeastern Brazil may be the most susceptible to invasion, based on ecological niche modeling. Furthermore, a chytridiomycosis outbreak in an Uruguayan farm with stock that originated from Brazil suggests that Brazilian rearing facilities may contain specimens that are infected by B. dendrobatidis, and could thus be harmful to native anuran species if allowed to escape (Mazzoni et al. 2003). These authors urge the Brazilian government to regulate human introductions of R. catesbeiana more strictly. China: R. catesbeiana was first introduced to China in 1959. Since then, breeding populations have been established in most provinces of mainland China including Yunnan, Sichuan, Shanxi, and Zhejian Provinces (Wang et al. 2007). The bullfrog has been widely bred for both local consumption and for export since the 1980s (Wu et al. 2005). Escapes occur from rearing pens or in the process of transportation or trade (Wu et al. 2005; Li et al. 2006; Liu and Li 2009). R. catesbeiana poses a great threat to native anuran species due to its voracious feeding habits. Its body size is also much larger than any other native species, and it is known to consume at least 4 of the 10 native species in the Zhoushan archipelago of Zhejian Province. Wang et al. (2007) quantified the predatory impacts of R. catesbeiana and found that body size plays an important role in predator-prey interactions with native anurans of China. It has been suggested that the primary threat posed by juvenile bullfrogs is food competition, whereas the primary threat posed by adult bullfrogs is predation (Wu et al. 2005). Chytridiomycosis has also been reported from introduced bullfrogs (wild, farmed, and market-sold) in Yunnan province, as well as in native amphibians, suggesting that farmed and escaped bullfrogs may present a major threat to native species by carrying disease as well (Bai et al. 2010). Colombia: R. catesbeiana was introduced into Colombia in the 1990s and inhabits the inter-Andean valleys (Lynch 2006a). The bullfrog was originally introduced in hopes of exploiting it for food consumption, but it is now a biological plague in the valley of the Río Cauca and in certain localities on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in Cundinamarca, as well as the lowlands of the Caribbean Region (Lynch 2006b). Its diet in Colombia has been reported to consist mostly of insects (56%), whereas vertebrates constitute only 2% of the diet (Daza and Castro 1999). Many endogenous Colombian frog species have been impacted by the lethal fungal disease chytridiomycosis; R. catesbeiana is a potential vector in Colombia of the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Ruiz and Rueda-Almonacid 2008). Cuba: In the 1920s, both adult and larval bullfrogs were observed in two small ponds near Rincon, a small village approximately 50 kilometers from Havana. It was not deemed a threat to the ecological system in Cuba at that time because it was thought that the bullfrog, which had a larval period of more than one year, would not be able to breed in the many temporary pools in Cuba (Hoffman and Nobel 1927). Now, bullfrogs are present throughout Cuba except the Sierra del Cristal National Park (Fa et al. 2002). France: Acclimatized R. catesbeiana populations have been recorded in France beginning in the 1960s (Ficetola et al. 2006). It was observed to be occurring near Bordeaux in 1997, in a limited area of gravel pits (Neveu et al. 1997). Currently, southwest France is the European area where the strongest expansion of R. catesbeiana is taking place; it also represents the second largest area in Europe where R. catesbeiana is present, constituting about 2,000 square km. Only three breeding populations have been reported, but observations of isolated individuals suggest that translocations are frequent. These secondary translocations facilitated by humans can substantially increase the rate of population expansion, which may further enhance capture and translocation. A large-scale eradication plan is being carried out in southwest France, including trapping of both adults and tadpoles, and education of local people (Ficetola et al. 2006). Unfortunately, samples of introduced populations of bullfrogs in Loir et Cher are found to be infected with B. dendrobatidis (Garner et al. 2006). Italy: R. catesbeiana was introduced to Italy in the 1930s, making it the first European country where this species was successfully introduced (Ficetola 2006). It is well established in northern Italy and breeds abundantly. Provinces affected at least since 1960 include Mantova, Pavia, and Verona (Lanza 1962). In northern Italy, the R. catesbeiana population does not appear to have expanded since the 1980's. Some populations are known to be infected by B. dendrobatidis (Ficetola 2006). Jamaica: Twenty-two R. catesbeiana specimens were first introduced to the Great Morass of the Black River of Jamaica in 1967 for commercial purposes. During the next 4 years it has spread in all directions from the point of introduction and eventually established themselves in the Upper Morass. Although no quantitative population estimates have been conducted, R. catesbeiana appears to have established extensive populations at suitable habitat areas of the island. Its expansion in Jamaica is further facilitated by temperature and lack of competition; the frogs breed continually throughout the year and displace local anurans such as Bufo marinus through habitat competition (Mahon and Aiken 1977). Japan: R. catesbeiana was first introduced to Japan by a professor at the Imperial University of Tokyo (now Tokyo University) around 1918 (Okada 1927). The frog was already well integrated into the Japanese herpetofauna by 1958-1959, approximately 40 years after its introduction (Telford 1960). R. catesbeiana is firmly established in at least the Kanto and Kansai Plains, the two largest lowland regions of Japan, and many local people recognize it as the "food frog" (Telford 1960). R. catesbeiana resides in freshwater habitats such as rice fields, ponds, and rivers. Studies reveal that it may negatively affect native anuran species such as the endangered Rana porosa brevipoda through predation and food competition. The removal of bullfrogs, along with other invasive exotic species, is highly recommended for conservation of local vertebrates (Hirai 2004). Studies reveal R. catesbeiana populations expanding in paddy fields prefer microhabitat with deep water; managing habitats to reduce immigration of bullfrogs may help prevent the spread of this invasive species (Minowa et al. 2008). A recent die-off of R. catesbeiana from ranavirus lasted from September through October 2008 in a 1000-m2 pond in western Japan. Infected feral populations of R. catesbeiana presents a serious threat to Japanese amphibians (Une et al. 2009). Fortunately, B. dendrobatidis does not seem to have infected introduced populations of R. catesbeiana, and no die-off from chytridiomycosis has been reported (Garner et al. 2006). Netherlands: bullfrogs were imported for trade in pet shops in the 1980s. Many specimens are released into the wild as larvae or freshly metamorphosed juveniles. In 1991, a reproducing population since 1989 was recorded in a garden pond in the city of Breda (Stumpel 1992). Eradication programs have been carried out in the Netherlands (Scalera 2007). Puerto Rico: in 1935, the Insular Department of Agriculture and Commerce of Puerto Rico introduced a total of 40 R. catesbeiana specimens from Florida to a specially constructed pond at Rio Piedras. The population expanded successfully, and by 1951 had invaded the neighboring towns of Mayaguez and Humacao. It did not appear to prey on other amphibians, but did consume a diversity of local insects (Perez 1951). Taiwan: the species was introduced into Taiwan from the United States via Japan in 1924 and 1951 (Hsu et al. 1970). The country actively participates in the production of bullfrog meat, and in fact is the world's top exporter of ranids. However, its native amphibians are at risk of infection by B. dendrobatidis. Taiwan's subtropical climate also creates a suitable environment for the growth of this pathogen (Schloegel et al. 2009). Uruguay: R. catesbeiana was first introduced in 1987 for farming purposes, but at present most of the farms have closed down. A feral population was reported in 2008 at one of the closed farms at Rincón de Pando. Establishment of the population appears to be at an early stage but is potentially dangerous, as the invaded pond exhibits significant differences from non-invaded ones. For example, R. catesbeiana seems to have some type of positive interaction with fish, because the body size of common fish species are higher in the invaded pond where aquatic vertebrate richness is also highest. Furthermore, R. catesbeiana is the highest fraction of vertebrate biomass, displacing native amphibian species such as Hypsiboas pulchellus. Other negative effects on local amphibian fitness include reducing the premetamorphic period due to competition and predation pressures. The high level of anthropogenic disturbance and large amount of suitable habitat in Uruguay may facilitate R. catesbeiana expansion (Laufer et al. 2008). Recent mass deaths occurred at a large farming facility for bullfrogs 46 km from Montevideo, Uruguay, and the cause is suspected to be chytridiomycosis (Mazzoni et al. 2003). This is potentially dangerous to native anurans if R. catesbeiana were to serve as a carrier of B. dendrobatidis. However, no control program was implemented for these closed farms. Laufer et al. (2008) recommend taking measures against the population expansion as well as searching for new invasion points. Venezuela: the bullfrog was introduced as a food source around the 1990s, and has established dense populations in 14 natural and artificial ponds as far as 4.3 km away from the point of introduction. Examination of R. catesbeiana specimens in the Venezuelan Andes suggests that the bullfrog acts as a pathogen carrier that causes amphibian population declines in Venezuela (Hanselmann et al. 2004). 79.9% of the bullfrogs surveyed are infected with B. dendrobatidis and carrying an average of 2299 zoospores (Sánchez et al. 2008). Of the infected frogs, 96% appear otherwise healthy, making R. catesbeiana an efficient reservoir host. It is likely that year-round bullfrog breeding will heighten the impact of chytridiomycosis (Hanselmann et al. 2004). Chytridiomycosis is detected in native species occuring in pond, stream and terrestrial habitats from 80-2600 m. Dendropsophus meridensis, an endangered native species sympatric with R. catesbeiana, shows the highest infection prevalence and mean zoospore load (26.7% and 2749 zoospores). Although no clinical signs of disease were detected, environmental stress could potentially increase its vulnerability to the pathogen (Sánchez et al. 2008). B. dendrobatidis is also known to migrate through autoclaved late water to reach distant amphibian populations outside the range of R. catesbeiana dispersal (Hanselmann et al. 2004). R. catesbeiana has been introduced worldwide, and AmphibiaWeb is in the process of editing the Trends and Threats section of this page for each country. Trends The breeding season begins in spring and lasts throughout early summer, but can vary according to latitude. Bullfrogs breed on the surface of shallow, permanent water covered with vegetation. Males make distinctive resonant low-pitched calls with a single note that lasts 0.8 seconds at a frequency of 1.0 kHz. Males also display aggressive territorial behavior in defending good oviposition sites. One clutch consists of up to 20,000 eggs and one quarter of the female's body weight. Duration of the larval stage varies greatly depending on the temperature. Metamorphosis is not synchronized. Bullfrogs are often the predominant species in interspecific relationships, contributing to the decline of other amphibians and excluding them from the habitat. Bullfrog juveniles are adept at colonizing new ponds, and they are believed to disperse throughout an environment this way. Bullfrogs are opportunistic predators, and prey on any animal smaller than themselves. While smaller bullfrogs eat mostly insects, larger bullfrogs consume aquatic species such as fish and crayfish, mice, and other frogs (for a video, see the account on Bufo californicus). Cannibalism is prevalent in a bullfrog's diet, sometimes comprising up to 80% of its food. For additional details on Life History, please refer to the Lannoo account (click on yellow tab above).

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits North American bullfrogs help to control insect pests. They are important for medical research because their skeletal, muscle, digestive, and nervous systems are similar to those of other animals. They are often hunted for meat (frog legs). Positive Impacts: food; research and education; controls pest population Risks This large frog is widely farmed for human consumption as a source of meat, as well as for entertainment or as an agent to control pest population (Lever 2003). Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Spring peeper Location: Pseudacris crucifer (Wied-Neuwied, 1838) Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description Pseudacris crucifer is a small species of frog, ranging from .75 of an inch to 1.25 inches in total length. A characteristic 'X' mark can usually be seen on the back of the frog. While P. crucifer displays no distinct color patterns on its surface, its observed color may be yellow, brown, gray or olive. This species may be distinguished from other members of the genus by its lack in distinct stripes, mottling, spotting, and the characteristic 'X' mark. P. c. bartramiana. and P. c. crucifer are subspecies Write down questions that you have for further exploration. There are two described subspecies, the Northern Spring Peeper and the Southern Spring Peeper. The Northern subspecies has a virtually plain stomach while the southern one has prominent dark spots on the belly. This species account was based on the account written by Conart and Collins, 1991. Distribution Geographically, this species may be found from the Canadian Maritime Provinces to northern Florida, and from southeast Manitoba all the way to eastern Texas. One isolated (but natural) population exists in Kansas and an introduced population exists into Cuba. P. crucifer tends to be found in large numbers near ponds or swamps in brushy growth or cutover woodlands. Small, temporary or semipermanent lentic environments are ideal water sources for P. crucifer. Standing trees or shrubs provide a popular habitat for the choral groups to form.

Physical Description Morphology The average spring peeper varies in size from 20 - 25 mm at maturity. This frog is usually some shade of brown, gray, or olive, and occasionally may be yellow or Page 9 reddish. Its belly is cream or white, and it is marked by a dark cross on its back and dark bands on its legs. Pseudacris crucifer has moderately webbed feet and noticeable disks on its fingers and toes. (Hinshaw and Sullivan, 1990) Other Physical Features: Ectothermic; Heterothermic; Bilateral symmetry Sexual Dimorphism: Sexes alike

Ecology Associations Many predators attack adult peepers, including salamanders, owls, large spiders, snakes, and other birds. Predaceous aquatic invertabrates in vernal pools prey upon the spring peeper tadpole. The invertebrates include the predaceous diving beetle (Family Dytiscidae), leeches (Hirundinea), dragonfly larvae (Odonata) and giant water bugs ( Belastoma spp.). In response to the presence of predators, peepers in larval stage travel short distances in a darting fashion, then remains completely inactive for long bouts of time. There has been a wealth of work examining tadpole phenotypic plasticity in common frogs like the spring peeper. With their short bodies and deep tails, peepers tend to sacrifice part of their tails during tadpole development. One study found that 62.7% of peeper individuals lost part of their tails during Gosner developmental stages 26-34. The proportion of the tail that was damaged was 8.5%. In later Gosner stages (35 - 43), only 34% of peepers exhibited tail damage, suggesting either that individuals can rehabilitate tails or that injured individuals do not survive to the next stage. However, spring peepers are one of the few species in this study that could tolerate tail loss exceeding 25% (sometimes >50%). (Blair and Wassersug, 2000; Hinshaw and Sullivan, 1990) Habitat This frog is found in marshy woods and non-wooded lowlands near ponds and swamps. Although it is a good climber, spring peepers seem to prefer to be on the ground or hiding in leaf litter. Spring peepers breed in freshwater ponds or pools, and prefer to use ponds where there are no fish. They often use temporary ponds that dry up after the larvae (tadpoles) have transformed into adult frogs and left the water. One study found that during a drought in Arkansas, spring peepers were one of the most commonly discovered anuran in caves. The authors suggest this species used these caves in late summer (late July/early August) because the relative humidity in the caves was high (avg = 79%). (Blair and Wassersug, 2000; Prather and Briggler, 2001) Habitat Regions: Temperate; Terrestrial; Freshwater Terrestrial Biomes: Forest Aquatic Biomes: Lakes and Ponds; Temporary Pools Wetlands: Marsh; Swamp Other Habitat Features: Suburban; Riparian; Caves Trophic Strategy Pseudacris crucifer is insectivorous, eating mainly small insects including ants, beetles, flies, and spiders. It is believed that food is chosen more by availability and size than by actual preference. Subadult peepers are know to feed most often in the early morning hours and in the late afternoon, while adults more often fed in the late afternoon into the early evening hours. Larvae graze on algae, detritus, and micro-organisms. (Buell and Marshall, 1955; Oplinger, 1967) Animal Foods: Insects; Terrestrial Non-insect Arthropods Plant Foods: Algae Other Foods: Detritus; Microbes

Life History and Behavior Behavior Spring peepers are known for their high piping whistle consisting of a single clear note repeated on intervals. The males sing, normally doing so in trios, the one who starts each round is usually the deepest voiced. During the daytime, peepers often call during light rains or in cloudy weather. They are usually silent at the end of summer, but call from forests during the fall. This species hibernates under logs and in treeholes. (Tyler, 1994) Home RangeDuring breeding season, home range diameters range from 1.2 - 5.5 m (4 - 18 ft.), and the peeper's average daily travel ranges from 6.1 - 39.6 m (20 - 130 ft.). They tend to be found in natural ponds and bogs. (Zampella and Bunnell, 2000) Key Behaviors: arboreal; scansorial; saltatorial; natatorial; nocturnal; motile; hibernation; solitary Life Expectancy Observations: In the wild, these animals may live up to 4 years (Smirina 1994). Longevity in captivity has not exceeded 2.2 years, but with few animals being kept. Their maximum lifespan is likely underestimated. Reproduction Males begin mating rituals shortly after the end of hibernation. The males will gather at small pools by the hundreds. Each male establishes a small territory and begins calling quite frequently. This call is described as a shrill "peep peep peep." The louder and faster he peeps, the better his chances of attracting a receptive female. Males usually compete in trios, and the male with the lowest-pitched call usually starts the vocal competition. (Woodward and Mitchell, 1990) The spring peeper is usually about three years old before it reaches the breeding stage. The species is one of the first anurans to begin breeding after winter hibernation. The breeding period lasts from March - June, when 800 - 1000 eggs per female are laid in shallow ponds. The eggs hatch within 6 to 12 days, and tadpoles transform to adults during July (range 45 - 90 days). Female spring peepers typically choose mates in a size-selective fashion -- larger males are preferred and are more successful breeders. (Blaustein et al., 2001; Lance and Wells, 1993) Key Reproductive Features: Iteroparous; Seasonal breeding; Gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); Sexual; Fertilization; Fertilization :: External; Oviparous Once yearly April and May Females lay eggs that they supply with nourishing yolk, but once they lay their eggs their investment is done. Males provide no parental care or investment, just fertilization. (Skelly, 1996) Parental Investment: Pre-fertilization; Pre-fertilization :: Provisioning; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting :: Female

Molecular Biology and Genetics Molecular Biology Collection Sites: world map showing specimen collection locations for Pseudacris crucifer

Conservation Conservation Status This is a relatively common anuran within its range, but some states on the on the edge of its range give it special protection. It is listed as "Protected" in New Jersey and "Threatened" in Kansas. (Levell, 1997) IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: No special status Management Conservation Actions There are no conservation methods needed. It occurs in many protected areas. Threats Major Threats Wetland drainage reduces the available habitat. It does not thrive in areas of urbanization and intense agriculture, but the species is moderately adaptable. However, the species does not face major threats on a global scale. Trends The breeding season is the best time to see and hear P. crucifer in the wild. Occasionally, individuals may be seen during the day in damp or rainy weather. The call of this species resembles that of sleigh bells when heard from a distance. A terminal upward slur characterizes the high, single, clear whistle that is repeated at intervals of approximately 1 second. In the background of small choruses, a trilling peep may be uttered by some individuals.

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits Spring peepers may help to control certain insect populations. (Blair and Wassersug, 2000) Positive Impacts: controls pest population Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Striped chorus frog Location: Pseudacris triseriata (Wied-Neuwied, 1838) Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description Pseudacris triseriata is a small hylid frog that can grow to 39 mm in length but averages 10-37 mm, with females larger than males. The color ranges from gray to brown dorsally, with a creamy venter. Dorsal markings may vary, but usually include three dark narrow, longitudinal stripes which may be broken up into three rows of spots. A dark triangle may occur between the eyes. A white stripe runs along the upper lip. Toes are unwebbed. Males have dark throats during breeding seasons. Distribution Write down questions that you have for further exploration. They can be found throughout the state of Arkansas. They live in wooded areas near swamps and at the edge of marshes.

Physical Description Morphology The western chorus frog is characterized by a white or cream colored stripe along the upper lip, bordered by a dark brown stripe running through the eye from the nostril to the groin. There are usually 3 dark stripes running down the back, although these may be broken into rows of spots in some specimens. Background color ranges from brown to gray or olive. The underside is white or cream colored, possibly with dark spots on the chin and throat (Conant and Collins, 1991). Males have a yellow colored vocal sac that appears as a dark, loose flap of skin when not calling. The skin of the western chorus frog is typically moist and bumpy, and the toes end in slightly expanded toepads. Adult length is typically 1.9 to 3.9 cm (.75" to 1.5"), with males usually smaller than females. Pseudacris triseriata tadpoles have gray or brown bodies round in shape. Their tail fins are clear, often with dark flecks. The intestinal coil can be seen through the bronze belly skin. Maximum length before metamorphosis is about 3cm (1.2 inches)(Harding 1997). Other Physical Features: Bilateral symmetry Sexual Dimorphism: Female larger Page 10

Ecology Associations Striped chorus frogs are preyed on by large Aves, small Mammalia, and Squamata. Tadpoles and froglets can be preyed on by other Anura, Malacostraca, Actinopterygii, Testudines, and Anisoptera larvae. Habitat Western chorus frogs can be found in a variety of habitats, including marshes, meadows, swales, and other open areas. Less frequently they can be found in fallowed agricultural fields, damp woods, and wooded swamps. These areas of less permanent water offer reduced risk of egg and tadpole predation by other animals such as fish. There is a trade-off, however, as these temporary bodies of water can dry up in years of drought, resulting in reproductive failure for that year (Harding 1997). Habitat Regions: Temperate; Terrestrial; Freshwater Terrestrial Biomes: Forest Wetlands: Swamp Trophic Strategy Western chorus frogs eat a variety of small invertebrates, including ants, flies, beetles, moths, caterpillars, leaf hoppers, and spiders. Newly formed froglets feed on smaller prey, including mites, midges, and springtails. Tadpoles are herbivorous, foraging mostly on algae (Harding 1997).

Life History and Behavior Behavior Western chorus frogs tend to remain close to their breeding grounds throughout the year. They often hide from predators beneath logs, rocks, leaf litter, and in loose soil or animal burrows. They will typically hibernate in these places as well (Harding 1997). Key Behaviors: nocturnal; crepuscular; motile; solitary Life Expectancy Most Striped Chorus Frogs will probably die as tadpoles or froglets. Once they reach adulthood, Striped Chorus Frogs may live for about 5 years. Reproduction In Michigan, the breeding season of Pseudacris triseriata begins in mid-March and runs through late May, although most activity occurs in April. These periods can vary, with breeding taking place earlier in the southern end of its range and later in the northern end. (Conant and Collins, 1991). Breeding sites include the edges of shallow ponds, flooded swales, ditches, wooded swamps, and flooded fields. Breeding choruses early in the season can be heard on clear, sunny days, but shift to evenings or cloudy, rainy days as the season progresses. Picking the small end of a high quality fine tooth comb with a fingernail can reproduce the call of the western chorus frog. The call sounds like "Cree-ee-ee-ee-eek", rising in speed and pitch as it progresses. During amplexus, the female will lay 500-1500 eggs in several loose, gelatinous clusters attached to submerged grasses or sticks. Each cluster will typically have 20 to 300 eggs. Hatching generally occurs in 3 to 14 days and tadpoles transform into tiny froglets 40 to 90 days thereafter. The rate of development of the eggs and larvae is dependent on water temperature, with specimens in colder water requiring more time for development. Western chorus frogs can mature and breed in less than one year (Harding 1997). Key Reproductive Features: Iteroparous; Seasonal breeding; Sexual; Fertilization; Fertilization :: External; Oviparous Striped Chorus Frogs breed each year in the spring. Breeding occurs from March to May. After laying their eggs in clusters on vegetation there is no further parental care in Striped Chorus Frogs. Parental Investment: No parental involvement

Molecular Biology and Genetics Molecular Biology Collection Sites: world map showing specimen collection locations for Pseudacris triseriata

Conservation Conservation Status The western chorus frog can be common to locally abundant, although some areas have shown a decline. The subspecies Pseudacris triseriata maculata is listed as special concern in the state of Michigan. This species appears to be quite tolerant of human activities, considering its presence in agricultural and suburban areas. Caution must be exercised during agricultural practices, as runoff containing pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers often fills breeding ponds, making eggs and larvae susceptible to detrimental effects (Harding 1997). IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: Special Concern Management Conservation Actions Many occurrences are in protected areas. In view of reported declines and taxonomic changes affecting the scope of the species, determination of current status is appropriate. Threats This species of frog has adapted well to urbanization so it is not threatened. Trends The call of the male is a continous series of short trills, "Prreep-prreep-prreep," lasting for one or two seconds. Breeding occurs in late February or early March and ends by late April. Females lay from 500-1500 eggs total, in clusters of 20-100.

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits The western chorus frog (and most other frogs) acts as a critical indicator species. Because the larval and adult forms of this species occupy different levels of the food chain, anomalies (such as deformities) or a reduction in reproductive success can be linked to either aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems, depending on the life stage of the animal. This makes this species valuable in determining the overall health of both ecosystems. The permeable skin of the western chorus frog also makes it susceptible to contaminants and other external stimuli. Changes in morphology or ecology of this species might indicate high levels of pollution or other activity detrimental to their well being. Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Green frog Location: Rana clamitans Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description Rana clamitans is a medium to large bodied frog. Adults in Georgia attain a body length of 86mm in males and 87mm in females while those in the north reach 103mm in males and 105mm in females. There is a similar clinal increase in body size from low to high altitudes. Dorsal coloration varies extensively, from brown, bronze, or olive to green, bicolor or bluish. The dorsum may have spots, blotches, or vermiculations of dark pigment, but such markings are not present on all individuals. The dorsolateral folds are distinct. Venter is white, sometimes with gray mottling on the throat, jaw margin and hind limbs. The outer surface of the limbs is barred or Write down questions that you have for further exploration. nearly so. The side of the face is colored bronze or green. There is no light line present on the upper jaw. Toes are webbed extensively, but not to the tips of digits III,IV,V. In males the tympanum is larger than the eye, the thumb and forelimb are enlarged, and the lateral vocal sacs are not externally visible. The skin of northern males is slightly rough and the throat is yellow. R. c. clamitans and R. c. melanota are subspecies Distribution Found from the northern shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence to central Florida, and from the Atlantic Coast to eastern Texas and southeastern Manitoba. Notably absent from the central Illinois Prairie. Found from the coastal lowlands to elevations of more than 1950m. Introduced populations have been established in Newfoundland, Utah, Washington and British Columbia.

Physical Description Morphology Green frogs are green, greenish brown, brownish, yellowish green and olive, with some rare individuals being blue. They are generally brighter in front with small irregular black spots. Their legs have dark transverse bands. They are yellowish or white below, and males usually have a bright yellow throat. The tympanum Page 11 (eardrum) is large; in males the tympanum is much larger than the eye and females tend to have a tympanum the same size as the eye. The dorso-lateral ridge is well defined and extends from the back of the eye posteriorly down the body. The toes are well webbed and the first fingers do not extend beyond the second. The tibia and femur are equal to ½ of the body length, which is 7.5 to 12.5 cm for adults. (Harding and Holman, 1992; Jordan, 1929; Tyning, 1990) Other Physical Features: Ectothermic; Bilateral symmetry Sexual Dimorphism: Sexes shaped differently

Ecology Associations Green frogs are preyed upon by a variety of animals. Tadpoles and eggs are eaten by Hirudinea, Odonata larvae, other aquatic insecta, actinopterygii, testudines, and ardeidae. Adult frogs are eaten by larger anura, turtles, serpentes, herons, other Ciconiiformes, procyon lotor, lontra canadensis, mustela vison, and humans. Green frogs often look much like Rana septentrionalis where the two species occur together. This may be a form of mimicry because mink frogs have a musky skin secretion that makes them foul tasting to many predators. Green frogs do not have a foul taste, so may be taking advantage of their resemblance to mink frogs to avoid being preyed upon. Anti-predator Adaptations: Mimic Habitat Green frogs are found in a wide variety of habitats that surround most inland waters, such as: swamps, wooded swamps, ponds, lakes, marshes, bogs, banks of slow moving rivers and streams, oxbow lakes, sloughs, and impoundments. Juveniles may disperse into wooded areas or meadows during times of rain. Green frogs overwinter in the water usually buried in the substrate. (Harding and Holman, 1992; Harding, 1997; Tyning, 1990) Habitat Regions: Temperate; Terrestrial; Freshwater Terrestrial Biomes: Taiga; Savanna or grassland; Forest Aquatic Biomes: Lakes and Ponds; Rivers and Streams Wetlands: Marsh; Swamp; Bog Trophic Strategy Green frogs are primarily carnivores and eat a wide variety of insecta and other invertebrates from both land and water, such as Stylommatophora, gastropoda, Astacoidea, Araneae, Diptera, lepidoptera, lepidoptera, and lepidoptera. They also eat other vertebrates, such as small serpentes and anura. Green frogs practice "sit and wait" hunting and therefore eat whatever comes within reach. Tadpoles mainly eat diatoms, algae, and tiny amounts of small animals such as zooplankton ( Copepoda and Cladocera). (Jenssen, 1967) Animal Foods: Amphibians; Reptiles; Insects; Terrestrial Non-insect Arthropods; Mollusks; Terrestrial Worms; Aquatic Crustaceans; Zooplankton Plant Foods: Algae

Life History and Behavior Behavior Green frogs are active during the day and at night. They become dormant during cold weather. Green frogs are mainly solitary, except during the breeding season, when they congregate at breeding ponds. Home RangeMales establish breeding territories and maintain them throughout the breeding period. Territories are found in shallow water and are reported to be 0.9 to 6.1 m in diameter. Males usually sing from selected areas inside their territories while occasionally patrolling the outside edges. (Tyning, 1990) Key Behaviors: diurnal; nocturnal; motile; hibernation; solitary; territorial Life Expectancy Maximum longevity: 10 years (captivity) Observations: In the wild these animals live up to 6 years but they have been reported to live up to 10 years in captivity (http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/neparc/). Reproduction Female green frogs choose their mates based on the desirability of their territories for egg laying. Satellite males may also be present during the breeding period of green frogs. A satellite male is described as a smaller male, unable to acquire and defend territories, and it is often found in areas protected by a larger male. The satellite male will wait for the opportunity to mate with a female that is responding to the larger more dominant male frog's vocalizations. Mating System: Polygynous Breeding takes place in late spring; variations in temperature and region can influence actual breeding times. The breeding season is 1 to 3 months long and occurs in a variety of habitats, such as swamps, ponds, marshes, bogs, and slow moving streams. Once a female has chosen a male, amplexus will begin. During amplexus, 1000 to 7000 eggs may be laid. The egg masses float on the water surface or hang from emergent aquatic vegetation. Wells (1976) has shown that multiple egg clutches are possible, the second egg clutch is on average smaller, with 1000 to 1500 eggs. Eggs hatch in 3 to 7 days and will complete the tadpole stage of development in 3 to 22 months. (Harding and Holman, 1992; Tyning, 1990; Wells, 1976) Key Reproductive Features: Iteroparous; Seasonal breeding; Gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); Sexual; Fertilization; Fertilization :: External; Oviparous Green frogs can have two or more clutches per season, with the second clutch producing significantly fewer eggs. Green frogs breed in late spring. Female green frogs nurture their eggs inside their bodies before they are laid and fertilized. Once the eggs are laid, there is no further parental involvement in their development. Parental Investment: Pre-fertilization; Pre-fertilization :: Provisioning; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting :: Female

Molecular Biology and Genetics Molecular Biology Collection Sites: world map showing specimen collection locations for Rana clamitans

Conservation Conservation Status Green frogs are abundant throughout all of their range. Although limb deformities and other abnomalities have been reported in green frog populations, possibly as a result of water contamination, they are still numerous and widespread. IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: No special status

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits Green frogs on occasion are harvested for food consumption, generally known as "frog legs". They are used by the scientific community in research and for educational purposes in biology classrooms from both high schools and colleges. (Harding, 1997) Positive Impacts: food; research and education Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Southern leopard frog Location: Rana sphenocephala Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description This frog is generally slim, with a narrow head and long legs. Its distinguishing features are its lack of digital pads, and an upper jaw with teeth. Its dorsolateral folds extend nearly to the hips. The head of the frog is narrow and pointed, and longer than it is broad. The tympanum is about the size of its eye. The body is slender, with its widest region around the bellow, which is smooth and white. There is a dorsolateral fold that originates behind each eye and continues posteriorly to the hips, with smaller, less extensive, longitudinal folds between the dorsolateral folds. Write down questions that you have for further exploration. The fore limbs are moderately slender, with fingers at the base that do not end in digital pads. The hind limbs are long and moderately slender. Two and a half joints of the longest toe are free of the web, the one join of the other toes if free of the web. The toes do not terminate in digital pads. The male vocal pouches are sausage-shaped sacs at the angles of the jaw. The usually cannot be seen unless they are calling to other individuals. There are two rounded patches of vomerine teeth between the internal nares and the maxillary teeth are found along the upper jaw. The back and sides are green or brown, with distinct round white spots. There is usually a rounded white dot in the center of each tympanum (Carr and Goin 1955). .

See another account at californiaherps.com. Distribution The R. sphenocephala is found state-wide in Florida, in all kinds of wet areas (Carr and Goin 1955).

Physical Description Page 12 Morphology Southern leopard frogs are slender frogs, with long legs and sharply pointed heads. They have prominent dorsolateral folds that extend from behind the eye to the hips. The tympanum is about the size of the eye and occasionally has a small white dot in the middle. The distinguishing feature of southern leopard frogs is the lack of digital pads on its toes. The back and sides are green and brown with distinct round spots. Average adult length is 80 mm. This species is sexually dimorphic: males tend to be smaller than females. Males also possess paired vocal sacs and enlarged thumbs and forearms to increase chances of successful reproduction. (Butterfield, Lannoo, and Nanjappa, 2006; Hammerson, 2007; Knapp, 2006) Other Physical Features: Ectothermic; Heterothermic; Bilateral symmetry Sexual Dimorphism: Female larger; Sexes shaped differently

Ecology Associations In addition to being a staple in the diet of many aquatic predators (great blue herons, river otters, grackles, southern water snakes, brown water snakes, northern black snakes, peninsular ribbon snakes, and water moccasins), humans also eat southern leopard frogs (particularly the legs). Rana sphenocephala is captured in large numbers to be used for fishing bait, scientific research, and classroom teaching. (Butterfield, Lannoo, and Nanjappa, 2006) Anti-predator Adaptations: Cryptic Habitat Southern leopard frogs are found near freshwater habitats in their range. During summer they disperse from the water and settle in moist vegetation. These frogs can be found anywhere from 1 to 5 km from their aquatic habitats. Eggs and larvae develop in still, shallow water, occasionally in brackish water. (Hammerson, 2007) Habitat Regions: Temperate; Freshwater Terrestrial Biomes: Forest Aquatic Biomes: Lakes and Ponds; Rivers and Streams; Temporary Pools Wetlands: Marsh; Swamp; Bog Other Habitat Features: Suburban; Riparian Trophic Strategy Mature southern leopard frogs are primarily invertivores, feeding on terrestrial arthropods. Immature larvae are herbivorous, feeding on algae, plant tissue, and organic debris. Larger individuals will occasionally eat small vertebrates, although this is rare. (Hammerson, 2007) Animal Foods: Mammals; Amphibians; Insects; Terrestrial Non-insect Arthropods; Terrestrial Worms Plant Foods: Wood, bark, or stems; Algae Other Foods: Detritus

Life History and Behavior Behavior Southern leopard frogs are nocturnal; they hide during the day in vegetation at the edge of the water. When threatened, these frogs avoid predators by entering the water and swimming away. When on land jumps are high and in often in sequences of 3 at a time. Southern leopard frogs are solitary outside of the breeding season, when they occur in large breeding colonies. (Knapp, 2006) Home RangeThe home range of Rana sphenocephala is unknown. It may be similar to other Ranidae, such as northern leopard frogs (Rana pipiens), which ranges from 8 to 16 km. ("Anura- Territory Size", 2006) Key Behaviors: saltatorial; natatorial; nocturnal; motile; sedentary; solitary Life Expectancy Life expectancy in the wild remains unknown. The majority of southern leopard frogs probably do not survive their first year. Adults known to hibernate in northern parts of their range, suggest they can live at least 2 to 3 years. Other species of leopard frog average 6 to 9 years of age. (Beane and Godfrey, 2007) Reproduction Breeding is typically initiated by rain, prompting males to call to females. However, southern leopard frogs call during any month of the year, except July and August. Breeding calls are harsh, guttural croaks. (Butterfield, Lannoo, and Nanjappa, 2006) Mating System: Polygynous Breeding occurs in fall, winter, and early spring. Eggs are laid just below the water's surface in a firm cluster about 90 mm wide and 40 mm thick and containing several hundred eggs per cluster. Often breeding frogs will congregate and lay numerous clusters of eggs in a small area. (Knapp, 2006) Key Reproductive Features: Iteroparous; Seasonal breeding; Gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); Sexual; Fertilization; Fertilization :: External; Oviparous Southern leopard frogs breed once annually. Breeding occurs from November to March in the southern portion of their range and March to June in the northern parts of their range. Rana spenochephala shows little to no parental investment in their offspring after laying an egg cluster. Once the eggs are laid, they are left to survive on their own. (Oliver, 1955) Parental Investment: No parental involvement

Conservation Conservation Status Listed as "Least Concern" in view of its wide distribution, presumed large population, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category. (Hammerson and Hedges, 2007) IUCN Red List: Not Evaluated US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: No special status Threats One decline of this species is currently being researched on Long Island (NY). Southern leopard frogs were historically abundant in many locations throughout the island despite being on the northern terminus of their range. However the frogs appear to have suffered rapid and steady declines throughout the island over the past 15-30 years and may now be extirpated entirely. Intensive efforts are currently underway to investigate the status of this species on Long Island as well as possible decline causes and future conservation potential. This species occurs in a few other locales in New York State but its status is largely unknown. The southern leopard frog is listed as a Species of Special Concern in New York State. (Contributed by Jeremy Feinberg [Jerfein AT eden.rutgers.edu].) Trends Usually, breeding is initiated by the rain, prompting the males to call out to the females. R. sphenocephala , however, can be heard calling during any month of the year, except July and August (Sunquist et al 2002). Breeding calls are harsh, guttaral croaks (Carr and Goin 1955).

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits Southern leopard frogs are raised and eaten by humans, particularly their large rear legs. Rana sphenocephala is also a common frog to be used for dissection by many science classes. These frogs eat large amounts of pest insects, such as mosquitoes. (Knapp, 2006) Positive Impacts: food; research and education; controls pest population Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Pickerel frog Location: Rana palustris Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description It usually has a snout-vent length between 60 and 70 mm. It is smooth-skinned, with dark brown or black dorsal blotches which are often arranged in two regular rows and which usually are squarish or rectangular. It is gray or tan in color, with a bright yellow wash on the concealed surfaces of the hind legs and belly. The glandular, yellowish dorsolateral fold is roughly half the width of a dorsal blotch in large-spotted individuals and more than half in small-spotted individuals. Distribution Write down questions that you have for further exploration. The range of R. palustris extends from the Gaspe Peninsula to the west end of Lake Superior, southward to the Gulf Coast of east Texas. A relict population occurs on the Coastal PLain of Alabama and Georgia. It is absent from the predominantly prairie regions of Illinois and adjacent states. North of the coastal plain boundary, it occurs in habitats where the water is cool and clear. On the Coastal Plain, it occurs in floodplain swamp habitat, while in karst topography, it is often confined to the vicinity of the cave mouth.

Physical Description Look Alikes Often confused with the Northern Leopard Frog (Rana pipiens). Morphology The Pickerel frog is a relatively large frog that is often confused with the Northern Leopard Frog (Rana pipiens). However, the Pickerel frog has chocolate-brown spots arranged in two rows between the dorsolateral folds while the Leopard frog's spots are more irregular and scattered. They can be distinguished by the bright yellow or yellow-orange color on the inside concealed surface of the thigh. Leopard frogs are white in the same area. These frogs range in size from 45 to 75 millimeters as adults. Females are usually larger than males. Male Pickerel frogs Page 13 have paired vocal sacs, stout forearms and swollen thumbs. These frogs produce toxic skin secretions that are irritating to humans but can be fatal to other small animals, especially other amphibians. Many frog-eating snakes avoid these frogs for this reason (Matson 1999).

Pickerel frog (Rana palustris) in Silver Spring, Maryland. Photographer: Adrian Weisz, 2010.

Ecology Habitat Pickerel frogs commonly inhabit cool, wooded streams, seeps and springs although they are also found in many other habitats. In the South, it can also be found in the relatively warm, turbid waters of the Coastal Plain and floodplain swamps. These frogs tend to wander far into grassy fields or into weed-covered areas in the summer (Conant and Collins 1998).

Terrestrial Biomes: Forest

Aquatic Biomes: Rivers and Streams

PIckerel frog (Rana palustris) in suburban yard, Silver Spring, Maryland. Photographer: Adrian Weisz, 2010.

Trophic Strategy These frogs are carnivorous and their diet consists mostly of small insects and other invertebrates. However, as tadpoles, these frogs are herbivorous (Conant and Collins 1998).

Life History and Behavior Behavior Pickerel frogs are nocturnal and rouse from hibernation in early spring. These frogs remain active until the end of October when they burrow into sediments in the bottom of ponds or streams and hibernate for the winter (Bokstanz 1998). Reproduction Pickerel frogs breed in late March to early May. Males have low, snore-like calls to attract females. After fertilization, females lay spherical egg masses attached to tree branches in permanent or temporary ponds. These masses may contain from 700 to 3000 eggs. Each egg has an average diameter of 1.6 millimeters when laid. After the eggs hatch, it takes around 87 to 95 days for the tadpoles to transform into small frogs and leave the water. It requires an additional two years before these frogs reach sexual maturity and are able to reproduce (Matson 1999).

Molecular Biology and Genetics Molecular Biology Collection Sites: world map showing specimen collection locations for Rana palustris

Conservation Conservation Status The population of Pickerel frogs is listed as stable, and there are no special restrictions on them. However, in many areas populations are declining due to habitat changes. IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: No special status Trends Females produce 2,000-3,000 eggs in several firm, globular sumerged egg masses. The egg is brown and yellow, averages 1.7 mm in diameter, and has two envelopes. The tadpole has an olive green colour, fine black and yellow spots, and a darker tail with yellow spots coalesced into larger spots.

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits These frogs are not of great economic importance to humans. They are not caught as game and are not kept as pets due to their skin secretions. They are occasionally used as fishing bait for anglers. Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Wood frog Location: Rana sylvatica Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description Adults are 37 to 83 mm in length, and females are larger. Prominent dorsolateral folds extend from the bead to near the vent. The lateral edge of each fold is darker than the medial edge. The smooth to moderately rough back often has short folds between the dorsolateral folds. Toes are webbed, with tow or three phalanges of the fourth toe free of the web. Dorsal coloring may be gray to tan to vivid reddish brown , and is coppery or golden in some individuals. Females are usually more reddish. Black or dark brown markings may be present on the back and sides, and many northern and western specimens have a middorsal white line. A conspicuous dark Write down questions that you have for further exploration. brown or blackish mask extends from the snout to just behind the tympanum. The white venter is sometimes darkly mottled on the throat and breast, and is smooth except for a granular region under the thighs. There also is a prominint dark marking in the pectoral region. The tympanum is smaller than the eye. Males have paired vocal sacs, stout forelegs, and a "thumb" and enlarged webbing between the toes during the breeding season. Distribution R. sylvatica is the only cold-blooded tetrapod known to occur north of the Artic Circle in the Western Hemisphere. It is found over most of Alaska and Canada and over the northeastern part of the United States. Its northern limit lies along the treeline from Alaska to Labrador. Its range extends southward coastally to Maryland and in the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia and northeastern Tennessee. The southern edge of the range passes northward through southern Illinois and the norteastern corner of South Dakota, the noreastern half of North Dakota, northern Idoah and westward in Canada to near the Pacific coast. Isolated populations are found in souteastern Wyoming and northern Colorado, in eastern Kansas, in the Ozark Mountains of Arkansas and Missouri, and perhaps in areas north of the Artic tree line. It is a terrestrial species, often found in or near moist wooded areas, sometimes considerable distances from open water.

Page 14 Physical Description Morphology Wood frogs range from 3.5 to 7.6 cm. Females are much larger than males. This species exhibits a number of color morphs, usually browns, tans and rust, but can also be found in shades of green and gray. In all cases however, they can be distinguished by a black patch that extends over the tympanum to the base of the front limb. It is this characteristic that causes them to be referred to as the frog with the "robber's mask". They are also known to have a white spot on the upper lip. Most specimens have a light yellowish brown middorsal lateral fold. The underparts of the frogs are yellowish and sometimes greenish-white, with male frogs having more brilliant colors on the ventral aspect of the legs. (Dickerson, 1931; Mansker, 1998) Other Physical Features: Ectothermic; Bilateral symmetry Sexual Dimorphism: Female larger; Male more colorful

Ecology Associations Wood frogs are food for a wide variety of aves, such as ardeidae, and serpentes. Habitat Wood frogs are common in woodlands across their range. They are most commonly found in woodlands in the summer, under stones, stumps and leaf litter in the winter, and wood ponds in the breeding season. Habitat Regions: Terrestrial Terrestrial Biomes: Forest Trophic Strategy Wood frogs eat a variety of insects and other small invertebrates, especially Araneae, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, lepidoptera larvae, Stylommatophora and Stylommatophora. Larvae consume algae. (Chenard, 1998) Animal Foods: Insects; Terrestrial Non-insect Arthropods; Mollusks; Terrestrial Worms Plant Foods: Algae

Life History and Behavior Behavior Wood frog tadpoles have been shown to have the strongest powers of kin recognition yet discovered in amphibian larvae. These tadpoles can recognize kin using maternal and paternal factors. They have been documented (by marking them with dye and releasing them into natural habitats) to aggregate back together. This may be a survival mechanism allowing them the potential benefit of food, thermoregulation, and defense against predators. (Blaustein and Walls, 1995; Savage, 1961) Home RangeWood frogs tend to be very territorial. They generally occupy an area of about 100 square meters. Key Behaviors: terricolous; diurnal; motile; solitary; territorial Life Expectancy Maximum longevity: 5 years Observations: The wood frog is fascinating because it may spend winter with over 50% of its body frozen and no heartbeat or breathing. Their maximum longevity could be underestimated due to lack of precise data. In the wild these animals rarely live more than 3 years (http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/neparc/). Reproduction Even though males do call, they generally have a non-calling behavioral mating tactic. The males move around the breeding area actively searching for a female. Occasionally this results in a male to male fight for a female already in amplexus. Both of these reproductive strategies are typical of explosive breeders. In an explosive breeding situation the success of the male in finding an available and willing female is strictly density-dependent. Wood frogs are seasonal breeders that begin very early in the spring. They are the first frogs to begin calling, often before the ice is completely off the breeding ponds. These frogs mate as early as March and the breeding season will last until the beginning of May at the very latest. While the calls of these male frogs are very abundant in season, once the breeding season is over you will no longer hear their calls. During the time of the calls however, they create a duck-like quacking sound, described by some as a "lot of chuckling". Once mate choice is accomplished and amplexus occurs, the female will lay a globular egg mass, most often in the deepest part of a pond. Each egg mass measures about 10 to 13 cm in diameter, and can contain from 1000 to 3000 eggs. The masses can either be attached to a twig or grasses, or they can be free standing. After about a week or so the egg mass begins to flatten out, allowing it to rest on the surface of the water. The jelly around the eggs becomes green in color creating a great camouflage. The mass then looks like a floating mass of green pond scum. The green color of the jelly is due to the presence of numerous small green algae. Tadpoles undergo complete metamorphosis in 2 months and reach sexual maturity in approximately 2 years. Wood frogs have a great deal of selective pressures on both sexes. A larger female is often correlated with a stronger fecundity, for larger females are known to produce larger clutches. This may lead to a higher survival rate in offspring. On the other hand, male mating success is also positively size-dependent, allowing larger females the ability to "win" the male. (Conant and Collins, 1998) Key Reproductive Features: Iteroparous; Seasonal breeding; Gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); Sexual; Fertilization; Fertilization :: External; Oviparous Wood frogs breed once yearly. March to May Female wood frogs provide their eggs with yolk before laying them. Once the eggs are laid and fertilized, the parents abandon them. Parental Investment: Pre-fertilization; Pre-fertilization :: Provisioning; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting :: Female

Molecular Biology and Genetics Molecular Biology Collection Sites: world map showing specimen collection locations for Rana sylvatica

Conservation Conservation Status Though wood frogs are fairly common in most areas of appropriate habitat, loss of habitat to agriculture and suburban development has put them on the list of "species of special concern" in some areas. IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: No special status

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits Wood frogs, along with other amphibians, are great indicators of environmental health. Recent population declines in species of amphibians should be of great concern. Wood frogs may also help to control pests. Positive Impacts: research and education; controls pest population Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Carpenter frog Location: Rana virgatipes Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description Snout-vent lengths are about 50 mm in adults. The dorsum is brownish, marked with darker brown markings, and has four light golden-brown stripes. Two are dorsolateral and two are lateral. Ventral sufaces are either white are pale yellowish, variably mottled with light to dark brown markings that are heaviest on the hind legs. Males have paired external vocal sacs at the angle of the jaws as well as a slightly larger tympana. R. virgatipes has a call made up of a loud, staccato double note which is repeated 3 to 5 times in rapid succession, with a 180 to 400 cycles per second frequency Write down questions that you have for further exploration. range. Distribution R. virgatipes is found in the Atlantic coastal plain from central New Jersey to the extreme southeast of Georgia. It may be common in the areas in which it occurs, but its distribution is not continuous. Adults live in sphagnum bog pools, small ponds, and the borders of quite streams. In New Jersey it is confined to such habitat in the pine barrens. Adults are found on the water's edge and more commonly seen resting on partially submerged logs or among vegetation.

Physical Description Morphology Carpenter frogs are medium sized frogs ranging from 4.1 to 6.6 cm (1.6 to 2.6 inches). They have a brown head, body and legs. Male carpenter frogs have a narrower head than females. There are four distinct yellowish or golden brown stripes that run down the back and sides of these frogs. Two of the stripes run closer to the centerline of the body, while the second two are more lateral. Carpenter frogs are unique in that they have no dorsolateral folds and the webbing of their feet does not reach the longest toe. The underside is cream to yellow in Page 15 color with dark mottling that is present in no particular pattern. Mottling patterns are often black. A light line is present on their upper lip. Carpenter frogs have paired throat pouches which are spherical when inflated. (Behler and King, 1979; White and White, 2002) Carpenter frog tadpoles are large, growing up to 9 cm in length. Like their adult counterparts they are brown, with a white speckled underbody. The tail has dark stripes formed from prominent lines of dark spots which run longitudinally through the musculature. The spots will most often fuse to form dark stripes. (White and White, 2002) Carpenter frogs can be confused with northern green frogs (Rana clamitans), young American bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana), dark southern leopard frogs (Rana sphenocephala) and young pig frogs (Rana grylio). Northern green frogs and young American bullfrogs lack the yellowish or golden brown stripes present on carpenter frogs. Dark southern leopard frogs have a light spot in the middle of their tympanum, which carpenter frogs lack. Southern leopard frogs lack two of the four stripes present on carpenter frogs. Young pig frogs have pale dorsolateral stripes which sometimes may be unseen at first glance. Their toes are webbed almost to their tips, which is not the case in carpenter frogs. (Conana, 1975; White and White, 2002) Other Physical Features: Ectothermic; Heterothermic; Bilateral symmetry Sexual Dimorphism: Sexes shaped differently

Ecology Associations While there is little published information pertaining to natural predators of carpenter frogs, some research suggests that water snakes (Nerodia) eat carpenter frogs. Zampella and Bunnell (2000) suggest that the presence of American bullfrogs ( Rana catesbeiana) negatively affects carpenter frog populations. When pig frogs ( Rana grylio) are present there has also been a noticeable absence or decline in carpenter frog populations. Carpenter frogs are well camouflaged in their natural habitats. (Conana, 1975; Zampella and Bunnell, 2000) Anti-predator Adaptations: Cryptic Habitat Carpenter frogs live in a variety of habitats which contain still or slow moving water and an abundance of aquatic vegetation. They can be found in Delmarva bays, sphagnum bogs, flooded cranberry bogs, artificial lakes, and pine barren ponds. They prosper in wetlands with acidity levels exceeding the threshold for other members of the genus Rana. In areas where pig frogs (Rana grylio) are present carpenter frogs may be present in lower abundance. In northern Florida carpenter frogs can be found in cypress dome and gum swamps, the only area they are found in that state. It is said that carpenter frogs are found in waterways that are tea or coffee colored, where they can easily be camouflaged. Carpenter frogs are often seen completely out of water but never at a large distance from water. They depend on aquatic vegetation in shallow waters for protection and breeding. ("Conservation Plans for Biotic Regions in Florida Containing Multiple Rare or Declining Wildlife Taxa", 2003; Alden and Cassie, 1999; Conana, 1975; Gosner and Black, 1957; Hammerson, 2004; Reshetiloff, 1994; White and White, 2002) Habitat Regions: Temperate; Freshwater Aquatic Biomes: Lakes and Ponds; Rivers and Streams; Temporary Pools; Coastal Wetlands: Marsh; Swamp; Bog Other Habitat Features: Riparian Trophic Strategy Carpenter frogs forage on the ground and in vegetation for small insects and other small invertebrates. (Conana, 1975; White and White, 2002) Animal Foods: Insects; Terrestrial Non-insect Arthropods; Mollusks

Life History and Behavior Behavior Carpenter frogs are described as a secretive species. They are often difficult to see or capture due to their natural camouflage and shy behavior. When frightened they quickly dart away underwater and raise their head after a very brief period to reevaluate the situation and surroundings. They will usually only have their head exposed during these times. Carpenter frogs are nocturnal animals. They aggregate in large numbers in suitable habitat. (Conana, 1975; White and White, 2002) Home RangeCarpenter frogs are found near wetlands throughout the year. While they are most often seen completely out of water they are never far from a water source. (Conana, 1975; White and White, 2002) Key Behaviors: saltatorial; natatorial; nocturnal; motile; sedentary; solitary; territorial Life Expectancy Maximum longevity: 6.2 years (captivity) Reproduction When breeding season begins male carpenter frogs establish and defend their territories through calls. They select territories in shallow wetlands that consist of both still waters and submerged shrubs. The number of calling sites present in a wetland are directly related to the amount of submerged vegetation present that is suitable for laying eggs. (Given, 1988; White and White, 2002) Through the use of aggressive vocalizations, consisting of three different calls, upright posting displays, and combat practices, male carpenter frogs mark their territory and try to attract the attention of females. Combat practices involve males wrestling for brief periods of time. During the wrestling match the males will interlock their front legs in an amplexus like embrace. This is done by attempting to mount each other. Simultaneously males may make aggressive calls that are growl-like. These activities are used to help draw attention from females. (White and White, 2002) If females are interested in the male based upon his physical display or calls she will approach the male and sometimes communicate with the male with a chirp like call. This chirp like call is not always noticed in male and female carpenter frog interactions. This particular behavior is more common and unique among Delmarva frog populations. Following male and female interaction, mating may occur. (White and White, 2002) Mating System: Polygynandrous (promiscuous) Carpenter frogs typically mate and lay their eggs between April and July. Female carpenter frogs will deposit a globular mass consisting of up to 600 eggs. The oblong mass is attached to submerged aquatic vegetation within the male’s territory. Egg masses are not attached to vegetation at a depth greater than 30 cm. Each mass ranges from 75 to 100 mm in diameter. Carpenter frog eggs and embryos have the same level of tolerance to acidic water as do adults. Gosner and Black (1957) demonstrated that at a pH of 3.8 or lower resulted in abnormal development. The same results were found when salinity levels were between 0.15 to 0.30 grams per 100 cc. (Gosner and Black, 1957; Livezey and Wright, 1947; White and White, 2002) Females may lay several egg masses throughout a breeding season. Given (1987) demonstrated that males called on 95% of the nights. As a result, he concluded that males almost continuously call and engage in mating activities throughout the breeding season. Findings also show that calling efforts by smaller males are lower than those of larger males. Smaller males tend to grow more during breeding season. (Given, 1987; Given, 1988) Key Reproductive Features: Iteroparous; Seasonal breeding; Gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); Sexual; Fertilization; Fertilization :: External; Oviparous Male carpenter frogs call 95% of the nights during breeding season, with females laying eggs 2 to 3 times. Carpenter frogs breed between April and August. Specific information pertaining to parental care in carpenter frogs has not been documented. However, most species in the genus Rana invest little in parental care after having laid and fertilized eggs. Parental Investment: Pre-fertilization; Pre-fertilization :: Provisioning; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting; Pre-fertilization :: Protecting :: Female; Pre-hatching/birth; Pre-hatching/birth :: Provisioning; Pre-hatching/birth :: Provisioning :: Female

Conservation Conservation Status According to the 2006 ICUN Redlist, carpenter frogs are of Least Concern. Conservation status varies locally in the United States. In New Jersey, Delaware, and some areas of Virginia they are protected, while in Maryland and other areas of Virginia they are listed as a species of special concern. ("An Introduction to Mid-Atlantic Seasonal Pools", 2005; Hammerson, 2004; Hammerson, 2006) Knowing that carpenter frogs thrive in acidic waters it is thought that the neutralization of wetland areas in the Delmarva region may be the cause of their decline in that region. As wetlands become less acidic a larger variety of frogs can inhabit the area including more aggressive species such as northern green frogs ( Rana clamitans). Historically populations of carpenter frogs have been found in Kent and Sussex County in Delaware, and Queen Anne’s, Talbot, Caroline, Dorchester, Wicomico, and Worcester counties in Maryland. In the 1990s the carpenter frog population in Talbot County was found to be severely decreased as a possible result of habitat degradation. (Given, 1999; White and White, 2002) Areas farther south like Georgia the Carpenter Frog is considered common. However it does have a limited range. Considering that the Carpenter Frog requires wetland areas with large amounts of submerged vegetation for breeding, human disturbances to such environments have and will continue to impact the species. ("Conservation Plans for Biotic Regions in Florida Containing Multiple Rare or Declining Wildlife Taxa", 2003) IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status State of Michigan List: No special status Trends Eggs are laid in subspherical or elongate globular masses, ranging in size from 25 by 50 mm to 65 by 100 mm, that are attached to vegetation at the level of the water surface or down to about a foot below it. The larvae are brown with a lighter tail musculature and are irregularly and indistincly spotted or mottled with lighter tones and dotted with black. The margins of the tail fins and especially of the dorsal fin have dark blotches. There are also two lateral dark stripes or rows of spots on the tail musculature and fins, with the lower stripe extending along the midlateral line of the tail musculature before curving upward to meet the dorsal margin of the musculature beyond its midpoint. The upper stripe starts at the point of origin of the dorsal fin, parallels the curve of the lower stripe, turns up into the fin, and extends along about two thirds of the tail.

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits Like most frogs, carpenter frogs consume insects that may be considered a nuisance. Positive Impacts: controls pest population Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area Field Journal Name: Date: Eastern spadefoot toad Location: Scaphiopus holbrookii (Harlan, 1835) Weather: Time of Day:

Observations / Data / Activity

Overview General Description Two subspecies, holbrookii and hurterii are recognized. Body size reaches 72 mm in holbrookii and 82mm in hurterii. Both have pectoral glands, distinct tympana and parotoid glands, and curved metatarsal tubercles which are at least three times as long as they are broad. The dorsum is usually marked with two light bands forming an hourglass shape. Distribution S. h. holbrookii ranges from Massachusetts southward throughout Florida nd the Write down questions that you have for further exploration. Keys, and westward to Oklahoma and Texas. It is restricted essentially to sandy or light soils, and is usually found in desiduous or coastal pine forest. North of Georgia it is found along the Atlantic Coastal PLain and river valleys. S. h. hurterii ranges from central Louisiana westward to to the Balcones Escarpment of the Edwards Plateau in central Texas, and from the Rio Grande northward into eastern Oklahoma and western Arkansas.

Physical Description Morphology Scaphiopus holbrooki has a body length between 1 3/4 - 2 1/4 in. although the record was found to be 2 7/8 in. The Eastern Spadefoot, as the name implies, has an elongated spade on each hind foot that is extensively webbed. Only one spade is present on each foot and is usually black, horny, and has a spade-like tubercle on the inner surface (Dundee & Rossman, 1989). The parotid glands are distinct. No boss in between the eyes. On the back of the toad there are two yellowish lines, one that starts at each eye, that run down the back. The formation of the two lines may resemble that of a distorted hourglass. Most of the species display an additional light line on each side of the body. The ground color of the toad is some sort of brown color, although there have been instances of species that are uniformly black or gray (Conant & Collins, 1998). Page 16

Ecology Habitat The Eastern Spadefoot resides in areas that are usually sandy or loose soil. The habitats usually resemble the ones of the more arid regions of the Western Spadefoots. Aquatic Biomes: Lakes and Ponds; Rivers and Streams Trophic Strategy The Eastern Spadefoot emerges from its burrow at night, usually the nights that are humid to prevent significant water loss. Once at the surface, the toad searches for worms and various arthropods (Dundee & Rossman, 1989). Thus, S. holbrooki would be considered a carnivore.

Life History and Behavior Behavior The breeding behavior of the Eastern Spadefoot is described as an explosive breeder, meaning that the breeding season is quick, usually because of limiting factors that regulate breeding success (Punoz, 1992). Once the males have reached the desired shallow pond, they begin to sing and attract receptive females. The number of males may reach up into the hundreds, all calling with their somewhat nasal voice. The voice has been described as an explosive 'waank' or 'waagh" in 3-4 second intervals (Dundee & Rossman, 1989). Others describe the call, which resembles a young crow (Conant & Collins, 1998). Life Expectancy Maximum longevity: 12.3 years (captivity) Reproduction The breeding season of the Eastern Spadefoot begins in March and continues through July, depending on the location of the species. Species that live in warmer regions may breed earlier than those located in a colder area (Oliver, 1955). The beginning of the breeding season is marked by the occurrence of a torrential rainstorm. These rains produce large areas of surface water (temporary water) that is ideal for this species. Another factor that influences the beginning of the breeding season is when males position themselves near the surface water and begin to sing (more on this topic in behavior section). The fertilized mother produces eggs and the number of eggs are around 200 or more. The eggs are laid in strings amid vegetation. Unlike the true toads (Bufo) these eggs lack the encased tubular gelatinous covering. Development of the eggs must by rapid because the breeding location has a rapid loss of water and the eggs must develop before the water disappears. The larval period may be as quick as 12 days and the maximum period may be up to 40 days. The tadpoles of Scaphiopus holbrooki can be identified because spadefoots are the only species having a medial anus and a mouth that is not laterally infolded. The appearance of the tadpoles are flattened (meaning that the posterior end is wider than the anterior), bronze in color, and can reach a length of 28-mm (Dundee & Rossman, 1989).

Conservation Conservation Status No special status. They are quite a locally abundant species. IUCN Red List: Least Concern US Federal List: No special status CITES: No special status Management Conservation Actions Research needed on population status. It occurs in many protected areas. Threats Major Threats Urbanization is a known threat in the northeastern USA (Klemens 1993). Pesticide use in conjunction with forest pest management is a potential threat. Trends Population Many populations known. Probably there are many undiscovered populations; evades detection via erratic nocturnal activity. Secretive; usually more abundant than is apparent. Overall, probably relatively stable. Population Trend Unknown

Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems Benefits There is no special economic importance. Field Guide Frogs and Toads of the Washington, D.C. Area 2. © TheAlphaWolf. Photographer: TheAlphaWolf. CC License: by-sa 3. © TheAlphaWolf. Photographer: TheAlphaWolf. CC License: by-sa Credits 4. CC License: by-sa Images Pseudacris crucifer (Wied-Neuwied, 1838) 1. © Patrick Coin. Photographer: Patrick Coin. CC License: by-nc-sa Acris crepitans Baird, 1854 2. © Todd Pierson. Photographer: Todd Pierson. CC License: by-nc-sa 1. © lostwithinadream. Photographer: lostwithinadream. CC License: by-nc 3. © Todd Pierson. Photographer: Todd Pierson. CC License: by-nc-sa 2. © Patrick Coin (Patrick Coin). Photographer: Patrick Coin (Patrick Coin). CC License: by-sa 4. © Todd Pierson. Photographer: Todd Pierson. CC License: by-nc-sa

Anaxyrus fowleri (Hinckley, 1882) Pseudacris triseriata (Wied-Neuwied, 1838) 1. © Matt Reinbold. Photographer: Matt Reinbold. CC License: by-sa 1. © Andy Kraemer. Photographer: Andy Kraemer. CC License: by-nc 2. © Todd Pierson. Photographer: Todd Pierson. CC License: by-nc-sa Hyla chrysoscelis Cope, 1880 3. © Todd Pierson. Photographer: Todd Pierson. CC License: by-nc-sa 1. Photographer: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. 4. © Todd Pierson. Photographer: Todd Pierson. CC License: by-nc-sa CC License: by-nc-sa Rana clamitans 2. © Gary Owens. Photographer: Gary Owens. CC License: by 3. © Gary Owens. Photographer: Gary Owens. CC License: by 1. © Brian Gratwicke. Photographer: Brian Gratwicke. CC License: by 4. © Gary Owens. Photographer: Gary Owens. CC License: by 2. © Tracy. Photographer: Tracy. CC License: by-nc-sa 3. © Arthur Chapman. Photographer: Arthur Chapman. CC License: by-nc-sa Gastrophryne carolinensis (Holbrook, 1835) 4. © Arthur Chapman. Photographer: Arthur Chapman. CC License: by-nc-sa 1. © Patrick Coin. Photographer: Patrick Coin. CC License: by-nc-sa Rana sphenocephala 2. Content released to the Public Domain 3. © Patrick Coin. Photographer: Patrick Coin. CC License: by-nc-sa 1. © Gabriel Kamener. Photographer: Gabriel Kamener. CC License: by-nc-sa 2. © Gabriel Kamener. Photographer: Gabriel Kamener. CC License: by-nc-sa Bufo americanus 3. © Gabriel Kamener. Photographer: Gabriel Kamener. CC License: by-nc-sa 1. © Dave Spier. Photographer: Dave Spier. CC License: by-nc-sa 4. © Gabriel Kamener. Photographer: Gabriel Kamener. CC License: by-nc-sa 2. Photographer: Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. CC License: by-nc-sa Rana palustris 3. Photographer: Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. CC License: by-nc-sa 4. © Andy Kraemer. Photographer: Andy Kraemer. CC License: by-nc 1. © Andy Kraemer. Photographer: Andy Kraemer. CC License: by-nc 2. © Peter Gorman. Photographer: Peter Gorman. CC License: by-nc-sa Hyla cinerea (Schneider, 1799) 3. © Kent McFarland. Photographer: Kent McFarland. CC License: by-nc 1. © catherinemorrison29. Photographer: catherinemorrison29. CC License: by-nc-sa Rana sylvatica 2. CC License: by-sa 3. CC License: by-sa 1. © Brian Gratwicke. Photographer: Brian Gratwicke. CC License: by 4. CC License: by-sa 2. © Dave Huth. Photographer: Dave Huth. CC License: by 3. © Mike VanValen. Photographer: Mike VanValen. CC License: by-nc-sa Hyla versicolor LeConte, 1825 4. © Andy Kraemer. Photographer: Andy Kraemer. CC License: by-nc 1. © Michael. Photographer: Michael. CC License: by-nc Rana virgatipes 2. © Dave Huth. Photographer: Dave Huth. CC License: by 3. © Dave Huth. Photographer: Dave Huth. CC License: by 1. © Mike VanValen. Photographer: Mike VanValen. CC License: by-nc-sa 4. © Dave Huth. Photographer: Dave Huth. CC License: by Scaphiopus holbrookii (Harlan, 1835) Lithobates catesbeianus (Shaw, 1802) 1. © Lee. Photographer: Lee. CC License: by-nc 1. © aaronowsky. Photographer: aaronowsky. CC License: by-nc-sa

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Acris crepitans Baird, 1854 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Author: Michelle Iwaki CC License: CC License: by 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Author: Michelle Iwaki 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Author: Shannon Chapman, Michigan State University, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 4. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Author: Shannon Chapman, Michigan State University, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 5. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Author: Shannon Chapman, Michigan State University, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 6. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Author: Shannon Chapman, Michigan State University, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 7. Life Expectancy: Joao Pedro de Magalhaes Author: Editor: de Magalhaes, J. P. CC License: CC License: by 8. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Author: Shannon Chapman, Michigan State University, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 9. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Author: Shannon Chapman, Michigan State University, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 10. Management: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Don Church, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Don Church CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 11. Threats: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Author: Michelle Iwaki CC License: CC License: by 12. Trends: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Author: Michelle Iwaki CC License: CC License: by 13. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Author: Shannon Chapman, Michigan State University, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 14. Risks: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Author: Michelle Iwaki CC License: CC License: by

Anaxyrus fowleri (Hinckley, 1882) 1. Distribution: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 2. Habitat: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Page 18 3. Management: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 4. Threats: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 14. Trends: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California 5. Trends: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: Author: Author: Author: Elizabeth Reisman CC License: CC License: by Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 15. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Nancy Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Editor: James Harding, Hyla chrysoscelis Cope, 1880 Michigan State University, Editor: George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State Univer CC License: CC License: Author: Author: Elizabeth Reisman CC License: CC License: by by-nc-sa 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Gastrophryne carolinensis (Holbrook, 1835) Author: Elizabeth Reisman CC License: CC License: by 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Nancy 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: of California Author: Author: Franziska Sandmeier CC License: CC License: by George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State Univer 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa California Author: Author: Franziska Sandmeier CC License: CC License: by 4. Associations: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Nancy 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Darren Kalis, Michigan George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State Univer State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 4. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: 5. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Nancy Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Darren Kalis, Michigan Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State Univer 5. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Darren Kalis, 6. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Nancy Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, 6. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Darren Kalis, Michigan Univer CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 7. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Nancy 7. Life Expectancy: Joao Pedro de Magalhaes Author: Editor: de Magalhaes, J. P. Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: CC License: CC License: by George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State Univer 8. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Darren Kalis, 8. Life Expectancy: Joao Pedro de Magalhaes Author: Editor: de Magalhaes, J. P. CC License: CC Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa License: by 9. Molecular Biology: Barcode of Life Data Systems Author: Compiler: Sujeevan 9. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Nancy Ratnasingham, Compiler: Paul D.N. Hebert CC License: CC License: by Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: 10. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State Univer Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Darren Kalis, CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 10. Molecular Biology: Barcode of Life Data Systems Author: Compiler: Sujeevan Ratnasingham, 11. Management: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Compiler: Paul D.N. Hebert CC License: CC License: by Resources Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Blair Hedges, Compiler: 11. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Geoffrey Hammerson, Blair Hedges CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Nancy Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, 12. Threats: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Editor: George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Blair Hedges, Compiler: Geoffrey Univer CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Hammerson, Blair Hedges CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 12. Management: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: 13. Trends: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Blair Hedges, Compiler: Geoffrey by-nc-sa Hammerson, Blair Hedges CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 13. Threats: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Page 19 Bufo americanus 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Author: Theresa Ly CC License: CC License: by 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: 5. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Author: Theresa Ly CC License: CC License: by Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Carl Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Matthew Nichols, Johansson, Fresno City College, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Stacey Radford University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Grossman, Fresno City College CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 6. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors 4. Associations: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Carl Author: Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Johansson, Fresno City College, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Stacey Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Matthew Grossman, Fresno City College CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Nichols, Radford University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 5. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Carl 7. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Johansson, Fresno City College, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Stacey Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Grossman, Fresno City College CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Matthew Nichols, 6. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Carl Radford University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Johansson, Fresno City College, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Stacey 8. Life Expectancy: Joao Pedro de Magalhaes Author: Editor: de Magalhaes, J. P. Grossman, Fresno City College CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa CC License: CC License: by 7. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Carl 9. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Johansson, Fresno City College, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Stacey Author: Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Grossman, Fresno City College CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Matthew 8. Life Expectancy: Joao Pedro de Magalhaes Author: Editor: de Magalhaes, J. P. CC License: CC Nichols, Radford University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa License: by 10. Molecular Biology: Barcode of Life Data Systems Author: Compiler: Sujeevan 9. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Carl Ratnasingham, Compiler: Paul D.N. Hebert CC License: CC License: by Johansson, Fresno City College, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Stacey 11. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Grossman, Fresno City College CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Author: Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan 10. Molecular Biology: Barcode of Life Data Systems Author: Compiler: Sujeevan Ratnasingham, Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Matthew Compiler: Paul D.N. Hebert CC License: CC License: by Nichols, Radford University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 11. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: 12. Management: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Carl Johansson, Fresno City College, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Stacey Resources Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Blair Hedges, Compiler: Grossman, Fresno City College CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Geoffrey Hammerson, Blair Hedges CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 12. Trends: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Author: 13. Threats: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Theresa Ly CC License: CC License: by Author: Author: Kevin Gin CC License: CC License: by 13. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Carl 14. Trends: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Johansson, Fresno City College, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Stacey Author: Author: Kevin Gin CC License: CC License: by Grossman, Fresno City College CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 15. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Hyla cinerea (Schneider, 1799) Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Matthew Nichols, 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Radford University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Author: Author: Kevin Gin CC License: CC License: by 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Hyla versicolor LeConte, 1825 Author: Kevin Gin CC License: CC License: by 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Tanya of California Author: Author: Theresa Ly CC License: CC License: by Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of Radford University, Author: Matthew Nichols, Radford University CC License: CC License: California Author: Author: Theresa Ly CC License: CC License: by by-nc-sa 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: 4. Associations: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Tanya Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: George Hammond, Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State University CC Radford University, Author: Matthew Nichols, Radford University CC License: CC License: License: CC License: by-nc-sa by-nc-sa

Page 20 4. Associations: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 5. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Bruening, University of Michigan CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, 8. Life Expectancy: Joao Pedro de Magalhaes Author: Editor: de Magalhaes, J. P. Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa CC License: CC License: by 6. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: 9. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Author: Editor: Cynthia Sims Parr, University of Michigan, Editor: Allison Poor, Staff, Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa University of Michigan, Author: Sandra Bruening, University of Michigan CC 7. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James License: CC License: by-nc-sa Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, 10. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Author: Editor: Cynthia Sims Parr, University of Michigan, Editor: Allison Poor, 8. Life Expectancy: Joao Pedro de Magalhaes Author: Editor: de Magalhaes, J. P. CC License: CC University of Michigan, Author: Sandra Bruening, University of Michigan CC License: by License: CC License: by-nc-sa 9. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James 11. Management: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Resources Author: Author: Santos-Barrera, G., Hammerson, G., Hedges, B., Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Joglar, R., Inchaustegui, S., Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Gu Huiqing, Shi 10. Molecular Biology: Barcode of Life Data Systems Author: Compiler: Sujeevan Ratnasingham, Haitao, Diesmos, A., Iskandar, D., van Dijk, P.P., Masafumi Matsui, Sch CC Compiler: Paul D.N. Hebert CC License: CC License: by License: CC License: by-nc-sa 11. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: 12. Threats: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Author: Author: Ambika Sopory, Author: Christine Lu CC License: CC License: Staff, Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa by 12. Management: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: 13. Trends: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: Author: Author: Ambika Sopory, Author: Christine Lu CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa by 13. Threats: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Author: 14. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Theresa Ly CC License: CC License: by Editor: Cynthia Sims Parr, University of Michigan, Editor: Allison Poor, University 14. Trends: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Author: of Michigan, Author: Sandra Bruening, University of Michigan CC License: CC Theresa Ly CC License: CC License: by License: by-nc-sa 15. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James 15. Risks: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web Staff, Author: Author: Ambika Sopory, Author: Christine Lu CC License: CC License: Author: Lee A. Mueller, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa by

Lithobates catesbeianus (Shaw, 1802) Pseudacris crucifer (Wied-Neuwied, 1838) 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University Author: Author: Ambika Sopory, Author: Christine Lu CC License: CC License: by of California Author: Author: Kevin Gin CC License: CC License: by 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of Author: Ambika Sopory, Author: Christine Lu CC License: CC License: by California Author: Author: Kevin Gin CC License: CC License: by 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Cynthia 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Sims Parr, University of Michigan, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Sandra Editor: Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Monica Mingo, Radford Bruening, University of Michigan CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa University, Author: Sarah Gordon, University of Michigan, Author: Jennifer 4. Associations: BioImages Author: Project: BioImages CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Largett, Radford University, Author: Jon Hirst, Radfo CC License: CC License: 5. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Cynthia Sims by-nc-sa Parr, University of Michigan, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Sandra 4. Associations: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Bruening, University of Michigan CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Editor: Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Monica Mingo, Radford 6. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: University, Author: Sarah Gordon, University of Michigan, Author: Jennifer Cynthia Sims Parr, University of Michigan, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Largett, Radford University, Author: Jon Hirst, Radfo CC License: CC License: Sandra Bruening, University of Michigan CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa by-nc-sa 7. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Cynthia 5. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Sims Parr, University of Michigan, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Sandra Editor: Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Monica Mingo, Radford Page 21 University, Author: Sarah Gordon, University of Michigan, Author: Jennifer Largett, Radford University, Author: Jon Hirst, Radfo CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 6. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Monica Mingo, Radford University, Author: Sarah Gordon, University of Michigan, Author: Jennifer Largett, Radford University, Author: Jon Hirst, Radfo CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 7. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: 7. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Karen Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Kevin Gardiner, Francl, Radford University, Author: Monica Mingo, Radford University, Author: Sarah Gordon, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa University of Michigan, Author: Jennifer Largett, Radford University, Author: Jon Hirst, Radfo CC 8. Life Expectancy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors License: CC License: by-nc-sa Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Kevin 8. Life Expectancy: Joao Pedro de Magalhaes Author: Editor: de Magalhaes, J. P. CC License: CC Gardiner, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa License: by 9. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors 9. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Karen Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Kevin Francl, Radford University, Author: Monica Mingo, Radford University, Author: Sarah Gordon, Gardiner, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa University of Michigan, Author: Jennifer Largett, Radford University, Author: Jon Hirst, Radfo CC 10. Molecular Biology: Barcode of Life Data Systems Author: Compiler: Sujeevan License: CC License: by-nc-sa Ratnasingham, Compiler: Paul D.N. Hebert CC License: CC License: by 10. Molecular Biology: Barcode of Life Data Systems Author: Compiler: Sujeevan Ratnasingham, 11. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Compiler: Paul D.N. Hebert CC License: CC License: by Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Kevin 11. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Gardiner, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Monica Mingo, Radford University, Author: Sarah 12. Management: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Gordon, University of Michigan, Author: Jennifer Largett, Radford University, Author: Jon Hirst, Resources Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Radfo CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Hammerson CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 12. Management: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: 13. Threats: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: Author: Author: Peera Chantasirivisal CC License: CC License: by by-nc-sa 14. Trends: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California 13. Threats: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: Author: Author: Author: Peera Chantasirivisal CC License: CC License: by Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 15. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: 14. Trends: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Kevin Gardiner, Kevin Gin CC License: CC License: by Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 15. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Karen Rana clamitans Francl, Radford University, Author: Monica Mingo, Radford University, Author: Sarah Gordon, University of Michigan, Author: Jennifer Largett, Radford University, Author: Jon Hirst, Radfo CC 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University License: CC License: by-nc-sa of California Author: Author: April Robinson CC License: CC License: by 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of Pseudacris triseriata (Wied-Neuwied, 1838) California Author: Author: April Robinson CC License: CC License: by 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Author: Author: Peera Chantasirivisal CC License: CC License: by Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: of Michigan, Author: Merritt Gillilland, Michigan State University CC License: CC Author: Peera Chantasirivisal CC License: CC License: by License: by-nc-sa 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James 4. Associations: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Kevin Gardiner, Michigan State University CC Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University License: CC License: by-nc-sa of Michigan, Author: Merritt Gillilland, Michigan State University CC License: CC 4. Associations: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James License: by-nc-sa Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Kevin Gardiner, Michigan State University CC 5. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: License: CC License: by-nc-sa Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University 5. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James of Michigan, Author: Merritt Gillilland, Michigan State University CC License: CC Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Kevin Gardiner, Michigan State University CC License: by-nc-sa License: CC License: by-nc-sa 6. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors 6. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Kevin Gardiner, Michigan State University CC University of Michigan, Author: Merritt Gillilland, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa License: CC License: by-nc-sa Page 22 7. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Merritt Gillilland, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 8. Life Expectancy: Joao Pedro de Magalhaes Author: Editor: de Magalhaes, J. P. CC License: CC Radford University, Author: Thomas Meade, Radford University CC License: CC License: License: by by-nc-sa 9. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James 10. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Merritt Author: Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Gillilland, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Thomas 10. Molecular Biology: Barcode of Life Data Systems Author: Compiler: Sujeevan Ratnasingham, Meade, Radford University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Compiler: Paul D.N. Hebert CC License: CC License: by 11. Threats: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California 11. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Author: Author: Theresa Ly, Author: with contributions from Jeremy Feinberg CC James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: License: CC License: by Merritt Gillilland, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 12. Trends: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California 12. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Author: Author: Theresa Ly, Author: with contributions from Jeremy Feinberg CC Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Merritt License: CC License: by Gillilland, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 13. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Rana sphenocephala Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, Radford University, Author: Thomas Meade, 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Radford University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Author: Author: Theresa Ly, Author: with contributions from Jeremy Feinberg CC License: CC Rana palustris License: by 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University Author: Theresa Ly, Author: with contributions from Jeremy Feinberg CC License: CC License: of California Author: Author: Franziska Sandmeier CC License: CC License: by by 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Tanya California Author: Author: Franziska Sandmeier CC License: CC License: by Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, 3. Look Alikes: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Radford University, Author: Thomas Meade, Radford University CC License: CC License: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Karla Arnold, Michigan by-nc-sa State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 4. Associations: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Tanya 4. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Karla Arnold, Michigan Radford University, Author: Thomas Meade, Radford University CC License: CC License: State University CC License: CC License: by by-nc-sa 5. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: 5. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Tanya Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Karla Arnold, Michigan Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, State University CC License: CC License: by Radford University, Author: Thomas Meade, Radford University CC License: CC License: 6. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors by-nc-sa Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Karla Arnold, 6. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen 7. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Francl, Radford University, Author: Thomas Meade, Radford University CC License: CC Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Karla Arnold, Michigan License: by-nc-sa State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 7. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Tanya 8. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Karla Arnold, Radford University, Author: Thomas Meade, Radford University CC License: CC License: Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa by-nc-sa 9. Molecular Biology: Barcode of Life Data Systems Author: Compiler: Sujeevan 8. Life Expectancy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Ratnasingham, Compiler: Paul D.N. Hebert CC License: CC License: by Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen 10. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Francl, Radford University, Author: Thomas Meade, Radford University CC License: CC Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Karla Arnold, License: by-nc-sa Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 9. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Tanya 11. Trends: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Editor: Karen Francl, Author: Author: Franziska Sandmeier CC License: CC License: by Page 23 12. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Karla Arnold, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Dame/En CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Rana sylvatica 5. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Author: Author: Franziska Sandmeier Zoology, Editor: Sarah Toman, College of Notre Dame/Environmental Concern, 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Author: Danielle Morrow, College of Notre Dame/En CC License: CC License: Author: Franziska Sandmeier CC License: CC License: by by-nc-sa 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James 6. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Katie Author: Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Kiehl, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Museum of Zoology, Editor: Sarah Toman, College of Notre 4. Associations: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Dame/Environmental Concern, Author: Danielle Morrow, College of Notre Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Katie Dame/En CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Kiehl, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 7. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: 5. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Katie Zoology, Editor: Sarah Toman, College of Notre Dame/Environmental Concern, Kiehl, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Author: Danielle Morrow, College of Notre Dame/En CC License: CC License: 6. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: by-nc-sa James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: 8. Life Expectancy: Joao Pedro de Magalhaes Author: Editor: de Magalhaes, J. P. Katie Kiehl, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa CC License: CC License: by 7. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James 9. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Katie Author: Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Kiehl, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Museum of Zoology, Editor: Sarah Toman, College of Notre 8. Life Expectancy: Joao Pedro de Magalhaes Author: Editor: de Magalhaes, J. P. CC License: CC Dame/Environmental Concern, Author: Danielle Morrow, College of Notre License: by Dame/En CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 9. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James 10. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Katie Author: Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Kiehl, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Museum of Zoology, Editor: Sarah Toman, College of Notre 10. Molecular Biology: Barcode of Life Data Systems Author: Compiler: Sujeevan Ratnasingham, Dame/Environmental Concern, Author: Danielle Morrow, College of Notre Compiler: Paul D.N. Hebert CC License: CC License: by Dame/En CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 11. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: 11. Trends: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California James Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Author: Author: Franziska Sandmeier CC License: CC License: by Katie Kiehl, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 12. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: 12. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Editor: Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Harding, Michigan State University, Editor: Allison Poor, University of Michigan, Author: Katie Zoology, Editor: Sarah Toman, College of Notre Dame/Environmental Concern, Kiehl, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Author: Danielle Morrow, College of Notre Dame/En CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Rana virgatipes Scaphiopus holbrookii (Harlan, 1835) 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: Author: Franziska Sandmeier CC License: CC License: by 1. General Description: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of California Author: of California Author: Author: Franziska Sandmeier CC License: CC License: by Author: Franziska Sandmeier CC License: CC License: by 2. Distribution: AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2009 The Regents of the University of 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Tanya California Author: Author: Franziska Sandmeier CC License: CC License: by Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Editor: Sarah Toman, 3. Morphology: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: College of Notre Dame/Environmental Concern, Author: Danielle Morrow, College of Notre Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Doug Byers, Michigan Dame/En CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 4. Associations: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: Tanya 4. Habitat: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Dewey, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Editor: Sarah Toman, Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Doug Byers, Michigan College of Notre Dame/Environmental Concern, Author: Danielle Morrow, College of Notre State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa Page 24 5. Trophic Strategy: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Doug Byers, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 6. Behavior: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Doug Byers, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 7. Life Expectancy: Joao Pedro de Magalhaes Author: Editor: de Magalhaes, J. P. CC License: CC License: by 8. Reproduction: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Doug Byers, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 9. Conservation Status: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Doug Byers, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 10. Management: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 11. Threats: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 12. Trends: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Author: Author: Geoffrey Hammerson, Compiler: Geoffrey Hammerson CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa 13. Benefits: The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors Author: Editor: James Harding, Michigan State University, Author: Doug Byers, Michigan State University CC License: CC License: by-nc-sa

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