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Rome and the Sasanian Empire in the Fifth Century AD

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Rome and the Sasanian Empire in the Fifth Century AD Rome and the Sasanian Empire in the Fifth Century A.D: A Necessary Peace Thesis Submitted in Accordance with the Requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy by Craig Morley Feburary 2015 i Contents Abbreviations vi Introduction 1 Methodology 6 The Fifth-Century Roman-Sasanian Relationship and Political Realism 6 Structure 10 Sources 12 Chapter 1) Changing Priorities 16 1.1) The Third and Fourth Century Imperial Competition 16 Roman and Sasanian World Views: The Imperial Other and Conflicting Ideologies 17 Political Necessities and Internal Expectations 29 Sasanian Necessities 30 Roman Necessities 37 Religious Motivations 42 Strategic Concerns and Realities 44 Conclusion 49 1.2) The Fifth Century: New Threats and Shifting Priorities 50 Military Resources and Limitations 53 Roman Priorities 61 Attila and the Huns 62 Geiseric and the Vandals 75 ii Sasanian Priorities 83 Hephthalites 83 Internal Unrest and Civil Wars 91 Consequences of the Shifting Priorities 96 Conclusion: The Stimulus for Peace 101 Chapter 2) Diplomacy: The Protocols of Peace 105 The Treaties 108 Diplomatic Developments 121 Formalisation and Diplomatic Protocols 121 The Role of the Magister Officiorum 124 Embassies: Regular Diplomatic Contact 127 Ambassadors and Envoys 130 Nature of the Treaties 134 Diplomatic Language and Ideology 141 Frontier Defence: Payments, Tribute or Subsidies? 149 Conclusion 153 Chapter 3) Third-Parties & Frontier Zones 159 Indirect Control 160 3.1) Armenia and the Armenians 162 The Contest for Control 162 Armenian Ambiguity 166 The Role and Influence of the Armenian Nakharars 169 iii Towards a definition of ‘Armenia’ 169 The Nakharars and the Imperial Patrons 174 The Diplomatic Solution: 387 - The Partition of Armenia 178 The Aftermath of 387: Domination and Direct Rule 182 3.2) Arabia and the Arab Tribes 186 The Contest for Control 186 Imperial Patrons and Dynastic Clients 193 The Roman Arabian ‘Frontier’ 193 Indirect Control and Imperial Competition 196 Christianity 200 The Diplomatic Solution: The War and Peace Treaty of 421-2 202 Phylarch and Direct Control 205 3.3) Conclusion 208 Chapter 4) Religion: Loyalty, Minorities and Mistrust 210 The Christian Roman Empire 213 The Zoroastrian Sasanian Empire? 221 Christianity in the Sasanian Empire 225 Sasanian Christianity and the Epoch of the Fifth Century 232 Conclusion 238 Conclusion 240 The Changing Relationship 240 The Establishment of Peace 241 iv Religion 243 Holistic Connections and the Roman Sasanian Peace: Political Pragmatism and Necessity 243 Bibliography 248 v Abbreviations AMS Acta Martyrum et Sanctorum Amm. Marc. Ammianus Marcellinus Agath. Agathias Aur. Vic. Aurelius Victor Dio. Cassius Dio Chron. Pasch. Chronicon Paschale CJ. Codex Justinianus CTh. Codex Theodosianus Const. Porph. Constantius Porphyrogenitus Eunap. Eunapius Eus. Eusebius VC The Life of Constantine HE Ecclesiastical History Eutr. Eutropius Evag. Evagrius Fest. Festus Hdt. Herodotus SHA Historia Augusta Aurel. Aurelian Car. Carinus Heliogab. Elagabalus vi Sev. Alex. Severus Alexander John. Eph. John of Ephesus Jord. Jordanes Josh. Styl. Joshua Stylites Julian Jul. Or. Orations KKZ Kerdir’s Inscription Lib. Libanius Men. Prot. Menander Protector Not. Dig. Notitia Dignitatum Or. Orientis Occ. Occidentis NPi Paikuli Inscription Pan. Lat. Panegyric Latini Proc. Procopius BP. Persian Wars BG. Gothic Wars BV. Vandal Wars De. Aed. On Buildings SKZ Res Gestae Divi Saporis Soc. Socrates Soz. Sozomen vii Syn. Or. Synodicon Orientale Theodt. Theodoret Theoph. Theophanes Theo.Sim. Theophylact Simocatta Zach. Zachariah Zon. Zonaras Zos. Zosimus viii Introduction For, loyally observing the behests of Arcadius, he [Yazdgard I] adopted and continued without interruption a policy of profound peace with the Romans… When this treaty had been executed, both sovereigns then continued to administer the affairs of their respective countries as seemed best to them.1 What the sixth century Roman historian Procopius describes here, in relatively inconspicuous and understated terms, is the beginning of an unprecedented period of peace between the previously hostile and antagonistic Roman and Sasanian Empires in the fifth century A.D. Priscus also informs us that the fifth-century Roman-Sasanian relationship was so peaceful that Constantinople’s magister militum per Orientem, usually one of the most-hard pressed Roman generals, responsible for defending the empire against the Sasanians, was able to turn to ‘self-indulgence and effeminate leisure’ but says little else to expand on this. 2 Like Procopius and Priscus, modern scholarship has also largely ignored the fifth-century peace between these two empires, limiting it merely to footnotes or passing mentions in its analysis of the more prevalent military conflicts and confrontations. 3 Although there is general acknowledgement that the fifth century was an unprecedentedly peaceful period in Roman- Sasanian relations there has so far been scant research into how and why this peace was established and maintained.4 Scholars have seemed satisfied to place the motivation of the peace on the increased threats faced by both the Roman and Sasanian Empires on their other frontiers in this period and to quickly move on, otherwise paying little, or rather no attention, to the development and continuation of the peace throughout the fifth century.5 1 Proc. BP. 1.2. 2 fr. 19. 3 Greatrex (1993: 1) ‘The fifth century was in general a peaceful period for Rome’s eastern frontier’. Drijvers (2009: 447-448) ‘[Only] Two short wars were fought’. Equally, in their otherwise exhaustive and meticulous annotated sourcebook, Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity, Dignas & Winter dedicate only five pages to the period of peace in the fifth century. 4 On the recognition of this see above (n.2) and also: Millar (2006: 70), Luther (2014: 183) and Blockley (1992: 47). It has recently been argued that there was perhaps a third, even shorter, conflict; however, this has not been conclusively proved or agreed upon as of yet (Luther, 2014). 5 Wiesehöfer (2007: 60) ‘Over the next [fifth] century the Hephthalites (‘White Huns’) gave the Sasanians much more trouble than the Romans, with whom the kings of Iran came to a mutual agreement around 440’. Rubin (2000: 641-2) ‘A Plausible explanation for the change from persistent warfare in the third and fourth century to 1 The wider fifth century was a turbulent and tumultuous period. It witnessed the collapse and fragmentation of the Western Roman Empire into various barbarian kingdoms, and the establishment of new power groups such as the Huns, Vandals and Hephthalites, who although they did not last the test of time, played a fundamentally important role in shaping the course of events in this period.6 As such, the stability of Roman-Sasanian relations in this period is even more note-worthy. Traditionally however, scholarly attention on the fifth century has overwhelmingly focused on the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Only recently has this trend been answered, with studies that pay more attention to the survival and subsequent development of the Eastern Empire.7 What work has been done on Roman-Sasanian relations in the fifth century has focused on specific and localised events, predominantly military in nature, such as the two short-lived conflicts that erupted in 421 and 441, rather than the nature or development of the peace itself.8 Indeed, although there is a rising awareness that the Roman-Sasanian relationship was more nuanced than one simply dominated by warfare, and that other forms of interactions did take place, this ironically has not yet reached scholarship of the peaceful fifth century.9 the peaceful relations in the fifth century is provided by the other external problems’. Drijvers (2009: 448) ‘Until the beginning of the sixth century tranquillity dominated the relations between Rome and Persia. Both powers were occupied with other foes: the Sasanians with the Hephthalite Huns on their north-eastern border, and the Romans with the Huns, Goths, Vandals and Isaurians.’ Rubin, (1986: 678) ‘These two great powers, whose main concern was primarily the defence of their territories against barbarian inroads from the east and from the north’. 6 Whereas plenty of research has been conducted on Attila and the Huns in the fifth century, for example Gordon (1966) and Thompson (1996), the Vandals, who played just as an important role in this period, have received less scholarly attention. Indeed, only one comprehensive modern study has been done on the Vandal kingdom of North Africa; the seminal work of Merrills and Miles, The Vandals (2010). While the most important neighbours of the Sasanian Empire in this century, the Hephthalites, have received even less individual study. Although it must be noted this is largely due to a lack of currently available evidence. 7 The main examples of this growing awareness of the important developments in the Eastern Empire include; Millar A Greek Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (2006), Kelly Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity (2014) and Williams & Friell The Rome that Did Not Fall: The Survival of the East in the Fifth Century (1998). 8 Greatrex’s ‘The Two Fifth Century Wars between Rome and Persia’ (1993), Rubin’s ‘Diplomacy and War in the Relations between Byzantium and the Sassanids in the Fifth Century A.D’ (1986), Luther’s ‘Ein ,übersehener’ römisch-persischer Krieg um 416/417?’ (2014) and Bullough’s ‘The Roman Empire vs. Persia’ (1963). Although Bullough’s piece does seek to answer the nature of the peace he addresses this from a strictly military perspective and his research is largely conducted by seeking parallels between modern military relationships between different states. 9 For the growing scholarly attention on the more peaceful and cooperative interactions between the Roman and Sasanian Empires see, among others: Dignas & Winter Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals (2007), Drijvers ‘Rome and the Sasanid Empire: Confrontation and Coexistence’ (2009) and Canepa The Two Eyes of the Earth (2009).
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