Mapping Research Systems in Developing Countries
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Mapping research systems in developing countries Country report: the Science and Technology system in Indonesia Project Leaders: CREST: Centre for Research on Science and Technology, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa IRD: Institute for Research on Development, France 1 Table of Contents Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1. Scientific Activities in the Colonial Period ......................................................................... 2 1.1 Developments in S&T Policy Institutions after Independence, 1949 ................................. 2 2. Universities and Human Resources .................................................................................. 6 3. Indonesia’s Main Science Institutions .............................................................................. 9 4. Indonesia’s Agriculture Research ................................................................................... 11 5. Industry and High Technology ........................................................................................ 11 5.1 Aircraft Industry ............................................................................................................ 12 5.2 Biotechnology in Indonesia ............................................................................................ 12 6. Concluding Remarks ...................................................................................................... 13 7. References..................................................................................................................... 15 i THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA V.V. Krishna1 Professor in Science Policy, Centre for Studies in Science Policy, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi, India Introduction Indonesia proclaimed its independence on 17 August 1945, after more than 350 years under Dutch occupation. During this long colonial period, Indonesians frequently fought to restore their pre-colonial independence. Finally, in the early 20th century, attempts to overthrow the Dutch by force were replaced by the development of nationalist organizations that sought change and reforms through political means. The Japanese invasion in 1942 and occupation until 1945 further strengthened the determination of the nationalist movement. The population of Indonesia in 1980 was 147.5 million, up from 119 million in 1971 and 79 million in 1961. With the present population of 179 million, Indonesia is the fifth most populous nation in the world, exceeded only by China, India, the Soviet Union and the United States. Although the population is widely dispersed throughout the archipelago, the heaviest concentrations are located in the fertile islands of Java, Madura and Bali, where the population density 1755 per square kilometre. 1 Dr Krishna is also a Visiting Professor (2004–05), Australian Expert Group on Industry Studies, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, Australia. He has a PhD in Sociology of Science from the University of Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia. Dr Krishna has more than 20 years of research experience in the areas of sociology of science, science and technology policy studies and social history of science. He has published over 28 research papers and four books. He is the founder-editor of Science, Technology and Society, an international journal devoted to S&T policy issues in the developing world. 1 1. Scientific Activities in the Colonial Period The first organized scientific activities in Indonesia started in 1778 with the founding of the “Batavia Society of Arts and Sciences”, a private organization for the promotion of research for the benefit of trade and agricultural development. Although in the beginning the work of its members covered all fields of science, there interest gradually shifted more and more to the social sciences. Even to the present period, the “Proceedings” of the Batavia Society of Arts and Sciences remain an important source of knowledge concerning the social and cultural life of the people in several parts of the Indonesian Archipelago. The establishment of the famous Botanical Garden in Borgor in 1817 was the starting point of systematic botanical research. Gradually more and more research activities were carried out in other fields such as zoology, geology and marine sciences. With regard to the applied sciences, much attention was given to agricultural research especially on export crops, and later to medical research; important contributions were made in both fields. The Universities did not have a major part in the last two decades of Dutch Colonial rule. This was understandable as the first school of higher learning was founded abroad for a university degree and so only, a small minority could pursue scientific research. Most of the research was done by the Dutch scientists and other foreign scientists employed by the Dutch. This isolation of local researchers had consequences after independence. The other development during the colonial period was the establishment of an organization for the promotion and coordination of scientific research in 1928 by Government Decree the “Natuurwetenschappelijke Raad Voor Nederlandsch Indie” (The Natural Science Council for the Netherlands Indies). The main objective of this organization was to stimulate and coordinate research, to function as a point of contact between scientists in the country and abroad and to act as an advisory body to the Government on matters relating to the natural sciences. Twenty years later, in 1948, another organization was created, the “Organization for Scientific Research” which was intended to become a national research council. Its primary aim was to stimulate, support and coordinate research that was important for the country. A similar organization was established for the Natural Sciences, the “Institute of Natural Sciences”. It was this latter organization, which organized the Fourth Pacific Science Congress, held in Indonesia in 1929. After the transfer of sovereignty, which took place in the last days of December 1949, Indonesia encountered a number of problems in many fields, including scientific research. Since most scientific research was done by the Dutch, after the transfer of sovereignty, many of these scientists left the country. 1.1 Developments in S&T Policy Institutions after Independence, 1949 As soon as the country proclaimed independence in 1945, a document on the ‘Constitution 1945 of Republic of Indonesia’ was issued. In this document chapter 31 assigned an important role for S&T in the development of the country. From 1950, Indonesia started its programme of expanding education at all levels and science and technology. In 1956, the government formed the Indonesian Council of Sciences to coordinate developments in S&T and to advise the government on science and technology policy. 2 The new regime of President Suharto, established in 1966, begun to promote science and technology for development through a planning process of Five Year Development Plans. The first Indonesian Ministry of Research and Technology (IMRT) was created in 1970. Following this, the government established the National Research Centre for Science and Technology (called PUSPIPTEK) and the Life Sciences Centre. The PUSPIPTEK even today remains the country’s main R&D research complex. In 1984, the President Suharto formed the National Research Council (NRC) by constituting members from academia, R&D institutions and industry to advise the government on S&T; and to work in close collaboration with the Ministry of Research and Technology. Besides the developments noted above, Indonesia embarked on a planned process of development and S&T was given importance in this process. The First Five Year Development Plan (PELITA I) 1969 – 1974, carried out with the help of foreign governments and international organizations in the forms of loans grants and expertise, was aimed at getting the economy of the country out of its precarious position. PELITA II (1974-75 to 1978-79), set out development objectives and provided directions for the desired growth process and for the order of priorities. The Second Plan focused on employment opportunities, a rising level of income, a more equitable distribution of development projects among the various regions of the country, greater economic and social integration of the region into one effective national entity and an enhanced quality of life including its environmental, cultural and nutritional aspects. With regard to the policy on research and development, focus was placed in the short term on R & D in agriculture, industry and mining. Cross-sectoral research activities in population, health education, social attitudes, communication etc, were also emphasized in this plan. Science and technology activities during PELITA III (1979-80 to 1983-84) were grouped into pure and applied sciences, supporting each other and directed towards the requirements of short-and long-term developments. The fifth Five Year Development Plan (PELITA V) laid down the task for the National Research Council to prepare the formulation of the principal National Programme in the fields of research and technology through planning and national development strategy. This exercise evolved a national Matrix on research and technology to be followed and further developed by other national level R&D and S&T institutions. Even though the planned process and having S&T