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Index

abandonment of territorial sovereignty 34, Cairo Resolution (Resolution AHG/16 106, 147, 153, 170, 183–5, 431 (I), Organization of African Union see also evidence in territorial disputes; (1964)) 208, 209, 299–300 titles of territorial sovereignty pan-Africanism 207, 209 Abi-Saab, Georges 259, 346 Paris Peace Treaties 1947, effects of 270 Abyei Area dispute (Sudan/South Sudan) see uti possidetis juris principle applied to Delimitation of the Abyei Area between 207–10, 211 the Government of Sudan and the Sudan see also uti possidetis juris principle People’s Liberation Movement/Army Organization of African Union see Accordance with International Law of the Organization of African Union (OAU) Unilateral Declaration of Independence peace treaties affecting see peace treaties, In Respect of Kosovo (Request for affecting Africa Advisory Opinion) (ICJ) 350–51, 361–2, pre-colonial era, boundary concept 296 364, 365, 376 Somaliland 367, 368 d’Acosta, José 55 see also secession acquiescence to sovereignty transfers see territorial disputes evidence in territorial disputes, Abyei Area dispute (Sudan/South Sudan) acquiescence see Delimitation of the Abyei Area acquisitive prescription 146, 153–6, 170–71 between the Government of Sudan see also property rights and the Sudan People’s Liberation administration of territories see titles of Movement/Army administration Armed Activities on the Territory of the adverse possession 146, 153–6, 170–71 Congo (Democratic Republic of see also property rights Congo v Uganda) (ICJ) 172, 177 Affaire de l’île de Timor (Pays-Bas/Portugal) Burkina Faso/Mali case see Frontier 321–2 Dispute (Burkina Faso/Mali) (ICJ) Africa Burkina Faso/Niger case see Frontier African Union 208 Dispute (Burkina Faso/Niger) (ICJ) colonization of 50, 76, 96 Chagos archipelago dispute see Chagos see also colonization archipelago dispute Berlin Conference (1884–85) see Berlin Eritrea/Ethiopia boundary dispute see Conference (1884–85) Eritrea/Ethiopia boundary dispute Bulama Island 83, 123–4, 311, 312 Frontier Dispute (Benin/Niger) (ICJ) see Delagoa Bay/Lourenço Marques 83, 124, Frontier Dispute (Benin/Niger) (ICJ) 132, 312, 400, 412 Kasikili/Sedudu Island East Africa 283 (Botswana/Namibia) (ICJ) 155–6, effected by treaties 110, 112, 123–5 174, 222, 230, 310, 406–7 North Africa 45–6, 283 Land and Maritime Dispute (Cameroon v see also Western Sahara advisory Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea opinion (ICJ) intervening) (ICJ) see Land and Southern Rhodesia 132–3, 348, 356 Maritime Dispute (Cameroon v West Africa see West Africa, colonization Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea of intervening) (ICJ) decolonization of 224 Legal Consequences for States of the All-African Peoples Conference, Accra Continued Presence of South Africa (1958) 207, 299 in Namibia (South West Africa)

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notwithstanding Security Council Indo-Pakistan Western Boundary (Rann Resolution 276 (1970) (ICJ) 28, 357, of Kutch) (India/Pakistan) 158, 162, 415 178–9, 181, 309, 408 South West Africa (Ethiopia v South Northeast Asian islands dispute 281–3, Africa; Liberia v South Africa) (ICJ) 290 6, 401 South China Sea dispute 245–7, 250, Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab 251, 254, 257 Jamahiriya/Chad) (ICJ) see see also use of force to settle territorial Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab disputes Jamahiriya/Chad) (ICJ) Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Territorial Sovereignty and Scope of the Ledge (Malaysia/Singapore) (ICJ) Dispute (Eritrea/Yemen) see see Sovereignty over Pedra Territorial Sovereignty and Scope of Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle the Dispute (Eritrea/Yemen) Rocks and South Ledge airspace 5, 10, 197 (Malaysia/Singapore) (ICJ) see also territories Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Antarctica 8, 438 Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia) aquifers 9 (ICJ) 163, 310, 409 see also territories Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v Aquinas, St Thomas 61–2, 63 Thailand) (ICJ) see Temple of Preah Arangio-Ruiz, Gaetano 213 Vihear (Cambodia v Thailand) (ICJ) Arbitral Award Made by the King of Spain on Turkey see Turkey 23 December 1906 (Honduras v attribution Nicaragua) (ICJ) 175–6 of conduct to states see states, attribution of arbitration, international see international conduct to arbitration of territorial sovereignty 10–11, 151, Aristotle’s ‘natural slavery’ doctrine 55, 101, 152–3, 199–200 102 see also settlement of territorial disputes; see also ‘natural slavery’ doctrine titles of territorial sovereignty Armed Activities on the Territory of the Austria 29, 262 Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo v Austrian State Treaty 1955 270–71 Uganda) (ICJ) 172, 177 Treaty of Versailles 1919 see Treaty of armed conflicts see use of force Versailles 1919 Article 3, Paragraph 2, of the Treaty of see also colonization; peace treaties Lausanne (Frontier between Turkey and autonomy, regional see sub-state entities, Iraq) (Mosul Advisory Opinion) (PCIJ) autonomy 220–21, 227 Asia Badinter Commission 211, 224, 300–301, central Asia 224–5, 380–81 320, 364, 369–70, 377 colonization of 67, 96, 107 see also international organizations; Goa 183, 240, 247–8, 252–3 Yugoslavia, former Moluccas 64, 68 Baltic states 238, 269, 374–5, 378–9, 381 Palmas (Miangas) see Island of see also Eastern Europe Palmas/Miangas (Netherlands/ v Bardonnet, Daniel 202, 408, 409 United States) (PCA) Bartoš, Tomas 370 India see India Beagle Channel (Argentina/Chile) 228 Japan see Japan Beaudouin, Anouche 372 peace treaties affecting see peace treaties, Berlin Conference (1884–85) 72, 120, 124, affecting Asia 224 pre-colonial era, boundary concept 296 Berlin Act 1885 82–4, 85, 128, 129 territorial disputes on effective occupation doctrine 81, 84–5 East Timor disputes see East Timor protectorates excepted 82, 128–9

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Kasson Declaration (non-recognition of see also consent to sovereignty titles acquired by coercion) 110–11, transfers 117, 135 inviolability of boundaries see territorial Blackstone, William 78, 109 integrity, respect for Bosnia and Herzegovina see Yugoslavia, stability and finality of boundaries see former, Bosnia and Herzegovina stability and finality of boundaries boundaries 232–3 principle definition 197, 295–7 uti possidetis juris see uti possidetis juris armistice lines distinguished 197 principle sphere of influence limits, relationship significance of 193–7 with 197–9, 202–3 treaties 7–8, 147, 205–6, 421–3 delimitation of see also treaties; treaties with local ‘demarcation’ distinguished 12, 200–201 political entities Eastern Europe states see Eastern Europe maps annexed to, evidential weight 232, effectivités versus formal title see 424–8, 436 effectivités, versus formal title see also evidence in territorial disputes ‘human factor’ considerations see presumptions applicable 220–23 ‘human factor’ considerations in special interpretation regime 223, 229–32 territorial dispute settlement see also intertemporal law rule maritime boundaries see territories, stability and finality of boundaries maritime areas principle, relationship with 231–2 principles see boundaries, principles uti possidetis juris principle, relationship territorial attribution disputes, distinction with 210 10–11, 199–200 see also uti possidetis juris principle by treaty see boundaries, treaties see also territorial sovereignty demarcation of 12, 200–201 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros 5 dispute settlement 196, 202 Bowett, Sir Derek 186 see also settlement of territorial disputes Brilmayer, Lea 344–5 international organizations and Brownlie, Ian 284–5 conferences, role of 223–4 Burkina Faso/Mali case see Frontier Dispute see also international organisations (Burkina Faso/Mali) (ICJ) judicial proceedings, role of 220 Burkina Faso/Niger case see Frontier Dispute see also ICJ (International Court of (Burkina Faso/Niger) (ICJ) Justice), boundary delimitation disputes, by region see Africa, territorial Cameroon v Nigeria case see Land and disputes; Asia, territorial disputes; Maritime Dispute (Cameroon v Nigeria: Europe, territorial disputes; Latin Equatorial Guinea intervening) (ICJ) America, territorial disputes; Middle Canada East, territorial disputes; North as a colony 121, 276–7 America, territorial disputes multiculturalism in 303 natural boundaries peoples’ right recognition 340 see also territories Quebec, secessionist movement 316, 364, changes to 231 367, 371 mountains 201 see also North America watercourses see watercourses Canary Islands, sovereignty over 55–6, 62, 64 principles 226 see also Portugal; Spain see also international law, fundamental canon law, applied to discovery of territories principles 61–3 consent to boundary changes 202–6, see also discovery of territories 223–4, 226 Cassese, Antonio 320

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Cayuga Indians case (Great Britain v United by conquest see conquest States) 132, 305 decolonisation Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua see also state independence, former in the Border Area (Costa Rica v colonies Nicaragua) (ICJ) 165, 419, 421, 426–7, of Africa see Africa, decolonization of 435 of Latin America 208, 211 cession of territorial sovereignty of West Indies 279–80, 286 by acquisitive prescription 146, 153–6, discovery of territories see discovery of 170–71 territories by colonial powers 121–2, 178–9 local titles of sovereignty 85–6 decolonization see state independence see also evidence in territorial disputes; by local political entities local political entities see also colonization, local titles of cession see cession of territorial sovereignty; local political entities acquiescence see evidence in territorial sovereignty, by local political disputes, acquiescence entities consent requirement see consent to different cultural conceptions of 88–91 sovereignty transfers, local political extinguished by colonial powers 16, 91, entities 94 failure to cultivate territories 77–8, 92 see also colonization, third colonial treaties of cession see treaties with local power rights political entities held by peoples see right of under peace treaties see peace treaties self-determination see also territorial sovereignty papal bulls see papal bulls Chagos archipelago dispute 17, 149–50 recognized by colonial powers 16, 88, Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration 91–3, 127 (Mauritius v United Kingdom) (PCA) reversion of sovereignty doctrine 32, 142 186–8, 189, 190 in the modern era 344 Legal Consequences of the Separation of ‘non-self-governing territories’ definition the Chagos Archipelago from 359–60 Mauritius in 1965 (Request for occupation see occupation Advisory Opinion) (ICJ) 21–2 regions Clipperton Island (Mexico/France) 59, 83, Africa see Africa, colonization of 148, 184, 400, 408 Asia 67, 96, 107 colonial charters 58, 68, 74, 91 Latin America 52, 94, 95–6 authorizing treaties with local political Middle East see Middle East entities 117–18, 126, 133 North America see North America, see also discovery of territories; letters colonization of patent; occupation uninhabited territories see terrae nullius colonization West Indies see West Indies, colonization boundaries deriving from colonization of pre-colonial era frontiers distinguished successor states of colonial powers, 295–7 sovereignty 36, 95 uti possidetis juris principle applied to third colonial power rights 65, 66, 67, 68, see uti possidetis juris principle, 84, 97, 108 boundaries deriving from constructive possession doctrine 52, 87, colonisation 93–6, 130, 135 colonial law, relationship with international protectorate agreements, safeguarded law 212–15 against 128 see also uti possidetis juris principle spheres of influence doctrine 87, 96–7, colonial powers see Austria; France; 122, 197–9, 202–3 Germany; Great Britain; Italy; Columbus, Christopher 39, 49, 51, 61, 65, 66, Netherlands; Portugal; Spain; Turkey 107

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Index 461

natives of discovered territories, views on see also evidence in territorial disputes, 54–5, 72 acquiescence occupation as prerequisite of sovereignty, Kasson Declaration (non-recognition of views on 67 titles acquired by coercion) 110–11, see also occupation 117, 135 symbolic acts performed by 67, 72, 79 see also Berlin Conference (1884–85) see also discovery of territories; papal local political entities 43, 54, 75, 78, 142–3 bulls, Inter Caetera (1493) ‘free and intelligent’ consent requirement Commonwealth of Independent States 224–5, 133–5 379–81 ‘natural slavery’ doctrine see ‘natural slavery’ doctrine see also Eastern Europe constructive possession doctrine 52, 87, 93–6, conduct of states affecting sovereignty see 130, 135 states, conduct affecting sovereignty see also colonization, third colonial power Conference on Security and Cooperation in rights Europe, Helsinki Final Act 1975 20–21, Convention on Succession of States in 224 Respect of Treaties 1978 224, 229–30 conflict see use of force Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969 135, conquest 171–2, 229, 230, 290, 423 acquisition of sovereignty by 23–4, 31, Convention on the Rights and Duties of 97–9, 112–13, 143 States 1933 (Montevideo Convention) after debellatio 23, 108, 114, 115, 116, 16, 196, 351 117 Cook, James 74–5 after just wars 113–14 Crawford, James 153, 184, 193, 298, 348, after unjust wars 105–8, 110–12, 388 114–16 Crimea, annexation by Russia (2014) 237–8, conqueror’s intention, significance of 24, 291, 344, 349–50, 381 113, 116 see also Eastern Europe late 17th century views 108–10 critical date principle 2, 18, 19, 31, 398–404, late 19th century views 110–12 415–16, 438 non-Christian territories 99–103, 109 critical date determination 404–7 see also ‘natural slavery’ doctrine; legal effects of 407–10 peoples, non-Christians uti possidetis juris principle, distinguished Portugal 99–102, 103 from 402–4 Spain 98–9, 102, 105–8, 114 see also intertemporal law rule; settlement see also papal bulls, Inter Caetera of territorial disputes (1493) Croatia see Yugoslavia, former, Croatia ‘conquest’ definition 40, 103 Croatia/Slovenia case (PCA) 9, 24–5, 163, papal bulls authorizing see papal bulls 166–7, 168, 424 see also use of force Cromwell, Oliver 53, 80, 81, 107, 110, consent to sovereignty transfers 13, 21, 33, 116–17 437, 438 Cyprus, Northern 349, 389 acquiescence see evidence in territorial Czechoslovakia 211, 268, 269, 374, 376–7 disputes, acquiescence see also Eastern Europe boundary changes 202–6, 223–4, 226 see also boundaries De Visscher, Charles 347 consensual secession see secession, debellatio 23, 108, 114, 115, 116, 117 consensual secession see also conquest constructive possession doctrine 52, 87, Decision Regarding Delimitation of the 93–6, 130, 135 Border between Eritrea and Ethiopia see see also colonization, third colonial Eritrea/Ethiopia boundary dispute, power rights Decision Regarding Delimitation of the implied consent 169–70, 192 Border between Eritrea and Ethiopia

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Declaration on Principles of International see also Western Sahara advisory Law Concerning Friendly Relations opinion (ICJ) 1970 see UN (United Nations), see also colonization, local titles of Declaration on Principles of sovereignty; evidence in territorial International Law Concerning Friendly disputes; original titles of sovereignty; Relations 1970 (UN General Assembly titles of territorial sovereignty Resolution 2625/1970) devolution see sub-state entities, autonomy declarations, unilateral 93–4, 119–20, 153, di Fieschi, Sinibaldi (later Pope Innocent IV) 172–3, 175–8, 203 61–2, 63 see also evidence in territorial disputes discovery of territories decolonization applicable law of Africa see Africa, decolonization of canon law 61–3 of Latin America 208, 211 Roman law 63–5, 68 of West Indies 279–80, 286 authorization see also state independence, former colonial charters see colonial charters colonies letters patent see letters patent Delagoa Bay/Lourenço Marques (Great private and authorized discoveries Britain/Portugal) 83, 124, 132, 312, 400, distinguished 58 412 colonial expansion periods delimitation of boundaries see boundaries, 1492–1502 65–8 delimitation of see also Columbus, Christopher; papal Delimitation of Maritime Areas between bulls Canada and France (St. Pierre and after 1502 68–72 Miquelon) 326, 332 ‘discovery’ concept 58–9 Delimitation of the Abyei Area between the as ius ad occupationem 58, 71 Government of Sudan and the Sudan see also occupation People’s Liberation Movement/Army as title of sovereignty 57–8, 70–72 382–5 symbolic acts accompanying see on competing tribal claims to sovereignty symbolic acts 291, 309–10, 322–3, 329 uninhabited territories see terrae nullius on the legal significance of historical titles see also occupation 36–7 Dispute over Inter-Entity Boundary in Brcˇko on the obligation to respect private rights Area, Arbitration for the Brcˇko Area after sovereignty change on retention (Srpska v Bosnia and Herzegovina) 325, of property rights after sovereignty 329, 391–4 transfers 28 see also Yugoslavia, former, Bosnia and Delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone Herzegovina and the Continental Shelf (Barbados v Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Trinidad and Tobago) 325, 326, 327 Rights (Costa Rica v Nicaragua) (ICJ) Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the 223, 229, 332–4, 418, 419–20, 432–3 Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United dispute settlement see settlement of territorial States) (ICJ) 176–7, 326, 332, 434 disputes demarcation of boundaries 12, 200–201 dissolution of federal states see state see also boundaries independence, dissolution of federal derivative titles of sovereignty 142–4 states after conquest see conquest Duarte I, King of Portugal 55–6, 62, 99–100 conferred by local political entities see Dubai-Sharjah Border Arbitration cession of territorial sovereignty, by (Dubai/Sharjah) 391 local political entities agreements with local political entities, definition 150 enforceability 135 pre-eminence over original titles 143–4 on critical date principle 406 Western Sahara advisory opinion on 87, on different cultural conceptions of 150 sovereignty 89, 294–5

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on effectivités 158, 160, 310, 314–15, 430 intention and display elements 60, 147, Dupuy, Pierre-Marie 334–5 163, 429 Dutheil de la Rochère, Jacqueline 231 examples of 158, 160–63 versus formal title 10, 18, 27, 33, 147, East Timor 164–8, 204–5, 437 Affaire de l’île de Timor addressed in Eritrea/Ethiopia boundary (Pays-Bas/Portugal) 321–2 dispute case 167, 385–7 East Timor case (Portugal v Australia) see also Eritrea/Ethiopia boundary (ICJ) 352–3, 355 dispute Eastern Europe addressed in Territorial Dispute (Libyan Baltic states 238, 269, 374–5, 378–9, 381 Arab Jamahiriya/Chad) (ICJ) 148 Commonwealth of Independent States see also Territorial Dispute (Libyan 224–5, 379–81 Arab Jamahiriya/Chad) (ICJ) Czechoslovakia 211, 268, 269, 374, 376–7 complementary relationship 146, 164 peace treaties affecting 268–70, 317–19 maritime delimitation disputes see also peace treaties, affecting Europe distinguished 17 Russia 378–80 when applying the uti possidetis juris annexation of Crimea (2014) 237–8, 291, principle 164–5, 204, 212, 386 344, 349–50, 381 see also uti possidetis juris principle as continuator state of the USSR 375 see also evidence in territorial disputes USSR 211, 224, 238, 270, 374–5 El Salvador/Honduras case see Land, Island uti possidetis juris principle applied to new and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El states 211, 224, 369–70, 376–81 Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua see also uti possidetis juris principle intervening) (Gulf of Fonseca case) Yugoslavia, former see Yugoslavia, former (ICJ) Eastern Greenland case see Legal Status of elevations, low-tide 11–12 Eastern Greenland (Denmark v Norway) see also territories (PCIJ) England see Great Britain effective occupation doctrine 60, 72, 81, equity 82–5, 125, 143, 437 contra legem 18–19, 24 addressed at the Berlin Conference infra legem 18–19, 27–8, 327–8 (1884–85) 81, 82, 84–5, 128–9 role in maritime delimitation disputes 17, see also Berlin Conference (1884–85) 18 protectorates see also ‘human factor’ considerations in applied to 82 excepted from 82, 128–9 territorial dispute settlement; human as title to terrae nullius 151, 154 rights see also terrae nullius Eritrea/Ethiopia boundary dispute 240, 254–6, see also occupation 300, 375 effectivités 145, 232, 436 Algiers Agreement 2000 283–4 acquiescence to 429–32 Decision Regarding Delimitation of the see also evidence in territorial disputes, Border between Eritrea and Ethiopia acquiescence 183–4, 284, 325 conduct of non-state actors as 160, 308–12 on effectivités versus formal title 167, see also ‘human factor’ considerations in 385–7 territorial dispute settlement; on maps, evidential weight of 426, 427 non-state actors on use of force to settle territorial conduct of state organs as 159, 428–9 disputes 254–6, 257, 259 contra legem 21, 167, 389, 437 estoppel 185–91, 203 critical date for assessing see critical date see also evidence in territorial principle disputes definition 157, 204 ethnic groups see peoples

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Europe definition 180 colonial powers of see Austria; France; to effectivités 429–32 Germany; Great Britain; Italy; factors to be proved 116, 181–3 Netherlands; Portugal; Spain; Turkey ICJ interpretations 137–9, 140, 141, 142 Eastern Europe see Eastern Europe intertemporal law rule applied to 139–42 peace treaties affecting see peace treaties, see also intertemporal law rule affecting Europe burden of proof 33–4, 140, 421 territorial disputes colonial law 212–15 Affaire de l’île de Timor consent see consent to sovereignty transfers (Pays-Bas/Portugal) 321–2 domestic law 212–15, 424 Delagoa Bay/Lourenço Marques (Great effectivités see effectivités Britain/Portugal) 83, 124, 132, 312, estoppel 185–91, 203 400, 412 expert evidence 433–6 Fisheries Case (United Kingdom v historical evidence 30–31, 143 Norway) (ICJ) 156–7, 218, 311–12, see also colonization, local titles of 326, 332 sovereignty Grisbådarna (Norway/Sweden) case conduct of populations and individuals (PCA) 189–90, 227, 311, 325 307–12 Legal Status of Eastern Greenland see also ‘human factor’ considerations (Denmark v Norway) (PCIJ) see in territorial dispute settlement Legal Status of Eastern Greenland discovery see discovery of territories (Denmark v Norway) (PCIJ) intertemporal law rule see intertemporal Maritime Delimitation in the Area law rule between Greenland and Jan Mayen occupation see occupation (Denmark v Norway) 326–7 papal bulls see papal bulls Minquiers and Ecrehos (France v United symbolic acts see symbolic acts Kingdom) (ICJ) 30, 161, 162, 400, maps 232, 424–8, 436 404, 408, 414 state conduct see states, conduct affecting Palaos and Carolinas (Spain/Germany) sovereignty 84–5 territorial rights 432–3 Sovereignty over Certain Frontier Land see also ‘human factor’ considerations in (Belgium/Netherlands) (ICJ) 159, territorial dispute settlement 173, 221, 422, 431 treaties see treaties; treaties with local Sovereignty over the Island of Bulama, political entities and over a part of the mainland unilateral declarations 93–4, 119–20, 153, opposite to it (Great 172–3, 175–8, 203 Britain/Portugal) 83, 123–4, 311, see also settlement of territorial disputes; 312 titles of territorial sovereignty evidence in territorial disputes abandonment of titles 34, 106, 147, 153, Falkland/Malvinas Islands war (1982) 240, 170, 183–5, 431 244–5, 249, 253–4, 256 acquiescence 34, 131, 135–42, 155, 168, Arana–Southern Treaty 1849, irrelevance of 180–83, 184, 438 278–9 after conquest, colonial powers 105–8, see also use of force to settle territorial 110–12, 114–16 disputes after conquest, local political entities Fawcett, Charles 296 113–14, 116, 117 federal states to boundary changes 203–4 dissolution of see state independence, see also boundaries dissolution of federal states constructive possession doctrine 52, 87, ‘remedial’ federation 388–9 93–6, 130, 135 see also sub-state entities, autonomy see also colonization, third colonial Fisheries Case (United Kingdom v Norway) power rights (ICJ) 156–7, 218, 311–12, 326, 332

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Fitzmaurice, Sir Gerald 400, 404, 409–10 on colonial and international law forcible settlement of territorial disputes see relationship 213–14 use of force to settle territorial disputes on domestic law role 424 former colonies see state independence, on effectivités 161–2, 164, 165, 168, 204, former colonies 212 former Yugoslavia see Yugoslavia, former equity infra legem applied 27 Framework Convention for the Protection of on ‘human factor’ considerations 333 National Minorities 1995 (Council of on maps, evidential weight of 425–6 Europe) 363–4 on role of equity in territorial disputes France 18–19, 332 at the Berlin Conference (1884–85) 82 on stability and finality of boundaries see also Berlin Conference (1884–85) principle 228 Compagnie française des Indes orientales on the uti possidetis juris principle 164, 75 165, 204, 206, 209–10, 211, 301, 369, discovery of territories 69 424 see also discovery of territories Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Niger) (ICJ) exclusive navigation and commerce rights 222, 423, 435–6 of colonial powers, opposition to 52, on ‘boundary’ definition 10 70 equity infra legem applied 27–8 papal bulls as evidence of title, opposition on ‘human factor’ considerations 327, 332, to 44, 53 333, 334 see also papal bulls on immaterial elements in boundary protectorates 15 delimitation 219 sovereignty over colonies on the uti possidetis juris principle 208–9, Cap Vert peninsula 120–21 210, 328 Clipperton Island (Mexico/France) 59, frontiers see boundaries 83, 148, 184, 400, 408 Cotonou 115, 125 Germany 271 Saint Lucia 76, 183, 268 conception of territorial sovereignty 89, Thailand see Temple of Preah Vihear 90 (Cambodia v Thailand) (ICJ) Treaty of Versailles 1919 see Treaty of Treaties of Paris 1814 and 1815 267–8 Versailles 1919 see also colonization; peace treaties Treaty on the Final Settlement with Friendly Relations Declaration see UN Respect to Germany 1990 271–2 (United Nations), Declaration on see also colonization; peace treaties Principles of International Law Great Britain Concerning Friendly Relations 1970 at the Berlin Conference (1884–85) 82, (UN General Assembly Resolution 128 2625/1970) see also Berlin Conference (1884–85) Frontier Dispute (Benin/Niger) (ICJ) 168, British East India Company 118, 160, 311 222, 418–19, 423 discovery of territories on ‘boundary’ definition 197 see also discovery of territories on critical date principle 403–4, 409 in 1492–1502 49–50, 51–2, 65–6, 66–7 on uti possidetis juris principle 208, 231, after 1502 68–9 403–4 exclusive navigation and commerce rights Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Mali) (ICJ) of colonial powers, opposition to 52–3, 423 70, 79–80 on acquiescence to sovereignty transfer papal bulls as evidence of title, opposition 138–9 to 44, 53, 79 on attribution of conduct to states 176 see also papal bulls on classification of territorial disputes sovereignty over colonies 10–11, 199 Bulama Island 83, 123–4, 311, 312

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Cameroon v Nigeria case see Land and ‘human factor’ considerations in territorial Maritime Dispute (Cameroon v dispute settlement 215–19, 291–2, 330, Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea 340–42 intervening) (ICJ) human rights see human rights Canada 121, 276–7 right of self-determination see right of Chagos archipelago see Chagos self-determination archipelago dispute treatment in adjudication Delagoa Bay/Lourenço Marques 83, 124, as an economic issue 323–9, 432–3 132, 312, 400, 412 as an historical issue 174–5, 296, 306, Falkland/Malvinas Islands see 307–12 as a political issue 312–20 Falkland/Malvinas Islands war as a social issue 321–3 (1982) why neglected informal imposition of 136 material reasons 298–304 Lagos 121 procedural reasons 304–7 North America see North America structural and ethnographic reasons Saint Lucia 76, 183, 268 293–7 Southern Rhodesia 132–3, 348, 356 see also equity; non-state actors; peoples Treaty of Paris 1763 121–2, 152, 183, human rights 438, 439 264, 276–7 collective rights, neglect of 302–4 see also colonization; peace treaties ‘human factor’ considerations in the Grisbådarna (Norway/Sweden) case (PCA) settlement of territorial disputes see 189–90, 227, 311, 325 ‘human factor’ considerations in Grotius, Hugo 42, 74, 77, 113–14 territorial dispute settlement on discovery of territories 58–9, 64–5, 80 of peoples see peoples, human rights of on ‘natural slavery’ doctrine 57 property rights see property rights papal bulls as evidence of title opposed 44 right of self-determination see right of Guantanamo Bay 15 self-determination Guiana Boundary (Brazil/Great Britain) 294 right to subsistence 330–35, 432–3 Gulf of Fonseca case see Land, Island and state responsibility, independent of Maritime Frontier Dispute (El sovereignty 28 Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua see also equity intervening) (Gulf of Fonseca case) ICJ (International Court of Justice) 152–3 (ICJ) acquiescence to sovereignty loss, Guyana/Suriname award (PCA) 250–51 interpretations 137–9, 140, 141, 142 on acquisitive prescription 155–6 Hébié, Mamadou 344 boundary delimitation Helsinki Final Act 1975 of the Conference on see also boundaries Security and Cooperation in Europe historical consolidation of title doctrine 20–21, 224 146, 156–7, 218, 437 Henry the Navigator 46, 63, 99, 101 ‘human factor’ considerations see Higgins, Rosalyn 293–4 ‘human factor’ considerations in historical evidence in territorial disputes see territorial dispute settlement evidence in territorial disputes, historical respect for territorial integrity 20 evidence role in 220 Honduras Borders (Guatemala/Honduras) treaty interpretation 220–23 164–5, 429 uti possidetis juris principle 164, 165, Hong Kong 15 204, 206, 207–11, 213–14 Huber, Max (sole arbitrator in Island of ‘common legal interest’ doctrine 339 Palmas/Miangas (Netherlands v United declaratory function of 26, 152–3, 220, States)) see Island of Palmas/Miangas 417, 420–21 (Netherlands v United States) (PCA) on ‘dispute’ existence 6–8

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Index 467

on effectivités 158, 160–68, 204–5, 212 territorial integrity, respect for see expert evidence, rules and practice 433–6 territorial integrity, respect for see also evidence in territorial disputes use of force prohibition see use of force initiation of proceedings 418–20 human rights law see human rights opinions and rulings see Africa, territorial international organizations see international disputes; Asia, territorial disputes; organizations Europe, territorial disputes; Latin law of the sea 1, 9–10, 11, 17, 154, 418 America, territorial disputes; Middle states see states East, territorial disputes; North territorial sovereignty see territorial America, territorial disputes sovereignty see also international arbitration; settlement treaties see treaties; treaties with local of territorial disputes political entities immemorial possession of title 92, 154 International Law Commission see also titles of territorial sovereignty Articles on the Responsibility of States for independence, states see secession; state Internationally Wrongful Acts 159, independence 171, 173–4, 353 India Guiding Principles Applicable to Unilateral annexation of Goa (1961) 240, 247–8, Declarations of States Capable of 252–3 Creating Legal Obligations 172–3 Rann of Kutch case (Indo-Pakistan Western law on territorial disputes, codification Boundary (Rann of Kutch) project 2 (India/Pakistan)) 158, 162, 178–9, 181, see also international organizations 309, 408 international legal personality Right of Passage over Indian Territory local political entities 42–3, 97, 142 (Portugal v India) (ICJ) 419, 420, 433 see also local political entities Indians see peoples capacity to enter treaties 38–43, 131–3 indigenous peoples see peoples tribal allegiance, significance 174–5, 296, Indo-Pakistan Western Boundary (Rann of 306, 309, 312, 313–15 Kutch) (India/Pakistan) 158, 162, 178–9, peoples 41, 56 181, 309, 408 see also peoples international arbitration 1, 152–3 see also non-state actors awards see Africa, territorial disputes; Asia, international organisations territorial disputes; Europe, territorial African Union 208 disputes; Latin America, territorial Badinter Commission 211, 224, 300–301, disputes; Middle East, territorial 320, 364, 369–70, 377 disputes; North America, territorial see also Yugoslavia, former disputes; Permanent Court of boundary delimitation, role in 223–4 Arbitration (PCA) awards Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission see tribunals’ mandate 9 Eritrea/Ethiopia boundary dispute, see also ICJ (International Court of Decision Regarding Delimitation of the Justice); settlement of territorial Border between Eritrea and Ethiopia disputes International Labour Organization 335 International Labour Organization (ILO) 335 International Law Commission see international law International Law Commission armed conflicts see use of force Organization of African Union see fundamental principles Organization of African Union (OAU) see also territorial sovereignty, principles UN see UN (United Nations) ex injuria jus non oritur 345–8, 355, 437 see also international law peaceful settlement of disputes see Interpretation of the Treaty of Managua settlement of territorial disputes, between the United Kingdom and peaceful settlement Nicaragua (Mosquito Indians case) 95–6 right of self-determination see right of intertemporal law rule 2, 18, 19, 239, 416, self-determination 438

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468 Research handbook on territorial disputes in international law

acquiescence to sovereignty loss, Northeast Asian islands dispute 281–3, 290 determinations 139–42 Palaos and Carolinas (Spain/Germany) applied to former colonies 25, 31–2, 37–8 84–5 applied to territories acquired by force 31, Palmas (Miangas) see Island of 135 Palmas/Miangas (Netherlands v United Max Huber’s exposition 31–2, 410, 411–12 States) (PCA) see also Island of Palmas/Miangas South China Sea dispute 245–7, 250, 251, (Netherlands v United States) (PCA) 254, 257 contestations of 413–15 see also use of force to settle territorial two-step approach disputes contemporaneity 31, 37–8, 231, 410 Sovereignty over the Island of Bulama, and evolution of the law 31, 410, 411–12 over a part of the mainland opposite see also critical date principle; evidence in to it (Great Britain/Portugal) 83, territorial disputes; settlement of territorial disputes 123–4, 311, 312 Iraq St. Pierre and Miquelon case (Delimitation attempted annexation of Kuwait (1990) of Maritime Areas between Canada 237, 257–8 and France) 326, 332 Iraq-Kuwait border delimitation 225–6, uninhabited 59–60, 63–4, 81 328–9 West Indies see West Indies Mosul Advisory Opinion (Article 3, see also territories Paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Italy 115, 119, 269, 270 Lausanne (Frontier between Turkey Treaty of Peace with Italy 1947 283, 287 and Iraq)) (PCIJ) 220–21, 227 see also colonization; peace treaties Island of Palmas/Miangas (Netherlands v United States) (PCA) 70, 83, 147, 148, Japan 180 San Francisco Peace Treaty 1951 264, 267, agreements with local political entities, 280–83, 285, 286 enforceability 39–40, 129, 311–12 Treaty of Portsmouth 1905 280 on attribution of conduct to states 174, 311 see also Asia; peace treaties, affecting Asia on critical date principle 400, 408 Jefferson, Thomas 93, 95 on effectivités 157, 160, 167 Jennings, Sir Robert 8–9, 169, 179, 421–2, on intertemporal law rule 31–2, 410, 434 411–12 Jessup, Philip C. 413 on ‘sovereignty’ definition 12, 33, 149 just war theory on the validity of a transfer of sovereignty 152 Medieval Christian 54, 63, 99–105 islands 7, 9, 10, 11 modern law see use of force Canary Islands, sovereignty over 55–6, 62, 64 Kasikili/Sedudu Island (Botswana/Namibia) see also Portugal (ICJ) 155–6, 174, 222, 230, 310, 406–7 Chagos archipelago dispute see Chagos Kasson, John A. (US delegate to the Berlin archipelago dispute Conference (1884–85)) 124 Clipperton Island (Mexico/France) 59, 83, Kasson Declaration (non-recognition of 148, 184, 400, 408 titles acquired by coercion) 110–11, Falkland/Malvinas Islands see 117, 135 Falkland/Malvinas Islands war (1982) see also Berlin Conference (1884–85) Kasikili/Sedudu Island (Botswana/Namibia) Kelsen, Hans 346, 402 (ICJ) 155–6, 174, 222, 230, 310, Kohen, Marcelo G. 139, 316, 320, 372, 386 406–7 Kosovo see Yugoslavia, former, Kosovo Minquiers and Ecrehos (France v United Kuwait Kingdom) (ICJ) 30, 161, 162, 400, attempted annexation by Iraq (1990) 237, 404, 408, 414 257–8

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Index 469

Iraq-Kuwait border delimitation 225–6, on the uti possidetis juris principle 305–6, 328–9 326 see also Middle East Latin America colonization of 52, 94, 95–6 lakes see watercourses decolonization of 208, 211 Lalonde, Suzanne 370 peace treaties affecting see peace treaties, Land and Maritime Dispute (Cameroon v affecting the Americas Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea intervening) peoples’ rights recognition, developments (ICJ) 419, 422–3 337–40 on abandonment of titles 184, 431 see also peoples, human rights on acquiescence to sovereignty transfer territorial disputes Arbitral Award Made by the King of 137, 142, 180, 430–31 Spain on 23 December 1906 agreements with local political entities, (Honduras v Nicaragua) (ICJ) enforceability legal nature and effects 175–6 38–9, 41, 42 Beagle Channel (Argentina/Chile) 228 on boundary ‘delimitation’ and Certain Activities Carried Out by ‘demarcation’ distinction 12, 200 Nicaragua in the Border Area on effectivités 21, 27, 160, 165–6, 167, (Costa Rica v Nicaragua) (ICJ) 165, 430–31 419, 421, 426–7, 435 on the historical consolidation of title Dispute regarding Navigational and doctrine 157, 218 Related Rights (Costa Rica v on ‘human factor’ considerations 216–17 Nicaragua) (ICJ) 223, 229, 332–4, on intertemporal law rule 37, 38 418, 419–20, 432–3 on maps, evidential weight of 428 Falkland/Malvinas Islands war see on protectorate agreements 37, 38, 41, 42, Falkland/Malvinas Islands war 130 (1982) on retention of the obligation to respect Guiana Boundary (Brazil/Great Britain) private rights after sovereignty change 294 27 Gulf of Fonseca case see Land, Island on ‘state’ definition 38, 40 and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El on use of force to settle territorial disputes Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua 241–3, 252, 259–60 intervening) (Gulf of Fonseca case) Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (ICJ) (El Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua Guyana/Suriname award (PCA) 250–51 intervening) (Gulf of Fonseca case) Honduras Borders (ICJ) (Guatemala/Honduras) 164–5, 429 on colonial and international law Nicaragua/Honduras territorial and relationship 214 maritime dispute see Territorial and on ‘dispute’ existence 7 Maritime Dispute between on effectivités 160, 162–3, 216, 327 Nicaragua and Honduras in the equity infra legem applied 19 Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v on estoppel doctrine 190 Honduras) (ICJ) on ‘human factor’ considerations 327, 332 Peru-Chile border 316–17 on immaterial elements in boundary Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay delimitation 215–16, 217–18 (Argentina v Uruguay) (ICJ) 434–5 ‘natural’ boundaries idea rejected 201, Territorial and Maritime Dispute 221–2 (Nicaragua v Colombia) (ICJ) see on the obligation to respect private rights Territorial and Maritime Dispute after sovereignty change/ on retention (Nicaragua v Colombia) (ICJ) of rights after sovereignty change 26–7 Lauterpacht, Hersch 145, 356, 368, 420 on ‘títulos ejidales’ and ‘títulos law of the sea 1, 9–10, 11, 17, 154, 418 republicanos’ distinction 147 League of Nations Covenant 1919 14, 149

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Legal Consequences for States of the Old Calabar see Land and Maritime Continued Presence of South Africa in Dispute (Cameroon v Nigeria) (ICJ) Namibia (South West Africa) Sultanate of Johor see Sovereignty over notwithstanding Security Council Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Resolution 276 (1970) (ICJ) 28, 357, Middle Rocks and South Ledge 415 (Malaysia/Singapore) (ICJ) Legal Consequences of the Separation of the titles of sovereignty see colonization, local Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in titles of sovereignty 1965 (Request for Advisory Opinion) treaties with see treaties with local political (ICJ) 21–2 entities legal personality, international see see also colonization, local titles of international legal personality sovereignty; non-state actors Legal Status of Eastern Greenland (Denmark Location of Boundary Markers in Taba v Norway) (PCIJ) 148, 421 between Egypt and Israel (Egypt/Israel) on abandonment of titles 185 162, 232, 402, 403, 408 on attribution of conduct to states 175 Locke, John 77 ‘conquest’ definition 40 low-tide elevations 11–12 on critical date principle 400–401, 402 see also territories on effectivités 60, 147, 161, 163, 429 no other state’s sovereignty claim, Malet, Sir Edward 82, 128 significance of 60 Mancini, Pasquale Stanislao 119 on state recognition of titles of sovereignty maps 232, 424–8, 436 179 see also evidence in territorial disputes letters patent 58, 69, 71, 78, 83, 94 maritime areas see territories, maritime authorizing treaties with local political areas entities 71, 103–4, 117–19, 126, 133 Maritime Delimitation and Territorial authorizing use of force 102–3, 104, 108–9 Questions between Qatar and Bahrain duties respecting acquisition of sovereignty (Qatar v Bahrain) (ICJ) 161, 175, 315, over uninhabited territories 60, 64, 325 74–5, 76–7, 79, 91 Maritime Delimitation in the Area between see also terrae nullius Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v safeguard clauses 65–6, 68–9 Norway) 326–7 see also colonial charters; discovery of Merrills, John 387 territories; occupation Middle East local political entities Iraq see Iraq cession of sovereignty see cession of Ottoman Empire 88–9, 149, 262, 273, 287 territorial sovereignty, by local peace treaties affecting see peace treaties, political entities affecting the Middle East consent to sovereignty transfers see consent territorial disputes to sovereignty transfers, local political Article 3, Paragraph 2, of the Treaty of entities Lausanne (Frontier between Turkey Dahomey (original ruler of Cotonou) 115, and Iraq) (Mosul Advisory Opinion) 125 (PCIJ) 220–21, 227 failure to cultivate territories 77–8, 92 Dubai-Sharjah Border Arbitration Great Khan 54–5, 57, 142 (Dubai/Sharjah) see Dubai-Sharjah international legal personality of 42–3, 97, Border Arbitration (Dubai/Sharjah) 142 Iraq-Kuwait border delimitation 225–6, capacity to enter treaties 38–43, 131–3 328–9 tribal allegiance to, significance 174–5, Location of Boundary Markers in Taba 296, 306, 309, 312, 313–15 between Egypt and Israel ‘natural slavery’ doctrine applied to see (Egypt/Israel) 162, 232, 402, 403, ‘natural slavery’ doctrine 408

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Index 471

Maritime Delimitation and Territorial N’Krumah, Kwame 207 Questions between Qatar and non-state actors Bahrain (Qatar v Bahrain) (ICJ) attribution of conduct to states 160, 173–5, 161, 175, 315, 325 308–12 Turkey see Turkey chartered companies Military and Paramilitary Activities in and British East India Company 118, 160, against Nicaragua (ICJ) 92, 241 311 military intervention to settle territorial Compagnie française des Indes orientales disputes see use of force to settle 75 territorial disputes Dutch East India Company 39, 174, 311, military occupation 23–4, 162, 239, 262, 264 313 see also occupation; peace treaties Dutch West India Company 311 minority groups see peoples Minquiers and Ecrehos (France v United international organizations see international Kingdom) (ICJ) 30, 161, 162, 400, 404, organizations 408, 414 lack of standing in territorial dispute ‘modes of acquisition’ of territorial proceedings 304–5, 382 sovereignty doctrine 2, 145, 146 local political entities see local political see also titles of territorial sovereignty entities Montenegro 375, 377–8 peoples see peoples see also Yugoslavia, former respect for territorial integrity principle, Montevideo Convention on the Rights and whether applicable to 21–2 Duties of States 1933 16, 196, 351 secessionist movements see secession Mosquito Indians case (Interpretation of the sub-state entities see sub-state entities Treaty of Managua between the United see also colonization; ‘human factor’ Kingdom and Nicaragua) 95–6 considerations in territorial dispute Mosul Advisory Opinion (Article 3, settlement; states Paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Lausanne North America (Frontier between Turkey and Iraq)) colonization of 68–9, 70, 77–8, 93, 94–5, (PCIJ) 220–21, 227 110, 122–3 mountains 201 native Americans, rights over territories see see also boundaries, natural boundaries; native Americans, rights over territories territories peace treaties affecting see peace treaties, native Americans, rights over territories 93, affecting the Americas 94–5, 413 territorial disputes Cayuga Indians case (Great Britain v Beaufort Sea boundary delimitation case United States) 132, 305 340 native peoples see peoples Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary ‘natural slavery’ doctrine 67–8, 72, 73, 85, in the Gulf of Maine Area 92, 142 (Canada/United States) (ICJ) 176–7, Aristotle on 55, 101, 102 326, 332, 434 Grotius on 57 St. Pierre and Miquelon case under papal bull Inter Caetera (1493) 53–7, (Delimitation of Maritime Areas 87, 98, 105, 142 between Canada and France) 326, see also papal bulls 332 see also local political entities; peoples see also Canada; United States Netherlands 122–3 Northern Cyprus 349, 389 Dutch East India Company 39, 174, 311, 313 occupation 15, 85 Dutch West India Company 311 definition 83 see also colonization; peace treaties, of discovered territories see discovery of affecting the Americas territories

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effective occupation doctrine see effective legal value after the sixteenth century 44, occupation doctrine 53, 79 of inhabited territories, prohibited 73–7, 78, legal value under Christian Medieval law 87, 143 45–50 ius ad occupationem, sources of 47, 58, 71, Praecelsae Devotionis (1514) 46–7 113 Romanus Pontifex (1455) 45, 46, 101–2 military occupation 23–4, 162, 239, 262, see also evidence in territorial disputes 264 peace treaties 24, 235, 236, 290 see also peace treaties affecting Africa occupied populations, right of Algiers Agreement 2000 283–4 self-determination 25 Peace of Vereeniging 1902 283 Treaty of Peace with Italy 1947 283, 287 see also right of self determination affecting Asia Roman law on 72–3, 74 San Francisco Peace Treaty 1951 264, of uncultivated territories 77–8, 92 267, 280–83, 285, 286 of uninhabited territories see terrae nullius Treaty of Paris 1898 279–80, 286 uti possidetis juris principle see uti Treaty of Portsmouth 1905 280 possidetis juris principle affecting Europe Organization of African Union (OAU) Austrian State Treaty 1955 270–71 Cairo Resolution (Resolution AHG/16 (I) Dayton Agreement 1995 272–3, 388, (1964)) 208, 209, 299–300 391, 392–3 OAU Charter 1963 299 Peace of Westphalia 1648 1, 265–6 see also Africa; international organizations Treaties of Paris 1814 and 1815 267–8, original titles of sovereignty 150 286 local titles see colonization, local titles of Treaties of Paris 1947 223–4, 269–70 sovereignty Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919 newly emerged states 150 269, 317, 318–19 titles to terrae nullius see terrae nullius Treaty of Trianon 1920 269, 317, 319 see also derivative titles of sovereignty; Treaty of Versailles 1919 see Treaty of titles of territorial sovereignty Versailles 1919 Ottoman Empire 88–9, 149, 262, 273, 287 Treaty on the Final Settlement with see also Middle East; Turkey Respect to Germany 1990 271–2 affecting the Americas 70 Palaos and Carolinas (Spain/Germany) 84–5 Arana–Southern Treaty 1849 278–9 Palmas/Miangas case see Island of Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty 1848 277–8 Palmas/Miangas (Netherlands v United Peace of Paris 1783 277 States) (PCA) Peace of Utrecht 1713 24, 276, 290 papal bulls 85–6, 152 Treaty of Paris 1763 121–2, 152, 183, applicable legal framework 43–5 264, 276–7, 279, 283, 290 Dum Diversas (1452) 45–6, 101 affecting the Middle East evidential value opposed 44, 53, 79 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty 1979 274–5 Eximiae Devotionis (1493) 43–4, 45 Jordan-Israel Peace Treaty 1994 275–6 Inter Caetera (1493) 43–4, 45, 48–51, 66, Treaty of Lausanne 1923 273–4, 287 85, 98, 102 see also Mosul Advisory Opinion see also Columbus, Christopher (Article 3, Paragraph 2, of the legal basis disputed 52–3 Treaty of Lausanne (Frontier ‘natural slavery’ doctrine 53–7, 87, 98, between Turkey and Iraq)) (PCIJ); 105, 142 Territorial Sovereignty and Scope on pre-existing indigenous rights 63 of the Dispute (Eritrea/Yemen) ratione loci and ratione temporis limits Treaty of Sèvres 1920 273 of 51–3 armistice and ceasefire agreements as ius ad occupationem 47 distinguished 263–4 see also occupation legal basis of 284–5

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Index 473

with local political entities 114, 116, 135 Valladolid Junta (1550–51) 106 see also treaties with local political religious identity of 323 entities tribal allegiance to local political entities, purpose 262–3 significance 174–5, 296, 306, 309, renunciation of territory under 285–90 312, 313–15 see also treaties; use of force see also non-state actors peaceful settlement of territorial disputes see Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) awards settlement of territorial disputes Croatia/Slovenia case 9, 24–5, 163, 166–7, peoples 168, 424 definition 26, 360 Grisbådarna (Norway/Sweden) case examples of 390 189–90, 227, 311, 325 Åland islanders 298, 305, 319–20, 322 Guyana/Suriname award 250–51 ethnic Serbs 211, 320, 381, 388–9, 393 Palmas/Miangas case see Island of Inuvialuit 340 Palmas/Miangas (Netherlands v United Miskito 390 States) (PCA) see also Interpretation of the Treaty of see also international arbitration Managua between the United Permanent Court of International Justice Kingdom and Nicaragua (PCIJ) (Mosquito Indians case) on ‘dispute’ existence 6 native Americans see native Americans, opinions and rulings rights over territories Article 3, Paragraph 2, of the Treaty of nomads 219, 296, 307–8, 309, 313–14, Lausanne (Frontier between Turkey 333 and Iraq) (Mosul Advisory Opinion) see also Frontier Dispute (Burkina 220–21, 227 Faso/Niger) (ICJ); Western Sahara Eastern Greenland case see Legal Status advisory opinion (ICJ) of Eastern Greenland (Denmark v ‘human factor’ considerations in the Norway) (PCIJ) settlement of territorial disputes see on possession/effectivités 157–8 ‘human factor’ considerations in Peters, Anne 370, 372 territorial dispute settlement plebiscites see referenda human rights of Pope Eugene IV 56, 99–100, 105 see also human rights Pope Innocent IV (writing as di Fieschi, Framework Convention for the Protection Sinibaldi) 61–2, 63 of National Minorities 1995 Portugal (Council of Europe) 363–4 Duarte I, King of Portugal 55–6, 62, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples 99–100 Convention 1989 (ILO 169) 335 Henry the Navigator 46, 63, 99, 101 right of self-determination see right of just war theory 104–5 self-determination sovereignty over colonies territorial rights of 335–40 acquired by conquest 99–102, 103 UN Declaration on the Rights of see also conquest Indigenous Peoples 2007 335–7, Bulama Island 83, 123–4, 311, 312 339, 364 Canary Islands 55–6, 62, 64 international legal personality of 41, 56 Delagoa Bay/Lourenço Marques 83, 124, lack of standing in territorial dispute 132, 312, 400, 412 proceedings 304–5, 382 exclusive rights of navigation and non-Christians 54–7, 61–3, 64–5 commerce 69–70 conquest of 99–103, 109 Goa 183, 240, 247–8, 252–3 see also conquest Moluccas 64, 68 ‘natural slavery’ doctrine see ‘natural papal bulls as evidence 45–8 slavery’ doctrine Roman law applied 64 terms applied to 45, 46, 47, 92, 99–100, West Africa see West Africa, colonization 101–2, 103 of

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see also colonization; peace treaties, relinquishment of territorial sovereignty see affecting the Americas cession of territorial sovereignty property rights Reuter, Paul 145 distinguished from ‘sovereignty’ 13–14 reversion of sovereignty doctrine 32, 142 see also titles of territorial sovereignty see also colonization, local titles of acquisitive prescription as doctrine of sovereignty; evidence in territorial sovereignty 146, 153–6, 170–71 disputes; state independence, former retention not affected by after sovereignty colonies transfers 26–7, 28–9, 121 Right of Passage over Indian Territory protectorates 15–16, 38, 41, 136, 149 (Portugal v India) (ICJ) 419, 420, 433 effective occupation doctrine right of self-determination 2, 14–15, 16, applied to 84 24–5, 438 excepted from 82, 128–9 African perspective on 300 protectorate agreements 15–16, 120, 122, see also Africa 125, 126, 127–9, 130–31, 143 colonized populations 15, 16, 22, 25, 95, Cameroon v Nigeria case on 37, 38, 41, 142, 344 42, 130 see also colonization; state independence, see also Land and Maritime Dispute former colonies (Cameroon v Nigeria: Equatorial ‘non-self-governing territories’ definition Guinea intervening) (ICJ) 359–60 third colonial power rights, safeguarded effects on sovereignty 25–6 against 128 emergence as international law principle see also colonization, third colonial 298–304, 341, 343–4 power rights external and internal projections of 298–9, see also Berlin Conference (1884–85); 316, 341, 344, 364 states; suzerainty agreements; integration or association with another state territories 26 Pufendorf, Samuel 74, 80, 109 Crimea 237–8, 291, 344, 349–50, 381 Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v see also Eastern Europe Uruguay) (ICJ) 434–5 Northern Cyprus 349, 389 referenda see referenda ‘quasi-sovereignty’ concept refuted 91 regional autonomy see sub-state entities, see also territorial sovereignty autonomy Quebec 316, 364, 367, 371 restricted to ‘peoples’ 26, 360 see also Canada; secession see also peoples secession see secession Radan, Peter 370 stability and finality of boundaries Rann of Kutch case (Indo-Pakistan Western principle, relationship with 228, 341–2, Boundary (Rann of Kutch) 343 (India/Pakistan)) 158, 162, 178–9, 181, see also stability and finality of 309, 408 boundaries principle Ratner, Steven 370 territorial integrity principle, relationship recognition of titles of sovereignty by states with 20, 21–2, 363, 364 16, 88, 91–3, 127, 178–9, 183–4 uti possidetis juris principle, relationship see also titles of territorial sovereignty with 211, 299, 300–302, 305–6, 320, referenda 150, 238, 291, 312, 315–16, 350, 371 376 see also ‘human factor’ considerations in on the location of boundaries 316–20 territorial dispute settlement; human see also right of self-determination rights; state independence regional autonomy see sub-state entities, rivers see watercourses autonomy rocks 11 Reisman, Michael 305, 306, 339–40 see also territories

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Index 475

Roman law secession not prohibited by 362–6 on discovery of territories 63–5, 68 state recognition, significance of 368–9 see also discovery of territories territorial integrity principle, relationship on occupation 72–3, 74 with 363, 364, 368–9 see also occupation see also territorial integrity, respect for on property rights 146 use of force 365–6 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 81 see also use of force to settle territorial rulers, local see local political entities disputes Russia see Eastern Europe, Russia uti possidetis juris principle 369–73 prohibited by national constitutions 364–5 Saint Lucia 76, 183, 268 secessionist claims as territorial disputes see also West Indies 344–5 Sánchez Rodríguez, Luis Ignacio 402, 403 self-governance as alternative see sub-state secession 22, 211, 212, 394–5 entities, autonomy devolution (consensual secession) 373, 395 see also state independence referenda see referenda self-defence see use of force, self-defence role of consent 374–6 self-determination, right of see right of territorial disputes arising during or after self-determination 382–7 self-governance of peoples see sub-state effectiveness principle, operation of 345, entities, autonomy 346–9, 355–6, 366–9, 395 separatist movements see secession uti possidetis juris principle, relationship Serbia 211, 224, 363, 375, 377 with 371–3 see also Yugoslavia, former examples 375–6 settlement of territorial disputes 1, 2 Crimea 237–8, 291, 344, 349–50, 381 agreements on management of disputes 8 Kosovo see Yugoslavia, former, Kosovo boundary disputes see boundaries Northern Cyprus 349, 389 declaratory function of courts and tribunals Quebec 316, 364, 367, 371 26, 152–3, 220, 417, 420–21 Somaliland 367, 368 dispute concept international law applied to 345–6 classification of disputes 10–11, Accordance with International Law of 199–200, 417–18 the Unilateral Declaration of ‘dispute’ existence, international Independence In Respect of Kosovo jurisprudence 6–8 (Request for Advisory Opinion) distinguished from ‘conflict’ 5–6 (ICJ) 350–51, 361–2, 364, 365, 376 legal and political disputes distinguished duty not to recognize secessionist states 8–9 351–8, 395 disputes, by region see Africa, territorial ex injuria jus non oritur principle 345–8, disputes; Asia, territorial disputes; 355, 437 Europe, territorial disputes; Latin Legal Consequences for States of the America, territorial disputes; Middle Continued Presence of South Africa East, territorial disputes; North in Namibia (South West Africa) America, territorial disputes notwithstanding Security Council evidence see evidence in territorial disputes Resolution 276 (1970) (ICJ) 28, 357, ‘human factor’ considerations see ‘human 415 factor’ considerations in territorial ‘realistic’ approach and its rebuttal dispute settlement 346–51, 355–6, 395 ICJ proceedings see ICJ (International secession in breach of prohibition of Court of Justice) aggression norm 349–50 initiation of proceedings 418–20 secession in breach of right of international arbitration see international self-determination norm 348–9 arbitration see also right of self-determination method and technical rules 18–20, 397–8, secession not authorized by 359–62 415–16

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476 Research handbook on territorial disputes in international law

critical date principle see critical date Sovereignty over the Island of Bulama, and principle over a part of the mainland opposite to intertemporal law rule see intertemporal it (Great Britain/Portugal) 83, 123–4, law rule 311, 312 use of historical evidence see evidence in Soviet Union 211, 224, 238, 270, 374–5 territorial disputes, historical see also Eastern Europe evidence Spain peaceful settlement 1, 2, 29–30, 108, discovery of territories 239–41 see also discovery of territories see also use of force in 1492–1502 see Columbus, Christopher evolution of doctrine 22–4, 236–7 after 1502 68 use of force see use of force to settle sovereignty over colonies territorial disputes acquired by conquest 98–9, 102, 105–8, refusal to engage with dispute settlement, consequences 29–30 114 standing restricted to states 304–5, 382 see also conquest Shaw, Malcolm 193, 200–201, 203, 206–7, Canary Islands 56, 64 217, 372, 387 constructive possession doctrine applied ‘slaves by nature’ doctrine see ‘natural 52, 94 slavery’ doctrine exclusive rights of navigation and Somaliland 367, 368 commerce 52–3, 69–70 see also secession Latin America 52, 94, 95–6 South America see Latin America Moluccas 64, 68 South China Sea dispute 245–7, 250, 251, Palaos and Carolinas 84–5 254, 257 Palmas (Miangas) see Island of see also use of force to settle territorial Palmas/Miangas (Netherlands v disputes United States) (PCA) South West Africa (Ethiopia v South Africa; papal bull Inter Caetera see papal bulls, Liberia v South Africa) (ICJ) 6, 401 Inter Caetera (1493) sovereignty see territorial sovereignty Requerimiento declaration (1513) 49, Sovereignty over Certain Frontier Land 98–9, 114 (Belgium/Netherlands) (ICJ) 159, 173, Roman law applied 64, 68 221, 422, 431 Treaty of Tordesillas 1494 49, 68 Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Valladolid Junta (1550–51) 106 Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge West Indies see West Indies, colonization (Malaysia/Singapore) (ICJ) 192 of on abandonment of titles 185 see also colonization; peace treaties on acquiescence to sovereignty transfer 430 spheres of influence doctrine 87, 96–7, 122, on attribution of conduct to states 174 197–9, 202–3 on consent or acquiescence to sovereignty see also colonization, third colonial power loss 137–8, 141, 169, 170, 180–83, rights 203–4 St. Pierre and Miquelon case (Delimitation of on different cultural conceptions of Maritime Areas between Canada and sovereignty 89 France) 326, 332 on effectivités 160, 161, 166, 168, 429, 430 stability and finality of boundaries principle on estoppel doctrine 189 17, 231–2, 438 on the legal personality and territorial boundaries persisting after lapse of treaties sovereignty of local political entities 205, 227–9, 230 42, 97, 142, 309 consent element 203 on maps, evidential weight of 427 as rebuttable presumption 220 Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau right of self-determination, relationship Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia) (ICJ) 163, with 228, 341–2, 343 310, 409 see also right of self-determination

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Index 477

see also boundaries; uti possidetis juris conduct of individuals or private entities principle 160, 173–5, 308–9 Starita, Massimo 231 conduct of state organs 159, 173 state independence 1 boundaries, significance of 193–7 Chagos archipelago dispute see Chagos see also boundaries archipelago dispute colonial powers see Austria; France; dissolution of federal states 211, 224–5 Germany; Great Britain; Italy; by consent 374–6 Netherlands; Portugal; Spain Eastern Europe see Eastern Europe; colonies see colonization Yugoslavia, former conduct affecting sovereignty 191–2 pre-existing borders, relevance of 376–81 see also cession of territorial sovereignty; see also uti possidetis juris principle evidence in territorial disputes; titles territorial disputes arising during or after of territorial sovereignty 382–7 abandonment of titles 34, 106, 147, 153, former colonies 19–20, 22, 141–2, 150 170, 183–5, 431 Africa see Africa, decolonization of acquiescence see evidence in territorial boundaries see boundaries, treaties; uti disputes, acquiescence possidetis juris principle, boundaries conduct in prima facie breach of deriving from colonization recognized rule 92 intertemporal law rule applied to 25, conquest see conquest 31–2, 37–8 constructive possession doctrine 52, 87, see also intertemporal law rule 93–6, 130, 135 Latin America 208, 211 see also colonization, third colonial ‘non-self-governing territories’ definition power rights 359–60 decolonization and secession see state reversion of sovereignty doctrine 32, 142 independence Friendly Relations Declaration on 14–15, effectivités see effectivité 150, 361 estoppel 185–91, 203 see also UN (United Nations), implied consent 169–70, 192 Declaration on Principles of see also consent to sovereignty International Law Concerning transfers; evidence in territorial Friendly Relations 1970 (UN disputes, acquiescence General Assembly Resolution occupation see occupation 2625/1970) recognition of titles 16, 88, 91–3, 127, regional autonomy see sub-state entities, 178–9, 183–4 autonomy spheres of influence doctrine 87, 96–7, right of self-determination see right of 122, 197–9, 202–3 self-determination see also colonization, third colonial secession see secession power rights state recognition, significance of 368–9 symbolic acts see symbolic acts tabula rasa principle 230 treaties, entry into see treaties uti possidetis juris principle see uti unilateral declarations 93–4, 119–20, possidetis juris principle 153, 172–3, 175–8, 203 Vienna Convention on Succession of States use of force prohibited see use of force, in Respect of Treaties 1978 224, modern law prohibition 229–30 federal states see also territorial sovereignty dissolution of see state independence, states dissolution of federal states attribution of conduct to 159–60, 171–3 ‘remedial’ federation 388–9 see also effectivités see also sub-state entities, autonomy authority to enter into treaties 171–2 independence see state independence authority to enter into unilateral Montevideo Convention on the Rights and declarations 175–8 Duties of States 1933 16, 196, 351

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protectorates see protectorates on acquiescence to sovereignty transfer responsibility for human rights violations 138, 140, 181, 204 28 on effectivités 159, 173, 204 secession see secession on estoppel doctrine 185–6 sovereignty of see territorial sovereignty on ‘human factor’ considerations 334 state recognition, significance of 368–9 on immaterial elements in boundary see also secession; state independence delimitation 219 successors of colonial powers 36, 95 on maps, evidential weight of 424–5, territories 427–8 see also territories ‘natural’ boundaries idea rejected 201 as constitutive element of states 16, on stability and finality of boundaries 196–7 principle 220, 227–8 not constituting states 38–40 see also non-state actors terrae nullius 41, 64–5, 73, 85, 92, 437 sub-state entities addressed in Territorial Sovereignty and autonomy 387–8, 389–90 Scope of the Dispute (Eritrea/Yemen) Dispute over Inter-Entity Boundary in 274, 287–90 Brcˇko Area, Arbitration for the see also Territorial Sovereignty and Brcˇko Area (Srpska v Bosnia and Scope of the Dispute (Eritrea/Yemen) Herzegovina) 325, 329, 391–4 Africa see Africa see also Yugoslavia, former, Bosnia duties (acquisition of sovereignty) towards and Herzegovina in letters patent 60, 64, 74–5, 76–7, examples of autonomous regions 390 79, 91 ‘remedial’ federation 388–9 see also letters patent requirements of 389–90 Eastern Greenland case see Legal Status of lack of standing in territorial dispute Eastern Greenland (Denmark v proceedings 304–5, 382 Norway) (PCIJ) respect for territorial integrity principle, effective occupation as title of sovereignty applied to 363, 364 151, 154 secession see secession see also effective occupation doctrine see also non-state actors inhabited territories excluded from subsoil 9, 197 definition 73–7, 78, 87, 143 see also territories occupation, materiality of 79–82 suzerainty agreements 103, 135–6 symbolic acts on 72, 79, 81, 83 legal value of 39–40 uninhabited islands 59–60, 63–4, 81 whether titles of territorial sovereignty Western Sahara advisory opinion (ICJ) on 15–16, 94, 125, 127–8, 129–30, 313 41, 73, 130 see also protectorates see also Western Sahara advisory symbolic acts opinion (ICJ) on discovered territories 57, 59, 60, 67 see also discovery of territories; examples occupation; territories flags 75, 138 Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua forts and settlements 71, 81 v Colombia) (ICJ) memorials 75 on effectivités 161, 162, 165, 168, 406 performed by Christopher Columbus 67, on ‘human factor’ considerations 291, 326 72, 79 on stability and finality of boundaries as titles of sovereignty 71–2, 80–81 principle 228–9 over terrae nullis 72, 79, 81, 83 Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Tancredi, Antonello 347, 349–50 Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v Honduras) Tasman, Abel 75 (ICJ) 168, 183, 308–9 Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v on critical date principle 401, 405–6 Thailand) (ICJ) 191, 409–10, 421 on effectivités 308–9

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Index 479

on immaterial elements in boundary boundaries, stability and finality of see delimitation 218–19 stability and finality of boundaries Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab principle Jamahiriya/Chad) (ICJ) 199, 200, 221, consent see consent to sovereignty 306, 419 transfers on consent to boundary changes 169, equity see equity 202–3, 205 right of self-determination see right of on effectivités versus formal title 148 self-determination on reversion of sovereignty doctrine 32 territorial integrity, respect for see on stability and finality of boundaries territorial integrity, respect for principle 228 uti possidetis juris see uti possidetis juris on the uti possidetis juris principle 209, principle 210 territories see territories territorial disputes, settlement of see titles of see titles of territorial sovereignty settlement of territorial disputes Territorial Sovereignty and Scope of the territorial integrity, respect for 2, 20–21, 209 Dispute (Eritrea/Yemen) 32, 36, 179, boundaries 229 309 see also boundaries, principles on the Islamic concept of territorial non-state actors, application to 21–2 sovereignty 88–9, 295 right of self-determination, relationship islands renounced by Turkey, whether with 20, 22, 363, 364 terrae nullius 274, 287–90 see also right of self-determination reversion to sovereignty secession, relationship with 363, 364, territories 5, 9 368–9 airspace 5, 10, 197 see also secession aquifers 9 sub-state entities, application to 363, 364 colonies see colonisation territory already with a sovereign 21 discovery of see discovery of territories see also boundaries, principles; having an international character 437–8 international law, fundamental leases of 15, 149–50 principles see also Chagos archipelago dispute territorial sovereignty maritime areas 1, 9–10, 17, 18, 196 boundaries, significance of 193–7 islands see islands see also boundaries low-tide elevations 11–12 cession of see cession of territorial rocks 11 sovereignty South China Sea dispute 245–7, 250, in the colonial era see colonization 251, 254, 257 conduct of states affecting see states, see also use of force to settle territorial conduct affecting sovereignty disputes definition 12–17, 90–91 mountains 201 effective control distinguished 28 protectorates see protectorates European and Islamic concepts states, relationship to see states, territories distinguished 88–90, 295 subsoil 9, 197 property rights distinguished 13–14 titles of administration see titles of ‘quasi-sovereignty’ concept refuted 91 administration titles of administration distinguished uncultivated territories 77–8, 92 14–16 uninhabited territories see terrae nullius evidence of see evidence in territorial watercourses see watercourses disputes see also boundaries, natural boundaries; globalization, impact on 1, 193 occupation; settlement of territorial of peoples see right of self-determination disputes principles Thurloe, John 107–8, 110, 111, 116–17 see also international law, fundamental Timor-Leste see East Timor principles titles of administration

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480 Research handbook on territorial disputes in international law

leases of territory 15, 149–50 Tobago 267, 277 see also Chagos archipelago dispute see also West Indies occupied territories see occupation treaties pending decolonization 14–15 armistice and ceasefire agreements 263–4 see also state independence see also peace treaties titles of sovereignty distinguished 14–16, authority of states to enter state into 171–2 149–50 boundary treaties see boundaries, treaties see also titles of territorial sovereignty between colonial powers 121–2 treaties conferring 15 spheres of influence agreements 87, protectorate agreements see protectorates, 96–7, 122, 197–9, 202–3 protectorate agreements establishing constructive possession suzerainty agreements see suzerainty interpretation 421–3, 436 agreements boundary treaties, special regime 223, titles of territorial sovereignty 146–7 229–32 abandonment of 34, 106, 147, 153, 170, see also boundaries, treaties 183–5, 431 by historic standards see intertemporal cession of see cession of territorial law rule sovereignty presumptions 220–23 conferred by Vienna Convention on the Law of see also states, conduct affecting Treaties 1969 135, 171–2, 229, 230, sovereignty 290, 423 acquiescence see evidence in territorial with local political entities see treaties with disputes, acquiescence local political entities acquisitive prescription 146, 153–6, on the management of territorial disputes 8 170–71 pacta sunt servanda doctrine 37 attribution 10–11, 151, 152–3, 199–200 peace treaties see peace treaties conquest see conquest titles of administration, conferring 15 state recognition 16, 88, 91–3, 127, Vienna Convention on Succession of States 178–9, 183–4 in Respect of Treaties 1978 224, treaties see peace treaties; treaties; 229–30 treaties with local political entities treaties with local political entities unilateral declarations 93–4, 119–20, African colonization 110, 112 153, 172–3, 175–8, 203 see also Africa, colonization of uti possidetis juris see uti possidetis juris authorized by letters patent or colonial principle charters 71, 103–4, 117–19, 126, 133 derivative titles see derivative titles of breach, as ground for use of force 112 sovereignty peace treaties 114, 116, 135 versus effectivités see effectivités, versus recognizing local titles 92, 127 formal title as titles of territorial sovereignty historical consolidation of title doctrine capacity requirement 38–43, 131–3 146, 156–7, 218, 437 colonial powers’ perspective 117–25 immemorial possession 92, 154 consent requirement see consent to list of 151 sovereignty transfers, local political local titles see colonization, local titles of entities sovereignty enforceability 38–42, 88, 124–5, 129–30, original titles see original titles of 311–12 sovereignty local political entities’ perspective 125–6 plurality of 148 terms effecting cession 126–31, 142–3 ‘title’ concept 146–7, 421–2 treaties of administration 15 titles of administration distinguished 14–16, protectorate agreements see protectorates, 149–50 protectorate agreements see also titles of administration suzerainty agreements see suzerainty see also evidence in territorial disputes agreements

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Index 481

types 117 native Americans, rights over territories see unilateral declarations 93–4, 119–20, 153, native Americans, rights over 172–3, 175–8, 203 territories Treaty of Versailles 1919 268–9, 283, 287 Treaty of Paris 1898 279–80, 286 provision for referenda 317, 318 see also North America Turkey unowned territories see terrae nullius loss of territories under the Treaty of use of force Lausanne 1923 273–4, 287–8 conquest see conquest Mosul Advisory Opinion (Article 3, ‘dispute’ and ‘conflict’ distinguished 5–6 Paragraph 2, of the Treaty of history of the law on 22, 23 Lausanne (Frontier between Turkey see also intertemporal law rule and Iraq)) (PCIJ) 220–21, 227 after Spanish epoch of international law Northern Cyprus occupation 349, 389 108–17 Ottoman Empire 88–9, 149, 262, 273, 287 letters patent authorizing force 102–3, see also Asia; colonization; Europe; Middle 104, 108–9 East see also letters patent Medieval Christian just war theory 54, UN (United Nations) 270 63, 99–106 Declaration on Principles of International see also papal bulls; peoples, Law Concerning Friendly Relations non-Christians 1970 (UN General Assembly modern law prohibition, evolution of Resolution 2625/1970) 22–4, 236–7 on the fundamental principles of military occupation 23–4, 162, 239, 262, international law 20, 21, 22 264 on military occupation 239 see also occupation; peace treaties on state independence 14–15, 150, 361 modern law prohibition 31, 237–9, 240, on use of force prohibition 237, 249–50, 437 257, 353 acts of aggression 258, 349–50, 353 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Friendly Relations Declaration on 237, Peoples 2007 335–7, 339, 364 249–50, 257, 353 International Law Commission see see also UN (United Nations), International Law Commission Declaration on Principles of UN Charter 1945 International Law Concerning Article 2(4) on territorial integrity and Friendly Relations 1970 (UN use of force 20, 229, 236–7, General Assembly Resolution 242–51, 263, 349 2625/1970) Article 33 on dispute settlement right to self-defence see use of force, mechanisms 23 self-defence Article 51 on right to self-defence 23, territorial dispute settlement see use of 239, 243, 252 force to settle territorial disputes Article 73 on non-self-governing UN Charter Article 2(4) 20, 229, 236–7, territories 359 242–51, 263, 349 Ch.XII 14, 149, 163 see also UN (United Nations), UN see also international organizations Charter 1945 uncultivated territories 77–8, 92 peace treaties see peace treaties unilateral declarations 93–4, 119–20, 153, peaceful settlement of disputes see 172–3, 175–8, 203 settlement of territorial disputes, see also evidence in territorial disputes peaceful settlement uninhabited territories see terrae nullius self-defence 238 United Kingdom see Great Britain ‘armed attack’ definition, relevance of United States 241, 243, 252, 253, 255, 256, 258 Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty 1848 277–8 authorized by UN Charter Article 51 23, inter-state relations 236 239, 243, 252

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482 Research handbook on territorial disputes in international law

see also UN (United Nations), UN critical date principle, distinguished from Charter 1945 402–4 under pre-1945 law 54, 100, 113 see also critical date principle used to justify forcible acquisition of domestic law, role in application of sovereignty 240, 241, 243, 252–60 212–15, 424 see also use of force to settle territorial effectivités versus formal title, relationship disputes with 164–5, 204, 212, 386 use of force to settle territorial disputes 237, purpose of 210–12 240–51, 260–61 right of self-determination, relationship addressed in Cameroon v Nigeria case with 211, 299, 300–302, 305–6, 320, 241–3, 252, 259–60 371 see also Land and Maritime Dispute see also right of self-determination (Cameroon v Nigeria: Equatorial see also boundaries; stability and finality of Guinea intervening) (ICJ) ‘established territorial status quo’ definition boundaries principle; state 258–60 independence examples 237, 240 Crimea, annexation by Russia (2014) Valladolid Junta (1550–51) 106 237–8, 291, 344, 349–50, 381 Vattel, Emer de 74, 77–8, 80, 109, 114 see also Eastern Europe Verhoeven, Joe 346–7 Eritrea/Ethiopia boundary dispute see Vidmar, Jure 373 Eritrea/Ethiopia boundary dispute Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Falkland/Malvinas Islands war see Respect of Treaties 1978 224, 229–30 Falkland/Malvinas Islands war Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1983) 1969 135, 171–2, 229, 230, 290, 423 Goa, annexation by India (1961) 240, Visscher, Charles de 231 247–8, 252–3 Vitoria, Francisco de 56, 63, 64, 67, 72, 105, Northern Cyprus 349, 389 106, 109 South China Sea dispute 245–7, 250, 251, 254, 257 war see use of force to prevent secession 365–6 watercourses 9, 27–8, 29 restoration of sovereignty rationale 241, navigational and related rights 417–18 242–3, 244–51 thalwegs (median lines), use in boundary self-defence rationale 240, 241, 243, delimitation 201, 222, 333 252–60 see also boundaries, natural boundaries; see also settlement of territorial disputes, territories peaceful settlement; use of force Weller, Marc 389–90 USSR 211, 224, 238, 270, 374–5 West Africa, colonization of 82, 83, 84, see also Eastern Europe 126–7 uti possidetis juris principle 17, 18, 19–20, Cap Vert peninsula 120–21 153, 202, 206–7, 226, 438 Cotonou 115, 125 applied in non-colonial contexts 376 Henry the Navigator’s conquests of 46–7, deviations from 381, 384–5 63, 99–102 Eastern Europe 211, 224, 369–70, see also Portugal 376–81 Lagos 121 see also Eastern Europe West Africans viewed as ‘Saracens’ 92, scholarly debate on 369–73 99–100, 101–2 boundaries deriving from colonization 19, see also Africa 161–2, 299, 300–302, 328 West Indies Africa 207–10, 211 colonization of 49, 64, 105–8, 109, 142 Latin America 208, 211 Saint Lucia 76, 183, 268 boundary treaties, relationship with 210 Tobago 267, 277 see also boundaries, treaties decolonization of 279–80, 286

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Index 483

Delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Dispute over Inter-Entity Boundary in Zone and the Continental Shelf Brcˇko Area, Arbitration for the (Barbados v Trinidad and Tobago) Brcˇko Area (Srpska v Bosnia and 325, 326, 327 Herzegovina) 325, 329, 391–4 Western Sahara advisory opinion (ICJ) 30, Croatia 211, 224, 320, 377 293 Croatia/Slovenia case (PCA) 9, 24–5, agreements with local political entities, 163, 166–7, 168, 424 enforceability 41–2, 129–30 Dayton Agreement 1995 272–3, 388, 391, on derivative titles of sovereignty 87, 150 392–3 on the legal personality of local political ethnic Serbs in other states 211, 320, 381, entities 313–14 388–9, 393 on spheres of influence doctrine 96, 198 Kosovo 344, 347–8, 369, 377–8 on terrae nullius 41, 73, 130 Wilson, Woodrow 343, 395 see also secession Wolff, Christian 74 Accordance with International Law of Wolff, Stefan 387 the Unilateral Declaration of Independence In Respect of Kosovo Young, Thomas 69, 118 (Request for Advisory Opinion) Yugoslavia, former 344 (ICJ) 350–51, 361–2, 364, 365, 376 Badinter Commission 211, 224, 300–301, Montenegro 375, 377–8 320, 364, 369–70, 377 Serbia 211, 224, 363, 375, 377, 381 Bosnia and Herzegovina 211, 224, 262, see also Eastern Europe; state 272–3, 320, 377, 388–9 independence

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