Stella Maris Saraswati Mere – The Representations of Homophobia in Gay- Themed American Movies of 1900s-2010s
THE REPRESENTATIONS OF HOMOPHOBIA IN GAY-THEMED AMERICAN MOVIES OF 1990S-2010S
Stella Maris Saraswati Mere [email protected]
Abstract The United States is well-known for its acceptance of homosexuality. Nevertheless, homophobia remains a threat that endangers gay communities in the United States. Homophobia is an intriguing phenomenon for American filmmakers. Through gay-themed movies, those filmmakers intend to raise the awareness that homophobia is elusive to eradicate. This study scrutinizes the representations of homophobia in the United States as seen in gay-themed American movies. The study carries out Postnationalist America Studies as the paradigm of the study which encompasses the discussions of numerous phenomena in the United States. Also, the study applies theory of representation by Stuart Hall probing the representations of homophobia in gay-themed American movies of 1990s-2010s. The study uses nine gay-themed American movies of 1990s-2010s as the primary data of the research. The findings of the study show three representations of homophobia in the United States, which encompass religions, gender roles, heteronormativity, masculinity, and HIV/AIDS as the highlighted factors that incite homophobia. By highlighting those major factors of homophobia, the filmmakers come up with two major intentions. The first intention is the movies as means to criticize the society who conforms to strict religious beliefs, traditional gender roles, masculinity, and heteronormativity. The conformity has led the society to commit homophobia, hence making homophobia elusive to eradicate. The second intention is the movies are aimed at encouraging gay communities to keep fighting for their issues and equality.
Keywords: Homosexuality, Homophobia, the United States, Gay-themed American Movies
Introduction 2005). It was not until the 1960s that The United States has recognized the finally gay communities were eventually existence of gay communities following its recognized. In the late 1960s, gay first emergence during 19th to 20th century organizations and movements which were (Bronski, 2011: 65-66). However, the first once secretive finally became public emergence of gay communities was (Jagose, 1996: 25-26). The organizations negatively received by the authorities. The gradually became popular all over the negative attitudes towards gay country. Their contributions documented communities at that time were mostly in media attracted public to gain respect triggered by its negative association with towards the existence of gay communities crimes and abnormalities (Bullough, in the United States.
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As gay communities have affirmed Despite the United States’ support their existence through positive for gay people, the country is still contributions, the United States eventually struggling with homophobia. There has opens a total access to gay communities to been a great number of murder, violence, express their identity and to fully and suicide cases which were motivated by contribute to the society. A great number homophobia. Among those cases, hate- of LGBT figures have been recognized crime places as a type of homophobia through their remarkable works which which is often addressed to gay people. In successfully empower the society. The 2013, FBI released a statistic data world’s most famous drag queen, Ru Paul, mentioning that 20.8% of hate crime were is a prominent LGBT figure, who incited by homophobia2. In addition to empowers young gay artists to enhance hate crime and suicide, homophobia causes their creativity and passion for fashion, depression and constant fear among gay make-up, and entertainment. Another people which unfortunately eliminates considerable LGBT figure is Harvey Milk, chances for gay people to live normally who became a prominent gay politician in and embrace a better future. Homophobia the 1970s. against gay athletes is an example on how The presence of prominent gay homophobia risks the future of theirs. A figures is not the sole proof that the United recent study on homophobia in sports States has acknowledged the existence of entitled “Out on The Fields” launches a LGBT communities. Thirty six states have statistics report mentioning that the US even chartered the same-sex marriage law, ranks worst in homophobia against gay which indicates another positive athletes3. Specifically, this study recognition from the country towards demonstrates that over 80% of homosexual LGBT community. Most importantly, athletes choose to keep their sexual Barack Obama has confirmed his support orientation secret. for the legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States. 1 2 Federal Bureau of Investigation. “FBI- Victims”.fbi.gov. Retrieved on December 16, 2015 from https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2014/december/la 1 Reilly, Mollie. "Obama Praises Supreme Court's test-hate-crime-statistics-report-released Decision To Legalize Gay Marriage Nationwide." 3 Gregory, Sean. "U.S. Ranks Worst in Sports Huff Post Politics. Huffington Post, 26 June 2015. Homophobia Study." TIME. TIME, 9 May 2015. Web. 16 Dec. 2015. Web. 19 June 2015
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The increasing number of question on why movies portraying homophobic acts is intriguing. People homophobia are still released in the might question why homophobia still takes modern United States despite the country’s place in the country which is well-known tremendous support towards for its immense supports to gay people. homosexuality. In order to answer the Ironically, the number is increasing while question, the study attempts to further the country continuously endorses equality probe how homophobia in the United for gay people. Through various means States is represented in such movies. Also, such as art and social media, the country the study intends to reveal the triggers has encouraged people to help preserve the behind homophobic acts against equality for gay people. Nevertheless, the homosexuals in the United States. Since attempts still face challenges. there is a great number of gay-themed Regarding art as one means to help American movies which have been preserve equality for gay people, literary released in the last 25 years, this study works such as plays and movies, uses some of the movies as the object of consistently promote equality for gay this research. These movies are famous for people. For movies, there has been a great depicting homosexuality and homophobia deal of gay-themed American movies in the modern United States, which is portraying the lives of gay people, useful for figuring out the representations particularly in the United States. Critically of homophobia in the country as well as acclaimed American movies, namely, Milk disclosing the triggers behind homophobic (2008) and The Kids Are Alright (2011) acts. are examples of movies demonstrating This study carries out the concept positive contributions made by American subalternity as it confirms the basic idea of gay people. On the other hand, Saving Post-Nationalist American Studies that Face (2004), Philadelphia (1993), and The rejects American Exceptionalism. It also Normal Heart (2014) are few names of reflects on problems of the minority and American movies disclosing the ugly truth oppressed groups since the groups as parts of homophobia in the United States. of the United States. Hence, subalternity Intrigued by the representations of acknowledges the necessity of homophobia in gay-themed American encompassing racial/ethnic minorities, movies, this study aims to answer the gender hierarchy, and sexuality hierarchy
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as pivotal subjects to be studied in the the society and those attitudes shape the context of Post-Nationalist American way homosexuals perceive their Studies (Rowe, 2000: 25). homosexuality (Forstein, Gonsiorek, and Since subalternity encompasses the Loulan qtd. in Shidlo, 1994: 178). discussions on sexuality and sexual In regards to causes of homophobia, hierarchy on grounds of American Studies, religions, heterosexism4, inaccurate the use of theories surrounding representations of homosexuals in media, homosexuality and homophobia is pivotal and HIV/AIDS are immensely referred as to scrutinize the problems of gay the causes of homophobia (Roggemans, communities in the United States. 2015: 254; Girshick 337 qtd. in Jagose, Specifically, the study carries out the 1996: 94). In accordance with religions, theory of homophobia that is seminal to Roggemans et al (2015: 270) revealed that foreground the representations of religious people generally show negative homophobia in the United States as seen in attitudes towards homosexuals. Religious gay-themed movies of 1990s to 2010s. The people believe that homosexuality is following explanation offers concise against religions’ teachings; hence it is explanations on homophobia in general permitted to display negative attitudes and how it is manifested in the society. towards homosexuals (Duck and The term homophobia was first Hunsberger qtd. in Roggemans, 2015: introduced by George Weisenberg in 1972. 258). Heterosexism as one main trigger of The word refers to the situation where homophobia asserts that homosexuality heterosexuals show the fear of being close violates traditional gender roles and to homosexuals (Shidlo, 1994: 177). heterosexuality as the normative sexual However, the term is problematic as orientation. Culturally, the traditional heterosexuals who are homophobic gender roles have adhered to the concept frequently display “negative attitudes” of masculinity and femininity. towards homosexuals (Herek qtd. in 4 Shidlo, 1994: 177). For years, homophobia Tin (2003, p. 436) defines heterosexism as “a vision of social world that articulates the promotion has been an institutionalized practice of heterosexuality and the exclusion of homosexuality.” In other words, the term is used to against homosexuals. In other words, refer to discriminatory acts against homosexuality. Tin also adds that heterosexuality is strongly negative attitudes shown towards associated with theological explanation that emphasizes the ideas of men are created for women homosexuals are ironically acceptable in and vice versa.
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Homosexual men are seen as the “traitors” There have been many negative of masculinity. Their homosexuality has attitudes which can be identified as been accused of emasculating the image of homophobia. Tin (2003: 389) mentions men as masculine figures (Tin, 2003: 440). that verbal abuse is a form of homophobia On the other hand, lesbian women are mostly committed against the members victimized by homophobia due to the fact gay community. Words such as faggot and that they courageously fight for their poof are mostly slurred to humiliate equality. In other words, their courage is homosexuals. The worst form of seen as the violation of their femininity homophobia is hate-crime, which mostly (Girshick, 2005: 336). involves physical abuse and murder. Tin The representations of homosexuals (2003: 440), regards physical and sexual in media have also generated homophobia. violence against the members of gay For years TV shows and movies have community as the worst form of inaccurately portrayed homosexual homophobia and is mostly perpetrated by characters as ridiculous, weird, violent, men who are “conditioned by the social and even dangerous (Davis, 2005: 338). climate of masculinism”. In other words, Such representations have inevitably men who are homosexual are considered antagonized homosexual people. They as unmanly. Thus, they have to be have been perpetrated and abused exterminated since they have spoiled the following the representations. In addition image of men as masculine. to the inaccurate representations, the constant misconception about HIV/AIDS Methodology and homosexuality triggers homophobia. This study examines the Since the first outbreak of HIV/AIDS representations of homophobia in the occurred in gay communities, people have United States as seen in gay-themed falsely and persistently accused American movies of 1990s-2010s. homosexuals as the sole carrier of Therefore, the use of theory of HIV/AIDS (Meyer qtd in Jagose, 1996: representation is an essential approach of 94). Hence, the false accusation this research. According to Hall, contributes to the “growing homophobia” representation is inseparable from culture (Creed qtd. in Jagose, 1996: 94). (1). Hall clarifies his statement by firstly defining culture as “shared meanings”.
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Through culture, people share values and dialogues, and even titles, can describe meanings. This process is made possible homophobia in the United States. In regard only by language for it becomes the to connotation and denotation, all movies’ medium of producing meanings and elements serve as the denotation. On the values. Language is able to carry meanings other hand, social or cultural explanations as it functions as a “representational on homophobia and the United States can system”. be referred as connotation. One important point highlighted by Regarding the method of the study, Hall in the theory of representation is the the study carries out document analysis as use of connotation and denotation, as the the method of the study. There are two seminal process in the study of types of data used in the study: The representation. Connotation and denotation primary data and the secondary data. The are actually terms which have been primary data is gay-themed American introduced by the prominent semiotician, movies produced in 1990s to 2010s. More Roland Barthes. Referring to Barthes, Hall than 152 gay-themed American movies agrees that representation is not solely have been produced from 1990s- about finding a description of something in 2010s. 5However, the study only another thing (denotation). Representation, comprises nine gay-themed American in fact, also takes a “broader cultural movies produced in the 1990s to 2010s. level”, which Barthes then refers as The movies are Philadelphia (1993), The connotation (qtd. in Hall, 39). In other Incredibly True Adventure of True Girls in words, representation requires deep Love (1995), But I’m A Cheerleader understandings on social or cultural (1999), Latter Days (2003), Saving Face backgrounds that help us understand (2004), Pedro (2008), The Wise Kids meanings and values of particular things or (2011), Dirty Girl (2010), and The Normal phenomena. Heart (2014). There are two reasons In this study, gay-themed American 5 movies play an important role as it carries The number is taken from researches called “Studio Responsibility Index” by GLAAD (Gay & meanings, thoughts, and expressions Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation) in the 2010s (2012-2016) and a study by Michael Bronski which are associated with homophobia in entitled, “The Queer 1990s: The Challenge and Failure of Radical Change”. Bronski’s study is the United States. All elements of the documented in “American Film History: Selected Readings, 1960s to the Present” edited by Cynthia movies, namely settings, actors, storylines, Lucia, Roy Grundmann, and Art Simon (330).
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underlying the selection of those movies as argues that the sexual encounter between the primary data. The first reason is those homosexuals is “negatively interpreted” by movies offer vivid portrayals of religions as it solely prioritizes pleasure, homophobia in the United States. which is apparently considered dangerous Specifically, the movies’ portrayals are for procreation. hugely concerned with three major issues The condemnation of homosexuality related to homophobia, namely religions, by religions has apparently intrigued gender, and HIV/AIDS. The second reason American filmmakers to create movies that is the fact that the movies come up with deal with the issues of homosexuality and good intentions for both gay and faith. Approximately, in the last 25 years, heterosexual people. For gay people, the there have been 30 gay-themed American movies aim to encourage gay communities movies that are concerned with the issues to strive for equality. For heterosexual of homosexuality and religions (GLAAD, people, the movies raise the awareness of 2013-2016). Those movies also highlight homophobia as an institutionalized that religious teachings become one main practice that is challenging to eradicate. factor inciting homophobia in the United States. Discussion Regarding the representations of Connecting Religions and Homophobia homophobia and religions in the United in the United States States seen in gay-themed American Religions, namely Christianity, movies, the study uses three movies as the Islam, and Orthodox Judaism, generally primary data in the discussion about condemn homosexuality for being inimical religions and homophobia. The movies are and against the nature. Additionally, But I’m A Cheerleader (1999), Latter Days religions negatively value homosexuality (2003), and The Wise Kids (2011).The for its “non-procreative” purpose. movies generally emphasize that Religions believe that sexual encounter homophobia is triggered by religious should be conducted by a man and a teachings. In addition, the movies woman for procreation. Therefore, due to underline that Christianity is a religion the absence of procreation in sexual frequently associated with homophobia in activities committed by homosexuals, the United States. homosexuality is castigated. Sands (4)
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The first movie, But I’m A Brea is a daughter of a minister at a Baptist Cheerleader (1999) is a story of Megan Church, in South Carolina who apparently Bloomfield, a teenage girl who is sent by begins questioning her faith. Tim is a gay her devout Christian parents to True teenager who dreams of becoming a Directions, a rehabilitation camp that aims director. Laura is a devout Christian, urges to cure homosexuality. Megan is at first Tim to choose between his faith and reluctant to go to True Directions since she homosexuality as she believes that he never identifies herself as a lesbian, cannot choose both things. The Wise Kids although it is obvious that she is sexually explores someone’s attempt to preserve his attracted by her female friends . However, faith while reconciling it with his sexual as the therapy proceeds, she begins to orientation. Therefore, throughout the embrace her homosexuality and falls in movie, we will be exposed to Tim’s story love with another girl at the camp. whose coming out sparks off mixed The second movie discussed in the reactions from his surroundings, including section is Latter Days (2003). The movie the hostile reactions from his best friend, renders the romantic relationship between Laura, and his brother. Aaron, a closeted gay Mormon missionary, Those three movies share the same and Christian, Davis’ openly-gay points in which the all gay characters neighbor. Unfortunately, their relationship receive resentment from their families and faces challenges as Davis’ fellow Mormon friends. In the first movie, Megan’s missionaries discover the relationship. parents- Peter and Nancy- assert that Hence, Davis is excommunicated from his homosexuality is unnatural and sinful. The church and is assigned to undergo a assertion is reflected in Peter’s prayer conversion therapy to cure his which demands God guide Megan to homosexuality. The movie basically living a “natural, healthy, and sacred” life, highlights one issue in which homophobia which implies his hope for Megan to always confronts someone’s attempt to dodge from homosexuality. Those words reconcile his faith and homosexuality. are the antithesis of how homosexuality is The last movie discussed is The Wise perceived in Christianity. In other words, Kids (2011). The movie follows three Christians often use unnatural, sinful, and Christian teenagers, Brea, Tim, and Laura unhealthy as the terms that affirm their who are also best friends to each other. condemnation of homosexuality
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(Roggemans, 2015: 258). Moore (2003: procreation purpose. Besides, Peter fears 12) explains that Christians often address that Megan will be trapped into an those strong terms to homosexuals as they unforgivable sin if she preserves her believe that homosexuality is against the homosexuality. Thus, through his prayer, will of God which is written in the Bible he attempts to warn Megan about her and dangerous for human existence. In the homosexuality in hope that she suddenly context of the movie, Peter’s prayer can be converts herself to be a heterosexual inferred as Peter’s resentment over his woman. daughter’s homosexuality. In Latter Days, Aaron’s Peter’s hope may resemble his homosexuality is also considered concern over his daughter’s unforgivable and sinful to his devoutly homosexuality. However, his hope can Mormon parents. Aaron’s mother, Susan also be associated the Christian view on throws a hostile reaction after Aaron sexuality that mainly emphasizes declares that homosexuality is a part of his heterosexuality. As mentioned previously, identity. She claims that the homosexuality Christianity lives by the concept that is an evil act that is unforgivable. Susan’s humans play the key role in sustaining the firm statements which correlate Aaron’s procreation purpose as God has homosexuality and God vividly reflect the commanded in the Scripture. Hence, opposition that the Mormon Church has heterosexual marriages are seen as the towards homosexuality. The Mormon pivotal way that can help humans Church is undeniably notorious for its accomplish the procreation purpose. In opposition towards homosexuality. In the addition, Christianity also takes United States, the Church even remains as heterosexual marriages for happiness. As one of Christian denominations defying Moore (2003: 12) writes, Christians homosexuality and associated with believe the Bible has guaranteed happiness homophobia. through heterosexual marriages. The opposition towards Connecting Peter’s prayer and the homosexuality comes from the fact that Christian view on marriage, it can be Mormons conform to the Law of Chastity. inferred that Peter is concerned that Megan As cited in the official website of the will not be able to fulfill her role as a Mormon Church, The Law of Chastity is a Christian who is able to accomplish the law in the Mormon Church that
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accentuates the sacredness of “sexual homosexuality is wrong according to the purity” (lds.org). The core principles of the Bible. She keeps reiterating that the Bible law are the prohibitions of sexual activity contains God’s words which are before marriage and adultery. In addition, “important and holy”. Therefore, despite the law recognizes homosexuality as a how “confusing, weird, and complicated” serious sin. According to the Church, the Bible is, Christians must live by it homosexuality is considered a sin for it (Cone, The Wise Kids, 01:08:13-01:08:26). prevents humans from receiving blessings Laura’s statement that it is and happiness that can be achieved oxymoronic for someone to be Christian through family. In other words, the law and gay at the same time actually highlights that heterosexual marriage represents the strong denunciation of brings humans happiness and abundant homosexuality made by fundamentalist blessings. Christians. If looked thoroughly, Laura Susan’s response to Aaron’s also represents those fundamentalists who statement about his homosexuality as a take Biblical explanations literally to part of his identity, in fact, reflects justify their opposition against Mormons’ viewpoint that homosexuality is homosexuality. In other words, not a natural thing. Homosexuality is not fundamentalist Christians mostly something innately passed down on misinterpret the Biblical verses on same- humans. In fact, based on the Bible sex relationships, hence religious (Romans 1: 24-32), they believe that homophobia frequently incited in this homosexuality is against nature. Once a group (Sossa, 158). Ackley (2014), in his Mormon commits to homosexuality, he article for HuffingtonPost.com, mention must show repentance to redeem his sin. that many fundamentalist Christians in the Therefore, adhering to her Mormon belief, United States have carried out a literal Susan furiously demands Aaron repent for application of the Biblical text, which lays his homosexuality. the foundation of their discrimination In The Wise Kids, Tim-the main gay against homosexuality. character of the movie, receives an adverse Another major problem that is reaction from Laura (his best friend), closely related to Biblical interpretation which is provoked by his homosexuality. and homophobia is the strong bias and She preserves the belief that subjectivity towards sexuality,
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demonstrated by many interpreters and homosexuality has been denounced translators of the Bible. The bias degrading and unnatural. undoubtedly reveals substantial All movies highlight two similar “discrepancies” between the Biblical texts, points. The first point is the movies interpretations, and real contexts. The elucidate that American people who lead a discrepancies in the Biblical interpretations very religious life are more likely to show unfortunately may impose homophobic opposition towards homosexuality. All gay views among Christians, since the characters must confront oppositions from interpretations are underpinned from the their family members and friends who are translators’ negative viewpoints on known for their devotion to religious homosexuality (Sossa and Kane pp. 156- practices. 157). The depictions, thus, are consistent For instance, fundamentalist with the phenomenon where devoutly Christians often use the Biblical verse religious people in the United States from Romans 1:26-27 as the common support the condemnation on reference to condemn homosexuality homosexuality. Shames, Kuo, and Levine (Sossa, 157). Romans are the compilation (2011: 38) noted down that religious of letters written by Paul, one of Christ’s people in the United States who adhere to disciples to his followers in Rome. “religious traditions” (frequent attendances According to Sossa and Kane, to the Church, Bible-reading and praying fundamentalist Christians have interpreted sessions) are more likely to defy that the passage condemns homosexuality homosexuality. They included the survey as sinful and unnatural (159). The phrase conducted by American National Election “vile affections” is not directly referred to Studies (ANES) in 2008, which showed homosexuality. Rather, it serves as Paul’s that people who frequently attend the assertion that Paganism is against nature Church and pray daily “prefer to ban and God’s will; thus Christians must avoid homosexuality”, while people who less it (160). However, fundamentalist frequently attend the Church show more Christians define “vile affections” by tolerance towards homosexuality. generalizing the “affections” as Referring to the phenomenon where homosexual activities, since religions become the justifications for homophobia in the United States, it is
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riveting to see how in a secular country 2014, The Southern Baptist Convention’s like the United States, religions still Ethics and Religious Liberty Commission manage to wield its influence upon held a conference encouraging faith personal matters, namely marriage and leaders to oppose same-sex marriage sexuality. Merriman (2007: 46) argues that (Bailey, 2014). the states have a full control over personal Despite the government’s fervent matters, namely divorce, abortion, and attitude on the separation between even same-sex marriage. Hence, the state religions and the state, the government still government is the authority given the full faces challenges in overcoming religious access to enforcing laws that regulate those homophobia, which is also permeated in personal matters. As Merriman quotes the the official level. According to Merriman, statement by The Supreme Court, “laws the challenges exist since religions used to are made for the government of actions, take control over personal issues, namely and while they cannot interfere with mere marriage and abortion for years. Besides, religious belief and opinions, they may the government apparently establishes with practices” (2007: 46). Consequently, organizations that accommodate religious religions should opt out their involvement groups to address several issues becoming in any matters that should be tackled by their concerns, namely homosexuality and the government. abortion, to the government (Merriman, Nonetheless, religious groups keep 2007: 28). In other words, through the urging the government to prohibit several organizations, those religious groups urge issues and actions which are considered the government to resolve the issues. In morally unacceptable to their religions. consequence, it is problematic for the Same-sex marriage is the example in government to maintain the separation which religious groups have been pushing between religions and the state. Merriman the government to take the opposing further elucidates the matter in his stance, since homosexuality is considered discussion about challenges faced by the to be a “violation of their religion” legalization of same-sex marriage, (Merriman, 2007: 47). Until today, Marriage was originally a church matter, and though it is now religious groups opposing same-sex controlled by the state, religion is marriage and homosexuality have been still intertwined with marriage in the eyes of many, even if the exact aggressively condemning the actions. In
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reasons for the connection cannot be traditional gender roles and articulated (2007: 47). heteronormativity that denounce From the explanations above, it can homosexuality as unacceptable. For be concluded that the three movies address instance, in the first movie, Randy and the phenomenon where religious Evie, are shunned by their friends for homophobia appears as one of the major establishing a lesbian romance. They are issues confronted by the United States. targeted to verbal slurs and resentment. Biblical interpretations and morality Their experience connotes the conformity embody the justifications for the religious to heteronormativity and traditional gender homophobia in the United States. Such roles. justifications, ironically, have brought Homophobia that is triggered by the repercussions for religious homosexuals to conformity to gender roles can be seen reconcile their faiths and homosexuality. through Randy’s experience. Randy is slurred by her friends as dyke, the word Homophobia and the Conformity to used to refer to masculine lesbian women. Traditional Gender Roles, The word is offensive because it is used by Heteronormativity, and Masculinity her heterosexual friends to identify her In this section, the study discusses personality. As mentioned by Herbst, the three movies: The Incredibly True word contains an offensive meaning as it Adventure of Two Girls in Love, Saving indicates that lesbian women are Face, and Dirty Girls. The first two unattractive and masculine (2001: 79). In movies are hugely concerned on other words, heterosexual people perceive homophobia in relation to gender roles and lesbian women as strange since these heteronormativity. On the other hand, the women are accused of violating traditional last movie deals with homophobia and gender roles which define them as masculinity. feminine. As a result, lesbian women are The Incredibly True Adventure of also inseparable from homophobia and Two Girls in Love and Saving Face deal discrimination. According to Herek, Kite, with three lesbian characters Randy, Evie, and Whitley, gender roles and homophobia and Wilhelmina who receive hostile is closely connected (qtd. Garnets & reactions from their families and friends. Kimmel, 2003: 150). They elucidate that Their families and friends conform to homophobia reflects the “distrust of
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gender violation” for the perpetrators tend Additionally, Evie, who is a popular girl, to conform to traditional roles (2003: 151). is shunned away by her best friends Also, the perpetrators tend to reject following her coming out. The fact that “equality between sexes” and have they open up about their homosexuality confining “family and gender roles” (2003: leads them to experience homophobia. 151). From their explanation, it is Similar with the first movie, Saving explainable then why there is an Face (2004) also explores the themes of inextricable link between gender roles and homophobia, traditional gender roles, and homophobia. heteronormativity. However, the movie In addition to the aforementioned specifically discusses those themes on phenomenon, Garnets and Kimmel note grounds of Asian-American community, down that members of Western societies particularly Chinese-American privilege sexual orientation as the essence community. Wilhelmina’s reluctance to of one’s identity (2003: 149). Most come out about her sexuality implies that importantly, the emphasis of sexual the Chinese-American community orientation by the societies overlooks other enforces the conformity to heterosexuality essential elements shaping a person’s as the acceptable sexual orientation. identity, namely “gender, age, and sex” Wilhelmina is reluctant to come out as she (2003: 149). Therefore they add people’s fears the condemnation by her cultured “affectional and sexual lives” are Chinese-American family. In fact, her considered overarching compared to other society strongly upholds the idea that things (2003: 149). As western societies having a husband can retain a woman’s are mostly heteronormative, such a dignity and happiness. The movie perfectly principle is used to impose heterosexuality captures the aforementioned phenomenon and degrade homosexuality. Consequently, by showing Wilhelmina’s mother who is it also triggers discrimination and very eager in finding a husband for homophobia against homosexual people Wilhelmina (Wu, Saving Face, 2:51; (2003: 150). The phenomenon is vividly 56:41). Also, when there is a divorced reflected through Randy whose personality woman at a Chinese-American gathering, is devalued due to her homosexuality. The other women will assume that the woman fact that she is a lesbian and is raised by a must live an unhappy life (Wu, Saving lesbian aunt makes her friends shun her. Face, 8:27-8:33).
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Consequently, homosexuality is declaring their true identity and being troublesome for the society. To such an demanded to conform to “expected norms extent, homosexuality can even be in society” (1996: 26). considered a disgrace for the society. The The most intriguing issue about the movie speaks up about the phenomenon concept of silence is the consequence that through Wilhelmina’s experience of gay Asian Americans must endure once coming out. After hiding her sexuality for they come out. Takagi perfectly explains years, Wilhelmina musters up the courage the issue through the concept of “in” and to come out while hoping that her mother “out” (1996: 27). If someone chooses to will accept it. However, her mother (later hide their sexuality, he will never endure will be called Ma) is not able to cope with hostile reactions from his community. it. Instead if someone is “out” about his Wilhelmina’s story can be regarded sexuality, he endures homophobic acts in as the reflection of the concept of silence forms of “exclusions” from his that determines the way Asian-Americans communities and being labeled as morally perceive sexuality. According to Takagi, depraved (1996: 27). Such hostile the concept of silence has been prevalent reactions are not solely labeled to her but within Asian-American communities for it to her family as well (1996: 28). In fear of connotes with good images of Asian- the consequences, gay Asian Americans American community (1996: 26). are reluctant to come out to their family Connecting sexuality and the concept of and community for the sake of sustaining silence, sexuality is then seen invisible dignity. because it potentially ruins the good It is important to examine the thread images sustained by Asian Americans. between the aforementioned discussions Takagi elucidates the connection between and the movie. Wilhelmina’s coming out sexuality and the concept of silence by as well as the homophobic reactions defining the concept as “the oppressive thrown by her mother and Chinese- cost of a racially biased or heterosexist American community perfectly represents society” (1996: 26). Takagi’s statement the issues surrounding sexuality in Asian implies that the concept of silence American community. Wilhelmina’s pre- represses gay Asian Americans to come and post- coming-out experiences out because they are cornered between represent how Asian American people tend
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to restrain themselves from sexuality. in society. Those traits comprise power, Besides, it proves the idea that Asian confidence, toughness, and courage. In Americans consider heterosexuality and other words, it can be said that the concept traditional gender norms as the normative of masculinity has placed men to be the things in the society. Hence, when dominant human beings. In effect, the Wilhelmina insists on coming out as concept of masculinity has placed women homosexual to public, homophobic to be subordinated and powerless reactions are the immediate responses she (Donaldson qtd in Howson, 2006: 3). receives because the community believes The concept of masculinity, that she has stripped her family of dignity. however, is problematic. Men might be The last movie, Dirty Girl (2010), attributed to masculinity. Nevertheless, the comes up with masculinity as the trigger of concept is never attributed to gay men homophobia. Different from the previous (Donaldson qtd in Howson, 2006: 3). two movies, Dirty Girl revolves around Connell argues that the exclusion of gay Clarke, a gay student who struggles with men from masculinity is inextricable from his abusive yet homophobic father. the fact that gay men display traits which Clarke’s father, Joseph, has apparently are inverted from the manifest traits discovered Clarke’s homosexuality. Yet, exhibiting masculinity (qtd in Howson, he cannot fathom the fact that Clarke is 2006: 79). In other words, gay men are gay. Instead, he sends Clarke to a associated with traits which are considered psychological therapy and abuses him degrading to masculinity, namely being frequently, expecting that his son will turn very expressive, effeminate, and powerless masculine and straight. He even considers (Howson, 2006: 62). sending Clarke to military training to help Since gay men are defined with Clarke convert his sexuality. effeminate traits which are considered Clarke’s experience regarding antithetical to masculinity (Kite and homophobia can be related to the Deaux, qtd. Garnets & Kimmel, 2003: manifested idea in which masculinity is 152), they become the frequent targets of highly honored by society. Hence, as men homophobia. In other words, gay men are masculinity is attributed to men, the blamed for violating the traditional gender society demands men possess traits which roles, particularly masculinity (Laner, enhance their dominant yet honored roles Laner, and Storms, qtd. Garnets &
16 Stella Maris Saraswati Mere – The Representations of Homophobia in Gay- Themed American Movies of 1900s-2010s
Kimmel, 2003: 152). At worst, hostile 166). Additionally, according to Stockhard reactions due to the violation of and Johnson, traditional male gender roles masculinity are not only thrown at gay are more confining than traditional female people. In fact, heterosexual people who gender roles (Stockhard and Johnson, qtd. play roles considered demeaning to in Kite & Whitley, 1993: 166). This masculinity are falsely labeled as gay implies that men are strictly expected by (Deaux and Lewis, Storms et al, qtd. the society to behave in accordance with Garnets & Kimmel, 2003: 152). For their traditional male gender roles. examples, a man who loves fashion, The traditional male gender roles are dislikes boasting about their sexual very restrictive that they “discourage behavior, and shows no interest in sports tolerance” for people who “violate” are falsely claimed to be gay. In fact, their traditional gender roles, especially playing reversal roles do not always masculinity (Kite &Whitley, 1993: 166). identify their sexual orientation. Hence, This phenomenon is apparently prevalent there is the phenomenon when people in American society. According to Bern, misconstrue gender roles with sexual American society persistently encourages orientation. the conformity to traditional gender roles Returning to the movie, Clarke’s (qtd Kite & Whitley, 1993: 166). homophobic father, Joseph, actually Therefore, men are strictly demanded not represents the phenomenon in which commit to things which are linked with heterosexual men tend to be more femininity (Herek, qtd. in Kite & Whitley, homophobic than heterosexual women do. 1993: 166). According to Kite and Whitley, such a The aforementioned discussions, phenomenon happens due to their thus answer why Joseph becomes conformity to masculinity (1993: 166). As extremely abusive and homophobic against they cited from numerous studies, his gay son, Clarke. The conformity to heterosexual men show strong dislike traditional male gender roles which against the term negatively perceives privileges masculinity triggers him to reversal gender roles and considers the tem perpetrate homophobia against Clarke. homosexuality an insult to masculinity Therefore, he will do anything, even if it is (Laner, Krulewitz, Nash, Preston, and abusive, to get his son gain his Stanley, qtd. in Kite & Whitley, 1993: masculinity.
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Homophobia and AIDS in the United communities are confronted by States homophobic members of American In this section, the study studies society. Philadelphia (1993), Pedro (2009), and Regarding the representation of The Normal Heart (2014). These three AIDS-ridden homophobia in the three movies are famous for distinctly capturing movies, those movies vividly capture the the actions initiated by gay men with false association between HIV/AIDS and HIV/AIDS, who despite battling with the homosexuality which is hugely manifested illness, courageously fight for equality and in the United States. Moreover, the movies raise the awareness of HIV/AIDS in the also depict moments where people unjustly United States. For such distinct portrayals blame gay people for their so-called of AIDS and homophobia, the movies are unhealthy lifestyle which results in their thus used as the primary data for this affliction with HIV/AIDS. In other words, section. In addition to the distinct people ignorantly draw a conclusion that portrayals, another reason underlying the gay people deserve suffering from the selection of those movies is the fact that epidemic since they have been deemed to those movies are inspired by real-life live against moral and religious standards. events and figures. The fact that those In Philadelphia, Andrew Beckett movies are based on real-life events and represents gay people who are victimized figures will contribute to the profound and by the false association between AIDS, detailed explanations of the discussion homosexuality, and sexual promiscuity. As regarding AIDS-related homophobia. mentioned previously, Beckett believes Philadelphia follows Andrew that his dismissal from the law firm is Beckett who is unfairly dismissed by his strongly connected with his homosexuality law-firm for being gay and suffering from and his affliction with AIDS. Therefore, HIV/AIDS. Pedro follows Pedro a gay believing that he has been exposed to such man who is afflicted with HIV/AIDS and an injustice, Beckett files a lawsuit against courageously raises the awareness of the Charles Wheeler and partners as the epidemic. At last, The Normal Hearts owners of the law firm. follows a group of gay activist led by Ned When the case is brought to the trial, Turner whose attempts to raise the Beckett brings in Melissa Benedict, a awareness of HIV/AIDS within gay paralegal at the law firm where Beckett
18 Stella Maris Saraswati Mere – The Representations of Homophobia in Gay- Themed American Movies of 1900s-2010s
works, who also contracts AIDS. Some punishment from God (Oceano, Pedro, people at the law firm, including one 19:42-19:52). Pedro is finally able to leader of the firm, Walter Keaton has speak at the seminar, despite the learned that Melissa contracts AIDS. demonstration. However, he addresses the Fortunately, Melissa is not fired since she experience at the seminar by saying, is afflicted by AIDS from blood PEDRO. I really wish I had someone in my life who had told me how to transfusion that she receives when protect myself because AIDS is not a delivering her second child. Melissa’s case moral dilemma or religious debate. It’s a physical and mental health makes Beckett’s dismissal appear unfair to issue (Oceano, Pedro, 19:88-19:98). Beckett as he thinks that his dismissal is Pedro’s experience being protested not solely triggered by AIDS but his by the religious group resembles the fear homosexuality. of HIV/AIDS among religious groups in Pedro (2008) comes up with a more the United States. It also depicts the hopeful depiction of HIV/AIDS and situation when religious leaders vocally homosexuality. In this movie, almost all argue that HIV/AIDS is the punishment of heterosexual characters have God, thus they must repent. Thus, the comprehended that HIV/AIDS can be examination of HIV/AIDS in the United contracted by everyone. Nevertheless, States is surrounded by the endless AIDS-ridden homophobia appears as an religious debates, which apparently also inseparable issue from HIV/AIDS and interrupt the process of researching the homosexuality. epidemic thoroughly. There is one important scene in The Normal Heart shows a bitter Pedro that highlights AIDS-ridden depiction of homophobia and HIV/AIDS homophobia in the United States. The in which a homophobic member of the US scene shows Pedro who becomes a government refuses to help find solutions keynote speaker for an HIV-AIDS to curing the epidemic. It shows Ned seminar. When he is going to enter the meeting John Bruno, the advisor to the venue, he is confronted by a group of president of United States. John invites religious people who slur “God hates Ned to discuss the importance of you!” to him. Also, they bring posters researching HIV/AIDS for the country. condemning Pedro’s homosexuality and Ned believes that the research will save emphasizing that his HIV-AIDS is a
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people’s lives from the epidemic. that broke the silence about the epidemic. However, John is hesitant whether the In the article, the journalist Lawrence K. research is useful for the country since he Altman, wrote that HIV/AIDS was rapidly believes that it hardly affects heterosexual transmitted within gay communities for people. In other words, he implies that the they had “multiple” sexual encounters with epidemic solely afflicts gay people, thus he different partners. considers the epidemic unnecessary to be At worst, Benshoff (2006: 203) subjected to a serious scrutiny. noted that media also made ignorant The devastating portrayals of AIDS- statements by “polarizing” heterosexuals ridden homophobia in Philadelphia, as “clean-living” people and gay as Pedro, and The Normal Heart are riveting “disease-ridden queers.” He further added to probe. All movies are set in the1980s- that the representation became exacerbated 1990s, in which there was the outbreak of as people with HIV/AIDS (both HIV/AIDS in the United States. During heterosexuals and homosexuals) were those years, the responses towards classified as “innocent” heterosexuals and HIV/AIDS were enclosed with negative “deserving” homosexuals. Innocent prejudice against gay people. For the most heterosexuals refer to the statement that part, the majority of American people heterosexual people could contract with denounced HIV/AIDS as the consequence HIV/AIDS from blood transfusions and that gay people had to suffer. needles (2006: 203). Conversely, Correspondingly, people declined to direct “deserving” homosexuals is the term urgent attentions towards gay people with implying that gay people deserve HIV/AIDS. HIV/AIDS as the punishment for One major impulse of the committing unhealthy sexual lifestyle denunciation was the representation of gay (2006: 203). people in the media. Gay people were HIV/AIDS as the punishment for considered to be the carriers of the disease, gay people was the concept that hugely as the media had claimed that the AIDS pervaded in American society. Inevitably, epidemic was mostly found in gay people. the idea unleashed fear and hatred against An article from The New York Times gay people. People feared of contracting entitled “Rare Cancer Seen in 41 the disease while reproaching gay people Homosexuals” was the first news article for carrying the disease. The fear and
20 Stella Maris Saraswati Mere – The Representations of Homophobia in Gay- Themed American Movies of 1900s-2010s
hatred could be strongly associated to the importantly, he argues that representations fact that gay people, whether contracting in mass media play a key role in from AIDS or not, belonged to “feared and conceptualizing how a social group can disliked groups” in the country (Stoddard contribute to society (1987: 9). and Rieman, 1991: 254). Hence, the Dyer’s explanation is then in situation made gay people with AIDS accordance with what happened with the prone with the danger of injustice and American society following the media medical negligence. coverage on HIV/AIDS and its association As mentioned previously, in the with homosexuality. People relied on the United States, such a portrayal has hugely media coverage because they claimed that influenced the way people perceive and it spoke the truth (Watney, 1987: 9). When respond to the disease. Gay people are media came up with the information on victimized by the demeaning portrayal. homosexuality and HIV/AIDS which They are denied the chance to get the demeaned gay people, people believed that proper medical assessment. Their chance the coverage told the truth. Hence, what to live a normal life is even restricted had been represented in the media about because people have fear of getting HIV/AIDS and homosexuality was used as afflicted with the epidemic. the justification for the AIDS-ridden The role of media in framing homophobia. HIV/AIDS and homosexuality in The One irking point to probe is the United States was intriguing since it had reasons underlying the homophobic media fundamentally manifested adverse coverage on AIDS and homosexuality. As reactions towards gay people with AIDS explained previously, media was within American society. According to responsible for AIDS-ridden homophobia Dyer, since 1970s, representation has in the United States due to their reports become an essential foundation in shaping that tend to demean and accuse gay people a society’s attitudes towards social and for HIV/AIDS. Personal judgment and cultural phenomena (qtd.in Watney, 1987: biases against gay people undeniably 8). Moreover, he adds that representation prompted journalists to write such reports. has been very powerful in determining the Gross stated that journalists failed to access given to any social group to access dissolve their biases against gay people “political chances” (1987: 9). Most when reporting the news on the epidemic
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(2001: 101). Furthermore, an American generation. Thus, they are able to possess journalist, James Kinsella, wrote that the same spirit when striving for equality “homophobia among media personnel” (Fleming, Jr). The same statement is also intimidated journalists concerned on made by Dustin Lance Black, the providing in-depth yet unbiased news on scriptwriter of Pedro. He hopes that the HIV/AIDS and homosexuality (qtd. in movie can encourage young people, Gross, 2001: 101). Dismissal and particularly those who come from gay “suspicions of being gay” were the threats community, to inherit Pedro’s spirit in that daunted journalists who endeavored to obtaining justice (TV Guide, 2009). correct the misleading representation of those issues (2001: 101). Conclusion At last, it can be concluded that the The study examined the movies do not only represent AIDS-ridden representations of homophobia in nine homophobia by displaying the horrifying American gay-themed movies produced in images of the epidemic and homophobia. 1990s to 2010s. From those nine movies, The AIDS-ridden homophobia is there are three representations of ferociously festering for gay people, as homophobia in the United States which they are exposed to both physical and encompass religions, gender roles, mental sufferings. Nevertheless, the heteronormativity, masculinity, and injustices and indignities which they HIV/AIDS. endure spur them to fight for their lives. Three movies, But I am Not A Beckett, Pedro, and Ned are not just Cheerleader (1999), Latter Days (2003), represented as victims of homophobia. and The Wise Kids (2011), represent how They are portrayed as heroes and religions, specifically from fundamentalist inspirations for gay people to keep fighting Christian denominations, play a major for equality. Ryan Murphy, the director of factor in inciting homophobia in the The Normal Heart, mentions that the United States. The religious beliefs movie aims to remind young gay people of perceive homosexuality as inimical and the struggle for achieving equality against procreation. Consequently, (Fleming, Jr.). Also, he hopes that the religious groups use the beliefs to justify movie can pass on Ned’s relentless yet their homophobia. This phenomenon courageous spirit to gay people in this appears as the most serious peril for gay
22 Stella Maris Saraswati Mere – The Representations of Homophobia in Gay- Themed American Movies of 1900s-2010s
people who endeavor to reconcile their femininity, and heterosexuality as the faiths and sexuality. Furthermore, another norms to live by. Homosexuality is seen as peril that gay people endure is the coercion the violation to traditional gender roles and to undergo coercion therapy, which is an heteronormativity. Hence, gay people are act exhibiting homophobia by religious targeted to homophobic actions (in forms people. of humiliations, resentment, verbal slur, The representations of homophobia and physical abuse), because they are and religions in those movies are accused of violating traditional gender intriguing to probe in relation to the roles and heteronormativity. country’s identity as a secular country. The last three movies, Philadelphia Despite being secular, the country (1993), Pedro (2008), and The Normal apparently manages to accommodate Heart (2014) render the inextricable link religious groups to address their issues (in between homophobia and HIV/AIDS in which homosexuality turns to be one of the the United States. The movies chronicle issues). The situation leads religions the struggle of gay people in confronting (through its institutions) to retain their the AIDS-ridden homophobia. Gay people control over private matters namely who are afflicted with the epidemic suffer marriage and sexuality, despite the injustice and homophobic treatments government has enacted laws regarding the which endanger their lives. The injustice matters. Hence, it leads challenges for the and homophobic treatments are caused by government to tackle homophobia that is the media representation that tends to triggered by religions. accuse gay people as the carriers of the Other three movies, The Incredibly epidemic. True Adventure of Two Girls in Love At last, those are three major (1995), Saving Face (2004), and Dirty Girl representations of homophobia in the (2010) present another representation of United States as seen in gay-themed homophobia. These movies accentuate the American movies produced in 1990s- fact that homophobia is triggered by the 2010s. Nowadays, the country is well- conformity to traditional gender roles and reputed for its acceptance towards gay heteronormativity. Traditional gender roles communities. Nevertheless, homophobia and heteronormativity demand society remains a huge challenge to tackle due to submit themselves to masculinity,
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the fact that it has been institutionalized
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2014. Web. 4 Apr. Dozier, and Milla Jovovich. The 2016. http://www.huffingtonpost.co Weinstein Company. Film. m/2014/09/15/us-evangelicals-gay- Federal Bureau of Investigation. “FBI- marriage_n_5824174.html. Victims”.fbi.gov. Retrieved on Benshoff, Harry M. & Griffin, Sean. December16, 2015 from 2006. “Queer Images: A History of https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/ Gay and Lesbian Film in 2014/december/latest- hate- America.” Lanham, MD: Rowman crime-statistics-report-released. &Littlefield Publishers, Fleming Jr., Mike. "Emmy Q&A: Ryan Inc. Print. Murphy On The Long Road To Bronski, Michael. Ed. Cynthia A. 'The Normal Heart'" Deadline. Barto Lucia, Roy Grundmann, Deadline, 31 July 2014. Web. 30 and Art Simon. 2016. American May 2016. Film History: Selected Reading.
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Herbst, Phillip H. 2001. "Dyke, Dike." 2016. https://books.google.co.id/boo Wimmin, Wimps & ks?hl=id&lr=&id=FBkghgDbZ1gC Wallflowers: An Encyclopaedic &oi=fn Dictionary of Gender and Sexual d&pg=PR5&dq=moore+christianity Orientation Bias in the United +homosexuality&ots=D0pPtVrouB States. Yarmouth: Intercultural. &s Howson, Richard. 2006. Challenging ig=Tt76BWzONXiSXKwkxfBEAc Hegemonic Masculinity. London: A0HgM&redir_esc=y#v=onepage& Routledge. PDF. q= Jagose, Annamarie. 1996. Queer Theory: moore%20christianity%20homosex An Introduction. New York: New uality&f=false. York University Press. PDF. Pedro. Dir. Nick Oceano. Perf. Alex Kite, Mary E., and Bernard E. Whitley, Loynaz and Justina Machado. Wolfe Jr. 1993. "Do Heterosexual Video, 2008. Film. Women and Men Differ in Their Philadelphia. Dir. Jonathan Demme. Perf. Attitudes Toward Tom Hanks and Denzel Homosexuality? A Conceptual Washington.TriStar Pictures, 1993. and Methodological Analysis." Film. Ed. Linda Garnets and Douglas Reilly, Mollie. "Obama Praises Supreme C. Kimmel.Psychological Court's Decision To Legalize Gay Perspectives on Lesbian and Gay Marriage Nationwide." Huff Post Male Experiences. New York: Politics. Huffington Post, 26 June Columbia UP. 165-87. PDF. 2015. Web. 16 Dec. 2015. Lance Black, Dustin. "Getting Roggemans, Lilith., Spruyt, Bram., Real" TV Guide. p. 66. Droogenbroeck, Filip Van., March 30, 2009. Keppens, Gil.2015. Religion and Latter Days. Dir. C. Jay Cox. Perf. Negative Attitudes towards Max Sandvoss and Wes Ramsey. Homosexuals: An Analysis of Urban TLA Releasing, 2003, Film. Young People and Their Attitudes Merriman, Scott A. 2007. "Personal towards Homosexuality. pp.254-276. Issues of Religion and State." Retrieved on Feb 19, 2016 Religion and the Law in America: from http://you.sagepub.com An Encyclopedia of Personal Belief Rowe, John Carlos. 2000. Post- and Public Policy. Vol. 1. Santa Nationalist American Studies. Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 45-50. Berkeley: University of California PDF. Press. Print. Moore, Gareth. 2003. A Question of Sands, Kathleen M. 2007. Truth: Christianity and "Homosexuality, Religion, and Homosexuality. London: the Law." Homosexuality and Continuum. Google Books. Web. 18 Religion: An Encyclopedia. Ed. Mar.
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Jeffrey S. Siker.Westport, CT: New York: Routledge. 21-36. Greenwood Press. PDF. PDF. Saving Face. Dir. Alice Wu. Perf. The Incredibly True Adventure of Two Michelle Krusiec, Joan Chen, and Girls in Love. Dir. Maria Maggenti. Lynn Chen. Sony Pictures Classics, Perf.Laurel Holloman and Nicole Ari 2004. Film. Parker. New Line Cinema, 1995. Shames, Shauna L., Katherine Levine, Film. and Didi Kuo. 2011. "Culture War? The Normal Heart. Dir. Ryan Murphy. A Closer Look at the Role of Perf. Mark Ruffalo, Matt Bomer, Religion, Denomination, and Julia Roberts, and Taylor Kitsch. Religiosity in US Public Opinion HBO, 2014. Film. on Multiple Sexualities." Ed. The Wise Kids. Dir. Stephen Cone. David Rayside and Clyde Perf. Molly Kunz, Allison Torem, Wilcox.Faith, Politics, and Sexual Tyler Ross, and Stephen Cone. Diversity in Canada and The Wolfe Video, 2011. Film. United States. Vancouver: UBC. Tin, Louis-Georges. (2003). The 29-48. Web. 5 May 2016. Dictionary of Homophobia. Shidlo, Ariel. (1994). “Internalized Vancouver: ArsenalPulp Press. Homophobia: Conceptial and Watney, Simon. 1987. Policing Desire: Empirical Issues in Measurement”. Pornography, AIDS, and the Media. Lesbian and Gay Psychology: Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. Theory, Research, and Clinical PDF. Applications.ed. Beverly Greene & Gregory M. Herek. Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage Publication. 176-205. Stoddard, Thomas B., and Walter Rieman. 1991. "AIDS and the Rights of the Individual: Toward a More Sophisticated Understanding of Discrimination." Ed. Dorothy Nelkin, David P. Willis, and Scott Parris. A Disease of Society: Cultural and Institutional Responses to AIDS. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 241-72. PDF. Takagi, Dana Y. 1996. "Maiden Voyage: Excursion into Sexuality and Identity Politics." Ed. Russell Leong. Asian American Sexualities: Dimensions of the Gay and Lesbian Experience.
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