DOCSLIB.ORG

Shiva – That Which Is Nothing!

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Shiva – That Which Is Nothing! Shiva – That which is Nothing! A quick review of Shiva Purana's ideas about the nature of God/Universe. Dr Dinesh Bist SFHEA Introduction This essay highlights the main features of the Shiva Purana's idea about the nature of God. The essay analyses the nature of supreme God Shiva (Shiva that is nothing) and Vishnu, Brahma, and other deities accept Shiva as the supreme God. The essay further highlights the explanations provided about the manifestation of Goddess Shakti, Vishnu and Brahma and their role in the creation of the Universe. The paper finally outlines Devis's (Goddesses) association with Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva and describes the best way to worship Shiva. Main Body The Shiva Mahapurana is an essential text for Hindus and in particular, for those whose devotion is focused primarily on Shiva, especially Shaiva traditions which was earlier more closely aligned with the tantric traditions and often takes on a highly localised identity and the sacred literature most often referred to is frequently in vernacular languages rather than Sanskrit. Shiva Purana provides teachings about Shaiva theology and the ritual worship of the Deity. It describes stories about the activities of Shiva and contains passages of theology that explain the divine identity of Shiva. It also provides numerous detailed accounts of ritual acts that are to be performed in the worship of Shiva (Flood, 2003; Kalra, 2016). There are several versions of the text of the Shiva Purana; however, the more widely accepted version divides the text into seven Samhita which are: The Vidyeshvara Samhita, The Rudra Samhita, The Shata-Rudra Samhita, The Koti-Rudra Samhita, The Uma Samhita, The Kailasa Samhita and The Vayaviya Samhita. The principal theological teachings of the Shiva Purana are available in the Vidyeshvara and Rudra Samhitas towards the beginning of the text (Kavitha, 2008). Shiva: The Supreme God, Brahman and Atman Shiva Purana highlight that the Shiva is the supreme God and neither Vishnu nor Brahma can claim that status. The Vidyeshvara Samhita (TVS) and The Rudra Samhita (TRS), both texts describe a similar story of the quarrel that arose between Brahma and Vishnu over which of them was the greatest Deity and how Shiva on the request of Vedic gods to stop the terrible battle by manifesting his presence as a massive column of fire. This firey column seems to continue without cessation and challenge both deities to discover the pillar's start and end. Brahma and Vishnu assumed zoomorphic forms and one goes to the top and the other to the bottom, but neither could find the beginning nor the end of the fiery column and realised that this is something beyond their conception (Kalra, 2013). Both Vishnu and Brahma than accept Shiva as the supreme God and offer Shiva prayers that emerged from the fiery column and reveals to them the truth about his divine nature (TVS Ch9 v1-9). TVS (Ch9-v30-36) explain that non-manifest form of Shiva, fiery column is Nirgun/Formless - Brahman and manifest form is Sagun/Form- Ishvara. In other words, the ultimate Shiva nature is formless and beyond human conception. Another identity of Shiva that displays form and qualities is Ishvara, and it is this manifestation of Shiva that is described and depicted in the Puranic literature. It further states in verse (v40-41) that the manifested and non-manifested identifies of Shiva (Ishvara or Brahman) have both been displayed to Vishnu and Brahma, in terms of fiery linga that was formless and unlimited, whilst the manifest Ishvara has appeared in the form of Deity Shiva who addresses Vishnu and Brahma. It is suggested that Shiva is Ishvara and all others are "being" including Vishnu and Brahma. They both are an-Ishvara, not Ishvara and are the subordinates of Shiva and not his equal. TRS (Ch9 v45-59) describes that there was only one thing that existed without undergoing any transformation before the current world, known as Sat, the existent, Brahman or Shiva. The Shiva means "that which is not" which is devoid of all attributes, changeless, unlimited and eternal, but it includes all things within its existence (Ch6 v13-18). Shiva is wholly transcendent to worldly experience, and it is beyond the range of the human mind to conceptualise, and words cannot describe it. The Shiva Purana idea of God or Shiva is similar to the Brahman of Upanishadic teachings. The Vidyeshvara Samhita (Ch9 v37) explain that Shiva is the Atman and is present in all form of life. Furthermore, it illustrates that the individual Atman is present in only a single bodily form, but Shiva is the universal Atman (Brahman) present in everybody. The Trimurti TRS (Ch6 v25-31) explain that the supreme Deity Shiva and Shakti remain in their own domain in a state of permanent pleasure and to maintain the business of creating and sustaining this world a secondary form, Vishnu was created. Because living in the world is a distraction from transcendental existence. Sadashiva created Vishnu, which is the secondary manifestation of Shiva and then Vishnu manifested Brahma as a secondary creator from a lotus that sprouts from his navel (Ch6 v32-44). Further TRS (Ch9 v20) explain that Lord Shiva appointed Brahma as the world's creator and Vishnu as the world's preserver. However, Vishnu request Shiva to be present in the world to assist Vishnu and Brahma in the task assigned to them, and for that reason, Shiva manifests Rudra as the third member of the Trimurti. TRS (Ch6 v38-39) states that Shiva the supreme Deity is the primal substance, the root out of which all secondary deities have grown, and therefore all aspects of Ishvara Shiva, Vishnu, Brahman and Rudra are identical. They are all the expansions of the original Deity, and consequently, they embody that divinity. However, Brahma and Vishnu are said to be born from Prakriti (matter) therefore they are a part of the created world rather than being transcendent to it but Rudra, the third member of the Trimurti, is different. He is not a part of the created world because he is not born of Prakriti or matter; instead, he is a direct expansion of Ishvara Shiva and shares the wholly spiritual identity of his higher divinity. Brahma and Vishnu's nature is of matter rather than part of the supreme Deity's purely spiritual existence. Therefore although Vishnu and Brahma are shown to be secondary manifestations of the supreme Deity, they are still accepted as expansions of God. Thus although the Trimurti is comprised of three active deities, Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra, it is indicated that Rudra is different from the other two as he is a direct manifestation of the supreme Deity. Therefore despite Rudra's existence within the created world, there is no difference to Ishvara substance between Rudra and the transcendent Shiva. (TRS Ch9 v30-34). The three deities are not only related to three respective functions—creation, preservation and destruction—but are also shown to be associated with the three gunas of Samkhya philosophy (Sattva, Rajas and Tamas). Brahma's creative action is based on rajas or energy, Vishnu's maintaining function is related to sattva or purity, whilst Shiva's destructive role is related to tamas, ignorance or darkness. However, Shiva Purana explains that although Vishnu is associated with sattva and Shiva with tamas, the true nature of Vishnu is related to tamas and the inner nature of Rudra sattva. The conventional relating to the deities to the gunas is based on an inadequate external perception; the reality of the matter is wholly different (TRS Ch9 v56-61). TRS (Ch9 v1-3) mentions that Vedas were given to Vishnu and Brahama by Shiva through his breath. Both Vishnu and Brahma also acquired the knowledge of Atman from Shiva, and they both realised that Shiva is the true self of all being, and therefore he is designated as the Supreme Atman. Thus the highest form of knowledge is knowledge of Atman, which is knowledge of Shiva. Furthermore, it was Shiva's will that Vishnu is worshipped throughout the world, and such worship can lead to liberation from rebirth through the grace of Shiva (TRS V54-57). Lord Shiva also gave power to Vishnu to grant moksha to his worshippers. However, this power was not given to Brahma, which also shows a clear hierarchy with Shiva as the primary Deity, Vishnu as the second in potency and Brahma below Vishnu. Before transcending to his own domain Kailash to be in a state of permanent pleasure, Shiva instructed to protect Brahma and worship Rudra-Shiva, a full manifestation of Shiva (TRS Ch9 v 62-65). Shiva and Shakti TRS (Ch6 v19-24) explain that once the Ishvara Shiva (Sagun Brahman) appeared from the inconceivable (Nirgun) Brahman or Shiva, he, in turn, manifests himself as Shakti, the great Goddess who is known as Parvati, Durga or Kali. Shiva is also identified as Purusha, the soul and the Shakti is identified as Prakriti, the material substance out of which this world evolves. The existent of Shiva and Shakti is entirely transcendent. Shiva and Shakti's close relationship is one of the main principles taught by the Shaiva traditions, and many temples to Shiva exist side by side with one dedicated to the Goddess. It is believed that Shiva and Shakti are the two aspects of the same divine being, a form that is known as Ardhanarishvara. TRS (Ch9 v38-39) describe that Ishvara Shiva manifests three forms, Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra to perform three functions, and then the Goddess Uma, his eternal Shakti, manifests three forms to accompany and assist each of them.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • ISSN 2456-4990 ©Journal of Ayurveda Medical Sciences
    2456-4990 J Ayu Med Sci | 2019 | Vol 4| Issue 1 (Jan – Mar) J Ayu Med Sci Quarterly Journal for Rapid Publication of Researches in Ayurveda and Other Traditional Medicines Sponsored by Ayushpathi International www.jayumedsci.com ISSN 2456-4990 ©Journal of Ayurveda Medical Sciences www.jayumedsci.com | ISSN: 2456-4990 | [email protected] Journal of Ayurveda Medical Sciences Quarterly Journal for Rapid Publication of Researches in Ayurveda and Other Traditional Medicines Original Article Role of Pradhana Sharira and Manas Prakriti on Manifestation of Hypertension: A Cross Sectional Survey Study Amin Hetalben*, Hitesh Vyas1, Mahesh Vyas2 Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (Min. of AYUSH, Govt. of India), New Delhi - 110058, INDIA. 1Department of Basic Principles, ITRA, Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar - 360118, Gujarat, INDIA. 2Department of Basic Principles, All India Institute of Ayurveda, New Delhi - 110076, INDIA. ABSTRACT PICTORIAL ABSTRACT Background: Hypertension is the most menacing disorder in Ayurveda. Prognosis of diseases can be identified by Concept of Prakriti (human constitution). Therefore in this study, we intend to study Pradhana sharira and Manas prakriti (dominant bodily and mental constitution) in Hypertension. On the basis of manifestation of sign and symptoms and current evidences Hypertension can be equated to Raktapradoshaja vikara. Methods: The specific research proforma was made to assessSharira–manasa prakriti. Prakriti determination proforma was prepared having KEYWORDS Hypertension, Manas, Prakriti, Sharira. Vatika, Paitika and Kaphaja characters with reference to anatomical, physiological and sociological characters, by following Brihatrayi (Charaka, Sushruta and Ashtanga Hridaya). Prakriti of 103 subjects of Hypertension was assessed as per Sharirika (bodily humors) ARTICLE HISTORY Received: 09.07.2020; Revised: 10.09.2020; and Manasika prakriti assessment proforma which were analyzed Accepted 04.12.2020.
    [Show full text]
  • Friday Hindu Story
    Lord Brahma Brahma is the creator of the universe and all knowledge. He is the first god in the Hindu Trimurti (three gods who are responsible for the creation, preservation and destruction of the world). Brahma grew inside a lotus from the navel of a sleeping Vishnu. He has 4 heads and has the goddess Saraswati as a companion. Brahma is sometimes depicted with a beard. Lord Vishnu Vishnu is the Hindu god who preserves the universe and people. He is the second god in the Hindu Trimurti. Hindus believe that he has saved his followers by appearing to them in other forms. Vishnu has four arms to represent the four corners of the world. Lord Shiva Shiva is the destroyer of the universe so that new life can come again. He restores the balance between good and evil. He is the third god in the Hindu Trimurti. Ganesh Ganesh is the elephant-headed god and the Lord of all living things. He is the god who helps people overcome their problems by granting them wisdom and strength. It is said that the god Shiva cut off his original head and restored him to life by giving him the head of an elephant. Lakshmi Lakshmi is the wife of Vishnu and travels on a lotus flower. She is the goddess of wealth and success. Sita Sita is actually an incarnation of the goddess Lakshmi. She is a beautiful, loyal wife and a role model for Hindu women. Rama Rama is the ‘perfect’ avatar of Vishnu. He is a symbol of chivalry and virtue.
    [Show full text]
  • Representation and Spatial Practice in Varanasi (India)
    Sacred Journeys and Profane Travellers: Representation and Spatial Practice in Varanasi (India) Cristiana Zara Degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2011 DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ROYAL HOLLOWAY, UNIVERSITY OF LONDON Declaration of Authorship I Cristiana Zara hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. 2 ABSTRACT This thesis is concerned with tourist representations and practices in India. Orientalist aesthetics have often associated this country with notions of spirituality and mysticism; tourist narratives sustain and reinforce such representations by describing India as a land of ancient rituals and timeless traditions. The visual construction of India’s ‘spiritual landscapes’ has been largely deployed as a powerful tool for subduing the unfamiliar Other within reassuring epistemological categories. However, tourism research has recently become interested in exploring the role of tourist practices in landscape production. Not only do tourists ‘gaze upon’ landscapes, they also script landscapes through practices and performances. By focusing on the case of Varanasi, the Indian pilgrimage city on the banks of the Ganges, this thesis shows how tourist practices (re)produce and make sense of the city’s ‘sacredscape’. Special attention is paid to the riverfront, which epitomizes the cultural and spiritual significance ascribed to the city. Both Hindu and tourist narratives depict the riverfront as embodying a special power, a unique meaning, whether this uniqueness is held to be a ‘spiritual’ or a ‘picturesque’ one. The thesis analyses the city’s riverfront as the place where tourist, ritual, and day-to-day activities are played out and negotiated, and where the aesthetics of landscape is confronted with the materialities and the practices inherent to this place.
    [Show full text]
  • Paper 07 16 E Group
    E GROUP COLET HOUSE 9 JULY 200 7 The Gunas Ouspensky was always interested in the origin of the System. He thought that some of it came from Samkhya, one of the 6 schools of Indian Vedic philosophy. This school – founded around 500 BC – does not exist now as an active tradition, but some of its elements have been incorporated in other schools, notably Yoga and Advaita. The teaching on the Gunas came originally from Samkhya. The Gunas (strict translation, strings) correspond to the three forces of the System: Rajas = active force Tamas = passive force Sattva = neutralising force. Ouspensky used to start the teaching of triads in this way: This is the first idea that was explained in the System and at the time when we first spoke of it in St Petersburg when we first learned it, I r ealized that this idea is the same as the idea of triads in Indian philosophy. In Sankhya philosophy you find the idea of three Gunas and it is explained there that there are three forces and their combination produces all the phenomena in the world. In Sankhya philosophy it is put like that: three Gunas have seven combinations, one combination incomprehensible for our mind and six combinations comprehensible for our mind. [ A Record of Meetings , 17.1.38] Exactly where Ouspensky found this account of the Sa mkhya triads is unclear, because in the main corpus of Hindu literature there is little about the order of action of the Gunas, just a single mention of six triads in the Mah abharata .
    [Show full text]
  • Neuroscience of the Yogic Theory of Mind and Consciousness
    1 Neuroscience of the Yogic Theory of 2 Mind and Consciousness 3 Vaibhav Tripathi1* and Pallavi Bharadwaj2 *For correspondence: [email protected] (VT) 4 1Boston University; 2Massachusetts Institute of Technology † Present address: Department of 5 Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, ‡ USA 02215; Laboratory for 6 Abstract Yoga as a practice and philosophy of life has been followed for more than 4500 years Information and Decision Systems, 7 Massachusetts Institute of with known evidence of Yogic practices in the Indus Valley Civilization. A plethora of scholars have Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 8 contributed to the development of the field, but in last century the profound knowledge 9 remained inaccessible and incomprehensible to the general public. Last few decades have seen a 10 resurgence in the utility of Yoga and Meditation as a practice with growing scientific evidence 11 behind it. Significant scientific literature has been published, illustrating the benefits of Yogic 12 practices including asana, pranayama and dhyana on mental and physical well being. 13 Electrophysiological and recent functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) studies have 14 found explicit neural signatures for Yogic practices. In this article, we present a review of the 15 philosophy of Yoga, based on the dualistic Sankhya school, as applied to consciousness 16 summarized by Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras followed by discussion on the five vritti (modulations 17 of mind), practice of pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, different states of samadhi, and samapatti. We 18 introduce Yogic Theory of Mind and Consciousness (YTMC), a cohesive theory that can model 19 both external modulations and internal states of the mind.
    [Show full text]
  • Isavasya Upanishad
    ISAVASYA UPANISHAD 1 SHANTI MANTRA Om poornamadah poornamidam I Poornaath poorna mudachyate I Poornasya poorna madaaya I Poorname vaava sishyate I Om shanti shanti shanti hi II Om, That is Full, This also is Full, From Fullness comes that Fullness, Taking Fullness from Fullness, Fullness Indeed Remains. Om Peace, Peace, Peace. Isavasya Upanishad Shukla Yajur Veda 18 Mantras - Jnana Yoga Verse 1 - Jnana Yoga Sara Elaboration . Verse 4 - 8 - Nivritti Marga Verse 2 - Karma Yoga Sara - Karma Yoga Elaboration. Verse 9 - 14 - Pravirthi Marga - One who does not follow Karma Verse 3 - Upasakas prayer Yoga / Jnana Verse 15 - 18 Yoga criticised. for Krama Mukti 3 INTRODUCTION 1. Dasa Upanishad : 2. Isavasya and Brihadaranyaka belongs to shukla yajur veda. • Isavasya Upanishad or Isho Upanishad (2 Names). Mantra Upanishad Brahmana Upanishad - Beginning of Veda - Later portion of Veda. - Isavasya Upanishad - Commentary on Mantra / Portion - Mundak Upanishad - Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (Commentary on Isavasya Upanishad) - Prasno Upanishad (Commentary on Mundak Upanishad) 3. Most words used in contextual meaning not in dictionary meaning. 4 4) Shanti Mantra : 1st Explanation That is Whole, this is Whole ; from the Whole, the Whole becomes manifest. From the Whole, when the Whole is negated, what remains is again the Whole. Atma, Chaitanyam, Conciousness Svarupam Jivatma Paramatma Atma Chaitanyam, 3 Sharirams (Prakrti, Atma Chaitanyam, 3 Prapanchas (Maya, Conciousness Svarupam Matter, Nama / Rupa) Conciousness Svarupam Matter, Nama / Rupa) Sthula Sukshma Karana Sthula Sukshma Karana Vishwa Teijasa Pragya Virat Hiranyagarbha Ishvara 5 1) Poornam Adhaha, Poornam Idam : Poornam Adhah Poornam Idam Paramatma is Poornaha, Jivatma is Poornaha, infinite, infinite, whole whole • Equating them we can say, Jivatma and Paramatma are one and the same, both infinite.
    [Show full text]
  • Devotional Practices (Part -1)
    Devotional Practices (Part -1) Hare Krishna Sunday School International Society for Krishna Consciousness Founder Acarya : His Divine Grace AC. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Price : $4 Name _ Class _ Devotional Practices ( Part - 1) Compiled By : Tapasvini devi dasi Vasantaranjani devi dasi Vishnu das Art Work By: Mahahari das & Jay Baldeva das Hare Krishna Sunday School , , ,-:: . :', . • '> ,'';- ',' "j",.v'. "'.~~ " ""'... ,. A." \'" , ."" ~ .. This book is dedicated to His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the founder acarya ofthe Hare Krishna Movement. He taught /IS how to perform pure devotional service unto the lotus feet of Sri Sri Radha & Krishna. Contents Lesson Page No. l. Chanting Hare Krishna 1 2. Wearing Tilak 13 3. Vaisnava Dress and Appearance 28 4. Deity Worship 32 5. Offering Arati 41 6. Offering Obeisances 46 Lesson 1 Chanting Hare Krishna A. Introduction Lord Caitanya Mahaprabhu, an incarnation ofKrishna who appeared 500 years ago, taught the easiest method for self-realization - chanting the Hare Krishna Maha-mantra. Hare Krishna Hare Krishna '. Krishna Krishna Hare Hare Hare Rama Hare Rams Rams Rama Hare Hare if' ,. These sixteen words make up the Maha-mantra. Maha means "great." Mantra means "a sound vibration that relieves the mind of all anxieties". We chant this mantra every day, but why? B. Chanting is the recommended process for this age. As you know, there are four different ages: Satya-yuga, Treta-yuga, Dvapara-yuga and Kali-yuga. People in Satya­ yuga lived for almost 100,000 years whereas in Kali-yuga they live for 100 years at best. In each age there is a different process for self­ realization or understanding God .
    [Show full text]
  • HINDU GODS and GODDESSES 1. BRAHMA the First Deity of The
    HINDU GODS AND GODDESSES 1. BRAHMA The first deity of the Hindu trinity, Lord Brahma is considered to be the god of Creation, including the cosmos and all of its beings. Brahma also symbolizes the mind and intellect since he is the source of all knowledge necessary for the universe. Typically you’ll find Brahma depicted with four faces, which symbolize the completeness of his knowledge, as well as four hands that each represent an aspect of the human personality (mind, intellect, ego and consciousness). 2. VISHNU The second deity of the Hindu trinity, Vishnu is the Preserver (of life). He is believed to sustain life through his adherence to principle, order, righteousness and truth. He also encourages his devotees to show kindness and compassion to all creatures. Vishnu is typically depicted with four arms to represent his omnipotence and omnipresence. It is also common to see Vishnu seated upon a coiled snake, symbolizing the ability to remain at peace in the face of fear or worry. 3. SHIVA The final deity of the Hindu trinity is Shiva, also known as the Destroyer. He is said to protect his followers from greed, lust and anger, as well as the illusion and ignorance that stand in the way of divine enlightenment. However, he is also considered to be responsible for death, destroying in order to bring rebirth and new life. Shiva is often depicted with a serpent around his neck, which represents Kundalini, or life energy. 4. GANESHA One of the most prevalent and best-known deities is Ganesha, easily recognized by his elephant head.
    [Show full text]
  • Creation, Creator and Causality: Perspectives from Purānic Genre of Hindu Literature
    IAFOR Journal of Literature & Librarianship Volume 8 – Issue 1 – Winter 2019 Creation, Creator and Causality: Perspectives from Purānic Genre of Hindu Literature Sivaram Sivasubramanian Jain (deemed-to-be-university), India Rajani Jairam Jain (deemed-to-be-university), India 139 IAFOR Journal of Literature & Librarianship Volume 8 – Issue 1 – Winter 2019 Abstract Inspirited by a growing recognition of the need for an interdisciplinary approach in dealing with science and religion, this article aims to decode the nature of the causal relationship between creator and creation as epitomized in a few select scriptures of Purānic genre of Hindu Literature. The present study is part of an overarching effort to understand how ancient Indian knowledge and culture have supported profound metaphysical inquiries amidst flourishing religious practices. The nature of this work requires the utilization of a research protocol that combines the exploratory interpretation of scriptures and an explanation of causality. Notably, there is a consensus among the Purānas on the fundamental tenet that a primal creator is the eternal cause of the cycle of creation, sustenance, dissolution, and re-creation. Working from this premise, Purānas depict the primal creator as imperceptible, enigmatic, and absolute; hence, a thorough understanding is impossible. With this underlying principle, Purānas provide a metaphysical basis for the Hindu Trinity (Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra), the quintessence of Hindu Theology. This research paper concludes that the Purānas chosen for this study (a) point to a relational causality of creation of this universe that manifests from the unmanifest creator, and (b) proffer an intriguing description of how equilibrium-disequilibrium among gunas influence the cycle of cause-effect.
    [Show full text]
  • Cambridge Ordinary Level HINDUISM 2055/01 Paper 1 October/November 2018 MARK SCHEME Maximum Mark
    Cambridge Assessment International Education Cambridge Ordinary Level HINDUISM 2055/01 Paper 1 October/November 2018 MARK SCHEME Maximum Mark: 100 Published This mark scheme is published as an aid to teachers and candidates, to indicate the requirements of the examination. It shows the basis on which Examiners were instructed to award marks. It does not indicate the details of the discussions that took place at an Examiners’ meeting before marking began, which would have considered the acceptability of alternative answers. Mark schemes should be read in conjunction with the question paper and the Principal Examiner Report for Teachers. Cambridge International will not enter into discussions about these mark schemes. Cambridge International is publishing the mark schemes for the October/November 2018 series for most Cambridge IGCSE™, Cambridge International A and AS Level components and some Cambridge O Level components. This document consists of 18 printed pages. © UCLES 2018 [Turn over 2055/01 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November PUBLISHED 2018 Generic Marking Principles These general marking principles must be applied by all examiners when marking candidate answers. They should be applied alongside the specific content of the mark scheme or generic level descriptors for a question. Each question paper and mark scheme will also comply with these marking principles. GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 1: Marks must be awarded in line with: • the specific content of the mark scheme or the generic level descriptors for the question • the specific skills defined in the mark scheme or in the generic level descriptors for the question • the standard of response required by a candidate as exemplified by the standardisation scripts.
    [Show full text]
  • Hinduism and Hindu Philosophy
    Essays on Indian Philosophy UNIVE'aSITY OF HAWAII Uf,FU:{ Essays on Indian Philosophy SHRI KRISHNA SAKSENA UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII PRESS HONOLULU 1970 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 78·114209 Standard Book Number 87022-726-2 Copyright © 1970 by University of Hawaii Press All Rights Reserved Printed in the United States of America Contents The Story of Indian Philosophy 3 Basic Tenets of Indian Philosophy 18 Testimony in Indian Philosophy 24 Hinduism 37 Hinduism and Hindu Philosophy 51 The Jain Religion 54 Some Riddles in the Behavior of Gods and Sages in the Epics and the Puranas 64 Autobiography of a Yogi 71 Jainism 73 Svapramanatva and Svapraka!;>atva: An Inconsistency in Kumarila's Philosophy 77 The Nature of Buddhi according to Sankhya-Yoga 82 The Individual in Social Thought and Practice in India 88 Professor Zaehner and the Comparison of Religions 102 A Comparison between the Eastern and Western Portraits of Man in Our Time 117 Acknowledgments The author wishes to make the following acknowledgments for permission to reprint previously published essays: "The Story of Indian Philosophy," in A History of Philosophical Systems. edited by Vergilius Ferm. New York:The Philosophical Library, 1950. "Basic Tenets of Indian Philosophy," previously published as "Are There Any Basic Tenets of Indian Philosophy?" in The Philosophical Quarterly. "Testimony in Indian Philosophy," previously published as "Authority in Indian Philosophy," in Ph ilosophyEast and West. vo!.l,no. 3 (October 1951). "Hinduism," in Studium Generale. no. 10 (1962). "The Jain Religion," previously published as "Jainism," in Religion in the Twentieth Century. edited by Vergilius Ferm.
    [Show full text]
  • Vedic Brahmanism and Its Offshoots
    Vedic Brahmanism and Its Offshoots Buddhism (Buddha) Followed by Hindūism (Kṛṣṇā) The religion of the Vedic period (also known as Vedism or Vedic Brahmanism or, in a context of Indian antiquity, simply Brahmanism[1]) is a historical predecessor of Hinduism.[2] Its liturgy is reflected in the Mantra portion of the four Vedas, which are compiled in Sanskrit. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rites that often involved sacrifices. This mode of worship is largely unchanged today within Hinduism; however, only a small fraction of conservative Shrautins continue the tradition of oral recitation of hymns learned solely through the oral tradition. Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit, are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and some of the older Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chāndogya, Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana) are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 shrauta priests and the purohitas. According to traditional views, the hymns of the Rigveda and other Vedic hymns were divinely revealed to the rishis, who were considered to be seers or "hearers" (shruti means "what is heard") of the Veda, rather than "authors". In addition the Vedas are said to be "apaurashaya", a Sanskrit word meaning uncreated by man and which further reveals their eternal non-changing status. The mode of worship was worship of the elements like fire and rivers, worship of heroic gods like Indra, chanting of hymns and performance of sacrifices. The priests performed the solemn rituals for the noblemen (Kshsatriya) and some wealthy Vaishyas.
    [Show full text]