EXPLORING MONA BAKER’S EQUIVALENCE THEORY IN TRANSLATING KINYARWANDA GENDERED PROVERBS RELATED TO WOMEN INTO ENGLISH AND FRENCH

A Thesis Submitted to the University of Rwanda in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of Master of Arts (M.A) Degree in Translation and Interpreting Studies Option: Translation

By

Pascal BASIGAYABO

Student Registration Number: 218014321

College of Arts and Social Sciences

Supervisor: Dr. Pierre Canisius RUTERANA

June, 2020 i

DECLARATION

I, Pascal BASIGAYABO, do hereby declare that this dissertation entitled Exploring Mona

Baker’s Equivalence Theory in Translating Kinyarwanda Gendered Proverbs Related to

Women into English and French submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Translation and Interpreting at University of Rwanda, College of

Arts and Social Sciences, is my original work and has not previously been submitted and reported elsewhere. I also do declare that a complete list of references indicating all sources of information quoted or cited is provided.

BASIGAYABO Pascal

Signature

Date: June 15, 2020

ii

DEDICATION

To the Almighty God,

To my beloved wife,

To my daughters, my sons-in-law and my grand-children,

To my sons,

I dedicate this work.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, praise is due to the Almighty God for giving me strength and ability to complete this study.

I convey my sincere thanks to my beloved family and relatives for having supported me morally and financially. My deep recognition is extended to my beloved wife for her service as stress alleviator. I appreciate her moral, economic and social support throughout my studies.

I am thankful to my supervisor, Dr. Pierre Canisius RUTERANA, for the patient guidance, encouragement and advice provided throughout my time as his student. I have been very lucky to have a supervisor who cared so much about my work and who responded to my questions and my queries kindly. I owe him all respect because without his orientation, this thesis couldn‟t be completed.

I extend my appreciation to the administration of the College of Arts and Social Sciences, to the

Coordination of Master‟s Program of Translation and Interpreting, as well as the teaching staff for their commitment in transforming us into professional translators.

I am also grateful to Mr. Wallace Mlaga for his tangible assistance in research. The books sent to me helped me in getting English equivalents to Kinyarwanda proverbs. May God bless him and his family? My deep recognition is sent to Mr. Théogène Twagirimana, for having accepted to proofread and edit this dissertation. His experience helped producing a consistent work in both form and content. Special thanks are sent to Mr. Isaïe Nyirinkwaya and Mr. Sylvestre Ngarambe for their assistance in data gathering.

Last but not least, I am thankful to everyone who helped me in this thesis.

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ABSTRACT

Over the past years, some anthropologists, linguists and undergraduate students have attempted to translate Rwandan proverbs into foreign languages (mainly English and French), from both sociolinguistic and anthropological perspectives. However, the translation quality of some of these works is, at varying degrees, below the standards, mainly due to the use of inadequate translation strategies. This study is an attempt to translate Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs by applying the equivalence theory through Baker‟s (1992) translation strategies, namely, using a proverb of similar meaning and similar form, using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form, paraphrasing and omission.

This qualitative study relied on a corpus of 80 Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs related to woman, randomly selected from three main collections of Kinyarwanda proverbs (Bigirumwami,

2004; Crépeau and Bizimana, 1979; Sibo, 2012, and some other open sources) and thematically categorized. The identified main themes are namely: women portrayed as evil, untrustworthy, jealous, deceitful and willful; women portrayed as physically and intellectually weak and dependent; women portrayed as sexual objects; women‟s beauty portrayed as vain and a snare for men; women portrayed as talkative and troublesome; and women portrayed as households‟ good managers, children bearers and educators. Then, English and French equivalent proverbs from identified collections of proverbs (Schipper, 2010; Kershen, 2012; Rasul, 2015; Maloux,

2009) were provided to the selected Kinyarwanda proverbs. In case of non-equivalence, the researcher has resorted to translation by paraphrasing. The findings have shown that the most frequently used strategy in translating a proverb, both from Kinyarwanda to English and French, was to translate with a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form. On the other hand, it was found that translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into English or French by using other strategies v such as using a proverbs of similar meaning and similar form or paraphrasing was less frequent, simply because of distant cultural and linguistic universals between Kinyarwanda, a Bantu language, and English and French, Indo-European languages. Furthermore, it was also shown that Baker‟s strategies are to some extent subjective and cause cultural loss. This is quite understandable because every culture has its own mores and norms that have no equivalent anywhere else. In spite of these challenges, works of this kind need to be pursued and encouraged since they contribute to the dialogue of cultures and facilitate better integration into today‟s world of globalization. In short, the current study has only dealt with the translation of

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs related to women. Further research can carry on where the present study has left off and focuses, among other things, on proverbs about men and children, marriage and so on. The field is still fresh and wide open.

Key words: Proverb, gendered proverb, equivalence, Baker‟s translation strategies. vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ...... i

DEDICATION ...... ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... iii

ABSTRACT ...... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi

LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS/ ACRONYMS ...... ix

LIST OF TABLES ...... x

CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Background to the study ...... 1

1.2 Significance of the study ...... 6

1.3 Problem statement ...... 8

1.4. Research objectives ...... 10

1.4.1. Main objectives ...... 10

1.4.2. Specific objectives ...... 10

1.5. Scope and limitations of the study ...... 10

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 11

2.1. Review of theoretical literature ...... 11

2.1.1. Common linguistic and textual features of proverbs ...... 11

2.1.2. Equivalence and equivalence effect in translation theories ...... 12 vii

2.1.2.1. Different scholars‟ views on the equivalence theory in translation...... 13

2.1.2.1.1. Linguistic approach ...... 13

2.1.2.1.2. Formal and dynamic equivalence ...... 14

2.1.2.1.3. Semantic and communicative translation ...... 15

2.1.2.1.4. Linguistic and communicative approach to translation ...... 17

2.2. Review of empirical studies ...... 18

2.3. Conclusion ...... 20

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ...... 24

3.1. Research design ...... 24

3.2. Research approach ...... 24

3.3. Study sample ...... 25

3.4. Data collection and settings ...... 27

3.5. Data collection tools ...... 28

3.5. Data coding and presentation ...... 28

3.6. Data analysis and discussion ...... 30

3.7. Conclusion ...... 30

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION...... 31

4.1. Data presentation ...... 31

4.2. Conclusion ...... 50

4.3. Discussion of the findings...... 51 viii

4.3.1. Baker‟s strategies used in translation of Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs into ...... 51

English and French ...... 51

4.3.1.1. Using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form (dynamic equivalence) ...... 51

4.3.1.2. Using a proverbs of similar meaning and similar form (formal equivalence) ...... 53

4.3.1.3. Translation by paraphrasing ...... 55

4.3.2. Cultural loss ...... 59

4.3.3. Conclusion ...... 60

GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 62

1. General Conclusion ...... 62

2. Recommendations ...... 63

2.1. Institutions in charge of culture and language planning in Rwanda ...... 63

2.2. Translators ...... 63

2.3. Teachers for translation courses ...... 64

3. Avenues for Future Research ...... 64

REFERENCES ...... 65

APPENDICES ...... 72

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LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS/ ACRONYMS

B: Bigirumwami

CASS: College of Arts and Social Sciences

CEDAW: Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women

C: Crépeau

GMO: Gender Monitoring Office

K: Kerschen

M: Maloux

MIGEPROF: Ministère du Genre et de la Promotion Féminine nd: no date

NIRDA: National Industrial Research and Development Agency.

OS: Open source

RALC: Rwanda Academy of Language and Culture

SC: Source Culture

SCH: Schipper

ST: Source Culture

SL: Source Language

TC: Target Culture

TL: Target Language

TT: Target Text UN: United Nations x

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Comparison of some major equivalence theories (Primary source) ...... 21

Table 2: Women portrayed as evil, untrustworthy, jealous, deceitful and willful ...... 37

Table 3: Women portrayed as physically and intellectually weak and dependent ...... 40

Table 4: Women portrayed as sexual objects ...... 44

Table 5: Women‟s beauty portrayed as vain and a snare for men ...... 46

Table 6: Women portrayed as talkative and troublesome ...... 47

Table 7: Women portrayed as households good managers, children bearers and educators ……49

Table 8: The most commonly translation strategies used ...... 50

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CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

Translation has played and will continue to play a significant role in many aspects of our daily life. Not only does translation help to know foreign languages and foreign cultures, but it also helps people to know each other and hence coexist peacefully, because, as Schipper (2010:13) says:

When we translate, we find out what people experience or have experienced jointly.

What we have in common as humans is not only due to globalization, as some seem to

believe, but also to old human universals, because we share not only the shape of our

body but also some fundamental needs and experiences as human beings.

It is in this regard that the present research intends to translate Kinyarwanda proverbs into

English and French, applying the equivalence theory, to assess what Rwandans share with other people, namely English and French, in terms of gendered language and culture.

But, why were proverbs chosen rather than any other language component? As it is well known, in any society around the world and from time immemorial, proverbs have played a great role in everyday communication, especially in nations with strong oral traditions. This great importance of proverbs results mainly from the fact that they are “transmitters and reflectors of accumulated wisdom, and a manifestation of the traditional values of a society” (Rasul, 2015:53). Rasul shares the view with Dabaghi, Pishbin& Niknasab (2010) who state that proverbs are a powerful tool to transfer cultural and social values.

However, despite their great role of being „transmitters‟ and „reflectors‟ of wisdom, many proverbs have meanings which are outdated and, hence do not fit in the modern society full of great changes in different spheres of life, nationally and internationally. This is the case of many 2 gendered proverbs around the world which are discriminatory against women yet people continue to use them carelessly in this era of gender equality promotion. The major reason was that many traditional societies in the world, including the Rwandan society, were patriarchal. In this system, men had “power to dominate both physically and economically in society”

(Schipper, 2010: 206). Women were requested just to be „ideal wives‟, that is, “chaste, reserved, decent, silent, invisible, reliable, zealous, profitable, and willingly let herself be molded by her husband into the wished for submissiveness” (Schipper, 2010: 268).Under this patriarchal system, many proverbs which were coined, especially by men, insist on the reasonableness of existing hierarchies and self-evidence of male superiority (Schipper, 2010: 207).

On the other hand, some other proverbs talk of a woman positively, considering her as a good manager of household, a source of procreation and good educator of children. However, the few proverbs talking of women in such a way can be considered as recent, because, while conducting the current research, it has been noticed that even the famous Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs speaking in favor of women, such as Umugorê ni umutîma w‟ȗrugȏ or Ukȗrusha umugorê akurusha urugȏ are not on the list of proverbs collected by the scholars who dealt with this genre, such as Bigirumwami (2004), Crépeau and Bizimana (1997) and Sibo (2012). This has led to the assumption that there was a sort of influence from outside (religious, political, economic) which pushed men to change a bit their traditional conception and perception of women. A research is needed here to shed more light on this change of mind. The following examples below illustrate both a good and bad image of women in proverbs:

Umugorê ni umutîma w‟ȗrugȏ (OS).

The man may be the head, but the wife is the heart of the home (SCH2010, Gikuyu,

p.39). 3

La maison n‟est pas fondée sur le sol mais sur la femme (M2009, p.197).

Ukȗrusha umugorê akurusha urugȏ(OS).

A woman with many talents fills the house to the ceiling (SCH2010, Portuguese, p. 230).

Le foyer n‟est pas une pierre, mais une femme (M2009, p. 198).

Umugorê w‟îngaȃre agirwa n‟iingȏongo y‟ȗmuhoro (S685).

A quarrelsome woman is rightly hit (SCH2010, Latin/ German, p. 262).

La virago ne cède qu‟à la brutalité (C3395).

Ibaanga ry‟ȗmugorê ni icyȏ ataazî (OS).

Women are born chatterboxes (Schipper, 2010:211).

Le seul secret que gardent les femmes, c‟est ce qu‟elles ont oublié (Maloux, 2009: 202).

Due to the importance of proverbs in communication and regulation of social relations, various scholars strived to mark and trace the origin, history and nature of proverbs. Many studies have been conducted aiming at comparing variants of proverbs across cultures and languages. For instance, Schipper (2010) examined proverbs related to women from around the world.

Moreover, studies have also been conducted in order to analyze the challenges encountered by translators of proverbs and have suggested suitable translation strategies to overcome them.

Baker (1992) suggested strategies which are helpful in translation of idioms and proverbs. These strategies are namely:

(i) Using an idiom/ proverb of similar meaning and form

(ii) Using an idiom/proverb of similar meaning but dissimilar form

(iii) Paraphrasing 4

(iv) Omission.

Faharani and Ghasemi (2012) used the above mentioned strategies in translating idioms and proverbs from English into Arabic. Thalji (2015) also explored the same strategies in her study which assesses the obstacles encountered while translating proverbs and strategies to overcome those obstacles.

In the same view, Rasul (2015), by using equivalence theory, compared the image of the woman in English proverbs with the one in Urdu proverbs, in her paper entitled „Gender and Power

Relationships in the Language and Proverbs: Image of a Woman‟, published in FWU (Fatima

Jinnah Women University) Journal of Social Sciences. Her thematic categorization of proverbs has influenced the way Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs have been presented in the current study.

Recently, Zheng (2018), in her article „The analysis of Sexism in English Proverbs‟, applied the equivalence theory in translating English proverbs into Chinese and made people aware of the discrimination against women and reminds them to eliminate sexism from their discourse.

In Rwanda, some scholars have also shown interest in proverbs (see Crépeau and Bizimana,

1979:6-9). At the beginning, the research in this area was conducted by missionaries- anthropologists who collected Kinyarwanda proverbs and translated them into either French or

English. Hurel (1920) is known to be the first scholar to have collected and published

Kinyarwanda proverbs. Other researchers of that time dealt with the collection of Kinyarwanda proverbs and translated them into French. Pagès (1947-1948) published a series of articles grouping 554 proverbs, under the title: Proverbes et sentences du Rwanda. In the same period,

Pauwels (1953) collected 236 proverbs and published them under the French title of Le

Munyarwanda et ses proverbes. The majority of the works produced by these fathers was in 5

French. The first book of Kinyarwanda proverbs translated into English was published by

Merriam and Armstrong (1954) under the title of Banyarwanda proverbs. Their translation in

English is too literal and may be misleading. Given that these fathers aimed at harmonizing

Rwandan beliefs and Christian values, the selection and the translation of proverbs they did were somehow biased (Crépeau and Bizimana, 1979). Other collections were only in Kinyarwanda notably Kagame (1953) with 1722 proverbs and Bigirumwami (1968) with 4332 proverbs. The lack of their translations into foreign languages was reported here as a barrier for foreigners to get access to the meanings of these proverbs.

Two decades ago, the University of Rwanda students and other private researchers started to conduct studies in English on proverbs and other language components such as riddles, idioms and the like. Some of these students worked on gender in Kinyarwanda proverbs, translating the examples given into English, applying various strategies of translation. For instance, Harerimana

(2002), in his research, “Gender in Kinyarwanda Proverbs: A Sociolinguistic Study”, discussed the discrimination against women in proverbs and women‟s attitudes towards these proverbs. In the same line, Sibo (2012) wrote a book that he entitled: Imigani y‟Ikinyarwanda n‟ibisobanuro byayo mu Cyongereza [Kinyarwanda proverbs with their meanings in English] (Trans. mine).

This book has two parts. The first one is a collection of 988 Kinyarwanda proverbs with their literal and figurative meanings. The second part strives to explain the origin of 100 Kinyarwanda proverbs. These explanations are in Kinyarwanda but titles are explained in English.

The current study explores the equivalence theory in translating Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs into English and French. According to Vinay and Darbelnet (1995:342), “equivalence is the ideal method when the translator has to deal with proverbs, idioms, clichés, nominal or adjectival phrases and the onomatopoeia of animal sounds”. The researcher‟s interest in Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs, especially proverbs related to women, stems from the fact that many of them are sexist and discriminatory against women and therefore, should be used with utmost caution. 6

1.2 Significance of the study

This study is important for various reasons: First, the researcher was firstly interested by the importance of a proverb in everyday communication. Thanks to their simple and fixed structure, as well as their cultural-bound meanings, proverbs allow people to deliver strong messages in a few words and a concise manner. In a metaphoric language, Oha (cited in Dogbevi, 2011:1) describes proverbs as “the palm- oil with which the words are eaten”. Gyekye (cited in Dogbevi,

2011:3) added that: “Wisdom is expressed in proverbs. A wise person must understand proverbs and be able to use these sayings to solve some of the daunting issues of life”.

Second, translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into foreign languages is also a way of promoting

Kinyarwanda as a language and the Rwandan culture, which is in the line with RALC‟s (Rwanda

Academy of Language and Culture) main objective of “preserving and promoting Rwandan national language, culture and historical heritage”. It will help to have a glimpse into the

Rwandan psyche through one of its language expressions, i.e., proverbs. This will contribute to the dialogue of cultures which is an essential ingredient for better human relations.

Third, the current study is a good linguistic tool for the Rwandan youth and a good number of the Rwandan population who grew up in exile for historical and political reasons, and did not get a chance to deeply learn their mother tongue. Therefore, finding equivalents in English or French to Kinyarwanda proverbs will help them to compare both versions and hence get access to the meanings in a simplified way.

Similarly, this work is also important for French and English speaking foreigners who are interested in the Rwandan culture. By comparing Kinyarwanda proverbs with their equivalents in

English and French, they can easily understand and use them. 7

This study also seeks to raise people‟s awareness of the discriminatory content of these proverbs so that they may change their mindset and attitude towards women. In fact, people continue to use such proverbs, in spite of the international community‟s condemnation of any form of gender discrimination wherever it may come from. So, as a response to UN call, many governments, including the Rwandan Government, undertook different initiatives aiming at eradicating such kind of discrimination. Rwanda has made successful achievements in this regard thanks to the strong will and commitment of the country‟s leadership to promote gender equality and empowerment. As reported by the Gender Monitoring Office‟s (GMO) (2018:4) annual report, the President of the Republic of Rwanda, His Excellent Paul Kagame expressed this national and international commitment in the following terms,

Women and men are equal in terms of ability and dignity, and they should also be

equal in terms of opportunities. As Rwandans, as a global community, we need

every member of our society to use his or her talents to the fullest if we are ever to

reach our development goals.

Furthermore, the translation of gendered proverbs will help any interested reader, especially the youth, to broaden their world view by comparing some cultural aspects that are conveyed through proverbs, namely, the role and image of women as they have been passed on through generations in different societies. The ultimate goal is to bring about behaviour change: since most proverbs depict women in a negative way, the reader will be forced, in light of recent societal changes at all institutional levels worldwide (e/g: laws prohibiting any form of discrimination against women), to change his/her attitude towards women, namely, will refrain from using those proverbs and sayings that devalue women. 8

Finally, this research will serve as a reference for further research in applying the equivalence theory in the translation of fixed linguistic expressions such as proverbs, idioms or riddles.

1.3 Problem statement

The translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into foreign languages has been at times, if not, frequently, tainted with many errors. These errors result from using inadequate translation strategies such as literal translation, calques, interpretation or explanation of the SL proverbs instead of seeking equivalent in the target language. This kind of translation is marred with problems that prevent the rendering of the same effect of the ST proverb into the TT proverb; hence this hinders or alters the meaning of the proverb. Here below are examples of misinterpretation or distortion of meaning:

Umugorê ni nk‟îhenê bayizirika ahȏ amatovu arî (C3381).

Une femme doit être menée durement (C3381).

Whereas the proverb in Kinyarwanda means that a woman should be well treated and fed, the translator has come up with an opposite meaning: a woman should be treated severely.

Uruvȗze umugorê ruvuga umuhoro (S830).

If you quarrel with your wife, think of availability of matchet (S830).

In this translation, we have the same problem: the translator has not understood the real meaning of the proverb. This proverb warns people not to let women rule the household because it can only lead to conflicts. In other words, women are not fit for leadership. In the translation, the issue has been reduced to simple marital in-fighting whereby husbands are being advised to remember to use their matchets in order to win the war against their wives. Such translation are not only misleading, they can also be used or interpreted inappropriately by some ill-intentioned 9 people. In simpler terms and from men‟s perspective, the proverb means that the family led by woman is exposed to serious problems.

As earlier seen, these errors result from using inadequate translation strategies such as literal translation, interpretation or explanation of the SL proverbs instead of seeking equivalent in the target language. This kind of translation is marred with problems that prevent the rendering of the same effect of the ST proverb into the TT proverb, hence this hinders or alters the meaning of the proverb. The example below is a case of literal translation from Harerimana (2002) among many other dissertations done by University of Rwanda students.

Umugorê ni nk‟îhenê bayizirika ahȏ amatovu arî (C3381).

A woman is like a goat: she is tied where the thistles grow (Harerimana, 2002:58).

Equivalence has been proposed by various translation scholars (Baker, 1992; Vinay and

Darbelnet, 1995) as a suitable translation strategy to be used in translation of proverbs. Not only has it been suggested, but also it has empirically been experimented by different translator scholars (Thalji, 2015; Al- Shawi and Mahadi, 2012) and has yielded good results. However, the effectiveness of equivalence theory in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into foreign languages is neither well known, nor documented. To the best of the researcher‟s knowledge, there is no deep research done in Rwanda on application of equivalence theory in translation of

Kinyarwanda proverbs, and if nothing was done about it, problems of mistranslation could continue to increase; hence translators could continue to mislead and confuse readers. Therefore, the current study attempted to fill the abovementioned gaps by using equivalence theory, especially Baker‟s (1992) strategies in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs. 10

1.4. Research objectives

This study aims to assess Baker‟s (1992) strategies in translating Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs related to women into English and French.

1.4.1. Main objectives

 To provide English and French equivalents for the selected Kinyarwanda gendered

proverbs

1.4.2. Specific objectives

 To use Baker‟s(1992) strategies in translating the selected Kinyarwanda gendered

proverbs into English and French

 To assess the strategies used in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs.

1.5. Scope and limitations of the study

This study deals with 80 Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs and their equivalents in English and

French. These proverbs are selected purposively from a large number of Kinyarwanda proverbs from Bigirumwami‟s (2004, 2nd edition), Sibo‟s (2012) and Crépeau and Bizimana‟s (1979) collections of proverbs. We only worked on 80 proverbs because it was impossible to work on all gendered proverbs, given the time and means allotted to this research and the complexity of the work. In addition, we could have examined gendered proverbs related to men, but it was not possible due to the same reasons mentioned above. Further research in this area is welcome.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews two types of literature. It discusses the theoretical literature related to strategies used in translation of proverbs and looks into some empirical studies that discuss the use of translation strategies in practice by former translation scholars.

2.1. Review of theoretical literature

2.1.1. Common linguistic and textual features of proverbs

As Thalji (2015, 7) states, “Proverbs have common uses, features and patterns which translators must be familiar with when translating proverbs”. Translators have to take into account common features to proverbs while translating because proverbs all around the world resemble each other on various aspects. First, at the semantic level, the ideas or topics presented in proverbs across the globe are the same. They reflect people‟s worldview and everyday life experience. At the formal level, all proverbs are presented in fixed structures that have remained unchanged for generations. It is only the choice of language, use of rhetorical devices and application of imagery that varies from language to language and culture to culture (Rasul, 2015:54). This similarity between proverbs is mainly due to the fact that, as human beings, we share fundamental needs and experience (Schipper, 2010:13). This common experience results in human universals which are found in different spheres of life, including communication. For instance, Mieder (cited in Thalji,2015: 8) identified the common structure of English proverbs as follows: “better X than Y”; “like X, like Y” ; “No X without Y”; “One X doesn‟t make a Y”; “if

X; then Y”. These features and others appear to be similar in proverbs from different parts of the world (Schipper, 2010:25), including Kinyarwanda proverbs. These common features help 12 translators to easily identify the equivalents of the SL proverbs into the TL. The chapter four of this research will discuss in deep this component.

In addition, as Owomoyela (cited in Thalji, 2015:8) mentions it, proverbs share all the devices in

English poetry like: assonance, alliteration, metaphor, occasional inverted word order, unusual construction, and personification. Furthermore, proverbs also have a mood: they can be sad, gloomy, humorous or happy. All these linguistic and extra-linguistic elements make proverbs sound well and create effects on the audience in SL. Therefore, translators should take into account all these elements while translating so as to maintain the same effect on the receptors of message into the TL. Dolet (cited in Lefevere, 1992: 26), advises the translator to “link and arrange words with sweetness that the soul is satisfied and the ears are pleased”. Nida (cited in

Munday, 2012:69) himself was aware that “the artistic sensitivity is an indispensable ingredient in any first-rate translation of a literary work”.

2.1.2. Equivalence and equivalence effect in translation theories

Many translation scholars started to work on the concept of equivalence very recently in the middle of the twentieth century. Roman Jacobson was the first to use this term in his book published in 1959. Later on, various researchers in translation field have included this concept of equivalence in their studies and tried to define and develop theories on it. In the current study, the researcher has tried to summarise the reflections and views of some of these scholars, namely

Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), Jacobson (1959), Nida and Taber (1964,1969), Newmark (1981,

1988) and Baker (1992). The next section will try to examine the different scholars‟ views on the equivalence theory and the way these views may influence translation.

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2.1.2.1. Different scholars’ views on the equivalence theory in translation.

2.1.2.1.1. Linguistic approach

For Vinay and Darbelnet (1995:32), equivalence is defined as “a procedure in which the same situation is replicated as in the original but different wording is used”. They also state that through this procedure, the stylistic impact of the source language text can be maintained in the target language text. Therefore, while translating proverbs and other fixed expression, equivalence is concerned more with sense than formal expression.

According to these authors, “a necessary and sufficient condition for equivalent expressions between language pairs to be acceptable is to be listed in a bilingual dictionary as full equivalents”(Vinay &Darbelnet, 1995: 255). However, this condition is really impossible because there are so many glossaries and collections of idiomatic expressions in such a way that no one can exhaust them. In addition, it is not enough to put an expression from the SL and its equivalent into a dictionary or a glossary to pretend to have a successful translation because the context in which the term or expression is used is also very important in determining the used strategy. As the same authors put it, “the situation is what determines the need for creating equivalences”. Therefore, translators are advised to first examine the situation of the SL before making a decision whether they use equivalence or not (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1995:255).

According to another linguist, Jacobson (1959:233), “translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes”. Therefore, the role of the translator is to produce the same message, regardless different grammatical, lexical and semantic structures of ST and TT. In other words, the most suitable way to translate the text is to try to reach the most possible equivalence.

Basing on different views given above, there are some similarities between Vinay and

Darbelnet‟s (1995) theory of translation and Jacobson‟s (1959). They both support linguistic 14 approach of translation and consent that “translation exists despite cultural or grammatical differences between SL and TL. They also recognize some shortcomings of the linguistic approach and hence welcome any other procedures which enable the translator to do his task more effectively and in a more comprehensive manner (Panou, 2013:2).

2.1.2.1.2. Formal and dynamic equivalence

Scholars have continued the study of translation theory and have developed their own understanding and theories of equivalence. For instance, Nida (1964) proposed two translation methods or strategies: „formal‟ and ‘dynamic equivalence‟. Formal equivalence, on the one hand,

“focuses on the message, in both form and content” (Nida quoted in Munday, 2012, 66-67). In this translation approach, the message in the receptor‟s language should be as close as possible to the message in the source language (Monday, 2012: 66). Formal equivalence attempts to reproduce the ST structure into the TT structure and hence exerts strongly influence on the accuracy and correctness of translation. Being very rigorously attached to the form and the meaning of the ST, formal equivalence risks to distort the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the target language, and hence render the message itself incomprehensible (Leonardi, 2000:6).

On the other hand, dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalence effect, where

“the relationship between the receptor and the message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message”(Nida, quoted in Munday,

2012:67). In dynamic equivalence, the translator aims to translate the original meaning in such a way that the ST wording will exert the same impact on the TC audience as the original did upon the ST audience. The form of the original text is frequently changed in both SL and TL, but the message is preserved (Leonardi, 2005: 6). 15

The goal of dynamic equivalence is to search for the closest natural equivalent to the source language message (Nida, 1964a:166; Taber and Nida, 1969:12). This receptor- oriented approach tries to adjust grammar, lexicon, and cultural references in order to achieve naturalness. In this regard, the TT language should not show interference from the SL, and the foreignness of the ST setting is minimized (Munday, 2012:67).

Although the Nida‟s theory contributed a lot to the development of translation theory, it has criticized for a number of reasons. For Newmark (Munday, 2012: 68), the equivalent effect is inoperant if the text is out of TL space and time. He gives an example of English translator of

Homer. For him, no modern translator can possibly expect to produce the same effect on the reader of the written TT as the oral ST test had on its listeners in Antiquity. He also mentions questions related to the readers to whom Nida orients his dynamic equivalence, asking if they receive everything clear and explained for them (Munday, 2012: 70). Broeck and Larose, (cited in Munday, 2012: 68), on their side, considered equivalent effect or response to be impossible.

For them, the whole question of equivalence inevitably entails subjective judgment from the translator or analyst.

Despite these criticisms, Nida added a step forward to the translation activity. He produced a systematic and analytical procedure that helped translators to deal with all kinds of texts. He is thanked of having brought into translation game the receptors and their cultural expectations.

2.1.2.1.3. Semantic and communicative translation

Newmark (1981) is another scholar who contributed to the development of translation theory. He brought two new concepts of „semantic‟ and „communicative‟ translation that he pretended to replace Nida‟s concept of „formal‟ and „dynamic‟ equivalence. The author (cited in Munday,

2012:70) defines and distinguishes these concepts as follows: 16

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible

to that obtained on the readers on the original. Semantic translation attempts to render, as

closely as the semantic and syntactic structures allow, the exact contextual meaning of

the original.

In other words, semantic translation focuses on the ST and tries to render the meaning and the form of the original text into the TL with accuracy and effectiveness. In semantic translation, there is tendency to over-translate, which means that the translator gives more information in the translation, by e.g. additions, giving two versions of the same fragment or adding footnotes.

Newmark (1981: 64) states that “Formal translation differs from literal translation in that it respects context, interprets, and even explains”. Basing on its definition, semantic translation has similarities with Nida‟s formal equivalence.

Communicative translation is receptor-oriented because it tries to create effect on the TT readers.

Whereas semantic translation tends to over-translate, communicative translation tends to under- translate, that is, the translator gives less information than the information in the original by omitting, using hypernyms, neutralisations and other techniques. Briefly, communicative translation tends to be smoother, more direct and easier to read. Newmark communicative translation resembles Nida‟s dynamic equivalence in that both focus on effect of the original message on the TT readers/ receptors.

Newmark‟s work (1981) has been criticized for its prescriptivism (Munday, 2000:46), but it has also been appreciated in that it contains practical examples that guide both trainees and experienced translators.

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2.1.2.1.4. Linguistic and communicative approach to translation

This approach was proposed by Baker (1992) whereby she distinguishes equivalence at the level of the word, at the grammatical level, and at the level of the text. Pragmatic equivalence deals with the purpose of communication and also makes an important contribution to the translation process. All these levels are important for the translator and should be taken into consideration during the translation process because only their combination can result in translation which can come closer to the original texts.

Basing on the early criticisms toward Nida‟s concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence, Baker

(1992) proposed four translation strategies to be used when dealing with translation of idioms and proverbs. You can:

1. Use a proverb of similar meaning and form

2. Use a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form

3. Translate by paraphrasing

4. Translate by omission

The two first strategies resemble Nida‟s formal and dynamic equivalence: the translator uses a

TL idiom or proverb that has a similar meaning and lexical items similar to the source language.

In „using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form‟, the translator uses a TL idiom or proverb that has a similar meaning but different lexical form.

Considering that in translation of proverbs “the readers are not handed everything on a plate with everything explained” (Munday, 2012: 70), Baker suggested two other strategies to be used in case equivalence between the ST and TT is not possible. These are „translation by paraphrasing‟ and „translation by omission‟ (Thalji, 2015: 17-18). Translation by paraphrasing is used when 18 there is no target language equivalent matching with the source text idiom / proverb or, when the style of the target text differs from the source text. Gaber (2005) added that paraphrasing is also applied when the translator is required to explain the meaning of a source word or phrase that he/she finds difficult for the reader to understand. In „translation by omission‟, the translator deletes the whole idiom/ proverb because there is no target idiom or proverb matching with the source.

Baker (1992) offered the clearest and most practical translation strategies that she believed professional translators use when they encounter a translation problem while performing a translation task (Owji, 2013). Therefore, the current research will use these strategies in translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French. The two first strategies will be applied where it is possible to obtain the equivalent of Kinyarwanda proverb into English and

French, while paraphrase and omission will be used in case obtaining equivalent is not possible

2.2. Review of empirical studies

This section reviews some of the empirical studies conducted on translation of proverbs. The focus is put on studies conducted on translation strategies, to see which are the most strategies used in the translation process. The researcher cannot pretend to be exhaustive. He only reviews the findings of some translation scholars who conducted empirical research in the field of translation of culture- bound texts, namely idioms and proverbs. Here below, the works of

Farahani and Ghasemi (2012), Al- Shawi and Mahadi (2012), Alshammari (2015) and Dweik and Thalji (2016) will be explored as illustration.

For instance, Farahani and Ghasemi (2012) conducted their research on strategies used in translation of idioms and proverbs from English to Persian and presented the most frequently used strategies. They selected some proverbs from a novel, translated them, examined the 19 translations in order to see which were the most frequently used strategies. The findings revealed that about two third of the proverbs were replaced by an equivalent of a local proverb. Other strategies were also identified with their respective percentages. Therefore, this study gives a picture that proverbs should be translated in an idiomatic manner.

Similarly, Al- Shawi and Mahadi (2012) carried out a study on strategies which could help in overcoming the problems of translating idioms from Arabic into English and vice versa. The findings of the research illustrated that there exist several strategies that can help find solutions to the encountered translation challenges, namely, using a proverb of similar meaning and similar form, using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form, paraphrasing, annotation, and others.

In the same perspective, Alshammari (2015) examined the applicability of Nida‟s translation theory in rendering Arabic proverbs into English. For this purpose, the researcher selected 20

Arabic proverbs and translated them into English using Nida‟s formal and dynamic strategies.

Then, the researcher analyzed and compared the data with their formal and dynamic translations.

The results illustrated that while formal and dynamic methods were able to render Arabic proverb to some extent, there were inevitable cultural and beliefs losses. The researcher has concluded that dynamic equivalence can be employed to facilitate communication in the TL, while formal equivalence can conserve the SL culture with risk of misinterpretation. Therefore, both strategies should be used in parallel, whenever it is possible to do so.

Dweik and Thalji (2016) also carried out a research on strategies that could be used in translation of proverbs from English into Arabic. They prepared a test of translating English proverbs into 20

Arabic. The test was administered to the novice translators and the study concluded that the main strategies used were namely cultural equivalence, literal translation, paraphrasing, borrowing and glossing.

Globally, these are the few among many studies conducted on the strategies of translating proverbs and other idiomatic expressions. The findings showed the main translation strategies used in translation of proverbs. Some of these studies were conducted on the strategies proposed by Baker (1992) for translating proverbs; Therefore, these studies, especially one conducted by

Al- Shawi and Mahadi (2012) will serve as a baseline to the current study that aims to translate

Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French.

2.3. Conclusion

A successful translation of proverbs depends not only on the effective knowledge of the source and target languages and cultures but also on the appropriate strategies to be used. Various scholars viewed equivalence as a basic method of the translation process and some of them have proposed equivalence as a suitable strategy to be used in the translation of proverbs (Vinay and

Darbelnet, 1995). Here below is a comparison that summarises similarities and differences between different main equivalence theories. The table is inspired by Newmark‟s comparison of semantic and communicative translation (Munday, 2012:71).

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Table 1: Comparison of some major equivalence theories (Primary research)

Theories - Semantic translation - Communicative translation - Formal equivalence - Dynamic equivalence - Using proverb of similar Using proverb of similar meaning meaning and similar and dissimilar form Parameters form -

Transmitter/addr Focus on the transmitter of the Emphasis on communication with readers or essee focus message individually and enough receptors of the message in the TT. details on the way the message has been processed. Culture Respect to the SL culture and Respect to the TC and effort to adapt the effort to translate all cultural translated text into the TC. elements contained in the SC. Time and origin Changeable whenever need be, be Related to its own contemporary context; does it in time or space, from generation not last forever. to generation. Relation to ST Always „inferior‟ to SL; „loss‟ of May be „better‟ than the ST; „gain‟ of force meaning. and clarity even if loss of semantic content. Use of form of SL „Loyalty to ST author; if ST norms Respect for the form of the SL but overriding deviate, then this must be „loyalty‟ to TL norms. replicated in TT. Form of TL More details; tendency to add Smother, more conventional; tendency to give more information. less information. Appropriateness For serious and literary texts e.g. Used for majority of texts, especially autobiography. standardized ones. Criterion for Accuracy and effectiveness of the Accuracy and effect of communication of ST evaluation meaning of the message of ST. message in TT. Table no 1: Table 2: Comparison of some major equivalence theories (Primary research)

22

Apart from some minor differences related to ideology and terminology, the above mentioned theories present similarities depending on their focus. For instance, formal equivalence, semantic translation and using proverb of similar meaning and similar form focus on the accuracy of the message in the SL and the form of the original, whereas dynamic equivalence, communicative translation and using proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form aim at producing the same effect of the original message on the receptors of this message in the TL, despite the dissimilarities at the level of form and structure.

In addition, all these equivalence concepts present both effectiveness and shortcomings. Some are SL and SC oriented, focusing on the accuracy of the message and the form of the ST while others are TL and TC oriented, focusing on effect of the message on receptors in the TL.

Therefore, while translating proverbs, the translation strategies oriented to the ST should be in parallel with the strategies oriented to the TT for the sake of accuracy and effect of the message to be translated (Alshammari, 2015).

Baker‟s (1992) strategies suggested for translation of proverbs evaluated in the current study fall into the wide equivalence theories described above. They are practical means of rendering the meanings of original proverbs into the target language. Baker suggested the use of equivalent proverbs while translating original proverbs. In case of non-equivalence, the translator should refer to paraphrasing.

The current study aims at assessing the effectiveness and the shortcomings. It enters into a wide range of other empirical studies conducted on strategies used in translating proverbs in general.

Some works have been conducted on Bakers strategies suggested for translating idioms and proverbs from and into other languages, and the findings confirmed that they are practical and to 23 some extent complete. Therefore, these previous studies will serve as guidance to the current study, aiming at evaluating Baker‟s translation strategies in translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French, and up to now, no research has been conducted on this topic.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the research design, research approach, research sample, data collection methods and procedures, methods for data analysis as well as problems and limitations of the study.

3.1. Research design

This dissertation subscribes to a qualitative design. The research described systematically and as accurately as possible the image portrayed to women in Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs and their equivalents in English and French. It also analysed the linguistic and cultural similarities and differences between those proverbs. Practically, Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs were selected from three main collections of Kinyarwanda proverbs (Bigirumwami, 2004; Crépeau and Bizimana, 1979; Sibo, 2012; and other open sources), analysed and thematically categorized, and their equivalents in English and French were provided.

3.2. Research approach

The current study uses mainly three approaches: critical discourse analysis, thematic analysis and comparative analysis approach. To categorise and analyse Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs, the researcher used critical discourse analysis, because Fairclough (cited in Rasul, 2015:56) states that, “the „critical‟ element of discourse analysis can reveal hidden connections and causes within texts and can provide opportunities and resources for those who may be disadvantaged”.

Therefore, this approach allowed the researcher to categorize Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs most of which are discriminatory against women.

In addition, the thematic analysis approach helped the researcher to group the selected proverbs under the main identified themes. 25

Moreover, a comparative analysis approach helped the researcher to compare Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs with their equivalents in English and French with the purpose of assessing the linguistic and cultural similarities/differences between proverbs from these three languages.

3.3. Study sample

This study dealt with 80 gendered Kinyarwanda proverbs for which the researcher strove to find equivalents and translate into English and French. The sample of 80 gendered proverbs has been obtained through the following process:

Firstly, 504 proverbs related to women were selected from three main collections of

Kinyarwanda proverbs and open sources, and represented respectively as follows: Crépeau and

Bizimana (239 proverbs), Bigirumwami (180 proverbs); Sibo (35 proverbs) and open sources (50 proverbs). The retained proverbs were the ones that refer to women either explicitly or implicitly.

Explicitly, all Kinyarwanda proverbs containing the words umugorê (woman), umukoȏbwa

(girl), umukeêecuru (old woman), inkumî (young girl), and other female qualifications related to her body or behaviours were gathered. The researcher also took into account Kinyarwanda proverbs relating to women implicitly, that is, using different types of metaphors to refer to women or their behaviours. For example, we can mention, Akabȗno karusha isȗka gucȃ inshȗro(B315) (Women can earn money lying down / La débauche profite plus que le travail) or

Ayȏ ubwiirȃ umucȗzi siyȏ ubwiirȃ umucȗzikazi (C597) (Give your love to your wife but tell your secrets to your mother /Donne ton amour à ta femme, mais ton secret à ta mère ou à ta soeur).

Then, the researcher proceeded to the selection of proverbs which are biased towards women.

The researcher was then left with one hundred and sixty (160) gendered proverbs. The researcher decided to work on a half of them (80), considering that this sample is representative enough for 26 him to draw a significant conclusion, and this decision is in line with Ritchie and Lewis‟ (2003) view stating that large sample sizes discourage the occurrence of biases and research errors.

Hence, eighty (80) proverbs were obtained and used as a sample of the current study.

These proverbs were also represented disproportionally in different thematic categories depending on the image depicted to women in Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs.

1. Women as evil, untrustworthy, jealous, deceitful and willful: 27

2. Women as physically and intellectually weak and dependent: 19

3. Women as sexual objects: 14

4. Women‟s beauty portrayed as vain and a snare for men: 7

5. Women as talkative and troublesome: 7

6. Women as households‟ good managers and as children‟s bearers and educators:6

From English sources, all proverbs about females in which words such as woman, girl, lady,

wife, maid, maiden, daughter, widow, were taken as sample to be used as equivalents of

Kinyarwanda proverbs. The proverbs that have the pronouns “she” and “her” as a reference

to a female are also included, as well as proverbs using metaphors but whose meanings are

gendered and oriented to women. In the same view, all French proverbs in which words such

as femme, fille, vieille, épouse, belle-mère, bru, veuve, marȃtre were taken as samples. The

words such as “poule”, “pot”,” four”, “marmite” are also used metaphorically to mean

females. Therefore, the proverbs containing the abovementioned metaphorical words were

used as French equivalents of Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs, as well as French proverbs

containing the personal pronoun “elle (s)” and the demonstrative pronoun “celle (s)”.

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3.4. Data collection and settings

In this study, the researcher used mainly the documentary research whereby different documents relevant to this topic were consulted. These documents dealt with proverbs in general, gendered proverbs, translation theories and translation works, and more specifically, application of equivalence theory in translation of proverbs.

The researcher‟s three main sources of Kinyarwanda proverbs were especially Bigirumwami

(2004), Crépeau and Bizimana (1979) and Sibo (2012). These three sources were chosen because of their contribution to the linguistic and cultural studies on Kinyarwanda proverbs. In this respect, Bigirumwami managed to collect a good number of Kinyarwanda proverbs (4,293), including proverbs related to women; Crépeau and Bizimana collected 4,454 proverbs and attempted their literal translation and/or their interpretation and explanation in French. Lastly,

Sibo‟s collection was chosen, mostly for the English translation of some Kinyarwanda proverbs despite their relatively small number (988) and sometimes inaccurately translated. To the proverbs selected from these sources were added some Kinyarwanda proverbs from electronic links1.

The selected proverbs were then translated into English and French, applying the equivalence theory. Schipper‟s (2010) and Maloux‟s (2009) collections of proverbs were thoroughly used for

English and French equivalents respectively. Schipper (2010) has been important to the current study because of his collection of proverbs related to women from around the world. Proverbs in this collection are not only in English, but also they are interpreted. This study has also benefited

1. https://www.google.com/ search?q =imigani+ivuga+ku+mugore&oq= IMIGA&aqs= chrome.1.69i57j69i59.23709021j0j4&sourceid= chrome&ie=UTF-8

28 a great deal from Maloux‟s dictionary of proverbs and maxims because it facilitated to find

French equivalents for Kinyarwanda proverbs. Besides the above mentioned main sources, electronic and online sources have also been used to complement library resources.

Several libraries have been visited in order to find reliable materials. The visited places include the UR (University of Rwanda) main library, NIRDA (National Industrial Research and

Development Agency) library, all based in Huye District. Moreover, we had also access to

GMO‟s (Gender Monitoring Office) documentation. Various GMO reports were consulted and helped in framing the topic, enriching it, structuring it as well as limiting it to the way it is presented now.

3.5. Data collection tools

For conducting field research, the researcher got a letter from the School of Arts and Languages.

The copy of this letter is found at the end of the current study as appendix. In addition, before conducting research, which was mainly a documentary research, the researcher had to write a letter, précising what was the object of the research. For instance, the researcher wrote to the

Gender Monitoring Office (GMO) to get access to the information related to gender in Rwanda.

The letter addressed to this institution is also found as a sample at the end of this work in the part of appendices.

3.5. Data coding and presentation

In order to indicate the origin of Kinyarwanda proverbs, initials of the authors‟ family names precede the numbers of proverbs as they appear in the concerned books. Hence, the letter B (i.e.

B554) Stands for Bigirumwami; the letter C (i.e. C3250) for Crépeau and Bizimana; and S (i.e.

S225) for Sibo. To facilitate their reading, Kinyarwanda proverbs have been written using supra- 29 segmental signs (amasakȗ) or Kinyarwanda tonality in other words. Kinyarwanda proverbs are also written in italics to show that Kinyarwanda is a local language.

For the equivalents in English, three main sources have been consulted: Schipper (2010),

Kerschen (2012) and Rasul (2015). For Schipper, the initials SCH stand for this name to distinguish it from S standing for Sibo as mentioned above. Therefore, for identification of the

English proverbs from Schipper‟s book, the initial SCH, plus the year of publication, plus the language from which the proverb originates, plus the page on which the proverb is found have been put between parentheses in front of the selected proverb (i.e. SCH 2010, Hindi, p.51). For more information about the languages mentioned in the English equivalents, the list of these languages, cultures and countries is in Schipper‟s book (2010: 318-323). For the English equivalents from Kerschen‟s (2012) book, the researcher will use the following code: the initial

K to stand for Kerschen, plus the year of publication, plus the page on which the selected proverb appears. To identify the proverbs from Rasul‟s (2015) book, the initial R of the author‟s name, the year of publication plus the page have been put between parentheses in front of the selected proverb (i.e. R2015, p. 50). For English equivalents selected from other sources apart from the above mentioned sources, they have been referred to as OS (Other sources) put between parentheses in front of the used proverb. The equivalents in French have been indicated by using the letter M (Maloux) plus the year of publication, plus the page on which the French proverbs used in the current study are located (i.e.M2009, p.151).

As for the data presentation, gendered Kinyarwanda proverbs with their English and French equivalents have been presented in different tables in accordance with the main identified themes. Hence, six tables containing 80 gendered proverbs have been presented and the data 30 were thematically analysed in order to assess linguistic and cultural universals between

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs and their equivalent ones in the two major world languages.

3.6. Data analysis and discussion

In the data analysis, the researcher evaluated the accuracy and effectiveness of the equivalence theory in rendering Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French. The evaluation tested

Baker‟s (1992) translation strategies, namely using a proverb of similar meaning and form, using proverbs of similar meaning and dissimilar form, paraphrase and omission, in transferring linguistic features and cultural aspects from Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French. In this regard, the discussion was divided into two major parts. The first part focused on the translation of the linguistic features while the second discussed the translation of the cultural elements expressed in SL proverbs.

3.7. Conclusion

This chapter has dealt with the methodology followed to conduct the current study. First, it has explored the documentary research used in collecting gendered Kinyarwanda proverbs and their

English and French equivalents, as well as gathering information related to equivalence theory in translation. Next, it has described three research approaches used in this study: the critical discourse analysis and thematic analysis used in categorizing thematically Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs and the comparative analysis used in comparison of Kinyarwanda proverbs with their English and French equivalents to sort out similarities between them. Then, the researcher has described how the documentary research was used in collecting data. Finally, the researcher has described the method which was used to analyse the data.

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CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs with their equivalents in English and

French. It also analyses the translations and discusses the strategies used in translation based on the findings.

4.1. Data presentation

Data were presented in tables. These tables represent the main themes identified in Kinyarwanda proverbs that reflect the image of women. Few of the Kinyarwanda proverbs speak of woman positively and they have been grouped in one table. Furthermore, proverbs and their equivalents are numbered from one (1) to eighty (80) to facilitate the way of referring to them in data analysis and discussion. Moreover, tables are classified in descending order, that is, starting from the table containing the highest number of proverbs and ending with the table with the lowest number. Here below are the aforementioned data in different tables.

Category 1: Women portrayed as evil, untrustworthy, jealous, deceitful and willful

The table below contains 27 Kinyarwanda proverbs with their equivalents in English and French.

However, for some proverbs whose equivalents were not found, the researcher paraphrased them either in English or French. In addition, this is the biggest category in the current study with various proverbs equating a woman to evil, qualifying her as a betrayer and inconsistent creature.

Some proverbs go further and even propose tough punishment in case a woman becomes very wicked as the examples below highlight it:

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Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs under category 1 with their equivalents in English and French

Nº of Kinyarwanda proverb Equivalent in English Equivalent in French

Item

1. Agakoni k‟ȗmukoȏbwa ni Who has a woman has an eel Le lièvre et la femme sont à

nkora ngeendê (B104, C123) by the tail (R2015, p.60). vous tant que vous les tenez

(M2009, p.195).

2. Agatîinze kȃzaanduruka ni A daughter is like a raindrop: La fille n‟est que pour

inkumî (C176, B166). she‟ll fertilize other‟s field enrichir les maisons

(SCH2010, Luba, p.206). étrangères (M2009, p.208).

3. Ayȏ ubwiirȃ umucȗzi si yȏ Give your love to your wife Donne ton amour à ta

ubwiirȃ umucȗzikazi but tell your secrets to your femme, mais ton secret à ta

(C643, B553) mother (SCH2010, mère ou à ta sœur (M2009,

Irish/Spanish, Guatemala, p.330).

p.129).

4. Hasabwa Nyirȃnkumî All are good girls, but where Toutes sont les filles

hakaroongorwa do the bad wives come from? parfaites: d‟où viennent les

Nyiranzaratsi (C795, B757). (SCH2010, English, USA, méchantes épouses ?

p.104). (M2009, p.198)

5. Indirira kwaambara Water, fire and women will L‟eau, le feu et la femme ne

y‟ȗmugorê yahêjeje umugabo never say, „enough‟ disent jamais : Assez

i Ruumbasha (B1441). (SCH2010, Polish, p.189). (M2009, p. 188).

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6. Injȃangwê yaraayê haanzê Women and chickens get lost Les filles et les poules par

yiitwa intȗuro (OS). by wandering from house to trop errer se perdent

house (SCH2010, Hindi, (M2009, p.207).

p.288).

7. Intȃazî y‟ȃgasȏre ikamira The quite stupid praises his Souvent la femme varie,

umugorê (C1773, B1695). wife (SCH2010, Allagish/ bien fol est qui s‟y fie

Turkey, p.255). (M2009, P.195).

8. Inyȃbiizi ibyaara Like mother, like daughter Telle mère, telle fille

ingoongerezi (C1818). (SCH 010, English, p.135). (M2009, p.345).

9. Inyama y‟ûmugorȇ ishya Maids want nothing but Les habitudes de la femme

yȋihina (C1834, B1755). husband, and then they want changent négativement au

everything (K2012, p.47). fur et à mesure qu‟elle vit

avec son mari (my

paraphrase)

10. Ntaa guhȏra muu ntȏboro A change of saddle yields Celle qui n‟a pas changé de

imwê nk‟îgifuungo (OS). pleasure (SCH2010, Arabic, turban n‟a pas connu les

p.175). délices (M2009, p.194).

11. Ukubôko k‟ûmugorȇ gucura A bad woman cooks and eats La femme mange et s‟essuie

uk‟ûmugabo arȋ ko food alone and forgets the la bouche puis elle dit : « Je

kuguhaȃhira (C3190). bread provider (my n‟ai rien fait » (M2009,

paraphrase). p.195).

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12. Umugorê abyaara abȃawê A woman of bad character On ne peut pas sauter d‟un

ntaabȃ uwȃawê (C3364). flees one penis for another arbre à un autre arbre, mais

one (SC2010, Lega, p.192) on peut sauter d‟un homme

à un autre homme (M2009,

p.196).

13. Umugorê gitȏ agutaatira He that has a bad wife has a La femme parle à un

agȗseguye (C3372, B3256). devil at his elbow (SCH homme, en regarde un autre,

2010, English, USA, p. 105). et pense à un troisième

(M2009, p.195).

14. Umugorê gitȏ arutwa Better to live with a dragon Une méchante épouse, celui

n‟ȗumwȃanzi gicȃ (C3374, than with a bad woman qui la tient est pareil à celui

B3229). (SCH2010, English, p. 26) qui tient un scorpion

(M2009, p.258).

15. Umugorê gitȏ ntimuburȃ One keeps a wicked woman Si traitresse que soit la mer,

kubyȃarana (C3376, B3260). because of the children plus traitresse les femmes

(SCH2010, Minyanka, p. (M2009, p. 187).

109).

16. Umugorê ni umugogoro (OS) A wicked wife is a daily Une femme est une douleur

fever (SCH2010, Italian, toujours présente (M2009,

p.108). p.186).

35

17. Umugorê umukamirȃ A woman‟s mind and winter “Le lièvre et la femme sont

impêenda impîindukȃ yaazȃ wind change often (R2015, à vous tant que vous les

ukamusaanga imbere iyo p.58). tenez” (M2009, p.195).

(C3388, B3246).

18. Umugorê urî ku mutibȃ A house well-furnished Jamais surintendant ne

ntaaburȃ umutîma (C3386, makes a woman wise (OS). trouva de cruelles (M2009,

B3269). p.192).

19. Umugorê w‟uubwêenge The cunning of woman has La ruse de

n‟ûmugabo w‟ûbweena iyȏ beaten man (SCH, Turkish, l'homme est grande,

uburȏ bweezê bagura ibirago p. 236). mais celle de la femme est

bibiri,(B3254, C3398). plus profonde (Proverbes

danois, OS).

20. Umukoȏbwa w‟ȗbwiira The impatient virgin En amour comme en

asaambana yȃrasȃbwe becomes a mother without chirurgie, il ne faut pas

(C3468). being a bride (SCH2010, montrer ses outils avant

English, USA, p.97). l‟opération (Proverbes

français, OS).

21. Umukoȏbwa abeenga cyaane A bad woman refuses every La femme qui hésite et

agasaanga intȃgohêka man who asks for hand délibère est perdue (M2009,

(B3339). (SCH2010, Iraq, p. 51). p.190). 36

22. Umupfȃakazi ni wê murozi It‟s dangerous to marry a Celui qui épouse une veuve

(B3430). widow, because she hath cast trouvera souvent une tête de

of her rider (SCH2010, mort dans son assiette

English, UK, p.122). (M2009, p.535).

23. Umutîma w‟înkumî Marriage is the supreme L‟amour n‟a de preuve que

usuuzumwa n‟îinkȃanda blunder that all women make dans l‟épreuve (OS).

(C3651, B3528, S746). (SCH 2010, English, USA, p.

103).

24. Umwȃana asa na nyina Mama‟s baby, papa‟ s maybe Le vrai père de l‟enfant est

(C3732). (SCH2010, English, Jamaica, connu par sa mère (my

p.206); paraphrase).

25. Urugȏ rubî rugutuma amȃazi Don‟t take a wife who has Une mauvaise épouse est

n‟ȗmuriro (C3863, B3770, money; she will treat you pire que la mort (C.3864).

S808). with arrogance and will say

to you: “Fetch water”

(SCH2010, Arabic,

Morocco, p.118).

26. Utȃazî umugaambaanyi He knows little who tells his La race des femmes est de

yiiriingira umugorê (C4164, wife all he knows (K2012, p. nature traîtresse (M2009, p.

B4035). 26). 186). 37

27. Utȃazi umugomȇ asigira When the husband‟s away, Quand le chat n‟est pas là,

umugorȇ urugô (C4166 the wife will play (K2012, les souris dansent (OS)

B3999). p.38).

Table 3: Women portrayed as evil, untrustworthy, jealous, deceitful and willful

Category 2: Women portrayed as physically and intellectually weak and dependent

Close to the second table, woman in table 3 below (18 proverbs) is referred to as weak,

powerless and dependent vis-à-vis her husband. These prejudices portrayed to woman in

proverbs by Rwandan folk wisdom also exists in English and French proverbs as it appears in

English and French equivalents listed below

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs under category 2 with their equivalents in English and French

No of Kinyarwanda proverb Equivalent in English Equivalent in French

Item

28. Abagorê ni inzaȃbya Daughters are brittle ware La femme et le verre sont

zoorȏshye (OS). (SCH2010, English, USA, p. toujours en danger (M2009,

95). p.204)

29. Akabȗza umukoȏbwa inzu Woman and cherry are Les filles et les vignes sont

arakageendana (C318, painted for their own harm difficiles à garder (M2009,

B291). (R2015, p.57) p.207).

30 Ifûuni y‟îmborȏ iruta A man of straw is worth a Un homme de paille vaut une

umujyoojyo w‟îgituba (OS). girl of gold (K2012, p.41) femme d‟or (M2009, p.259).

38

31 Ingabo y‟ȗmugorê If a cow leads the herd, all Il est descendu aux enfers

iragushoora ntiigukȗura ku the cattle will fall into the beaucoup d‟hommes auxquels

rugaȃmba (B 1460). pool (SCH2010, Venda, les femmes avaient mis les

p.235). armes à la main (M2009,

p.189)

32. Inkokȏkazi ntiibikȃ isaȃke Where men are speaking, La maison est à l‟envers

ihȃri (C2372, B1557, S312). women should keep their lorsque la poule chante aussi

mouths shut (SCH2010, haut que le coq (M2009,

Dutch, p.47). p.330).

33 Iyȏ umukoȏbwa avuzȇ “oya” A woman‟s nay is a double Entre le oui et le non de la

aba yemeye (OS). yea, they say” (SCH2010, femme, on ne ferait pas tenir la

English, UK, p.169). pointe d‟une aiguille (M2009,

195).

34 Magirȋrane, umugorê agirwa A woman without a man is La femme toute seule n‟est

n‟ȗmugabo (B2120) like a handle without a pan rien (M 2009, p .189)

(K.2012, p. 51).

35 Ntaa gicumȃ gipfuundîkira Butter with butter is no sauce Deux dames à coté l‟une de

ikiîndi (C2271, B2207). (SCH2010, Scottish, p.172). l‟autre font une froide

température (M2009, p.29)

36. Ntaa mugorê ugîra ijaambo A hen shall not crow Un homme peut braver

(C2320). (SCH2010, Ovambo, p.166) l‟opinion, une femme doit s‟y

soumettre (M2009, p.

202). 39

37 Nyir‟ȗmukoȏbwa na When a girl is born, even the Quand naît une fille, c‟est

nyir‟întuȗmbi bahuungira roofs cry (Bulgarian, p.89). comme sept voleurs

hamwê (B2515). pénétraient dans la maison

(M2009, p.208).

38. Umugorê arabyîna Oh, a woman is always a La femme règne et ne

ntaasiimbȗka (C3366, woman (K2012, p.47). gouverne pas (M2009, p.330).

B3250).

39 Umugorê gitȏ abyaara Lenient housewife, lazy Mère piteuse fait fille

icyoomaanzi (B2822). daughters (SCH2010, teigneuse (M2009, p.345).

Estonian, p.136).

40. Umugorê ni nk‟îhenê, To feed a cow, you need a Là où la chèvre est attachée, il

bayizirika ahȏ amatovu arî store of grass (SCH 2010, faut qu‟elle broute (M2009,

(C3381, B3263). Tibetan, p.103). p.198).

41. Umugorê w‟înyaȃnda yiitwa If a woman does not want to La femme paresseuse, le poil

Baantaanze urusyo (C3397, dance, she says her skirt is lui pousse dans la main

B3282). too short.(SCH2010, (Proverbe français, OS).

English, p.26)

42 Umugorê w‟ȗmupfȗ agira A sick man with many wives La femme sotte s‟imagine que

ngo mukeebȃ yaagabuye dies of hunger (SCH2010, sa rivale a fait le service

(C3400). Twi, p.117). (C3400).

43 Umugorȇ w‟ûmupfû imbeba The more women look in Une femme qui ne veille un

imutwaara umurwi (C3405, their glass, the less they look peu, aura maigre pot-au-feu

B3289). to their house (R2015, p.57). (Proverbes espagnols, OS). 40

44 Umukîro w‟ȗmukoȏbwa uba The woman with a La raison des femmes est dans

imbere yê (C556, B3366). storehouse under the navel la partie de leur corps que

will not die of hunger or cold cache la pudeur

(SCH2010, Ladino, Hebrew, (M2009,p.187)

p.60).

45. Umukoȏbwa usîgaye muu Girls, rejoice not over your Le mariage est comme une

nzu ntaȃgaseke uwashȃatse wedding dress; there is much place assiégée; ceux qui sont

ni umuruho wa bȏose trouble behind it (SCH2010, dehors veulent y entrer, et

(B3340). Arabic, p.99). ceux qui sont dedans veulent

en sortir (M2009, p.326).

46 Urugȏ ruvuzȇ umugorê, Women‟s wisdom destroys La maison va mal quand la

ruvuga umuhoro (C3841, the house (SCH2010, quenouille commande à l‟épée

B3807, S380). Russian, p. 208). (M2009, 330).

Table 4: Women portrayed as physically and intellectually weak and dependent

41

Category 3: Women portrayed as sexual objects

Table 4 below contains 15 proverbs referring to woman as sexual objects. All Kinyarwanda

proverbs have their equivalents in English and French. In these proverbs, women are referred to

as “available and purchasable commodities” for sexual satisfaction. In some proverbs, women

are associated with material objects like pots and firewood, whereas in others, women are

qualified as good for sex only. The example below illustrates all the above mentioned images

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs under category 3 with their equivalents in English and French

Nº of Kinyarwanda proverbs Equivalent in English Equivalent in French

Item

47. Agashyitsî kagiiyê keêra Old oven is soon heated Un vieux four est plus aisé à

kavuumbika umuriro (C3863, (SCH2010, English, UK, s‟échauffer qu‟un neuf

B3770, S808). p.186). (M2009, p. 191).

48 Akabȗno karusha isȗka gucȃ Women can earn money La débauche profite plus que

inshȗro (C316, B315). lying down. (SCH2010, le travail (M2009, p.316).

Portuguese, Brazil, p.216).

49. Akȏ umukoȏbwa ashaakȃ When a woman wants to, Si l'argent poussait dans les

karamugarika (C449, B408). she can do anything arbres, les femmes

(SCH2010, Italian/ épouseraient des singes.

Germany, p.238). (Proverbe sur les femmes,

OS). 42

50. Akuungo gakuzê ni kȏ An old hen makes a good Dans un vieux pot, on fait la

karyooshyȃ imbogȃ (OS). soup (SCH2010, Creole, bonne soupe (M2009,

Papiamantu, Spanish, p.205).

p.157).

51 Icyȏ umugorê ashaakȃ, Imȃana What a woman wants, God Ce que femme veut, Dieu

nayô iba igîshaaka (OS). also wants (SCH2010, (ou le diable) le veut

Turkish, p.238). (M2009, p.187).

52 Icyȗuma gishya gîkubiswe A woman is like a bottle of Le frottement polit la femme

(B925). medicine, shake before use et le diamant (M2009,

(SCH2010, Portuguese, p.191).

Brazil, p. 185).

53 Imishîishi y‟îmishîno ntiishirȃ To mount a donkey is On voit bien encore aux

inȏgonora (OS). better than to go by foot tessons ce que fut le pot

(SCH2010, Arabic, (M2009, p. 204).

Maghreb, p.155).

54 Nshiimwê nshiimwê ikobora If a woman offers her sex “A force de vouloir

injumȃ (C2239, B2207). to everyone, pestles are satisfaire sexuellement à

used on it (SCH2010, tous les hommes, la femme

Minyanka, p.64). finit par avoir son sexe

blessé”. (my paraphrase). 43

55. Ntaa mukoȏbwa upfȃ bȃtagizê An old spinster will Il n‟y a point de chapelle, si

ngo erekera inȏ (B2275). become a young wife petite soit-elle, où l‟on ne

(SCH2010, Hungarian, p. prêche au moins une fois

98). dans l‟année (M2009, p.

193).

56 Nyiragabura imitȗra yarȗse Eating is preferable to Une femme travailleuse

nyiragabura amabȗno (C2672, amorousness (SCH2010, quoique malhabile est

B2535). Japanese, p.179) supérieure à une femme

paresseuse (C2672)

57. Ubuuntu muu nnyo buuzaana Beautiful woman bring Une belle femme, à moins

mburugu (C2824, B2715). diseases (SCH2010, qu‟elle ne soit honnête, elle

Bassar, p.84). apporte du malheur à son

mari (Proverbe sur femmes,

OS).

58. Umugorê mwiizȃ atȃaba uwȃawȇ Marry beauty, marry On a tué beaucoup de maris

yaaba uwa mȗkuru waawe trouble (SCH2010, à cause de leurs belles

(C3380, B3262). Hebrew, English, USA, p. femmes (M2009, p. 64).

86).

59. Umugorê w‟ȗmusȃaza A young woman married to La jeune femme qui se marie

ntaaherkezȃ urwêenyȃ (C3408). an old man, must behave avec un vieil homme doit se

like an old woman comporter comme une

(SCH2010, English, UK, p. vieille femme (my

154) paraphrase). 44

60 Umugorê w‟ȗundî yiirabuza Another man‟s wife is Dans la femme des autres, le

akanwa (C3410, B3292). always the prettiest diable met une cuillerée de

(SCH2010, Hebrew, p. miel (OS).

173)

Table 5: Women portrayed as sexual objects

Category 4: Women’s beauty portrayed as vain and a snare for men

Seven (7) proverbs in table five (5) talk about female beauty. A quite number of sayings suggest that the attractiveness of the female body has power over male reason. Women‟s breasts, lips, sex, buttocks seem to be fascinating and there are many proverbs about the irresistible appeal of the female bosom. Though different parts of women have power to attract men, beauty and looks of women have a negative connotation. Women are advised not to count on them because they are useless and cannot prevent them from being poor if it is their fate. Vanity and arrogance of women in proverbs are also denounced because they end up with negative results. So, men are discouraged to praise women very much because it is the way of spoiling them.

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs under category 4 with their equivalents in English and

French

No of Kinyarwanda proverb Equivalent in English Equivalent in French

Item

61 Inkubȃ irakȗbita inkumî Two tits pull more than a Un cheveu de femme tire

igakiinga ibêere (C1690, hundred wagons plus que dix paires de bœufs

B1584). (SCH2010, Spanish, (M2009,p. 189).

Panama, p.59). 45

62. Ntaa nkumî yiigȃya Every woman keeps a Aucun miroir n‟a jamais

n‟îyarwȃaye igisebe ica corner in her heart where reflété une femme laide

inzaratsi (C2376, B2306, she is always twenty-one (M2009, p.203).

S458). (SCH2010, English,

USA, p 152)

63. Ubwîizȃ bw‟ȗmukoȏbwa The woman who has a Les jolies filles ne sont pas

ntibwaȃmubujije kuruha pretty face is usually toujours heureuse et les

(C2049). unhappy (SCH2010, garçons intelligents sont

Spanish, Puerto Rico, rarement beaux

p.83). (M2009, p. 62).

64. Ubwîizȃ ntȋburiibwȃ A fair face will not keep La beauté de la femme

(C2937). the pot boiling n‟amène pas de quoi vivre

(SCH2010, Hebrew, p. (OS).

83).

65. Umugorê bamwiita Tell a woman she is fair, Dites une seule fois à

Nyirabareenzi yaajyȃ and she will soon turn une femme qu'elle est jolie,

kuvooma akamena ikibiîndi fool (R2015, p.58). le diable le lui répétera dix

(C3369, B3224). fois par jour (Proverbe

Proverbes français, OS).

66. Umugorê si amabêere n‟ Breasts are like beard: Ce n‟est pas tout pour une

îhenê igira abiri (C3385, even a barren woman has femme d‟être de son sexe ;

B3237, S683). them (SCH2010, Ganda, elle doit aussi posséder

p.56). quelques qualités (C3385) 46

67. Umugorê si umwîizȃ It is better to be graceful Beauté ne vaut rien sans

nk‟ȗwuȗmva (C2357). than to be pretty bonté (M2009, p.62)

(SCH2010, Spanish,

Bolivia, p.80)

Table 6: Women’s beauty portrayed as vain and a snare for men

Category 5: Women portrayed as talkative and troublesome

Table 6 contains seven (7) proverbs and their English and French equivalents. These proverbs

present women as useless talkative and troublesome. Some proverbs just warn women on their

attitude of wasting much time talking of meaningless stories and hence spreading rumors. Other

proverbs present women as quarrelsome and propose tough punishment to such women as the

examples in the table below show it.

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs under category 5 with their equivalents in English and French

No of Item Kinyarwanda proverb Equivalent in English Equivalent in French

68. Agahȗgu k‟ȃbagorê ntikaburȃ Where there are women and La coquetterie, c‟est la

amazîmwe (C107, B88, S21). geese there wants no noise véritable poésie des

(R2015, p.58) femmes (M2009, p. 194)

69. Ibaanga ry‟ȗmugorê ni icyȏ Women are born chatterboxes Le seul secret que gardent

ataazî (OS). (SCH2010, Japanese, 211) les femmes, c‟est ce

qu‟elles ont oublié

(M2009, 2002). 47

70 Imbogȃ z‟ȗmupfȗ zuumira kuu The vegetables on her head Le poil pousse dans la

nkooko (C1271, B1215, S243). have dried out long ago and main d‟une femme

she goes on talking (SCH2010, paresseuse (Proverbes sur

Arabic, Jewish, Yemen, p 37) femmes, OS).

71. Inzîmuzi y‟ȗmugorê ntiireengȃ A woman‟s tongue wags like a La langue des femmes est

umuhana (C1873, B1813, lamb‟s tail (R2015, p.58). leur épée, et elles ne la

S357). laissent jamais

rouiller(Proverbes sur

femmes, OS).

72. Karabȃaye ntiyeendwȃ (C2076, Men fear having sex with a A femme sotte, nul ne s‟y

B2072) foolish woman (my flotte (Proverbes français,

paraphrase). OS).

73. Umugorê amenya Mother-in-law and daughter – La belle mère et la bru

ay‟ûmukazȃana muu nkiîke in-law are tempest and dans la même maison sont

ntaamenyȃ ay‟ûmukoȏbwa muu hailstorm (SCH2010, English, comme deux chats dans

mpiînga (C3365). UK/USA). un sac (M2009, p. 61).

74 Umugorê w‟ ȋngaȃre agirwa A quarrelsome woman is La virago ne cède qu‟à la

n‟ȋingȏongo y‟ ȗmuhoro rightly hit (SCH2010, Latin, brutalité (C3395).

(C3395, B3280, S685). German, p. 262).

Table 7: Women portrayed as talkative and troublesome

48

Category 6: Women portrayed as households good managers, children bearers and educators

Table 7 contains fewer Kinyarwanda proverbs (6) with their equivalents in English and French that give a positive image of women. These proverbs talk of women as good household managers and good educators of children. Mothers are very important for their children in such a way that they are irreplaceable as some proverbs below portray it.

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs under category 6 with their equivalents in English and French

No of Kinyarwanda proverbs Equivalent in English Equivalent in French

Item

75. Nyina w‟ȗmuuntu ni umutî uvȗura A mother has a cure to Le paradis est aux pieds

myaambi (C 2668). every injury (SCH2010, des mères (M2009, p.

Italian, p.129). 344).

76. Nyirȃmugwanêezȃ yakȃmye imbogȏ A virtuous woman Une femme fidèle

atȃyijȋishe (C2676, B2570, S517). commands her husband by commande à son mari en

obeying him (K2012, p.35). lui obéissant (M2009,

p.329)

77. Ubyȃaye ishyano araryȏonsa A mother understands the Même si son enfant est

(B2823). language of her mute child un serpent, la mère se

(SCH2010, Litzeburgish, p. l‟enroule autour des

129). seins (M2009, p.345).

49

78. Umugorê ni umutîma w‟ȗrugȏ (OS). Men make houses, women Le foyer n‟est pas une

make homes. (English pierre, mais une femme

proverb, OS) (M2009, p.198).

79. Umugorê wiitȏonda umuhabaabwa A silent woman is a gift C‟est un don de Dieu

n‟îimȃana (OS). from the Lord (SCH2010, qu‟une femme

Hebrew, p.211). silencieuse

(M2009, p. 200).

80. Utȃkurûsha umugorê ntaakurȗsha A wife is a household La femme est le pilier de

urugȏ (C4085). treasure (SCH 2010, la maison (OS).

Japanese, p.230).

Table 8: Women portrayed as households good managers, children bearers and

educators

While translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French, the following Baker‟s (1992) translation strategies have been more useful than others, for instance, using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form, using a proverb of similar meaning and similar form, as well as paraphrasing. The table below summarizes it in statistic form as follows:

A. From Kinyarwanda to English

Strategy Frequency Percentage

Using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar 74 92.5% form

Using a proverb of similar meaning and similar 4 5% form

Paraphrasing 2 2.5% 50

B. From Kinyarwanda to French

Strategy Frequency Percentage

Using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar 70 87.5% form

Paraphrasing 4 5%

Using a proverb of similar meaning and similar 6 7.5% form

Table 9: The most commonly translation strategies used

4.2. Conclusion

This section has presented and analysed 80 Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs and their equivalents in both English and French. It is worth noting that, as a linguistic and socio- cultural phenomenon, proverbs have served to support and advocate patriarchy in many societies, including Rwanda. According to Rasul (2015:61), “Proverbs present woman as she should be, not as she actually is”. The image of woman in proverbs is in general bad: they are weak, objects of sexual satisfaction, untrustworthy, evil, and the like (see different tables above). However, new changes in mentality have resulted in the creation of new proverbs presenting a positive image of women as people who are as capable as men, though these proverbs are still few.

51

4.3. Discussion of the findings

From the outset, the researcher‟s main objective was to find equivalents from English and French proverbs that could best translate Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs that deal with women. The researcher has then explored several English/French proverbs which had been translated from other Indo-European, Asian and even African languages. The discussion below focuses on the strategies used in translation and the cultural loss resulting from these strategies.

4.3.1. Baker’s strategies used in translation of Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs into

English and French

The findings illustrated that three strategies have been used in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French and the results are represented disproportionally as follows:

4.3.1.1. Using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form (dynamic equivalence)

Basing on the findings in the tables above, using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form (dynamic equivalence in Nida‟s theory) is the most frequently used in translation of

Kinyarwanda proverbs. In the current study, this strategy occupies the first rank with 74 equivalents over 80 proverbs to be translated in English (92.5%) and 70 equivalents over 80 proverbs to be translated in French (87.5%).

This big number of proverbs of similar meaning and dissimilar form result from the fact that proverbs are cultural-bound texts and people round the world share some cultural elements known as „cultural universals‟ because they are all human beings. Therefore, Rwandans express views in proverbs as other humans in the world, despite the language used. The following are the few cases among many cases of dynamic equivalence identified in the current study: 52

In the proverb Ntaa gicumȃ gipfuundîkira ikiîndi (proverb no 35) translated as “Butter with butter is no sauce” (English) and “Deux dames à cȏté l‟une de l‟autre font une froide température”

(French), the term igicumȃ (calabash) is different from “butter” in English equivalent, as well as

“dame” (wife) in French. However, in terms meaning, they are the same, in the sense that no calabash can cover another calabash, butter without other food stuffs is not eatable, and a wife without a husband cannot fulfill her role as a spouse and a mother. In short, the meaning is based on the state of three things mentioned above, that is: igicumȃ (calabash), butter and dame (wife).

Similarly, in the proverb Inkubȃ irakȗbita inkumî igakiînga ibêere (proverb no 61) translated as

“Two tits pull more than a hundred wagons” (English) or “Un cheveu de femme tire plus que dix paires de bœufs” (French), the meaning is not based on the form of the proverb but rather on the function of its components. In this example, it is a matter of woman‟s power based on the parts of her body: ibêere (tit/breast) and “cheveu” (hair). In Kinyarwanda, ibêere (breast) can neutralize the thunder beat with her breasts; In English, the same breasts are used to pull and they are so strong that they can pull heavy loads (a hundred wagons). For French people, the same extraordinary women force is performed by hair (cheveu) which is more powerful than ten bulls

(boeufs). Therefore, in this example, the translator succeeds to maintain the same effect on both source and target texts receptors by well transferring the same women extraordinary force of overcoming men‟s force.

In a word, these are few of many examples of using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form (dynamic equivalence) used in the current study. This leads us to prove the effectiveness of 53

Baker‟s (1992) strategy according to which using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form (dynamic equivalence) is the best translation strategy in the translation of proverbs.

4.3.1.2. Using a proverbs of similar meaning and similar form (formal equivalence)

In the current study, the cases where this strategy is used are few: English (5%), French

(7.25%). This small number is mainly due to the fact that “every culture has its own structure which makes it distinguished” (Thalji, 2015:12). However, despite this particularity in structure, the data presented above show that Kinyarwanda proverbs and their equivalents in English and

French present certain similarities, especially in the way they are formulated. For instance, the common features that Mieder (2004:6) identified in English proverbs are also found in

Kinyarwanda Proverbs as here below follows:

(i) A is (like) B

Abagorê ni inzaȃbya zoorôshye (proverb no 28).

Daughters are brittle ware

La femme et le verre sont toujours en danger

(ii) A is not (like) B

Umugorê si amabêere n îhenê igira abiri (proverb no66).

Breasts are like a beard: even a barren woman has them.

Ce n‟est pas tout pour une femme d‟être de son sexe ; elle doit aussi posséder quelques qualités.

(iii) No A without B

Agahȗgu k‟ȃbagorê ntikaburȃ amazîmwe (proverb no 68).

Where there are women and geese there wants no noise.

La coquetterie, c‟est la véritable poésie des femmes.

54

(iv) Better A than B

Umugorê gitȏ arutwan‟ȗmwȃanzi gicȃ (proverb no 14).

Better to live with a dragon than a bad woman.

Une femme indigne est pire qu‟un ennemi déclaré.

(v) If A, then B

Icyȏ umugorê ashaakȃ, n‟ȋimȃana iba igîshaaka (proverb no51)

What a woman wants, God also wants.

Ce que femme veut, Dieu le veut.

As far as formal structure is concerned, Kinyarwanda proverbs, though they are not many, have the same sentence structure as their equivalents in English and French:

Subject + verb + Object

Abagorê + ni + inzaȃbya zoorôshye (proverb no 28)

Daughters + are + brittle ware.

La femme et le verre + sont + en danger

Icyȏ umugorê ashaakȃ + n‟ȋimȃana + iba igîshaaka (proverb no 51)

What a woman wants + God also + wants

Ce que femme veut + Dieu aussi + le veut

For some cases, there is grammatical transformation, but the deep structures are the same, like in the third example above, analyzed as follows:

Umugorê wiitȏonda + umuhabaabwa +n‟îimȃana (proverb no79 )

A silent woman + is a gift + from the Lord.

Une femme silencieuse + est + un don de Dieu (C‟est un don de Dieu qu‟une femme silencieuse). 55

With regard to proverbs of similar meanings, there are enough cases in the current study, and these meanings are mainly based on functional equivalence whereby a SL term for an object is replaced by another term naming another object of a different shape, but both aiming the same purpose. For instance, in Abagorê ni inzaȃbya zoorȏshye (proverb no28), the phrase inzaȃbya zoorȏshye is replaced by „brittle ware‟ and „verre‟, all of them having the state of being breakable. Therefore, the effect, that is, „being fragile‟ is maintained in both source and target languages.

To conclude, it is worth noting that there are few cases of Kinyarwanda, English and French proverbs which have at the same time similar meaning and similar form. Therefore, using a proverb of similar meaning and similar form in translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French doesn‟t much help.

4.3.1.3. Translation by paraphrasing

In translation of proverbs and other idiomatic expressions, paraphrasing is used “when there is no target language equivalent matching the source text or when the style of the target text differs from the source text” (Thalji, 2016:12). In the current study, this strategy occupies the third place with 2 cases over 80 Kinyarwanda proverbs to be translated in English (2.5%), and 4 cases over

80 Kinyarwanda proverbs to be translated into French (5%).

In most cases, paraphrasing has been used to solve the issues related to the lack of English or

French equivalent to a Kinyarwanda proverb. For instance, the researcher did not succeed to get

French equivalent which has an approximate meaning to the one of the following Kinyarwanda proverbs: Inyama y‟ûmugorȇ ishya yȋihina (proverb no 9). Therefore, he translated it by paraphrasing as “Les habitudes de la femme changent négativement au fur et à mesure qu‟elle vit avec son mari» (my paraphrase). In this strategy, the translator produced an alternative 56 version of translation by interpreting and giving an explanation of the meaning without changing the original one. Therefore, for overcoming this difficulty, the researcher proceeded by metonymy and metaphor whereby a part of a woman, ”her flesh” stands for “les habitudes de la femme ( woman behaviors), “gushya” stands for “vivre comme époux et épouse” (living as wife and husband) and “yȋihina” (by folding) stands for „changent négativement (change negatively).

Briefly, paraphrasing demonstrates the researcher‟s unfamiliarity with TL proverb which matches the SL proverb. The original proverb is rendered by explanation whereby few words are translated by more words in the TL.

Similarly, the researcher paraphrased Umwȃana asa na nyina (proverb no 24) in “Le vrai père de l‟enfant est connu par sa mere” (French), in order to avoid confusion. In fact, the proverb does not mean that the child resembles his/her mother, but rather, the real father of a child is known by his/ her mother, because it is her who knows well who impregnated her. A child is never sure that whom he/she calls his/her father is his/her real father. Paraphrasing is also here on interpretation. In addition, English equivalent, “Mama‟s baby, papa‟s maybe” shaded light on

French paraphrase.

In the same view, the proverb Nshiimwê nshiimwê ikobora injumȃ (proverb no 54) was translated by paraphrasing. The researcher proceeded by explaining the main concepts and expressions found in the proverb. First, Nshiimwê nshiimwê refers to the cultural habit of Rwandan women of doing their best to satisfy their partners, either by shaking their bodies, screaming, squirting, so they get appreciated. This sexual performance requires much energy to a woman in such a way that exaggeration in sexual performance results in hurting her sex; that is, “ikobora injumȃ” in

Kinyarwanda terms (injumȃ meaning a kind of vagina). Therefore, the proverb Nshiimwê 57 nshiimwê ikobora injumȃ was paraphrased as : “A force de vouloir satisfaire sexuellement à tous les hommes, la femme finit par avoir son sexe blessé”.

Lastly, the proverb “Umugorê w‟ȗmusȃaza ntaaherekezȃ urwêenyȃ” (proverb no59) was paraphrased in French as « La jeune femme qui se marie avec un vieil homme doit se comporter comme une vieille femme ». For this paraphrase, the researcher also refers to interpretation of the meaning of the original proverb. For instance, the clause “ntaaherekezȃ urwêenyȃ » does not have the functional meaning in TL; therefore, it needs interpretation to be understood in the TL.

The expression means “stop chatting with people of the same age”; that is to say that a young girl who is married to an old man should stop chatting with her colleagues of the same age because her husband will consider is as cheating on him. In addition, English equivalent of Kinyarwanda proverb, which is “A young woman married to an old man, must behave like an old woman” inspired the researcher in his way of paraphrasing in French.

As far as English equivalents are concerned, two Kinyarwanda proverbs have been paraphrased.

First, the equivalent proverb of Ukubôko k‟ûmugorȇ gucura uk‟ûmugabo arȋ ko kuguhaȃhira

(proverb no 11) was not found in English. Therefore, the proverb was translated by paraphrasing it as “A bad woman cooks and eats food alone and forgets the bread provider” (my paraphrase).

The use of this strategy is attributed to the lack of precise knowledge of the functional meaning of the original proverb. Therefore, the researcher referred to cultural interpretation to render the meaning into the TL. Firstly, the clause “Ukubôko k‟ûmugorȇ gucura uk‟ûmugabo” refers to the

Rwandan culture of sharing food on one traditional dish by family members. While sharing this food, one who was greedy could eat more food than others. The clause “arȋ ko kuguhaȃhira” 58 refers to the Rwandan culture whereby it was the husband who had to provide food stuffs to his family. Therefore, a good wife had to keep food for her husband in his absence, whereas a bad wife could cook, eat all food alone or share that food with her children and forget her husband.

In the same view, the researcher paraphrased in English the following proverb ”Karabȃaye ntiyeendwȃ” (proverb no 72). The researcher referred to the cultural interpretation of meanings of the main concepts of the original proverb. For instance, “Karabȃaye” is used for a person who alarms everybody anytime he/she encounters a problem, be it simple or tough, rather than searching for a solution by him/herself. In this proverb, Karabȃaye refers to a talkative woman/girl who shouts or fights whenever men touch her or talk to her about sex. Then,

“ntiyeendwȃ” is from the verb kweenda, another term to mean kuroongora (on fuck or to marry).

Therefore, the above mentioned woman/girl is qualified as stupid and hardly gets married. So, the paraphrase translation made by the researcher, that is, “Men fear having sex with a foolish woman” is correct, as long as it is even approximate to the French equivalent to the same proverb, which is “A femme sotte, nul ne s‟y flotte”.

To conclude, the researcher referred to paraphrasing when there was no equivalent proverb in

English and French matching the concerned gendered Kinyarwanda proverb. Paraphrasing was based on interpreting and explaining the meaning of the original proverb that the researcher strove to render into the approximate meaning into the TL. The few examples of paraphrase given above illustrate how this strategy proposed by Baker (1992) is also applicable in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French, especially when translating proverbs by other proverbs is not possible. 59

4.3.2. Cultural loss

One of the most significant aspects of proverbs is the transmission of some particular aspects of a particular culture. Cultural differences will therefore and inevitably result in critical cultural gaps during translation. Classe (cited in Thalji, 2015:9) states that “There are some contextual aspects that have features related exclusively to SL culture but which are not found in the TL” These features are unusual lifestyle or habits of particular people in the TL. Therefore, there are several features in Kinyarwanda proverbs which are not effectively rendered into English or French when the translator uses Baker‟s translation strategies, namely using a proverb of similar meaning and similar form, and using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form (formal and dynamic equivalence).

Cultural loss is mainly due to the lack of equivalents in the TL to some culturally-bound terms and expressions of SL. For instance, the Kinyarwanda proverb Hasabwa Nyirȃnkumî hakaroongorwa Nyiranzaratsi (proverb no4) is translated into “All are good girls, but where do the bad wives come from?” and “Toutes sont les filles parfaites, d‟où viennent les méchantes

épouses?” The Kinyarwanda concept Nyiranzaratsi is more than “bad wives” in English and “les méchantes épouses” in French. Nyiranzaratsi normally means a wife who uses traditional medicine to tame her husband so that he becomes less aggressive and let her do what she wants.

So, translating Nyiranzaratsi by “bad wives” and “méchantes épouses” is under-translating.

In the same view, when the translator translates Umugorê umukamira impêenda impîindukȃ yaazȃ ukamusaanga imbere iyo (proverb no17) into “A woman‟s mind and winter wind change often” or “Le lièvre et la femme sont à vous tant que vous les tenez”, the culturally-bound term impêenda is not rendered as it should be. The concept “impêenda” means many beautiful cows. 60

4.3.3. Conclusion

This chapter presented gendered Kinyarwanda proverbs with their equivalents in English and

French. First, the selected proverbs were classified thematically into six categories and translated, applying Baker‟s (1992) strategies of translating proverbs, which resembles to some extent Nida and Taber‟s (1969) concepts of translation, namely formal and dynamic equivalence.

The findings were then analysed and discussed into two parts; the first part dealt with the discussion of the strategies used in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French whereby using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form is the most used with 92.5% in

English and 81.25% in French. Using a proverb of similar meaning and similar form is the second in the current study with 5% in English and 7.5% in French. These findings indicate that while translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French, translators should focus more on meaning and effect rather than on formal structure of the proverbs because these languages are linguistically different, hence structured differently. Finally, the findings illustrated that paraphrase helps the translator overcome issues related to non-equivalence with 2.5% in English and 11.25% in French.

The second part focused on the translation of proverbs and cultural loss. The findings illustrated that using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form (dynamic equivalence) is the most used in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs. However, this strategy focusing on the meaning and effect on the reader/receptor does not render effectively into the target culture all cultural elements contained in the original culture. Using a proverb of similar meaning and similar form should help overcome this issue of cultural loss. Nevertheless, the findings illustrated that this strategy is used at a lower level because it is rare to find proverbs of similar meaning and similar 61 form for languages linguistically and culturally different such as Kinyarwanda, English and

French. Briefly, Baker‟s (1992) strategies are applicable in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French at different percentages as illustrated above.

62

GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. General Conclusion

The current study‟s objectives were twofold: to provide English and French equivalents for the selected Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs and to assess Baker‟s (1992) strategies used in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs. Using mainly Baker‟s strategies, the objectives have, to a large extent, been achieved, a good deal of Kinyarwanda sexist proverbs have found their equivalent either in English or French. They also confirm that these strategies can be employed to facilitate communication with the receptors or readers in the TL.

However, it is worth noting that these strategies also have their shortcomings. First, the results reveal that translating Kinyarwanda proverbs using other equivalents in the TL is, to some extent, subjective; it always implies the translator‟s views and judgment to decide whether a proverb is the equivalent of the original proverb or not. In addition, the meaning of the original proverb and the one of its equivalent is always approximate because total equivalence never exists. Therefore, this causes cultural loss whereby some important cultural elements contained in Kinyarwanda proverbs are not rendered accurately because the English‟s and the French‟s perceptions of the world is quite different from the Rwandans‟. What does this mean? This means that the more you have cultural differences the more different means of cultural expressions (such as proverbs) will tend to diverge. It is very likely that languages from same linguistic family (Bantou languages, for instance, and Indo-European languages, for that matter) will tend express their worldviews in pretty much the same way, simply because they are drawing inspiration from a common -however distant- source. In other words, Baker‟s translation 63 strategies should be used in a wide theoretical framework, for instance, Newmark‟s semantic and communicative approaches or Nida‟s formal and dynamic equivalence theory.

2. Recommendations

At the end this work, it has been proved that it is possible to get English and French equivalents for Kinyarwanda proverbs. However, it requires a wide knowledge of the SL and TL, as well as the mastery of the source and target culture. The translator should also be familiar with culture and history in order to deal successfully with some cultural and historical allusions implied in proverbs. The following recommendations are formulated as they would facilitate future translators deal effectively with translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French, and are oriented to the following people:

2.1. Institutions in charge of culture and language planning in Rwanda

The institutions in charge of culture and language in Rwanda should:

a. Carry out a lexicographical research to facilitate interaction between Kinyarwanda and

other official languages used in Rwanda.

b. Invest in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into foreign languages, for Kinyarwanda

proverbs are good vehicles of Rwandan values and norms.

c. To look into proverbs so as to harmonize and update the proverbs content, as far as some

proverbs convey biases and prejudices that are out of tune with modern social and

societal trends.

2.2. Translators

Translators should do the following activities while dealing with translation of Kinyarwanda

proverbs: 64

a. Undertake further studies on translation of cultural texts so as to develop more theories

on translation and translation strategies.

b. Translate Kinyarwanda proverbs, wherever possible, by using their equivalents in the

target languages so as to produce the same effects as the original proverbs.

c. Translate Kinyarwanda proverbs by using their equivalents in the TL, in parallel with

semantic translation so as to render with accuracy the meanings and cultural elements

contained in original proverbs and hence avoid cultural loss.

d. Refer to paraphrase in case there is no equivalent proverb to render the meaning and

effect of Kinyarwanda proverb into the TL.

2.3. Teachers for translation courses

a. Teachers for translation courses should teach various translation strategies so as learners

have a variety of strategies to choose from, when in need of suitable strategies to use

while dealing with specified texts, including cultural-bound texts.

3. Avenues for Future Research

The current study only dealt with translation of gendered Kinyarwanda proverbs related to women. Therefore, further research can focus, among other things, on men and children as well.

65

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Corpus of Kinyarwanda Gendered Proverbs Related to Woman

1. Abagorê ni inzaȃbya zoorȏshye (OS).

2. Agahȗgu k‟ȃbagorê ntikaburȃ amazîmwe (C107, B88, S21).

3. Agakoni k‟ȗmukoȏbwa ni nkora ngeendê (B104, C123 ).

4. Agashyitsî kagiiyê keêra kavuumbika umuriro (C3863, B3770, S808).

5. Agatîinze kȃzaanduruka ni inkumî n‟îkirȏonda (C176, B166).

6. Akabȗno karusha isȗka gucȃ inshȗro (C316, B315).

7. Akabȗza umukoȏbwa inzu arakageendana (C318, B291).

8. Akȏ umukoȏbwa ashaakȃ karamugarika (C449, B408).

9. Akuungo gakuzê ni kȏ karyooshyȃ imbogȃ (OS).

10. Ayȏ ubwiirȃ umucȗzi si yȏ ubwiirȃ umucȗzikazi (C643, B553).

11. Hasabwa Nyirȃnkumî hakarongoorwa Nyiranzaratsi (C795, B757).

12. Ibaanga ry‟ȗmugorê ni icyȏ ataazî (OS).

13. Icyô umugorê ashaakȃ, Imȃana nayô iba igîshaaka (OS).

14. Icyȗuma gishya gîkubiswe (B925).

15. Ifûuni y‟îmborȏ iruta umujyoojyo w‟îgituba (OS)

16. Imbogȃ z‟ȗmupfȗ zuumira kuu nkooko (C1271, B1215, S243).

17. Imishîishi y‟îmishîno ntiishirȃ inȏgonora (OS).

18. Indirira kwaambara y„ȗmugorê yahêjeje umugabo i Ruumbasha (B1441).

19. Ingabo y‟ȗmugorê iragushoora ntiigukȗura ku rugaȃmba (B 1460).

20. Injȃangwê yaraayê haanzê yiitwa intȗuro (OS). 73

21. Inkokȏkazi ntiibikȃ isaȃke ihȃri (C2372, B1557, S312).

22. Inkubȃ irakȗbita inkumî igakiinga ibêere (C1690, B1584).

23. Intȃazî y‟ȃgasȏre ikamira umugorê (C1773, B1695).

24. Inyȃbiizi ibyaara ingoongerezi (C1818).

25. Inyama y‟ûmugore ishya yȋihina (C1834, B1755).

26. Inzîmuzi y‟ȗmugorê ntiireengȃ umuhana (C1873, B1813, S357).

27. Iyȏ umukoȏbwa avuzȇ “oya” aba yȇemeye (OS).

28. Karabȃaye ntiyeendwȃ (C2076, B2072).

29. Magirȋrane, umugorê agirwa n‟ȗmugabo (B2120).

30. Nshiimwê nshiimwê ikobora injumȃ (C2239, B2207).

31. Ntaa gicumȃ gipfuundîkira ikiîndi (C2271, B2207).

32. Ntaa guhȏra muu ntȏboro imwê nk‟îgifuungo (OS).

33. Nta mugorê ugîra ijaambo (C2320).

34. Ntaa mukoȏbwa upfȃ bȃtagizê ngo erekera inȏ (B2275).

35. Ntaa nkumî yiigȃya n‟îyarwȃaye igisebe ica inzaratsi (B2306).

36. Nyina w‟ȗmuuntu ni umutî uvȗura myaambi (C 2668).

37. Nyiragabura imitȗra yarȗse nyiragabura amabȗno (C2672, B2535).

38. Nyirȃmugwanêeza yakȃmye imbogȏ atȃyijȋishe (C2676, B2570, S517).

39. Nyir„ûmukoȏbwa na nyîr„intuȗmbi bahuungira hamwê (B2515).

40. Ubuuntu muu nnyo buuzaana mburugu (C2824, B2715).

41. Ubwîizȃ bw‟ȗmukoȏbwa ntibwaȃmubujije kuruha (C2049).

42. Ubwîizȃ ntȋburiibwȃ (C2937).

43. Ubyȃaye ishyano araryȏonsa (B2823). 74

44. Ukubôko k‟ûmugorȇ gucura uk‟ûmugabo arȋ ko kumuhaȃhira ( C3050)

45. Umugorê abyaara abȃawê ntaabȃ uwȃawê (C3364).

46. Umugorê amenya ay‟ûmukazȃana muu nkiîke ntaamenyȃ ay‟ûmukoȏbwa muu

mpiînga (C3365).

47.Umugorê arabyîna ntaasiimbȗka (C3366, B3250).

48. Umugorê bamwiita Nyirabareenzi yaajyȃ kuvooma akamena ikibiîndi (B3224).

49. Umugorê gitȏ abyaara icyoomaanzi (B2822).

50.Umugorê gitȏ agutaatira agȗseguye (C3372, B3256).

51. Umugorê gitȏ arutwa n‟ȗumwȃanzi gicȃ (B3229).

52. Umugorê gitȏ ntimuburȃ kubyȃarana (C3376, B3260).

53. Umugorê mwiizȃ atȃaba uwȃawȇ yaaba uwa mȗkuru waawe (C3380, B3262).

54. Umugorê ni umugogoro (OS).

55. Umugorê ni umutȋma w‟ȗrugȏ (OS).

56. Umugorê ni nk‟îhenê, bayizirika ahȏ amatovu arî (C3381, B3263).

57. Umugorê si amabêere n‟ îhenê igira abiri (C3385, B3237, S683).

58. Umugorê si umwîiza nk‟ȗwuȗmva (C2357).

59. Umugorê umukamira impêenda impîindukȃ yaazȃ ukamusaanga imbere iyo (C3388 ,

B3246).

60. Umugorê urî ku mutibȃ ntaaburȃ umutîma (C3386, B3269).

61. Umugorê w‟ ȋngaȃre agirwa n‟ȋingȏongo y‟ ȗmuhoro (C3395, B3280, S685).

62.Umugorê w‟înyaȃnda yiitwa Baantaanze urusyo (C3397, B3282).

63. Umugorê wiitȏonda umuhabaabwa n‟îimȃana (OS).

75

64. Umugorê w‟ûubwêenge n‟ûmugabo w‟ûbweena iyȏ uburȏ bweezê bagura ibirago

bibiri (B3254).

65.Umugorê w‟ȗmupfȗ agira ngo mukeebȃ yaagabuye (C3400).

66. Umugorȇ w‟ûmupfû imbeba imutwaara umurwi (C3405, B3289).

67. Umugorê w‟ȗmusȃaza ntaaherȇkeza urwêenyȃ (C3408).

68. Umugorê w‟ȗundî yiirabuza akanwa (C3410, B3292).

69. Umukîro w‟ȗmukoȏbwa uba imbere yê (C556, B3366).

70. Umukoȏbwa abeenga cyaane agasaanga intȃgohêka (B3339).

71. Umukoȏbwa usȋgaye muu nzu ntaȃgaseke uwashȃatse ni umuruho wa bȏose (B3340).

72. Umukoȏbwa w‟ȗbwiira asaambana yȃrasȃbwe (C3468).

73.Umupfȃakazi ni wê murozi (B3430).

74. Umutîma w‟ȋnkumî usuuzumwa n‟ȋinkȃanda (C3651, B3528, S746).

75. Umwȃana asa na nyina (C3732).

76. Urugȏ rubî rugutuma amȃazi n‟ȗmuriro (C3863, B3770, S808).

77. Urugȏ ruvuzȇ umugorê, ruvuga umuhoro (C3841, B3807, S380) .

78. Utȃkurûsha umugorê ntaakurȗsha urugȏ (C4085).

79. Utȃazî umugaambaanyi yiiriingira umugorê (C4164, B4035).

80. Utȃazi umugomȇ asigira umugorȇ urugô (C4166 B3999).

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Appendix2: Recommendation for Field Research

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Appendix 3: Modified Master Thesis Title

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Appendix 4: Request for Facilitation in Data Collection in GMO

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Appendix 5: MA Thesis Final Deposit Authorisation Form