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The arctic Environment

Background

Imagine a cold, windy place where at times the hardly shines and at other times of year barely sets. It is a place with frozen ground, making it very difficult for to grow. Instead of through the , in the Arctic , you walk on the forest, as plants may only grow a few inches to perhaps one foot tall. At certain times of the year a visitor might think the tundra appears barren, but during the sunny summers, the bursts with wildlife and activity. What is the Arctic ? Literally defined, it is the area within the , including the icy Pole and the Arctic . One interesting feature of the Arctic is its many , of formed from falling over thousands, even millions, of years. Glaciers spread and move with freezing and thawing temperatures and by the force of their own weight and gravity. Glaciers form on land, near , and along the . When the tip of a reaches the edge of the , it breaks off and forms an in a process called calving. The Arctic region also includes the tundra—meaning “treeless ”— . One defining characteristic of the arctic tundra is its

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, permanently frozen activity lead you and What are some of the conser- ground that occurs from several your students through explo- vation challenges facing the inches below the surface to rations of the arctic region, its depths of more than 1000 feet. wildlife, people, and conservation ? What can be done to Permafrost, combined with a long challenges, focusing on its North address them? of cold and high , American component. This guide are the primary for a will help you explore the Location and nearly treeless zone in the arctic. following questions: The arctic tundra is circumpolar, Trees are unable to spread in Where is the arctic? meaning that it is an ecosystem the permafrost, and and surrounding the polar region, branches would catch the What is tundra? above roughly 60 degrees north and be blown down. What characteristics define it? . The Arctic circle occurs at 66 degrees north latitude. The northern boundary of the What of wildlife live arctic tundra is the northern ice in the North American arctic In the arctic tundra, short days cap (ice cover, which includes the region? What do for much of the year and the ). The , also arctic wildlife have to survive harsh cold climate result in a brief called (meaning northern) conditions? growing season of 50-60 days. By forest, is a zone of scattered ever- contrast, the growing season in green trees, and is the southern What peoples live in the temperate is about six boundary of the arctic tundra. North American arctic? How months long and in tropical The imaginary line where the do they live? forests lasts the entire year. treeless tundra changes to Furthermore, strong taiga is called the line. ARCTIC CIRCLE winds challenge the stability Arctic tundra is found in of any plants that grow , , and more than an inch or two eight northern above ground surface. within . Tundra Below a thin layer of soil also occurs in other places that thaws every summer is around the , where ground that remains frozen cold and high winds year-round, called inhibit or prevent tree permafrost. The permafrost growth. Generally this may be incredibly deep, kind of tundra is found at reaching more than 1000 high elevation and is thus feet thick in some locations. known as . Although the tundra receives less than ten inches of The arctic is an amazing each year, and unique place. This (which is why it is some-

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times referred to as an arctic tundra must be adapted to face ), there can be plenty of these challenges, including not standing water when the upper only extremes of day length and layer of soil thaws each summer. temperatures, but also harsh During this thaw, water is winter winds, long periods of trapped at the surface by the below freezing temperatures, and ARCTIC POPPY -frozen permafrost below, permanently frozen ground. forming extensive seasonal Hundreds of plant species have wetlands. , which trap the adaptations allowing them to sun’s heat, must be specially insu- thrive in the arctic region. Plants lated to prevent them from that grow in the arctic are melting the permafrost, which adapted to grow very quickly in could cause their collapse. Since the short of prime buildings also trap heat, to avoid growing conditions each summer. this problem, many buildings are Plants with low growing, small, or shape of a plant plays a role in constructed on stilts and insu- compact forms are the most its overall ability to function in its lated pipes run above ground. successful in the arctic— environment; in other words, and , and low form follows function. Small, Flora and bushes are good examples. They waxy leaves help some tundra Due to its high latitude and the are adapted this way not so much plants retain moisture, and tilt of the , the arctic experi- to conserve heat, as animals do, vertical leaves (such as a of ences light and temperature but to conserve water. When grass) help others get more light extremes throughout the calendar surface area is lower, water evapo- when the sun is very low on the year. Temperatures range from ration is also lessened. The form . Tundra plant roots tend 60°F (50° C) in to spread horizontally through the winter to the thin soil layer above the 77° F (25° C) in permafrost, rather than vertically. the summer. In Barrow, , The form of a plant is one type of on the northern , but arctic plants have coast, there is a 67- many others. For example, some day-long period of plants contain chemicals which darkness beginning serve as natural antifreeze, November 18. enabling them to continue photo- May 10 starts an synthesizing in freezing tempera- 84-day-long tures (water is a necessary part of period of light. the process of ). The plants and Furthermore, all plants must animals of the reproduce and many cannot rely

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largely on insect pollinators KRUMHOLZ since insects’ period of activity in the arctic is limited. Many arctic plants therefore reproduce from pieces of themselves, such as a bulbil or runner below the ground. Interestingly, the very condi- that are made up of two coex- penetration with the near-surface tion that challenges the overall isting organisms, each helping the permafrost, and a low growing survival of arctic plants so much, other to survive. Each is a form is less likely to catch the the wind, is essential to many of combination of a , which wind and become uprooted. them for spreading their pollen. stores water and collects , Only very low-growing dwarf Sometimes plants have to “coop- and an , which photosynthe- willows and survive on erate” with each other to survive. sizes, providing energy for the the tundra, and they may only This is called a symbiotic rela- lichen using the water collected reach a few feet in height. tionship. Lichens are organisms by the fungus. At the southern edge of the arctic

ARCTIC LICHEN Tundra conditions—especially tundra, in what is called the tran- permafrost and high winds — sition zone between evergreen prevent trees from taiga forest and the nearly treeless growing to the land of the tundra, there are trees heights found natu- growing that look like they are rally in many other walking across the tundra. These parts of the world. , or “twisted wood,” This is because the are trees that grow on one side, root system of the the side away from the wind. On tree has limited soil this side, they have branches that reach out and touch the ground, IMPACTS IN THE ARCTIC eventually taking root there. Wind hitting the tree on the Lichens absorb and store radioactive materials very easily other side causes it to lean in the because these chemicals mimic potassium, a important direction of growth. This gives for lichen growth. The nuclear power plant accident the krummholz the appearance of affected lichens of the Norwegian arctic, which impacted rein- moving, almost crawling across that rely on lichens as their main food source. Scientists the tundra. These trees may be found that these had radiation levels above government only several inches to a few feet safety levels, and could no longer safely be eaten by people. tall, (generally not taller than the amount of snow that falls each

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year), but they can live for several shape to better eaten by . An hundred years! conserve body aquatic food chain of heat. Several the Like plants, animal species inhab- , includes phyto- iting the arctic tundra have including polar plankton eaten by special adaptations that enable , arctic , , which are in them to survive in an ecosystem and caribou, have turn eaten by that is dramatically different in hollow hair that . Energy the summer than in the winter. traps air, transfers are not Many species have thick layers of providing them confined to either and heavy fur coats. Several with insulation. land or sea. For arctic species change color with For many animals, example, polar bears the to blend in with the the coping strategy are land dwellers that changing ground cover — arctic is to consume seals fox and , which migrate feeding entirely turn white in winter, for example. seasonally, taking on oceanic Some species hibernate, including MUSK OXEN advantage of the organisms (such as ground and grizzly bears. tundra’s long summer days and and other fish). It is Insects lay eggs in summer when explosion of food sources in the important to remember that the ground is soft and larvae are short summer season, and finding conditions in neighboring ecosys- adapted to survive freezing more suitable warmer in tems to the arctic, including the temperatures. During the winter, the winter. Animal adaptations Arctic Ocean, do have an impact some insects survive by going into like these take thousands of years on tundra life via food webs. a dormant state, called diapause. to develop, through natural Pollution introduced into the air In this state, they can live despite selection. Relatively sudden and water of far-flung areas of the being nearly frozen, due to natu- changes in an animal’s ecosystem, globe can eventually reach arctic rally occurring antifreeze-like such as increased temperatures wildlife as . Also, because compounds in their bodies. caused by global warming, chal- migrating species have ranges that Other species, like musk oxen, lenge a species’ ability include multiple , have developed a compact body to survive. including some far removed from the arctic tundra. The tundra can Plants and animals be affected by changing condi- of the arctic are tions in these ecosystems and connected to each their respective food webs. other by feeding relation- ships that transfer energy through food chains or food

ARCTIC FOX webs. For example, lichens are the major food of caribou, which in turn are

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CASE STUDy

Arctic Tern Sterna paradisaea

Habitat: Coastal and beaches throughout North America, Europe and ; also on tundra in summer.

Nesting: 2 spotted -buff eggs in a shallow in the ground, sometimes lined with grass or shells. Nests in colonies, usually on islands or protected sand spits.

Range: Breeds from Aleutians, northern Alaska, and northern to Ellesmere and , and to northern , northern , , and Massachusetts. at sea in .Also breeds in northern .

These terns annually perform spectacular migrations, every fall eastward across the Atlantic and down the of Europe and Africa to winter in the Ocean. In they return north, following the East Coast of South and North America, a round-trip that can total 22,000 miles (35,000 kilometers).They see more daylight than any other living creature since they are in both the arctic and Antarctic during the periods of longest days. During the northern winter, this species is more truly oceanic than its close relatives, feeding chiefly on small seagoing shrimp and other planktonic animals.The 's harsh,rasping, high-pitched cry makes a colony a noisy place. All members assemble to mob an intruder.The nests and eggs left unattended during an attack are so well camouflaged that a predator is not likely to find them.These terns attack so fiercely that observers have to protect their heads when walking in a colony.

Threats: Human disturbance of breeding , ARCTIC TERN habitat degradation

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CASE STUDy

caribou Rangifer tarandus

Habitat: Tundra and taiga;farther south, where lichens are abundant in coniferous forests in .

Range: Alaska and much of Canada south through British Columbia to and Idaho; also and northern two-thirds of Manitoba and ; in the East, most of Canada south to Superior and east to Newfoundland.

The caribou of North America, now considered to be the same species as the reindeer of Europe and Asia, is among the most migratory of all mammals. It is the only member of the deer family that lives year-round north of the in some of the harshest ecosystems in North America.The gregarious caribou usually forms a homogeneous band of bulls, or of cows with calves and yearlings, but may also gather in groups numbering up to 100,000 of both sexes and all ages in late winter before the spring migration.As spring proceeds, herds begin to move northward. Females move more rapidly, and soon some of the juveniles drop back, especially if the snow is deep; they will join the bulls, who travel more slowly.The cows spread out as they reach the area for calving, which takes place in mid-May through early July.The newborn calf is well developed, able to stand in about 30 minutes, run some distance after 90 minutes, and keep up with the herd within 24 hours. It begins to eat solid foods at two weeks, but may continue to nurse into the winter.

In October and November, mating begins; the bulls join the cow/juve- groups, where they remain until cows become receptive. Mating occurs either at that time, in the early stages of the southward migration, which varies with location, or immediately after fawning.The polygamous bull chases the female, who flees ahead of him. Pursuit is often interrupted by fights with other males.A male may rush about among several cows, thrashing bushes with his antlers and

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battling other bulls. However, a hollow hairs of its coat giving it tion, growth, and winter survival. male actually pursues only one great buoyancy. In summer, to female at a time.After the rut, the avoid heat and insects, the caribou Cows with insufficient energy animals move south to the winter often lies on snowbanks on the reserves will probably not breed, range; adult bulls often separate at north side of ; in winter, it but will build reserves and breed this time from the cow/juvenile on frozen lakes. In early the following year. In the fall, the group. Different herds move in spring, the antlers begin to grow; bull caribou fattens up to sustain different ways in to reach they are lost shortly after rutting. himself through the rigors of the summer, winter, calving, and The female retains her antlers rut, when he seldom eats. Usually rutting grounds with adequate through the winter and loses quiet, the caribou may give a loud food, water, and protection from them about the time the calves snort, and herds of snorting predators.The most impressive animals may sound like . Biting migrations are by the caribou and other insects can be a living on the tundra in the north- major problem for caribou in west, often called the “Barren some areas. In years of major Ground Caribou.” outbreaks, the caribou will seek snowdrifts, windy ridges, water, or Especially active in the morning other areas with few insects. and the evening, the caribou can arrive. In summer, the caribou Sometimes there is nothing the run at speeds of nearly 50 mph feeds on lichens, mushrooms, animal can do but run around (80 km/h), but cannot maintain grasses, sedges, and many other wildly in an attempt to avoid such a pace for very long.The green plants, twigs of birches and them. Chief predators are animal’s spongy footpads provide willows, and fruit; it also competes and wolves, although grizzly bears, traction and good weight distribu- with for dropped antlers, , , and golden tion on boggy summer tundra; in a source of calcium. In winter, may take a few caribou, particu- winter, when the pads have lichens are the chief food, supple- larly the young.The caribou has shrunk and hardened, and are mented by horsetails, sedges, and been a major source of food and covered with tufts of hair, the willow and twigs. Food clothing for native people of the hoof rim bites into ice or crusted intake is much reduced in winter, . snow to prevent slipping.The and the animal loses weight then. caribou is also a good swimmer. It The caribou needs high-quality Threats: Development of swims with nearly a third of its forage in summer to supply the habitat body above water, the air-filled energy necessary for reproduc-

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People of the Aleut, (including the native peoples to survive in the Arctic Inupiaq/Inupiat and Yupik), and arctic. Athabascans (also spelled Atha- Inuit are one group of peoples The arctic is one of the most paskan), which include the living in the arctic; their native sparsely populated areas in the Gwich’in (also known as Kutchin, land extends from the north- world. Its peoples are thought to the native they speak). be descendants of people who eastern tip of across Alaska Since they have inhabited and to parts of the arctic region for thou- . Though formerly sands of years, arctic known as , they prefer peoples have adapted to the Inuit, which means ‘the the harsh climate through people’ or ‘real people’ and comes unique traditions. from the Inuit-Inupiaq language.

migrated north- ward from after the and later dispersed As the Inuit moved eastward from animals that are abun- throughout Europe and , they adjusted their way of dant at certain seasons of the year, America. There are eleven distinct life in order to survive the harsh such as migratory caribou, or Native cultures in Alaska, and arctic environment. They caught gathering and preserving plants dozens of sub-cultures. The fish and hunted seals, during the arctic summer are a North American arctic’s native and whales, caribou, musk oxen, peoples include the Tsimshian, few of the strategies used by

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polar and other animals. source of respect and spiritual with them, “Western” culture and They used animal skins for tents guidance for the Gwich’in. values. Today, native peoples and clothes, and made tools and represent approximately 16% of The of in the late weapons from animal bones, Alaska’s population. led to an influx of more antlers, horns and teeth. In than 30,000 prospectors to the Though many Native traditions summer, they traveled in Alaskan arctic from far-flung are still practiced today, the and in winter, on pulled by states and countries. The advent traditional way of life no longer dog teams. Most Inuit lived in of II brought further exists for most Native peoples. tents in the warmer months and roads, airports, , and Most live in wooden homes in sod houses during the cold timber, fishing, and mining indus- rather than snowhouses, sod winters. When traveling in tries grew up in the years houses or tents. Most wear hunting parties in winter, they modern clothing instead of built snowhouses. animal skins. Most now speak The Gwich’in, one of the English in addition to their Athabascan group of native native language. Traditionally- peoples, are North America’s of gold constructed kayaks and skinboats northern most Indian . in the late 1800s led have been largely replaced by They live in 15 small villages scat- to an influx of more motor boats, and the snowmo- tered across Northeast Alaska and bile has largely replaced tradi- Northwest Canada. There are than 30,000 prospec- tional dog teams. With the about 7,000 Gwich'in people tors to the Alaskan arctic's increasing economic and who live on or near the migratory arctic from far-flung political role in the world, there route of the Porcupine Caribou has been an influx of Herd, on which they depend. states and countries. non-native people For thousands of years, they have working on relied upon the Porcupine building and main- Caribou Herd to meet virtually taining roads, mineral all of their needs. Each spring following World War II.

they watch first the pregnant The brought CARIBOU cows, and later the bulls and year- increased military presence lings leave their winter grounds to the area. Oil and gas and head north to the coastal were discovered at Prudhoe Bay plain of the arctic National on Alaska's north slope in Wildlife Refuge, which is the 1968, and the Trans- caribou birthing place and Alaska Pipeline was nursing grounds. Today, as in the approved for construc- past, the caribou is still vital for tion in 1974, bringing food, clothing, tools, and as a increasing of industry personnel and

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and oil extraction sites, was approved in 1974 and places, and buried in 23 places to stations, and military installa- completed in 1977. This is an create animal passageways. tions. This has led to increasing 800 mile (1200 km), 4-foot wide Nearly 95 percent of the potential losses in traditional ways of life. pipe that transports oil from oil reserve area of the North Slope Some Native peoples welcome northwestern Alaska to is open to and drilling the changes the last century has William Sound in south central (the Naval Reserve and brought; others do not. Alaska. Building the pipeline was the coast of Prudhoe Bay). The a massive project that took over 3 remaining 5 percent is found years to complete, and cost nearly within the arctic National Wildlife $8 billion in 1977. Once oil Refuge, which was set aside by Oil production passes through the pipeline, it is President Eisenhower in 1959 to loaded onto ships that take it Oil, or petroleum (from the preserve the unique south for processing. Many terms “petra” meaning rock and and wildlife found there. special engineering considerations “oleum” meaning oil), comes were necessary to build the from organic , plants and pipeline, particularly creating a Impacts of Oil animals that died millions of plan for transporting hot oil Exploration years ago, their bodies accumu- without melting permafrost and There is great debate over the lating and over time being minimizing disturbances to impacts of oil exploration and covered and compacted by layers wildlife which use the area. For extraction in Alaska. Many argue of sand and rock. Oil’s ancient example, because caribou tend to that oil development has signifi- living origin is why it is one kind stay away from human structures, cantly altered Alaska's North of “” fuel (coal is another). there was concern that the Slope region. Since drilling was We ’t know where all of the pipeline would upset caribou authorized in the region more oil in the world is located, and migration or movement. To than 30 years ago, oil operations because known sources are finite, make provisions for caribou and have led to an average of 409 oil companies are always trying to other wildlife, the pipeline was spills of crude oil, diesel fuel, and find new sources, or reserves, to elevated at least 10 feet in 554 other pollutants each year, fill the ever-growing needs of the including a spill of 64 million world’s growing population. Some of these reserves are in Alaska, underneath the arctic tundra. In order to take advantage of oil near Prudhoe Bay, on what is called the “North Slope” of Alaska (because it is the northern descent of the Brooks Moun- tains), the Trans-Alaska pipeline

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1989 11-million- Alaska receive oil dividend checks gallon Exxon oil spill yearly from the Alaska Permanent in Valdez, Alaska Fund, allowing Alaskans to share affected 1,500 miles the wealth from publicly owned of shoreline along natural resources. Oil and gas Prince William revenues provide Alaska with Sound, an area as 85% of its yearly income and vast as the distance provide 25% of total U.S. from Massachusetts production. The oil industry to North Carolina. provides more than 5,000 jobs in drilling, pipeline operations, However, people all cargo transportation and a range over the world rely of other support positions in the on petroleum prod- Prudhoe Bay region. ucts to heat their homes, drive their In addition to the direct environ- cars, and produce mental impacts of oil exploration, the many plastic the arctic is considered to be products we have particularly vulnerable to global come to rely upon warming, temperature changes every day. Oil has caused in part by dioxide gallons of toxic drilling waste in also had a major impact on the emissions that result from the the Prudhoe Bay area in 1986. In people who live in the arctic burning of oil and other fossil addition, the heavy equipment region. Since oil was discovered in fuels. Average surface tempera- necessary for oil extraction leaves 1968, the industry has brought tures in Alaska have risen over the long-term impact on tundra soil jobs, modernization and past 30 years, and scientists and plants. Recovery and re- economic incentives to the arctic project that the average tempera- growth are especially slow in the region’s peoples. Instead of paying ture in the region will continue to cold arctic climate. Wildlife activ- state income tax, all residents of warm twice as quickly as the ities are disrupted by the presence of humans; arctic wildlife are sensitive to the presence of human structures and often need undisturbed areas to meet their habitat needs. Furthermore, oil extraction activities have left abandoned drill sites and waste areas, and have created hundreds of miles of roads and pipelines through these sensitive areas. The

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global average. There is growing Timeline of arctic National Wildlife scientific evidence that the region Refuge Events 1903-1997 may already be feeling the effects of this warming: glaciers are 1903 1968 1987 President Theodore President Lyndon The governments of the retreating, are melting, Roosevelt established Johnson signed the Wild and is rising, and vast areas of the National Wildlife and Scenic Rivers Act, Canada signed an inter- Refuge System, desig- establishing the National national agreement for permafrost are thawing. nating Pelican Island in Wild and Scenic Rivers management and long- Florida as its first unit. System, which protects term protection of the designated rivers as Porcupine Caribou herd. 1949 either wild, scenic, or The recreational. 1988 Service began a recre- Congress added 325,000 Arctic National ational in Alaska 1969 acres to the south side Wildlife Refuge to identify areas with The first manager was of the Refuge, bringing special natural values. hired for the arctic its total size to19.8 National Wildlife Range. million acres. The political spotlight has recently shone on the Arctic 1954 1971 1997 The National Park President Richard Nixon President William National Wildlife Refuge, largely Service recommended signed the Alaska Native Clinton signed the due to the debate regarding that the undisturbed Claims Settlement Act. “National Wildlife in the north- The Act gave the Refuge System Improve- eastern corner of Alaska Kaktovik Inupiat Corpo- ment Act.” This Act be preserved for their ration surface rights to provides specific guid- wildlife, wilderness, 69,000 acres along the ance to the Refuge recreation, scientific, and arctic coast within the System, and establishes The Arctic National cultural values. Range. the mission of the National Wildlife Refuge Wildlife Refuge is 1957 1980 System “to administer a The Department of Inte- President national network of located entirely north rior announced plans to signed the Alaska lands and waters for the ask Congress to estab- National Interest Lands conservation, manage- of the Arctic Circle. lish an 8,000 square-mile Conservation Act.The ment, and where appro- wildlife reserve in the Act expanded the arctic priate, restoration of The refuge features area identified by the Range to 18 million fish, wildlife, and plant National Park Service acres, renamed it the resources and their habi- rolling foothills, study. arctic National Wildlife tats within the United Refuge, designated eight States for the benefit of towering mountains, 1960 million acres as Wilder- present and future After Congress debated ness, designated three generations of Ameri- much forest land, and but failed to create the rivers as Wild, and called cans.” wildlife reserve, the for wildlife studies and a vast 1.5-million-acre Secretary of Interior an oil and gas assess- 1997 signed a Public Land ment of 1.5 million acres The U.S. Supreme Court coastal plain. Order establishing the of the Refuge coastal reaffirmed that the 8.9 million acre arctic plain. lagoons bounded by National Wildlife Range. barrier islands along the northeast coast of 1964 1983 Alaska are within the whether or not to open it up for President Lyndon Nearly one million acres boundaries of the arctic oil and gas exploration. Johnson signed the were added to the south Refuge.The State of Wilderness Act, estab- side of the Refuge when Alaska had hoped to lishing the National the State of Alaska claim ownership of these The Arctic National Wildlife Wilderness Preservation decided not to retain lagoons to make oil Refuge is located entirely north of System and policies for control of lands it had leasing available. wilderness management. selected under the Statehood Act.

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the Arctic Circle. The refuge ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE oil discovery in the United States. features rolling foothills, towering The oil industry points out that mountains, much forest land, and less than 1 percent of the Refuge a vast 1.5-million acre coastal (12,700 acres on the coastal plain) plain. Nestled between 9,000-foot will be affected by oil drilling and mountains and the icy Arctic production. They also raise the Ocean, the coastal plain includes question that rising oil imports low lakes and rivers that create may be a threat to US national the heart of wildlife activity in the security. Furthermore, new oil Arctic Refuge. The 19.6-million production in the acre Arctic National Wildlife refuge will infuse Refuge is one of the most pristine revenue places in the United States. (billions of dollars) into the Many scientists US and provide believe that the increases in employment nation- refuge’s combination of sweeping 100,000 snow geese prepare for wide. The oil industry believes and high biological their fall migration. The Refuge that oil extraction has diversity, especially in its sensitive also supports the northernmost improved since development of coastal plain, is unmatched breeding populations of golden the North Slope, so that the anywhere in the circumpolar eagles and arctic peregrine impact of new development will North. This diversity is a result of falcons. be limited to a small area. the presence of high mountains which curve north near the arctic The coastal plain of the Arctic A recent U.S. Geological Survey coast in northeast Alaska, Refuge is also the birthplace and report estimates the technically compressing many arctic and nursery grounds of the Porcupine recoverable oil within the refuge landscapes and ecosys- (River) caribou herd, of more area is between 4.3 and 11.8 tems into close proximity and than 130,000 individuals. The billion barrels (95- and 5-percent lending themselves to the exis- extensive international migrations range). This latest tence of diverse wildlife habitats of the Porcupine caribou herd government figure is being chal- and niches. According to the have caused some to compare the lenged as overly conservative by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, area to Africa’s fabled Serengeti, those supporting oil development. the refuge provides home to more or to the now-gone buffalo move- By contrast, conservation organi- than 180 species of birds, and ments across America’s Great zations point out that oil is a numerous mammals including more than 100 years ago. non-. Once oil polar bears, musk ox, wolves, Other scientists and the oil and gas is extracted from the , , arctic and red industry point to the possibility land, it is gone. If the govern- foxes, black bears, bears, that the Coastal Plain of the arctic ment’s estimates are correct, many and the white Dall . It is Refuge contains one of the best who support protection of the also the site where more than remaining prospects for significant

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refuge believe that the amount of reduce US oil demand by two coastal dwellers who stand to gain oil available for extraction will million barrels a day by the year substantially from the leasing of provide the United States with 2005 - far more than can be their potentially rich coastal land just months’ supply of oil, produced in the same period by to the oil companies. This split is and it will not be available for at extracting oil from the coastal likely to contribute to heightened least 7 years after exploration plain of the Arctic Refuge. conflicts between those native begins. Supporters of the refuge’s Furthermore, they argue that groups who rely on hunting and protected status also believe that although development technology fishing for their sustenance, and if the government's national secu- may have improved, the area those who look to oil-generated rity objective is to limit reliance targeted for drilling is the most employment as their most impor- on foreign oil imports and create sensitive portion of the reserve for tant means of economic liveli- a sustainable long-range energy wildlife. hood. policy, there are better ways of Native Alaskan peoples are also The issue of whether to drill or achieving it—such as improving divided on the value of oil drilling not to drill in the refuge is the fuel efficiency of cars and in the refuge. The Gwich’in are controversial and complicated. It other motor vehicles and imple- highly concerned about drilling’s is likely to be an issue carefully menting renewable energy strate- potential impact on the caribou watched by the entire nation in gies. Holding relatively constant herds on which they depend for the context of broader US energy, the production of automobiles, subsistence and a large part of environmental, security, and they believe that a gradual change their culture. The Inupiat economic policies of the early in corporate average fuel peoples, on the other hand, are . economy (CAFE) standards from the present average of 27.5 miles per gallon to 40 mpg could

POLAR BEAR

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