asian medicine 8 (2013) 75–105 brill.com/asme On the History of Refining Mercury in Tibetan Medicine Olaf Czaja University of Leipzig, Germany [email protected] Abstract In this brief study, the origin and spread of the alchemical process of refining mercury in Tibetan medicine will be explored. Beginning with early sources from the eighth to the twelfth centuries, it will be argued that Orgyenpa Rinchenpel (O rgyan pa Rin chen dpal) caused a turning-point in the processing of mercury in Tibet by introducing a complex alchemical process previously unknown. This knowledge, including the manu- facturing of new pills containing mercury, soon spread through Tibet and was incorpo- rated into the medical expertise of local schools such as the Drangti school (Brang ti). Later it was most prominently practised by Nyamnyi Dorjé (Mnyam nyid rdo rje) in southern Tibet. This particular tradition was upheld by Chökyi Drakpa (Chos kyi grags pa) of the Drigung school, who taught it to his gifted student Könchok Dropen Wangpo (Dkon mchog ’gro phan dbang po). During the seventeenth century, two main transmis- sion lines for refining mercury emerged, one associated with the Gelukpa school (Dge lugs pa) in Central Tibet and one with the Kagyüpa school (Bka’ brgyud pa) and the Rimé movement (Ris med) in eastern Tibet. Both will be discussed in detail, highlight- ing important proponents and major events in their development. Finally, the situation in the twentieth century will be briefly explained. Keywords Tibetan medicine – Tibetan medical history – mercury detoxification – ‘jewel’ or ‘precious pills’ (rin chen ril bu) © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2�14 | doi 1�.1163/15734218-12341290Downloaded from Brill.com09/29/2021 04:56:12PM via free access 76 cζaja Early Sources and the Gyüshi (Rgyud bzhi) In early Tibetan sources dating to the eighth century, such as The King of the Moon (Zla ba’i rgyal po) and The Yellow Covered Book of Biji (Bi ji po ti kha ser), ‘mercury’ (dngul chu) is only briefly mentioned, usually as an ingredient in combination with ‘sulphur’ (mu zi) and some other materia medica, but no processing of any kind is given.1 The first time one encounters a brief descrip- tion of mercury processing in written works is a few centuries later. Besides the famous Gyüshi, one can also read about mercury in the Royal Treasury (Rgyal po’i dkor mdzod), which was at least in part authored by Drakpa Gyeltsen (Grags pa rgyal mtshan, 1147–1216),2 a famous religious leader of the Sakya (Sa skya) order. It can be assumed that the monastery of Sakya probably had a thriving medical school in its precincts.3 There, non-detoxified mercury is mentioned as part of a certain drug for curing the throat afflicted by black bumps or pus- tules (’brum nag). Another drug containing mercury together with sulphur and other ingredients is administered to dry up pus in the upper body. One also finds a brief detoxification method of mercury.4 According to this method, one should combine mercury with salvia mixed with salt. This should eliminate the ‘tarnish’ (g.ya’). One can also use sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides; Tib. star bu) instead of salt.5 In the treatise The Small Tantra: The Essence of Ambrosia (Rgyud chung bdud rtsi snying po), written by Yutok Yönten Gönpo (G.yu thog Yon tan mgon po, twelfth century), who is also the author of the Gyüshi, the production of mer- cury pills of two types that basically cure hot and cold disorders respectively is explained in the chapter on pills.6 It is a process in nine steps that comprises the removal of the tarnish, removal of poison, and so on. The Gyüshi pres- ents the same method.7 The pill of the first type manufactured in this way is labelled Rinchen Tsajor (Rin chen tsha sbyor), which can literally be translated 1 Zla ba’i rgyal po 178/20, 251/9; Bi ji po ti kha ser 443/5. 2 The Royal Treasury resembles a compilation. Perhaps the compiler was Sakya Paṇḍita Künga Gyeltsen (Sa skya Paṇḍita Kun dga’ rgyal mtshan, 1182–1251). Cf. Czaja 2007, p. 367, n. 74. 3 Important members of the Khon family (’Khon) that headed the Sakya school studied medi- cine, such as Künga Nyingpo (Kun dga’ snying po, 1092–1158), his sons Drakpa Gyeltsen and Pelchen Öpo (Dpal chen ’od po, 1150–1203), and the son of Pelchen Öpo, Sakya Paṇḍita Künga Gyeltsen. It is likely that they were not the only individuals with a medical training in the monastery of Sakya. 4 Rgyal po dkor mdzod 174/2, 174/7, 178/1. 5 Ibid. 6 Rgyud chung 790/6. 7 Rgyud bzhi 588/2. For a free rendering, see Men-Tsee-Khang (transl.) 2011a, pp. 125ff. asianDownloaded medicine from 8Brill.com09/29/2021 (2013) 75–105 04:56:12PM via free access on the history of refining mercury in tibetan medicine 77 as ‘Precious Hot Compound’. Similarly, the pill of the second type is called Rinchen Drangjor (Rin chen grang sbyor) or ‘Precious Cold Compound’. The processing is quite brief. It is more complex than what is explained in the Royal Treasury, but much less complicated when compared to the sophisticated pro- cess that is applied today to detoxify mercury. One often finds the opinion that somehow the method described by Yutok Yönten Gönpo is the origin of this complex process, but this is clearly not true.8 The foundations of this process are the works of Orgyenpa Rinchenpel (O rgyan pa Rin chen dpal, 1230–1309). Orgyenpa Rinchenpel (1230–1309) and the Early Spread of his Teachings The ‘great Tibetan yogi, thaumaturge, scholar, alchemist, and traveler’, as van der Kuijp put it, had an adventurous and colourful life.9 His entire biography cannot be explored in this article. Only his contribution to Tibetan medicine, particularly the refining of mercury, will be emphasised.10 On one of his jour- neys, he travelled to Oḍḍiyāna, a mythical place that in this context is prob- ably identical with the Swat valley. Starting in about 1253, his entire travel itinerary began in Tibet, from where he went to Jalandhar, in the present day northwest Indian state of Punjab, and then to other regions in India, to the Indus, to the Swat valley, to Mount Ilam, and to Kashmir through the Hazara district.11 He also came to Dhumatala, probably the ancient site of Butkara near modern Mingaora in today’s Pakistan, where he received the esoteric teaching Approach and Accomplishment of the Three Vajras (Rdo rje gsum gyi bsnyen sgrub) from the deity Vajrayoginī. This revealed teaching and some oth- ers are usually viewed in connection to the knowledge he acquired on the pro- cessing of mercury, but the respective sources lack a full account.12 Notably, in the biographies on Orgyenpa Rinchenpel one searches in vain for teachers or a description of exactly how he obtained this new and precious skill.13 A portion of the works he translated and composed still exists, and some were even included in the canonical collection of the Tengyur (Bstan ’gyur).14 The 8 See, for instance, Men-Tsee-Khang (ed.) 2011b, p. 5. 9 Van der Kuijp 2004, p. 299. 10 For a discussion of his life and his travels, see van der Kuijp 2004, Li 2011, and Vitali 2012. 11 For a full discussion of his itinerary, see Tucci 1971. 12 See, for instance, Phan bde’i gter mdzod 190/3. 13 Cf., for instance, Grub chen u rgyan pa’i rnam thar. 14 For a full list of his works, see Li 2011. asian medicine 8 (2013) 75–105 Downloaded from Brill.com09/29/2021 04:56:12PM via free access 78 cζaja most important in this regard is the Treatise on Processing Mercury (Dngul chu grub pa’i bstan bcos) that is said to have been written by Mahāsiddha Vyālipa, a person that in Tibetan writing also figures in the codified descriptive list of the Eighty-four Mahāsiddhas as ‘The Courtesan’s Alchemist’.15 Vyālipa is credited with inventing the process of refining mercury, and the treatise translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan formed the root text for this alchemical technology. In addition, Orgyenpa Rinchenpel composed a treatise consisting of notes on the Treatise on Processing Mercury. It is not fully known exactly how this brand- new and revolutionary knowledge spread. It is said that he taught it to one of his most prominent pupils, the Third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorjé (Rang byung rdo rje, 1284–1339), but clear and explicit evidence that the Karmapa obtained this knowledge from Orgyenpa is missing in the historiographical sources.16 Rangjung Dorjé, an accomplished master and outstanding scholar, had also learnt medicine by studying sources such as the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā and other related works. Moreover, he wrote the Treatise on Medicine: An Ocean of Medical Terms (Sman gyi bstan bcos sman ming rgya mtsho), which deals with a variety of topics, such as the five elements, the seasons, the three ‘faults’ or nyepa (nyes pa), anatomy, medical properties and diseases, materia medica, and others. He also briefly discusses mercury, the ‘eight metals’ (lcags brgyad), and the ‘eight elements’ (khams brgyad) that ‘bind’ mercury.17 One might take this as a hint that he was indeed initiated into the refinement of mercury. Tsangtö Darma Gönpo (Gtsang stod Dar ma mgon po, fl. thirteenth century CE) was an important doctor of the Cherjé medical school (Cher rje), who was familiar with the Gyüshi but was mainly trained in his family tradition, which was based on the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā. He used medicines, such as the ‘Powerful Pill’ (Dbang po ril bu), which contained mercury that was ‘tamed’ by sulphur.18 According to him, these pills were based on an oral tradition that originally came from India and was handed down by such famous doctors and scholars as Vāgbhaṭa, Candranandana, Rinchen Zangpo (Rin chen bzang po, 958–1055), and Zhangtönzhik (Zhang ston zhig).19 In other words, he maintains that this particular medicine is based on the medical knowledge that is associ- ated with the famous ayurvedic treatise Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā that formed the core of the medical expertise of his tradition.