Ancient and Modern Rome

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EDITORS G EORG E D H AD ZS ITS PH EPUE , D .

Univerfity ofPenmylvania

D AVID OOR O NS ON P H D . M E R BI , . , LL . D c

The yo bm H op/aim University CONTRIBUTORS TO TH E OUR D EBT TO GR C AND ROM FUND ” EE E E , WH OSE GENEROSITY H AS MAD E POSSIBL E TH E L IB RARY

QD ut D ebt to (Bu m aah Rome Philadelphia B oston

D R. ASTL . C . AS S EY P HHUR T ORIC BATE S (memorial)

WIL L IAM L . A STIN F IC FI U REDER K P . S H

O N C . B L L J H E WIL L IAM AMORY GARD NER

H N H . B E RY ONNEL L JOSEPH CL ARK H OPPIN ASPER YEATES B RI NTON J Ch ago B ic G O N AM . E RGE UR H , H B JR ER ERT W . WOL FF JOHN CADWAL ADER Cincinnati MISS CL ARA COMEGYS CHARL ES PHEL PS TAFT MISS M ARY E . CONVERSE Cleveland ARTHUR G . D ICKS ON SAMUEL M ATHER WIL L IAM M . EL KIN S D . troit H . H F S S RN . e U E , JR O N AND S IL L IAM J H W. ER ON W P . GEST D X TE M . F JOHN GRIE BEL E R ERRY, JR .

S AM L F . H O STON D l w P lva a UE U oy esto n , ennsy ni “ CHARLES EDWARD INGERSOL L A L OVER OF GREECE AND ” JOHN STORY JENKS ROME A O NS ew Y L BA B . J H ON N ork M IS S NINA L EA JOHN JAY CHAPMAN H ATI IL L A D I L L W . N OR O G . OYD R V K G MA L A GEORGE M cFAD D EN THO S W . MONT

T W . M MRS . JOHN M ARKOE D WIGH ORROW

M MRS . D . . MO R JUL ES E . ASTBAUM W R OW A enat i S t i J . V UGHAN MERRICK S or ocie at s Philoso IN M hia e

. W C JOS EPH G ROSENGARTEN GEORGE W . I KERSHAM b u WILL IAM C . SP O L And o ne o n o Wh o R U c tri t r,

N . h as asked to h av e hi n me O B ST TS ON . s J H E , JR a L h D R . J . WI LIAM WHI TE Wit h eld : al M aecenas alaw d re ibu s (memori ) is e ite g , et a u ea GEORGE D . WIDENER O pr esidiu m cl d lce d ns

MRS . AM S WIN S O menm. J E D . R OWEN WISTER Washington Th e Philadelphia So cie ty Th e Greek Emb assy at fo r th e o mo ion o fL b e W h in o n fo r th e Greek Pr t i ral as gt ,

S Go v e nmen . tu dies . r t A N C I E N T A N D MO D E RN RO M E

BY SENATORE ROD OLFO LANCIANI

D . . D . H a var C . L . x o d LL d O f r , r

MARSHALL JONES COMPANY B O STO N MA S SACH U S E TTS C O P Y R I G H T 1 9 2 5 B Y M A R S H A L L J O N E S C O M P AN Y I

in ed u n e 1 2 Pr t J , 9 5

T H E P L I M P T O N P R E S S ° N O R W O 0 D ‘ M A S S A C H U S E T T S

P R I N T E D I N T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S O F A M E R I C A PRE FAC E H EN speaking or writing about

Greece and Rome , we are apt to be carried away by the fascination Of names and places and depict to ourselves an ideal country , or an ideal city , governed by ideal institutions and inhabited by ideal cit iz ens n . We are ready to admit nothi g short Of perfection when the question concerns the physical and moral development of both Greeks and Romans !

Such a conception has no foundation in truth .

The institutions were indeed excellent, but the men were not different from us physically and morally , except perhaps as regards the athletic training of the body . As a matter of fact there was the same struggle for life , the same craving for amusements and the same politi cal unrest ; the same habit of depending upon the Government for food and clothing ; and , strange to say, the same percentage in the number of publicans as compared with the total population . When we walk through the streets of Pom f peii and Ostia , it requires but a little e fort of [ V ] P R E F A C E imagination to recall them to life and make Of them awake from their sleep centuries . The pavement we tread upon is the same as that trodden by the Pompeiians and Ostians of an cient times ; the water with which we quench our thirst is brought from the same mountain springs ; their temples are still open for the od worship of the G s , having in many cases

eu only changed denomination . We can still ter the attractive shops haunted by the fair a l dies of the past , where perfumers and jewel lers sold their wares , as , in Rome , choosing the Vicus Tu scu s for their headquarters ; the places where booksellers and copyists (Lib rarii and

Anti u arii Ar iletu m q ) traded in the g , money changers and money lenders in the street Of

Janus , pearl merchants in the Sacra Via, and Pi r r druggists in the h orr eo pe ata ia . We have inherited from Greece and Rome everything that helps us to ﬁght and win the

Of x . battles life , necessities as well as lu uries

We cross the Alps , the Apennines , the Pyre e nees , the Balkans by the same passes th y ﬁrst opened through rock and ice , while advancing to the conquest of the world ; we harbour our ﬂeets in the same havens they founded in the deep sea ; we seek health and rest at the same [ v i ] P R E F A C E

thermal establishments , which still give fame and prosperity to British , Gallic , German ,

Helvetian and Italian watering places .

Such being the case , such being the burden h of gratitude w ich we feel , or ought to feel , towards Greece and Rome , I believe that a closer and more detailed comparison between ancient and modern municipal life and man a ement g , between ancient and modern Rome , is a subject well worth taking into considera tion ; at all events , it is a subject less exhausted b e than , for example , the usual comparisons tween Greek , Roman and Renaissance Art . The Romans never boasted of overwhelming S kill in painting and sculpture , but they were incomparable architects and engineers . In the following pages , let us consider the magnitude of the debt Of gratitude which our modern city owes to ancient Rome in the matter of municipal development , as well as in all the necessities and niceties of life in general . In almost all important matters ancient Rome es tab lish ed a certain standard or type and the reader Of the following pages will probably re peat to himself the well - worn but always true l adage : nihil su b so e no v u m.

[ v ii ]

C ON T E N T S

CH APTER CONTRIBUTORS TO TH E FUND PREFA CE

TH E T OF OM AND AL AR A I . SI E R E M I

T R - L II . WA E SUPP Y

OS P TA L S AND CAL RV C III . H I MEDI SE I E

E C E A S RS ND IV . TH PAL A E OF TH C E A A TH E PAL AC E OF TH E POPES

H N S AL PRE V . S OOTI G LODGE ; ROY S ERVE S ; ZOOL OGICAL GARD EN S HOME S

ORT C O S A H ARA CT R ST C RO P I E , C E I I MAN IN STITUTION LIBRARIE S POL ICE A ND FIRE D EPARTMENT S SUMMER RE S ORT S TH E FEEDING OF T H E METROPOL I S

CITY LIFE I N WAR- TIMES TH E TOPOGRAPH Y O F ANCIENT AND M ODERN ROM E

NOT E S

BIB L IOGRAPH Y .

ANCIENT AND MOD ERN ROME

A N C I E NT A N D MO D E RN RO M E

I E SI E O RO E . TH T F M AND MALARIA

HE Romans did not deny the u n healthiness Of the district in the midst of which their Palatine City re was built . Cicero calls it a pestilential gion and Pliny likewise calls the Maremma ” heavy and pestilential . Livy , however , says that the Hills were comparatively free from the

: scourge a statement , true enough for a cer tain period , because , towards the end of the Of Republic and the beginning the Empire ,

Rome and the Campagna , hills as well as dales , had been made comparatively free from ma ’ - laria . Horace s well known lines

Nu nc licet Esqu iliis h ab itare salu b rib u s atque A ere in a co s atiari u o mo o t s e gg p ri p , q d ri t s Alb is informem spectab ant o ssib u s agru m must be taken with caution ; of the three tem ples Of the goddess Fever known to have ex [ 3 ] C T A D M O D A N I E N N . E R N R O M E isted th e in Rome , one stood on Palatine , one on C Of the Q uirinal near the hurch S . Bernardo , and a third precisely on the Esquiline near the

C modern hurch of S . Eusebio . These three e shrines , how ver , represented the memory of past miseries rather than a contemporary ap peal for mercy against the insidious , and very often fatal contagion . The earliest hints about intermittent ague ’ 1 are to be found in Plautus Cu rcu lio ° did th e fever leave you yesterday or the day before ! ” ’ 2 “ ‘ and in Terence s H ecyra ° What is thy ! ’ . ! case Fever Q uotidian SO they say . Cato distinctly mentions as symptoms of the ” ague a black bile and a turbid liver . Pliny says that the excitement of a successful battle ,

e 1 B . 2 C . fought on the banks of the Is re in . , freed the victorious general from the quar tan fever . But the nearest approach to the

Of modern theory infection , through the mi ’ c ro b es D e Re of ague , is to be found in Varro s Rnstica , where he contends that in marshy districts ‘ insects prosper so inﬁnitesimal in size that no human eye can detect their pres

Many attemp ts at sanitation were made in a desultory way before the Augustan Era , [ 4 ] T H E S I T E O F R O M E A N D M A L A R I A such as the draining of h o gs and marshes ; the substitution Ofspring water for that of pol luted wells ; the sanitary equipment of human dwellings , even when intended for labourers and farm hands ; the invention of colu mb aria as places of burial ; the substitution of crema fo r tion interment ; and lastly , the organization of medical help . I remember seeing a peas ant house being laid bare in the farm of Ber nardo Lugari , a little beyond the mausoleum e of Metella on the Appian Way, and I rem m ber expressing the wish that it should be taken as a model for such structures in our own

- lands , to day , so neat were the arrangements of a double ﬂoor against dampness ; of walls equipped for the circulatio n Of hot air ; and other provisions for indispensable accommoda h tions in the ouse . The results of these sani r ta y measures were astonishing . Pliny says that L au rentu m was more delightful in summer than in winter — While in modern times the place is acknowledged to be one of the most dangerous o n the coast . Antoninus Pius and

M . Aurelius preferred their villa at Lot ium B (La ottaccia , near Castel di Guido) to all other imperial suburban residences ; and the ’ dating and address of Marcus corresp ondence [ 5 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E with Fronto proves his presence there in mid ’ e Of summer . The sam can be said Hadrian s

iv o li u intilio ru m villa below T , of the Villa Q on the Appian Way , o f that of Lucius Verus at i v a . Acqua Traversa on the Claudia , etc The Campagna must have looked in those happy days like a great park , studded with villages , farms , cottages , lordly residences , temples , fountains and tombs . Whenever a human habitation was to be constructed , the area where it was to be erected was ﬁrst honey

cu nicu li combed with , so as to make it free from re the least suspicion of dampness . And , as h o aea gards funeral crypts and yp g , it is enough to examine the works done around the “ Painted Tombs of the via Latina ” to dis cover what care was taken to make them ab so lu tel y dry . I c an Cite personal experience to prove that the present generation has once mo re con quered the evil . I remember how, as a young ster , I used to spend many days in the convent f . O of S Eusebio , where each the inmates was asked to take large doses Of quinine every morning and evening , so near were we to a hot h Of . e bed malaria Since th n I ave spent many , many years o f my life in the thick of the once [ 6 ]

II W ER— SUPP Y . AT L

NE of the praises bestowed by Cicero on the founder of Rome is : locum

dele it fO-ntib u s ab u ndantem b e g , ” selected a district very rich in springs . This

statement is accurate , as we have descriptions

Of n - twe ty three springs within the walls , some

Of i which are still ﬂowing , wh le others , de 4 scribed by Sextus Julius F ro ntinu s the well known Commissioner of Aqueducts under

— to ac Trajan have disappeared , owing the

Of cumulation the modern soil . Three were held in special veneration on account of their medical efﬁciency : the spring of the C amenae

o ( Muses ) , just utside the Porta Capena ; that

of Apollo at the foot of the Palatine , near the

west end of the Circus Maximus , and identiﬁed with a spring still in existence ; and that of

o Juturna , at the fo t of the Palatine , near the

ro ntin s house of the Vestals . F u states that

1 for the space o f 44 years , the Romans were satisﬁed with such water as they could draw

from the Tiber , from wells , and from some [ 8 ] W A T E R - S U P P L Y

- o f the above mentioned springs . Typhoid 1 2 B C fever must have been rampant until 3 ,

when the . ﬁrst aqueduct was constructed ” by Appius Claudius the blind , who collected certain springs near the sixth milestone on h the v ia Collatina . His work may ardly be called an improvement upon the existing state of things , for the Appian water was slightly so apy and warm and unpleasant to the taste .

At all events , once the ﬁrst step was taken in the right direction , it was easy to eliminate deﬁciencies and to reach perfection . And per fectio n was reached under the imperial rule when Rome was endowed with at least four C Of i teen aqueducts , the hannels wh ch reached an aggregate length of about 509 kilometres

1 er diem o ne (ca . 3 5 miles ) and discharged p

- million , seven hundred and forty eight cubic metres Of water . To appreciate the volume of such an amount of water , it is sufﬁcient to compare it with the output of the Tiber , which n discharges only one million , three hu dred thousand cubic metres per day . If we suppose that the inhabitants of Rome numbered , suburbs included , one million , there

O f was a daily water supply , per person , Of litres . Modern Rome , with a population [ 9 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

00 ! has about 7 _ litres per person , de rived from four aqueducts : the Vergine (Agrip ’ Vir o Alexandrina pa s g ) , the Felice (ancient ) , Traiana the Paola (ancient ) , and the Marcia 5 la i Pia (ancient C u d a ) . The Vergine springs are lo cated near the

Via eighth milestone of the Collatina , in a farm house not far from the present railroad sta tion of Salone Canalized by Agrippa , this purest Of Roman waters reached the City on

th 1 B . 1 2 C . C June o , 9 The hannel was miles long and the vo lume discharged in twenty four hours , cubic metres . The Alexandrina springs were collected 2 2 6

AD . by Alexander Severus for the use of his newly built th ermae in the region of the Cam

u s . 1 p Martius The aqueduct , about 4 miles s Of long, increa ed the daily water supply the

2 city by cubic metres . The Traiana came from various springs near

Vicarello on the Lago Bracciano . It reached

1 0 AD . Rome in 9 The aqueduct , broken , and repaired many times by the Popes , underwent

1 6 1 1 a thorough restoration under Paul V , in ; hence the names of Acqua Paola and of

Pao lina Fontana , given in substitution for the

C . lassic denomination Paul V , however , hav [ 1 0 ] W A T E R - S U P P L Y ing mixed the good springs o f Trajan with the polluted waters of the lake made them u n drinkable .

The Marcia , ﬁrst brought to Rome about

1 0 B . C 4 . by Q uintus Marcius Rex , has its Prugna springs at the foot of the Monte _della , in the territory Of Arsoli . Agrippa restored the aqueduct in 33 B C . Augustus doubled the

B C e resto ra volume of the water in 5 . Oth r Se timiu s tions took place under Titus , p Sev eru s , Caracalla , Diocletian , Arcadius , and

Honorius . A very prosperous Company brought it back to Rome ﬁfty - four years ago c after an interruption of thirteen enturies , and the inauguration Of its terminal fountain on 1 1 8 0 was September 4, 7 , the last public act performed by Pius IX before losing his tem poral power . Connected with the water supply and general

Of C welfare a big ity , and essential to its sani tatio n is the question of sewers . The ﬁrst attempt towards the establishment of a rational system Of drainage was made by Tarqu iniu s Priscu s and his host of Etruscan hydraulic engineers . At least , so tradition says . Their prodigious work is still in existence , and still answers in a certain measure its purpose . I

[ I I ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

refer especially to the Cloaca Maxima , which Livy calls receptacu lu m o mniu m pu rg amento “ ’ ru m u r b is ( tout a l égo u t! built twenty six centuries ago , across a marshy and peaty soil , under difﬁculties which even in our days would not be easy to overcome . And yet , this

Of M axima Cloaca hardly deserves the title , b ecause those Of the Coliseum and of the Cir cus Flaminius are its superiors in size , in

n le gth , and in the extent of surface drained . I remember the day I entered these su b ter m C h ra ean hannels , the ﬁrst time , wit a good supply of torches and disinfectants as safe guards against pitfalls and typhoid fever . It was not pleasant, but was exceedingly interest ing to follow the stream towards its outlet into the Tiber ; in fact , I have known a city engi N h as neer , Pietro arducci , who spent two or three years of his life in the venerable mire f of the Cloaca Maxima and O its side Channels . The results Of his labours h ave been made known to archaeologists and topographers in 6 his famous illustrated report .

The drainage system of ancient cities , Rome

O r included , was bviously w ong from several points of View . First , the outlets were used Off to carry the sewage and refuse of the town ,

[ 1 2 ] W A T E R - S U P P L Y

and , at the same time , the rain water . Sec o ndl m y , this double employment made it eces sary to have large openings along the streets , so that the population was constantly brough t into contact with the poisonous gases of the 7 sewers . This state of things has lasted until

o wn my age ; and , when I recall the ’ C dell Olmo hiavicone , from the huge mouths of which myriads of rats used to sally fo rth

- at night time , and when I recall the polluted atmosphere of our kitchens and bathrooms , I wonder of what material our constitutions were made to stand such a state Of things without dire consequences . The best apology for it is to be found in the fact that many other Eu ro ean p capitals , not to speak of provincial re towns and villages , have remained , until l cent . y , in an absolutely identical state At the time o f Constantine th ere were in

1 1 th ermae 2 6 Rome great , 9 public baths , 2 public fountains , 47 reservoirs , ornamental

sta nu m A ri ae basins , like the g g pp , and numer ous swimming ponds , without mentioning pri vate houses , public and private gardens , docks

e . and warehouses , ach well provided with water The th ermae of Caracalla alone could acco m mo date at least sixteen hundred bathers at o ne [ 1 3 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

time , and those of Diocletian double that num C ber . Supposing the average number of lients and patrons for the eleven great th ermae to n n have bee one thousa d , and those of the pub lic bathing houses to have been ﬁfty , we come to the astounding conclusion that Citi zens could refresh and strengthen their bodies in cold , tepid , and warm baths at any hour of h the day or night . I ave mentioned the night expressly, because we possess the evidence that under p ro ﬂ igate empero rs these State estab lish ments were kept open until late at night , and e ven mixed bathing was allowed . Some of the fountains were of monumental

h . c aracter and rich in works of art Agrippa ,

x while aedile , decorated those e isting at the time with three hundred marble and bronze statues and four hundred columns . We know

e i ies H drae of one work of art only, an ﬁ g y , r ili n which he placed on the Se v a fountain . The e fountains of Prometheus , of the Sheph rds , of th e Orpheus , of Ganymede , of four Fish i u attu or S car . ( q ) , of the three Masks , etc , must have been so named from the statues and reliefs with which they were decorated . One only of the great fountains has escaped i Tro ei destruction , that popularly called f [ I 4 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

words , the water falls in a semicircular cas : cade and from a hundred crevices , on all sides , snowy jets gush up , and streams spout out of the mouth and nostrils of marble mon sters , and fall in glistening drops while other u riv lets that have run wild , come leaping from one rude step to another over stones that are ” mossy , shining and green with sedge . c I wish to add , here , a referen e to the N au machiae , on account of the following pas ” o i ro ntinu s : sage F I cannot conceive , he “ says , why such a wise prince as Augustus was , should have brought to Rome such dis creditable and unwholesome water as the

Alsietina , unless it was for the use of the ” N ma hi au c a . This was an artiﬁcial lake , oval

S in hape , Roman feet long , feet wide , excavated by Augustus in a district of the Trastevere called C o deta or Campu s Co de tanu s S , where ham naval ﬁghts were performed N o n on given occasions . But whether the machia was a permanent , stone encircled , spec tacu lar place which may have subsisted for centuries , or a temporary , artiﬁcial pond which may have had only an ephemeral existence , I i am not prepared to state . One th ng is cer tain : that no worse gift could have been made [ 1 6 ] W A T E R - S U P P L Y

- - to the already ill famed , malaria stricken Tras o f tevere , because the fever germs to which the Alsietina water gave rise ; but the Nau machia lay in a quarter of the City where prisoners of war were relegated , who were placed there , perhaps , in the secret hope that they would become the victims of the anopheles .

[ I 7 ] III OSPI S D EDI . H TAL AN M CAL SERVICE

E have already made the state ment that Rome was an unhealthy C ity , but the assertions of Cicero and Pliny to the effect that it had been founded on a pestilential site in regione pesti lenti s alnb ris , must be accepted with caution ; similarly we take with reservation another “ statement that the seven hills were salu b er ” rimi , in as much as each of them had an altar ” or shrine raised to the Goddess of Fever . o i However , towards the end the fourth cen B C tury . . the ﬁght against the evil began in earnest , with the reform of the water supply of C the ity , inaugurated by Appius Claudius the

Blind , o f which reform I have spoken in the preceding chapter . Then came the reform with reference to public cemeteries , hotbeds of pes tilence C , which had made many parts of the ity unﬁt for human habitation . It is hard to con ceiv carnariu m e the idea of a Roman , an i assemblage o f pits into wh ch men and beasts , [ 1 8 ] H O S P I T A L S A N D M E D I C A L S E R V I C E

u nmen bodies and carcasses , and any kind of i Im tionab le refuse were thrown n disorder . agine what must have been the condition of these dreadful districts in times of plague , when the pits (pntiou li) were kept open by night and m by day . And when the pits beca e ﬁlled , up th to e mouth , the moat which skirted the wall

u lliu s of Servius T , between the Colline and the o w Esquiline gates , was ﬁlled with corpses , thr n in as if they were carrion , until the level of C the adjacent streets was reached . The ity magistrates allowed the daily refuse of a population numbering about eight hundred thousand people to be heaped up within and around the precincts of this Esquiline ceme e tory . Decree upon d cree was issued at a later age to stop the deadly habit , and a line of stone cippi was set up round th e edge of the pestilential district with the injunction to No keep it free from pollution . appreciable results were obtained . My personal experience

x in this ﬁeld of exploration has been e haustive . I have found (or I have been present at the

- fiv e u ticu li finding of) about seventy p , grave pits or vaults , twelve feet square , thirty deep , Of filled with a uniform mass black , viscid , unctuous matter , in which only a few bones [ 1 9 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

could be singled out and identiﬁed . I have found a section of the moat of Servius Tullius , one hundred and sixty feet long , one hundred o f wide , and thirty deep ﬁlled with a mass

av human remains . Giving to each corpse an six erage space of thirteen cubic feet , thousand four hundred bodies must have been thrown into that section of the ditch . I have also found three Copies of Police regulations eu graved on square blocks of stone , worded as “ x i : . Se t u s follows C , Praetor , has set up this line of terminal stones to mark the limits of the ground which must be kept free from ﬁlth , car ”

an . casses , d corpses I remember that on the

C 2 day of the ﬁnding of the third ippus , June 5 , 1 8 8 4, I was obliged to relieve my gang of workmen from time to time , because the stench from that putrid ground , turned up after a lapse of twenty centuries , was unbear able , even for men inured to every kind of as hardship , were my excavators . An account of the successful reform of this matter of cemeterial policy , accomplished by

Of Maecenas , the prime minister Augustus , t th e and , more par icularly , of substitution of cremation for inhumation is given in my 8 i nt R me th Anc e o . In e present chap ter I shall [ 2 0 ] H O S P I T A L S A N D M E D I C A L S E R V I C E more particularly deal with hospitals and with C the organization of medical service , both ivil and military .

vo ao no u i a in rmaries Valetudinaria , j , ﬁ rather and o f than hospitals , other institutions this kind (in the modern sense of the word) , were not commonly known in Ro me much b e f fore the third century o the Christian Era .

In fact , Celsus Aurelianus , an eminent physi

Cian n of the begi ning of the third century, who

C wrote a treatise on acute and hronic diseases , reproaches the members of the profession for their o bstinacy in keeping their patients in ah

Of solute conﬁnement . Such a state things is

- - easily explained . Large houses of well to do Citizens were each provided with a detached apartment for the reception of sick slaves and freedmen , to prevent the spreading of infection to other members of the household ; but there is no evidence of the existence of pu b lic inﬁr maries or hospitals in Greece , Rome and Italy until the inﬂuence of Christianity began to be felt . Slaves and freedmen , who would have constituted the Clientele of the public No so co mia were , as I have said , well cared for at 9 home at the expense of their masters . The earliest mention of a hospital occurs in Je [ 2 1 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

1 0 60 rome , where we are told that Fabiola , in 3 A D . . , gave up a villa, in which sick indigents , o lying abandoned in the streets , c uld be well h taken care of . State p ysicians , who treated o the po r gratuitously, in return for their state salary , were provided not only with medicines and surgical appliances , but also with a room

' w o f ia r ei a or ith a suite rooms called p , a term applied also to the consulting or surgical room c and dispensary of any do tor . In such rooms

n patie ts were allowed to remain for a time , for instance , after an operation , after a con ﬁnement and during the early days of their convalescence . The functions of hospitals for the poor were assumed , to some extent , by the temples of

Aesculapius , where the priests , no doubt, com b ined a certain amount Of medical knowledge with a great deal of quackery and su p ersti t tious Observances . Still there is no doubt hat the chief places of study for medical pupils

Askle ia were the p , where the votive tablets put up by the patients who had escaped with their lives , illustrated a variety o f cases , and where new patients were admitted every day .

The practice followed by the priests , when C as dealing with p atients of the lower l ses , was [ 2 2 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E It seems that when there was no more room c left for credulous patients within the san tuary , the S ick were exposed in the streets and under

- b Open porticoes , in order that passers y might give them advice from personal experience .

i i- hir r i Med c c u g . At an early stage in the history of sanitary organization , families of the middle or upper Classes were each provided

n with one or more slaves skilled in medici e , not as a science , but as an empiric practice . Their salary was ﬁxed at 60 so lidi in gold

Arch a a pieces . The ﬁrst Greek practitioner , g tus by name, arrived in Rome from the Pelo o nnesu s 2 0 B C p in 9 , but he did not gain much in the estimation of the public . Even in the time of Pliny th ere were few Roman born adepts of the healing art , but many trustworthy slaves acted as house physicians .

There were recipes in book form , describing the best means to be adopted in ordinary cases .

Thus Cato had a formula , of which he made use in dealing with his son , his servants , and

A lian his slaves . e mentions a law of the Lo crians prescribing that if any sick person dared

“ to drink wine , contrary to the orders of his physician , he was to be punished with death s th e ro fes in ca e of recovery . Members of p

[ 2 4 ] H O S P I T A L S A N D M E D I C A L S E R V I C E

sion made up their prescriptions themselves , and either sat in their consulting ro oms or d ispensaries , or went on a round of visits fol lowed by their attendants , apprentices or pupils . The Asclepiadae were strict in investi gating the Character and behavior of their students , who were bound by the famous Hippocratic oath — the most ancient medical 1 2 document in existence .

In their funeral inscriptions , Roman doc tors give interesting particulars about their

N 2 careers . Doctor o . 95 7 this number is the number of the inscription in the C orpu s I n scriptio nu m L atinaru m) was attached to the

L u du M atu tinu s s , a training school for athletes

No 8 Pra i . ed a and gladiators ; doctor 9 5 5 , to the

L u ciliana L u cilian , farmlands of the family ; No 8 0 doctor . 9 7 , to the personnel of the 66 imperial Libraries ; doctor No . 9 5 styles

scrib a M edico ru m himself , , secretary , I sup o f pose , a medical association which held regular meetings in a sch o la or hall where its archives were kept . Compare also the funeral tab u lariu s sch o lae tablet of a M . Livius Celsus ,

medicoru m . , under the presidency of M Livius “ hi t r Arc a e . c Eutychus , Mention also o curs of medici dentists , pedicures , and esp ecially of [ 2 5 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E au ricu larn medici o cu larn , or ear doctors , and ,

L tiniu s . a e or eye doctors , like the M who pra tised D ecimiu s medicu s at Bologna , or the P . , clinicu s chiru r u s o cu lariu s g , who may have practised in Rome . They used to carry about prescriptions for the various cases of bad eye

in . sight, engraved four lines on a carnelian Other similar prescriptions concern mostly the

as ritu dines inﬁammatio ns li treatment of p ( ) , p itu dines cali ines p (beady eyes) , g 1 6 su u ratio nes . pp (suppurations) , etc The profession of dentistry at a very early date is implied in a remarkable quotation from 1 7 the XII Tables ; this appears in Cicero , and relates to teeth ﬁlled with gold ; we have , “ besides , perfect specimens of bridge work in Etruscan skulls , dating from the sixth or

B C . seventh century . The medical profession was highly remu ner

D m e es ative . e oc d began his career at Aegina at a salary of about dollars ; followed it at Athens for a grant of and ﬁnally set tle d at Samos , dollars having been Cleo mb ro tu offered to him by Polycrates . s is said to have received one hundred talents dollars) for restoring to health King Stertiniu s Antio chus . We are told of a who [ 2 6 ] H O S P I T A L S A N D M E D I C A L S E R V I C E secured dollars a year from private

a wh o practice , and o f surgeon named Alcon amassed a fortune of nearly dollars in ’ a few years practice in Gaul .

M edicae med . Women were attended by icae , or female doctors , such as the Julia Pia ,

To rentia Venu leia the Minnia , the , and the i ti n mentioned in the C o rpu s o fL atin I nscr p o s . They acted especially as obstetricians or mid

wives .

o rt Ph i i C u y s c ans . Very Curious information about the health of imperial personages and their retinue of courtiers is to be found o n the

gravestones of court physicians . We learn for instance that Augustus was attended by a Stertiniu s A Caius , and , at a later age , by nto S t nius Musa , a pecialist for neurasthenia ; his he Al l treated by hydropathy at the Aquae b u ae .

Antonius Musa , the most celebrated physician at Rome about the beginning of the Christian

Era , brother of Euphorbus , physician to King

Juba , became a medical adviser to the Emperor Augustus when the latter became seriously ii] . 2 B . C . In 3 , Antonius Musa restored him to health by means of cold shower baths and

cooling drinks , for which services he was

granted by the Senate a large sum of money , [ 2 7 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E permission to wear a gold ring as the insignia ' o of knightho d , and a statue erected in his

al honour near that of Aesculapius . Horace ludes to this cold cure and hydropathic treat E i t s . . . ment in p , I I 5 This treatment , however , failed when applied to M . Marcellus , who died ’ under Musa s care a few months after the re

c o v er 2 B C . y of his uncle , in 3 Musa wrote several pharmaceutical works , frequently

n quoted by Galen , of which o ly a few frag ’ ments remain . Drusilla , Augustus second wife , was attended by Hyginus and Cyrus ; E it n Antonia , wife of Drusus the Elder , by p y h an C u s . We learn that Tiberius , who was suf ferin g from some kind of ophthalmia , was

Th riu s medicu s o cu lariu s cured by y , a ; that f Hadrian , who was su fering from ear trouble ,

b Aeliu s Am ntas medicu s au ricu was cured y y , l riu a s . , and so forth J

Coming to more recent years , the ofﬁce of

o ntiﬁcal Archiater p , or head doctor to the

Pope , was the post most desired by the mem bers of the profession , especially in the Jewish

o section of the Br therhood . In fact, one of the reasons for the peaceful life the Jews were allowed to enjoy in the capital of th e Christian world , must be found in their skill in medicine , [ 2 8 ] H O S P I T A L S A N D M E D I C A L S E R V I C E

and in their kindness in treating the poor . Towards the end of the fourteenth century a doctor named Emmanuel , and his son Angelo , gained such fame that the City Council , on

8 1 8 May , 3 5 , granted special privileges in their “ favour , because they are so brave and mer cifu l in the practice of the healing art , attend ing the needy , gratuitously . These privileges

1 2 were conﬁrmed in July , 3 9 , by Boniface IX, in a letter which begins with these words : “ Boniface to his dear son , Angelo , son of

a Emmanuel the Jew, born Jew, physician and ’ our o wn companion and guest blessings . Martin V and Eugene IV were attended in their ailments by the Jewish doctor Elihu ;

Innocent VII by Elihu Sabbati , and Pius II by

Moses from Rieti . The Aesculapius , the

Galen , the Prince of the Jewish medical school in papal Rome was without doubt the Rabbi

archiater Samuel Sarfati , who was made of the Vatican at the time of Julius II . His wonderful career has been described by Marini

D e li in that excellent and exhaustive work , g 1 8 Ar hi tr o nti ii c a i p ﬁc .

i in e M ed c a . Slaves emancipated after long successful service as doctors in private families , a o th e used to end their careers as druggists , p [ 2 9 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

caries and surgeons , performing slight opera tions . We possess some notion of their phar ma i co p e a . Lucian describes one of these quack doctors as ha wking his cough mixture through the streets , and promising immediate relief to

- all sufferers . In Rome these drug sellers were very numerous and ﬂourished so much that Pliny complains of the want of a law dealing

e i sever ly with th s breed of impostors . Regular medicines were sold under the Empire , with a label specifying the nature and name of the drug , and of its inventor , the illness it was des tined to cure , the component parts , and the method of taking it .

i i r n l er i M l ta y a d Nav a S v ce . I have found among the funeral tablets of Concordia Sagit taria , the great frontier fortress on the Piave ,

Ari Ar hiater one in memory of a Flavius stu s c .

Such a title , hardly known in imperial times , became fashionable , at least in Rome , in the

C fourth entury , and it is a strange coincidence ro to medici that of four gravestones of such p , three should have been found in the pavement ’ of the nave of St . Paul s . I am not sure whether Flav iu s Aristu s was pro to medicu s of the Garrison of Concordia or of th e Municipal

ity itself . We know that physicians , having [ 3 0 ]

A N C I E N T AN D M O D E R N R O M E

( sometimes called v u lneru m medici or v u lne rarii ) a steady hand, a keen eye , and middle rin age . An army doctor ranked among the p

cipales or Ofﬁcers . The superintendent of ﬁeld hospitals was technically called optio v aletu di

rii na .

H it l L ater Times o sp a s o f . In later times there is no denying that hospital institutions

were brought to a much higher standard , even

in the darkest periods of the Middle Ages .

The fact is easily explained . Christian charity ,

- i good w ll , and feelings o f Christian Brother hood had become the moving spirit of their

organization , and sick people were no longer

considered as an Objectionable burden , but were made comfortable and taken care of as

if they were members of one family . Hospices

for pilgrims multiplied , especially in the neigh

r b o u h o o d of the great basilicas . Wealthy Citizens turned their splendid palaces into

v aletu dinaria ex n o v o , or built these , like the domus Valerio ru m on the Caelian ; the “ ” “ ” domus or po rtico of Galla near the Forum B o ariu m; the domus Pammach ii on the Caelian hill ; the domus F ab io lae (prob ably) o u the Aventine ; the hospice of Belisa A ri ae rius on the Campus g pp , each of which [ 3 2 ] H O S P I T A L S A N D M E D I C A L S E R V I C E

e s became a harbour of refuge for the poor , p ecially for inﬁrm pilgrims bo und for worship

imi A t lo ru m at the l na po s o . It has been my privilege to discover , excavate and describe one of the richest hospices for transmarine pilgrims landing at Porto . It was in the shape

C of loisters , with two wings , or dormitories , capable of holding twenty or thirty beds each , enclosing a beautiful Church rich in marble

constru c decorations . Tradition attributes its

Pammach iu s Biz antes tion to , son of , the same who transformed his house on the Caelian into a Church sacred to the memory of John and

Paul , the victims of the persecution of Julian the Apostate . I discovered this beautiful

1 8 68 building at Porto in , and its preserva tion was so marvellous that even the silver spoons and forks and the silver plate were found in their proper places in the pantry

o rlo ma or refectory . Prince Alexander T made a present of this precious su pellex to Pius

IX, but many specimens were stolen by the workmen , and sold to an antiquarian in N aples . The most important group of hospices or sch olae in Rome was that surrounding the h lae . s o Basilica of St Peter . It comprised the c [ 33 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

- of the Anglo Saxons , of the Frisians , of the 1 9 Franks , and of the Longobards . Of their e national church s , three out of four are still i ia v z . . Sax . in existence , , S Maria in , S Michele

T r io n S . e r e dei Frisoni , and Salvatore in dei

Franchi . The fourth dedicated to St . Justin seems to have disappeared at the beginning of 2 0 the ﬁfteenth century .

The other , smaller but very numerous medi cal institutions o f the City can be studied from o f or the point view of their special purpose ,

of the corporations to which they belonged , or

of their nationality . The ﬁrst type includes

S . S the hospitals of Gallicano for kin diseases , of S . Giacomo for incurables , of the Con a solazione for wounds , of the Piet for nervous

disorders , of S . Rocco , a maternity hospital ,

ll rini rinita e e . of S . T for the p g , of S Giovanni

for convalescents , of Santo Spirito for found

lings , etc .

The second includes the hospitals of S .

Lorenzo for the apothecaries ; o f St . Elizabeth

for bakers , etc . ’ To the third Class belong S . Maria dell

Anima of the Teutons , S . M . di Monserrato

o f the Spaniards , S . Antonio of the Portuguese ,

S . the Flemish S . Giuliano , Luigi of the [ 3 4 ] H O S P I T A L S A N D M E D I C A L S E R V I C E

o f Franks , the Polish Sudario , S . Claudio the

Burgundians , S . Stefano of the Moors and

Abyssinians , besides Italian hospices of the

lo rentines G F , Lombards , Bergamasque , enoese ,

Sicilians , etc . The reader may judge of the Wealth and splendour of these institutions from one in o f stance only , that the hospital of Santo Spirito

n in Sassia , which , in its origi s , dates back to the time of King Ina the S axo n who about 7 1 7

AD . founded a house of refuge for pilgrims of 2 1 PO e 1 1 8— 1 2 1 6 his nation . p Innocent III ( 9 ) tried to restore its fortunes and to prevent its total collapse , but with no tangible results . It was only in the last quarter of the ﬁfteenth century that Pope della Rovere , Sixtus IV ,

Po ntelli aided by Baccio , his favorite architect , built what even now is considered to be a prototyp e of a State hospital . The hall was 00 0 5 feet long , 5 wide , with a portico on the

ﬁr - street side , containing a number of e places or stoves , for the comfort of the beggars who congregated under its Shelter to gather the remnants of the food supplied to the inmates . There are reasons to believe that the altar under the central dome was designed by Andrea

Palladio . Should this tradition be true , this [ 3 5 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E altar is the only work of that excellent arChi tect existing in Rome . The hospital of Santo Spirito was called the richest landowner in Italy . To it belonged the whole stretch of territory crossed by the Via Vaccarese Aurelia , between and Civitavecchia , as as well the delta of the Po , including the farmlands and the big game p reserves of la

Mesola .

[ 3 6 ] I V. THE PALACE OF THE CAESARS AND THE PALACE O F THE POPES

’ 2 2 N H andb o o k e Murray s , the d scription of the Vatican group begins with the fol “ lowing sentence : There is no other pal ace in the world which approaches the Vatican in extent and interest, whether we regard its prominent position in history , or the inﬂuence exercised by its collections of art and learning for more than three centuries over the intellec tual world . It is an immense pile of buildings , irregular in shape and plan , constructed at dif ferent an times , without y regard for the har mony and cohesion of the whole . The same praise and criticism might be ap plied to the Palace of the Caesars , in the construction of which every Emperor , from

2 1 1 Augustus to Sep timiu s Severus ( 2 8 R C . to

seems to have taken a conspicuous part , without any concern for the general effect .

The Palatine Hill , so near the Capitol and the

Forum , both , centres of political and business life , had always been the favorite residence of [ 3 7 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

statesmen , lawyers , orators , and wealthy citi

u lv iu s Flaccu s zens . Here dwelt M . F , whose house was levelled to the ground after his ex e cu tio n for his share in the conspiracy of the

— L u tatiu s Catu lu s Gracchi and Q . , consul

1 02 B C . . , with Marius , with whom he gained the victory over the Cimb rians near Vercellae

and M . Livius Drusus , the great reformer Variu s of social laws , whose murder by Q . was immediately followed by the Social War . His house was inherited by Crassus the Orator ,

im lu v iu m who , having ornamented its p with four columns of Hymettian marble , was nick ” named the Palatine Venus . Cicero bought

6 2 B C it in December , for a sum correspond ing to $ 1 5 After passing through other ’ hands it was ﬁnally absorbed into Caligula s palace . Mention also must be made of the

o f . n house Q uintus Cicero , brother of M Tulli s , C lo diu s of , the notorious foe of the orator , and Aemiliu s Scau ru s of M . , stepson of Sulla the

Dictator , which was afterwards purchased by l C o diu s for an enormous sum .

Augustus , born near the north angle of the ad Ca ita B u b u la hill , in a lane called p (at the x O en heads) , selected it as the Imp erial resi [ 3 8 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

still enveloped in darkness . For instance , we h e know that for the use of t Emperor , of his f family , of his suite, of the o ﬁcers on duty , of the guests , there was an army of cooks so numerous that they had a private hospital , and medici co co one or more attending physicians , ru m h as . The state banqueting hall been found ; other small triclinia have also been no t found , but a trace of a kitchen or a h pantry , although it has been suggested t at the well descending to the lowest level of the pal

in disco v ace , which some metal pulleys were ered , may have been used for a dumbwaiter . Another point which is still waiting for a satisfactory explanation is the total absence of toilets , if we except a diminutive corner , back of the state banqueting Hall . I may also mention as a poi nt of comparison between the imperi al and p o ntiﬁcal palaces the fact that their enclosures were so skilfully arranged that a handful of men could guard the gates at

night with absolute security for the inmates .

As far as the Palatine is concerned , there were

cor s de arde only three p g , one at the Gate of

Victory , the walls of which are covered with interesting but improper g raﬁiti; the second at the top of the stairs of Cacus ; while the

[ 40 ] TH E PAL ACE S OF TH E CAES ARS AN D POPES lo cation of the third has not yet been disco v ered . Such is the case with the Vatican of

- to day . Having once closed the bronze doors

o r entrusted to the care o f the Swiss Guards , those of the Belvedere guarded by the Po ntiﬁ cal Gendarmes , the whole Vatican is as secure

n as if it were not a ﬁctitious but a real priso .

Leaving aside the Church o f St . Peter and its annexes , the pile of buildings connected with the habitation of the Pop e contains the state stairway (Scala Regia) , the reception hall a (Sala Ducale) , the Sistine Ch pel with Michel ’ “ Pao angelo s Last Judgment , the Cappella 0 lina built in I 54 by Paul III , the Library , the Picture Gallery with the Transﬁguration by

Raphael , the Loggie painted by Giovanni da ’ U o f dine , the Gallery Raphael s tapestries , the th e o ntiﬁcal Gallery of geographical maps , p Armoury in which is kept the steel armour of é the Conn table de Bourbon , which he wore when killed before the Castle of St . Angelo in 1 5 2 7 ; the Garden with its extensive groves of ancient oaks , and the Casino built by Pius IV from the designs o f Pirro Ligorio in accord ance with the plan of a Roman villa , just dis covered o n the shores of the lake of Gab ii. th e ex The Museum itself , extent of which [ 4 1 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E coeds several thousand feet and which requires many hours for even rapid examination , con

1 i o f tains 5 wings , galler es or halls , the names which are known over all the world , so as to u n make full description o f them , here , quite necessary .

When we consider that the Vatican palace occupies an immense rectangle feet long 6 and 7 7 feet wide , and that the number of its halls , chambers , galleries , etc . , almost exceeds C belief , we may easily lass it among the won ders of the world . According to trustworthy

a c lculations , it contains eight state stairways ,

two hundred smaller ones , twenty courts , four

- thousand and twenty three rooms . If it is further considered that the Sistine Chapel possesses the “ Last Judgment ” of Michel e angelo ; the Paulin Chapel , two frescoes by the

same master ; the big gallery of inscriptions , over two thousand specimens of palaeography ; N N A o x the Braccio uovo , the ile and the p y

o meno s ; the Rotunda , the Mastai Hercules and the Juno from L anu v iu m; that the picture ” Gallery contains the famous Saint Jerome , ” o the Transﬁguration , the Madonna of F

ligno ; the Library , thousands upon thousands [ 42 ] TH E PAL ACE S OF TH E CAESARS AN D POPES of precio us man uscripts ; that the Stanze were

o painted by Raphael , the L ggie by Giovanni da Udine ; that the Etruscan Museum contains Re alini Galassi the g tomb , the richest in exist i ence , we may safely say that in th s kind of architectural and ornamental wonders modern

Rome has the advantage over the ancient , and that the Pope ’ s residence exceeds in mag niﬁ n ce ce even the Imperial Palace of long ago .

[ 43 ] G G V. SHOOTIN LOD ES OF EM PERORS AND POPES ; THE PRESENT ROYAL PRESERVES OF CASTEL Po Rz IANo ZOOLO GICAL GARDENS

NE of the most striking coincidences in the succession of things from ancient to mo dern times is to be found in the hunting lodges o f Emperors , as inherited by the Popes . We knew from an inscription discovered at

L au rentu m s that the beautiful pine forest , stretching alo ng the coast from Ostia to

Antiu m and to the promontory of Circe , con stituted a domain of the crown , under the management of a head gamekeeper (Pro cu ra t L r t or au en o ) . These forests were teeming and with wild boar and stags deer , and have remained so until quite recent times . I have before my eyes a plan of the Roman Cam pagna , drawn by Innocenzo Mattei at the time of Alexander VII ( 1 65 5 in which the territory in question is marked with the legend [ 44 ] S H O O T I N G L O D G E S

Selve di capri e damo li ( forests of stags and deer) ; in fact, when I ﬁrst began watch 1 8 1 ing the excavations at Ostia in 7 , I remem ber meeting many times groups of sportsmen , carrying homeward the trophies of the day .

Game and forests have , alas , disappeared , and we owe a debt of gratitude to our good King for having recalled to life and for having p ro claimed as a sanctuary some ﬁfty thousand acres of game land . A section of this estate was set apart in imperial times for the breed ing of elephants , and when the estate was inherited by the Popes we know that another section was given up to the breeding of pea i Pau nar a . cocks ( ) The knowledge , however, that the forests of Castel Porziano were used in Classic times for the same purpose as at a present, and th t they were watched by a body of gamekeepers , similar to those who ’ - o b wear to day the King s grey uniform , was tained only in 1 9 09 by means of an inscrip tion discovered by our gracious Q ueen , whose name no Italian can mention without feelings o of devotion and gratitude . The inscripti n describes how a certain Aglaus , president of the guild of imperial gamekeepers ( C ollegiu m saltu ario ru m ) , had offered to his fellow workers [ 45 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E a set o f portrait busts of their sovereigns

ima ines do minoru m no stro ru m ( g ) , to be set up either In the meeting roo m ( sch o la) of the

Au u steu m guild , or else in the local g , remains of which are still extant in the forum of Lau re n m tu . It seems that the free life of the woods , and the breathing of air sweetened by the emanations of resin must have made

- these men long lived , if we may judge from the ripe age of eighty - ﬁv e reached by B uty

C saltu ariu s Nu ceria hes , of a preserve near

Alfaterna .

At the time of Constantine the property , and , o f consequently , the right hunting big game was transferred to the Churches of the Sav io u r in the Lateran and of the Holy Cross

( Santa Croce in Gerusalemme) . What became of it in the Middle Ages is not known . The

Ostiensis forest spread across the Viae , Lau rentina , and Severiana ; the pines and ilexes thrust their roots into the pavement of the roads and into the crumbling walls of the Villas which o nce ‘ lined the coast ; the sea receded ;

v il sand dunes rose where palaces , cottages , lages had stood . The old kingdom of Turnus and the whole silv a L au rentina were broken

F -o ssi nano up into the farm lands of g , Porci [ 46 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

l rian a Gu e d named Libs , the inventor of a fearful engine of destruction , such as not even the Cyclops could have devised for the use of o f Jupiter . It consists of a tube metal loaded with sulphur , natron , and ground charcoal , the mixture being sealed on the top with a lead ” 2 3 bullet . This man Libs must be considered — the refore as the inventor mo t of portable ﬁrearms in general — but of a light kind of fowlingpiece more adapted for the Shooting of big and small game . His name , however , is not mentioned in Dutch or German bio graphical dictionaries . The Popes themselves had more than once taken an interest in hunts , but as simple spec tato rs . On the occasion of a meet arranged ’ d Este in honour of Borso by Pope Paul II , a medal was struck showing a hunting scene , with the motto : so lu m in feras piu s b ello tar Pasto r ( the pious S hepherd wages war only against the wild beasts) . Leo X, however , was the ﬁrst Pope to surround himself with the m retinue of men , dogs , horses , and snares eces sary to ensure success to real regal sport . He

th e could not follow hounds on horseback , on account of his corpulency , but sat on a stand from which a good view of the ﬁeld could be [ 48 ] S H O O T I N G L O D G E S

Obtained . When the chase came to an end , he would gather his guests for suitable refresh

ments in the hunting lodge of la Magliana ,

which stood close by . A visit to la Magliana on the road to Porto (the ancient v ia Campana ) is highly interest ing in spite of the vandalism which the lodge

has suffered not so much at the hands of time ,

as at the hands of greedy despoilers . The name is a derivation from the classic fundus ” Manli nu s Manlian a , the suburban farm of the

0 family , known in history since the year 3 9

C . o ntiﬁcal B . Here a p cottage was founded by

1 1 Sixtus IV ( C . 47 afterwards enlarged b eau tiﬁed and by Innocent VIII , Julius II and

Leo X . The latter held a consistory in one of

its halls , while the chase was at its height ,

s 1 2 1 . but , alas , caught there his la t illness in 5 ’ After Leo s death , Pius IV occasionally resided

at la Magliana , his name and coat of arms being sculptured in various parts of the build

ing . Sixtus V is the last Pope mentioned in

connection with this suburban residence , which

soon after was abandoned to farmers , who quickly destroyed the ﬁne works of art it once

contained , save a set of frescoes attributed to o f Raphael , though more probably the Perugia [ 49 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

School , which were purchased for the Louvre

by President Thiers in 1 8 7 2 . In the autumn of 1 8 74 another set of fres

coes by Lo Spagna , which adorned the con sisto rial N hall , representing Apollo and the ine

Muses , was removed to the Conservatori pal

ace on the Capitol . For many years they had

been hidden under a copious whitewash , while the legs and feet of all the beautiful ﬁgures

were destroyed by the labourers , who had

driven or hammered pegs into the wall , on h which they might ang their clothes . The situation of la Magliana is enchanting and much has been done by the National Govern

ment to free the district from malaria .

Speaking quite broadly , there is a marked difference in the treatment of dumb animals

in ancient and modern times . First of all a distinctio n must be made between the chase

of ferocious beasts , to provide Victims for the games of the Amphitheatre ( Venatio nes ) and Zo Olo ical fresh stock for the g Garden , and hon

est sport in the modern sense of the word . The capture of ferocious beasts was en

trusted to a specially selected body of hunters , who wore a multi - coloured uniform not unlike

that worn to - day by the Swiss Guards at the

[ so ] S H O O T I N G L O D G E S

c Vatican . They were trained , a cording to the th needs of the government , to capture e special kind of animals they were expected to gather , such as bears and elks from the Carpathians

leo and the Balkans , elephants from Africa , p N ards from Syria , lions from ubia , tigers from N India , amphibians from the ile , etc . While waiting to be slaughtered in the arena the animals were kept in a Zoo' logical Garden or

Viv ariu m o , adj ining the Praetorian Camp , from which it was divided by a partition wall . The

8 00 t. 00 . f four sides of the square ( 7 ft x , the last vestiges of which have been obliterated within my recollection) were lined with cages large enough to ensure ample freedom of movement to the beasts , who could drink and bathe in the waters of a channel (Eu ripu s ) which ran close to the railings . The Roman “ zoo ” could well stand comparison with the best institutions of the sort of the present day .

Go rdian s Y 2 D u A . . At the time of the ounger , 44 , it contained , besides a vast number of smaller

0 1 0 1 0 60 animals , 3 elephants , elks , tigers ,

1 0 1 1 tame lions , hyenas , hippopotamus ,

1 2 0 1 0 rhinoceros , 9 giraffes , wild asses , and wild horses . Connected with the Viv ariu m was an Amphitheatre , still in existence , where the [ SI ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

beasts were trained to perform the most incred

ible exercises , and the hunters were trained

to the various manners of sport . There was

v eterinarii also a special staff of doctors or , to watch over the health and hygienic needs

of the beasts . Dogs we re divided into three classes : canes

v illatici Of , watch dogs , whose ﬁce was to guard farmhouses against the aggression of thieves ; canes pasto rales or shepherd dogs for the pro ‘ tectio n of sheep from robbers and Wolves ; can v enat i es ic or sporting dogs . They were provided with iron or leathern collars , spiked

with nails , from which hung labels giving the

re name and address of their owner , with the

quest that , in case of attempt to escape , the runaway should be arrested and brought back N to his master . ineteen such labels have

already been found , the legends of which are worded more or less in this way : I am the

F elicissimu s S dog o f , head hepherd to the ” “ Basilica of Paul the Apostle , or , hold me

because I have run away , and take me back

to Leo , the caretaker of the Basilica Aemilia . Besides the plaster cast of the Pompeian io relli dog taken by F in the house of Orpheus , of which we have a good reproduction in [ 5 2 ] S H O O T I N G L O D G E S

’ “ Th édenat s Po m éi p , we actually possess , although in a mummiﬁed state , a beautiful sporting dog , a greyhound , three thousand , h eo three hundred years old , discovered by T dore Davies in the sepulchral Chamber of King

- - - Amen h o tep II at Biban el Moulouk . King

Amen - h o tep was very fond of pet domestic animals , above all of monkeys , ducks , and i t C . h ckens The Egy ptians , to speak the tru h , seem to have mummiﬁed everything that had had life , animals , birds , ﬁshes , insects . Wit

B u b astis ness the great cat necropolis at , the ibis cemetery at Abydos , and the jackal

- l- cemetery at Deir e Bahari . In preserving larger beasts it was not the custom to embalm and mummify the whole

r r body . Thus a sacred cow would be ep e sented by the horned head alone , with a small selection of bones . n The only grave of a large animal , fou d within my own recollection in the Roman Cam pagna , is that of a bull , buried in a cofﬁn at

- the Mezzo Cammino , the half way house on the road to Ostia . The explanation of such an unusual burial has yet to be found . I V . HOMES

UIL D INGS for human habitation in Rome were of three kinds : private pal

o r d o mu s aces private houses ( ) , for the residence of one patrician family, with a more or less Copious retinue of freedmen and sl aves ; apartment - houses in the strictest modern sense of the word (the existence of which has just been made known by th e latest excavations at

insu Ostia) ; and thirdly , tenement houses ( lae ac ) , many stories high and capable of co mm o f o dating many families . At the time its greatest prosperity Rome is said to have

do mu s insu lae numbered and , the population not exceeding eight hundred thou sand souls . These statistics refer only to the

re io nes en fourteen wards ( g ) of Augustus , at i closed , a later age , w thin the walls of Aurelian ; but there was a suburban belt of houses , lodgings , hostelries , with gardens and orchards between them , extending for a radius of at least three miles from the Golden Mile

o . st ne All , together , they formed the metro [ 54 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E somewhat the same principle that prevails now for American skyscrapers , attaining a consider able height and capable of acco mmodating as many families as there were ﬂoors , perhaps even two families for each ﬂoor But their spontaneous collapse was such a common o c currence that nobody paid attention to it . Cicero speaks Of the fall of some cottages at tended with loss of life as an item hardly worthy o f remark . Seneca depicts the tenants o f certain homes , as fearing at the same time that they might be burned or buried alive . Construction companies were formed for the purpose of propping and sustaining in the air houses , the foundations of which also had to be strengthened . Archaeologists have collected the following information as regards house rents in Athens and Rome . In Athens lodging houses were let mostly to foreigners who came to the capital on business . The banker Pasion had one valued at one hundred minae , or two thousand

dollars . City property yielding a return some what more than eigh t and a half per cent on

I sae the purchase money is mentioned by u s . B o e ckh says that rent varied from sixty to a maximum of two thousand four hundred do] [ 56 ] H O M E S

lars , according to size , location , and comfort of house . Rents were commonly paid by the month . Lodgings were frequently hired on speculation by obscure individuals , who made a profit by subletting them , sometimes for not very reputable purposes . In Rome rents were equally high , even for a miserable garret . Per sons in the lowest walks of life paid Co eliu s sesterces . is said to have paid sesterces for a third floor in a tenement of lo i s Publius C d u . Hence it became a profitable speculation to build or to hire a whole block and to sublet the single rooms or suites to dif ferent tenants , the whole establishment being placed under the care of a controller called

I n u lariu N s s . oblemen owning a large town property counted among their clerks a pro cu r to r in lar m a su u . We come now to the question of the height of buildings . The excessive elevation of tene ments is noticed for the ﬁrst time , I believe , in Cicero , who compares Rome suspended in mid - air with Capua lying comfortably down in the p lains of Campania Felix . Seneca com plains of the impunity which builders of tall insu lae were allowed to enjoy , because the p oor c o s tenants , per hed in those heights , had no p [ 5 7 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E sible escape from ﬁre or from the collapse of

o the building itself . There is no d ubt that to wards the end o f the Republic Rome had higher houses than some modern cities . While the building act pr omulgated in Berlin in 1 8 60

- admits a maximum of thirty six feet only , pro v ided the street is of the same width ; while the

- ﬁv e Viennese act allows forty feet , and the

- Parisian sixty three and a half , higher ﬁgures were tolerated in ancient Rome with no con sideration whatever for the width of the street .

Augustus , to obviate disaster , limited the new height of houses to seventy feet , at least

on the street side , and later emperors made

similar provisions . The house door was watched by an Ostia riu s or porter , whose duty was to admit visitors and to prevent anything improper from being

carried into or out of the house . It was also

- ﬂ his duty to sweep the ground o o r rooms . Plato gives a lively picture of an o fﬁcio u s por

ter boring visitors to death . He was generally

assisted by a dog . On the threshold the words S alv e or C av e C anem were frequently wrought

o n in mosaic , as we see many times in P mpeia houses ; and over the threshold there sometimes hung a cage containing a magpie (pica salu ta [ 58 ] H O M E S

trix o r sittacu s e ) , a parrot (p ) to gre t those who

entered . Over the door a few words of good

nihil intret mali omen were written , such as or

ti in en ior m depreca o c d u . Sometimes the house th e was marked by a sign over door , gen o rally by the image of a god or goddess under who se protection the inmates we re supposed to be . We are just discovering at Ostia a

beautiful house with the S ign of Diana . The town address of resident Citizens was S peciﬁed in the same manner as it is now , namely , by means of the region and by the name of the

street . Thus , we are told that Augustus was

n ad C a ita B u b u la n ad M alu m bor p , Domitia

P ni u m I ns ae u c . u l , etc were designated by the the name of owner . Thus we have records of

I nsu la B o laniana S er oriana Vitaliana an , t , , F eli le c s . The value of town property was very great

indeed . The house of L . Crassus , the orator ,

2 B C on the Palatine , built about 9 . . , was valued at S ix million sesterces or about pounds ; but Pliny says that it yielded in

atu lu s magniﬁcence to the house of Q . C on the same hill , and was much inferior to that of A u iliu s q on the Viminal . Hymettian marble N m was ﬁrst used by Crassus , u idian by Lepi A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

B C dus in 7 8 . . In spite of the criticisms of the few who were still devoted to Republican S implicity and austerity of life , luxurious and costly dwellings grew so rap idly in favor that hundreds were raised before the Augustan age , Lucullus being specially praised for the beauty of the large garden which surrounded his town

e resid nce , and which soon became state prop ert H o rti L u u lli ni y , under the name of c a . The house of Aemiliu s Scau ru s was sold to

Clo diu s for nearly ﬁfteen million sesterces , about pounds , a price , as Pliny says , worthy of the madness of kings . It is the

- highest price recorded in pre Augustan times .

th e M ssall Again , we hear that Consul e a bought his house for pounds and that

Cicero gave for his residence . These examples of the cost of mansions of the nobles may give a fair idea of the value of town property and of the immense size and wealth

. e of these houses Sallust compares th m , in size , to small cities , and Seneca describes them as equal to the imperial palace . In course of time the burden of keeping them up in style became so heavy that they were either sold or the given to State , together with the large gar dens by which they were surrou nded . This is [ 60 ] H O M E S

i h orti Sallu stiani L u cu lliani the or gin of the , ,

i ri i L am ani Va an . , , etc The ﬁrst of these gar dens was laid out by the historian Sallust with the money accumulated during his governor N ship of umidia ; the second , by Lucullus and

Asiaticu s Aeliu s Valerius ; the third , by Lucius AD Lamia , consul 3 ; the fourth , by Sextus Variu s Marcellus , father of the Emperor

Heliogabalus . I have myself discovered or seen discovered many of these princely resi dence s within or without the walls of the City . I shall never forget the excitement I felt on

‘ Ev e 1 88 Christmas of 4, when a wing of Cali gula ’ s cottage in the Lamian gardens was dis

S covered about nightfall . I ran to the pot as fast as my feet could carry me and helped the

o ne men dig out , by one , the most exquisite works of the ancient chisel that have ever been found collected in a single room . I worked like a slave until one o ’clock in the morning . We were in a portico , inlaid with about thirty varieties of alabaster , with tiny jets of water leaping from panel to panel , to

o keep the place cool and the ﬂ wers blooming . There were colonnades of ﬂuted shafts of

iallo antico N g ( umidian marble) , the capitals of which must have been of gilt metal . There

[ 6 1 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E was lying on the exquisite ﬂoo r the bust of

Commodus under the attributes of Hercules ,

ﬂanked by two Tritons or marine Centaurs , and by two statues representing either Danaids the or Muses . There were lovely Venus ” Lamiana , a portrait head of young Com modus , a head of Diana , a Bacchus of semi

z colossal size , with drapery of gilt bron e

(missing) and about twenty - ﬁv e exquisite fragments belonging to statues whose drapery was likewise of bronze . If we recollect that from the same mansion and from the same “ ” gardens came the Meleager of Belvedere , the pediment o f a temple ( P) with the slaughter N of the iobids , now in Florence ; and two

Ufﬁz i Galler No z z e Athletes , also in the y ; the _ Aldo b randine now in the Vatican ; the Dis co b o lu s of Myron now in the L ancelo tti Pal ace , and hundreds of other celebrated works

C cath edra of ancient hisels , and a gilt bronze

le ti a or c c , studded with precious stones , not to and mention coins , gems , medals , our mind can hardly grasp the S igniﬁcance and the impor tance of such a collection .

Equal in size and beauty, although despoiled of its artistic treasures , was the Casino or Villa discovered in th e gardens of La Farnesina [ 62 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

called so laria ) ; and could even pass from one house to the next in case ﬁre broke out

unexpe ctedly in their ﬂats . In later times these so laria on the tomof houses were turned into

- roof gardens , which contained even fruit

trees and ﬁsh ponds . There were in use also awnings to make th e so laria agreeable during

the hottest hours of the day . It is incorrect to suppose that insu lae and do mu s o had no windows overlo king the street , — when any number of such , sometimes open

maeniana ing on wooden or stone balconies ( ) , — are actually to be seen at Ostia , and in

Rome itself , as , for example , in the house of

John and Paul , in the imperial mansion with

in the Sallustian Gardens , and in the house embedded in the walls of th e City on the right

of the Porta S . Lorenzo .

latrina v The , or pri y , was as a rule in close and dangerous connection with the sink of the

kitchen , so that a common drain might carry

off the refuse of both . In palaces , such as ’ the one in Hadrian s villa , and in that of

Augustus on the Palatine , the lavatory was

a richly and beautifully decorated apartment , with several jets of water and accommodations

xtrao rdi for six or eight people . Such an e [ 64 ] H O M E S nary arrangement h as lasted in Italy until my own age . I remember having seen one in a U convent near rbino , with ten seats , such as we have seen provided during the late war for the use of our soldiers at the front . For

- the above mentioned house of Diana at Ostia , which was at least three stories high and com

at prised least six apartments , there was only one retreat and a very indecent one at that . Rooms were occasionally heated in various : ways ﬁrst , by being built in that part of the house which faced the south , hence their H elio camini name of ; secondly, by means of charcoal braziers , such as we still ﬁnd in use

- in many places , to day . Fireplaces seem to h have been unknown . Hot air from the ypo cau sts was made to circulate under the ﬂoors and even under the plastering of the walls , by means of tiled ﬂues , so that the inmates of the house were never brought in direct contact with the burning embers and with suffocating t fumes from he furnace .

These comforts for pleasant living , within the walls of a city house , were extended even to cottages for the farmers of the Campagna . I remember the discovery made not many b e years ago on the farm of Tor Carbone , [ 65 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

longing to the late Cardinal Lugari , of a rus tic dwelling o i a modest appearance but wonderfully well adapted to its purpose . Its ground - ﬂ o o r rooms were provided with double pavements or ﬂoors for the circulation of hot ha d air , while great care been taken to carry o ff the drainage to a great distance by means of a permanent stream of water , part of which was also stored in a reservoir or cistern , ready for any extraordinary emergency . I cannot prove in a more convincing way the statement that modern Rome compares

re advantageously with the ancient City , as gards palaces , gardens , and villas , than by C Alessan iting what one single man , Cardinal dro Farnese , was able to accomplish under

o ntiﬁcate the p of his grandfather , Paul the

Third . His palace , which constitutes even in our days of luxury and display the most splendid creation of the Renaissance , became the recipient of the rarest and best collections ever formed by a private individual . The col lections comprised works of statuary , pictures ,

o b ets de books , manuscripts , inscriptions , j v ert u , medals , coins , engraved gems , minia a e o an d tures , invalu bl bo ks curiosities , ex hib ite d in halls designed by Michelangelo and [ 66 ] H O M E S

San GallO by Antonio da , and painted by Anni Th in bale Caracci . e collection of statuary

o f n cluded many direct products excavatio s , but it was also enriched through purchases . The Farnese Museum represents to us the sum

f inde end of the ef orts which had been made , p

o ently o f each other , by Cardinal Marin ab ii Grimani , Bernardino F , by the brothers

Sassi , by Tommaso della Porta and other col to lectors , secure for their respective homes the best specimens of statuary that they could 2 6 obtain .

When we think , therefore , that the Farnese Palace contained at one time such masterpieces ” of ancient art as the Flora , the Punishment ” Gl co n of Dirce , the Hercules of y , the “ ” Atraeu s group of , the two Gladiators , the so - called Hermaphrodite of touchstone, the ” ” Marcus Aurelius , the Sabina , hundreds of

b as - s minor statues and reliefs , mosaic picture , n the marble plan of Rome , draw at the time of

Se timiu s F asti triu m h ales et p Severus , the p C o nsu lares m , and the richest spoils fro the ’ Portico of the Argonauts , from Trajan s Forum , Athletaru m from the Curia , the Roman Forum , D i le the Regia , the Baths of Caracalla and o c

B o v illae tian , the Gardens of Caesar , from , [ 67 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

u scu lu m Tibur and T , we can safely maintain that the Farnese Palace at the time of its glory outrivalled any other similar creation of human

i gen us In ancient or modern times . 1 2 Alessan Before the sack of 5 7 , Cardinal

— erriz dro , then residing in the old F palace , kept

a princely court of his own . In the census taken under Clement VII a few months before the dire event the results of which were 2 7 made known in 1 894 by Domenico Gno li Cardinal Farnese ranks next to the Pope and

above all his colleagues of the sacred college , as regards the number o f his courtiers and ser vants . To the Pope are assigned seven hundred ” bocche , or mouths feeding at his expense ;

: to the Cardinals , the following retinues Farn

06 Cesarini 2 2 00 ese 3 , 7 5 , Orsini , and so on until we reach the more modest suites of Car

Nu malio dinal with sixty servants , and of Car

- ﬁ e dinal Vio with forty v .

[ 68 ] II A V . POR I OES R ER T C , CHA ACT ISTIC ROMAN INSTITUTION N institution very popular in ancient

Rome , but which has not been 28 C adopted by any modern ity , is that

- of the garden porticoes , large parallelograms th e of green enclosed by a colonnade . At time ’ of Rome s greatest prosperity , the surface of the Campus Martius and of the Circus Fla miniu s , in fact , the whole area between the u ir left bank of the Tiber and the Pincian , Q inal , and Viminal hills , was covered with “ ” porticoes , greens and campi , twenty of which are especially mentioned by ancient U authors . nder the Republic , when the habits of the population had not yet been inﬂuenced by enervating contacts with Greece and the

’ East , the few existing porticoes were devoted

Minu cian to practical purposes . The served

H o lito rian as a corn exchange , the as a market Po m ei n for vegetables , the p a to give shelter to the people sitting in the adjoining theatre in case of a sudden shower . Augustus made [ 69 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E the institution popular by building a great

many with his own money , or by asking t weal hy friends to follow his example . In the space of twenty years the whole Campus Mar

tius was covered with colonnades . Augustus

Octav ia built those of , with the Greek and “ Natio nes Latin libraries ; the one called ad , and a third called C o rinthian on account of the gilded bronze capitals of its columns . Then Cornelius B alb u s built his Crypta and Philip pus the portico surrounding the temple of

Mu saru m Hercules . Agrippa outstripped his predecessors and contemporaries in the mag niﬁcenc e and the magnitude of his structures .

Po rticu s Vi sania To him we owe the p , the

S e ta J u lia Villa Pu b lica Po rtico o p , the , the f th e Ar o nau ts E u ro a SO g , and the one of p . popular became the institution that new co lon a nades were dded to those already mentioned , even until the fall of the Empire and the

m Of subsequent establish ent papal rule , when it was possible for pilgrims to proceed under

shelter from church to church , and from the centre of the city to the outlying sanctuaries 2 9

t. . . S of St Peter , Paul and St Lawrence .

Finally , we have documents concerning other great structures which had been begun but [ 7 9 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

i ediﬁces , stretch ng along the river from the foot of the Aventine to th e region of th e Vat ican . They have been studied rather individ u all y , one by one , and from this point of View they appear to us sometimes as enclosures of i te mples , somet mes as art galleries of painting and sculpture , or as a meeting place for the in fashionable idle y outh . Their importance creases tenfold ii we consider them all togethe r as successive manifestations of the same idea , as a part of a single scheme for the beneﬁt

n of the public . Rome was certai ly not lacking in parks and gardens . Both summits and slopes of the chain of hills framing the valley of the Tiber , from the Pincian to the Varian

Gardens on the left side , and from the Minu m cia to the Caesarean on the right side , had been turned into two immense public parks of rare beauty . On the right side of the river the line of public gardens culminated in a

inco m Belvedere (now the Villa Aurelia , the parable S eat of the American Academy) , from which point of vantage the eye wandered from the sno wclad Apennines to the p ineclad coast of th e Tyrrhenian Sea . These public parks ,

however , were naturally exposed to the rigours of th e seasons : to the sharp blasts of the [ 7 2 ] P O R T I C O E S

to a Tramontana in winter , and the heat w ves 0 of the dog days . T better the situation and to give to the people of the metropolis a Chance to wander in every season of the year , at every hour of the day , sheltered from rain , and sun , : and cold , this system of porticoes was adopted or rather , it was suggested that buildings , which up to that time had had a different use , should be exclusively set aside for the beneﬁt and pleasure of the public . It is manifest that this happened when th e old severe habits of life were modiﬁed or corrupted by Eastern N to ideas . ature and art were made har mo niz e : pleasure was sought as much as use fulness . For instance , on the enclosure wall of the Portico of Vip sania Polla ( the sister of

Agrippa) the maps of Rome , of the XI Italic o Regions , and of the whole R man world were h t ex ibited ; on tha of the Argonauts , the fresco paintings represented the tale of the Golden

Fleece . The Septa Julia were taken advantage x of for the e hibition of curios , antiques , prod u cts of the far East , and natural wonders , e such as a serp nt ﬁfty cubits long , and a beam of larch one hundred feet long and three feet thick and wide , cut from the forests of the upper Adige . Finally , the portico of Philippus [ 73 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E was used for the exhibition of wigs and the ’ - latest fashions in ladies head dress . Sho uld the reader lay before his eyes a plan 3 0 c o f the ancient ity , he would see at once how easy and delightful it must have been made for the citizens to walk under shelter from th e Forum B o ariu m (la Bocca della Verité ) to Hadrian ’ s mausoleum at the opposite end of the town . And the sight was enough to capti vate even the most torpid minds . I have been tempted to calculate some statistical data con cerning this incomparable group . The extent of the twelve larger porticoes of the Campus Martius amounted to yards ; the surface protected from sun and rain , to square e yards ; the total area of the portico s , central gardens included , was square yards ; the number of columns , or thereabouts .

The columns were sent, cut from the rarest kinds of marble ; their capitals were of Corin thian gilt brass ; the pavements were inlaid with jasp er and po rphyry ; the walls were

w h as - e adorned ith statues , reli fs , and pictures , while the inner space was decorated with lovely b o x gardens and clusters of , myrtle , laurel and t ce s plane trees , in er pted with lakes , fountain and wate rfalls . [ 74 ] P O R T I C O E S Much has been said about Roman taste in the matter of gardens . It was very poor , or at least it was an exaggeration of that kind of taste displayed again by Renaissance architects and landscape artists in Rome , Florence , and upper or central Italy . Trees were not allowed to grow according to the provisio ns of nature ; they were cruelly pruned and made to look like wild animals and monsters hiding in sylvan recesses . Then , the supply of flowers was very th e . N limited evertheless , although flora of those days was but poor in co mparison with th e o ours , there is no proof of asserti n that the Romans contented themselves solely with wild plants , and neither laid out flower gardens nor cultivated any exotics . Violets and roses were certainly the main ornament of pleasure N x grounds . e t came the bulbous roots the crocus , narcissus , lilies of many kinds , iris , hyacinths , poppies , amaranthus , and so on . h The Roman flower par excellence was t e rose . So excessive was the demand for this flower in the cold season that , to supply the require ments of the market and to meet the deficiency of native production , they were imported even from Egypt , Syria , and Phoenicia . The same means were employed to keep them as fresh [ 7 5 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E as possible which we use throughout the win ter , who import flowers from the Riviera to our picturesque market on the Spanish Steps . Another place famous for the winter trade in roses was Paestum and the surrounding lowlands , bordering on the Gulf of Salerno .

B i eri r r P 1 1 o sa ia o esti Geor . f Virgil ( g , iv 9 ) o calls those gardens , because they blo med for

a second time in the late autumn . Entir e absence of natural beauty and stiff C ness were , as I have just said , the haracter istics o of an ornamental R man garden , in which no tree or shrub dared to grow in its natural form . At all times the gardener was

ready to force them into prescribed forms . In the leafy avenues bordered by walls of green

box and laurels , with their windows , doors and niches imitating the architecture of pal

aces , appeared , here and there , threatening forms of wild beasts or snakes winding them

selves round the trees , all cut by the skilful

to iariu s hand of the p from cypresses , yew trees

co m and myrtle . The reluctant foliage was

elled p to simulate letters , spelling in one part

the name of the mistress of the domain , and in another the name of the artist to whose in

v entio n the garden owed its appearance . [ 7 6 ] P O R T I C O E S

Grounds laid out in this geometrical style , by which every vestige of nature ’ s freedom was

annihilated , were not only praised by ancient writers (as by Pliny , as in the case of his Lau n al renti e Villa) , but were painted , I might most say photographed , in the frescoes of a Pompeian dining rooms . The same style p

eare d p , doubtless , in the gardens of Maecenas , Aeliu s in those of Lamia , on the Esquiline , and ’ l mini in those of Livia s Villa on the F a an Road . It is evident that foreign countries had not yet revealed to th e Romans their inexhaustible variety of shrubs and ﬂowers . The trees represented in the fresco es of the Villa of

Livia are the pomegranate , the laurel , the

stone pine , and various kinds of ﬁrs , arbutus ,

ilexes , plane trees , myrtles , and cypresses . im Restricted , thus , to a barren ﬂora , little

proved by culture , the Romans sought to create by artiﬁcial means a striking contrast to the

free forms of nature . The garden paths were usually arched over by trellises or by green arbours of canes and

vines , and their ﬂoors were sprinkled with

yellow sand .

C Before bringing this hapter to a close , and

without entering into more particulars , I [ 7 7 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E must say a few words of my own pe rsonal experiences in connection with the discovery o f one o f these great structures of ancient

Rome , so essential to the welfare o f the

Portico o th e Ar o Metropolis , namely the f g nants . It was erected by Agrippa in 2 6

B . C . , in commemoration of his naval victories Po m eiu s over Sextus p , for which he had received the naval crown : and also in memory o f the share he had taken in the battle and victory of Actium . The group comprised a temple of the God of the seas (a considerable portion of which , including eleven columns of the north side , is still standing) ; a garden

2 2 2 square 3 5 feet long , 9 feet wide , enclosed by a colonnade , upon which opened halls of various kinds , mostly occupied by the ofﬁces of the Imperial Admiralty . The group was

Ne tu niu m o called p , while the portic took the name of the Argonauts from the paintings of naval subjects which it contained . Like the temple of Isis , the Pantheon , the Thermae , the

D irib ito riu m Septa , and the , it came to grief i co nﬂ a rat o n 8 0 A . D . in the great g of , but it was restored by Hadrian . To appreciate the value o f the discoveries which I was able to make in 1 8 76 (acting as [ 78 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

Pietra , placed upside down in the pavement

a 8 . of a medieval church , c lled Stefano del 1 88 Trullo . On February 9 , 3 , three more p ieces were dug up from the same place , mak ing a total of thirteen Provinces thus rep re o f sented and of six panels . If the wishes

a artists and rchaeologists had been consulted , Provinces and Panoplies would ha ve been restored long ago to their original places , so as to make th e remains of the Temple of Neptune one of the most beautiful and impressive exist No a ing monuments of Ancient Rome . d miralty palace o f modern Europe could be compared with the beauty and splendour of ’ Agrippa s masterpiece . The request which I made in the year 1 8 83 for the restoration of the

building was not granted by the State , and the sculptured panels were allowed to remain

scattered in ﬁve palaces or museums , in two C ities two hundred miles apart .

AS I have stated above , the example set by Augustus and his courtiers found imitators down to the fall of the Empire : witness the Porticu s M aximae of Gratian , Valentinian , and ] Theodosius , and also the colonnades , or she tered A li n ways , which led from the e a Bridge [ 80 ] P O R T I C O E S

’ Ostiensis to St . Peter s , from the Porta to ’ St . Paul s , and from the Porta Tiburtina to ’

St . Lawrence s . I am among the few who have

o f Por ticu s M aximae seen remains these , which are partly in the foundations of the Santa

Croce Palace , partly in the trenches dug for

the drainage of the Via Arenu la . I gave strict o f attention to the excavations , in the hope tracing the effects of th e earthquake of 42 5 AD , which disaster is known to have caused

P rti No in the collapse of the o cu s v a . The

dicatio ns were scanty, yet I could ascertain a certain amount of parallelism in the down fall

c of the olumns , as if the shock had come from e the southwest towards the north ast, a de

tail which has also been noticed at Ostia , in

so - the ruins of the called Imperial Palace , in the church of Santa Petronilla on the Via

Ardeatina , and in other places . I may remark ,

a also , th t , as in classic times triumphal arches were raised on the Sacra Via leading to the

Temple of Jupiter , so in the Christian Era , arches were raised on the roads converging ’ towards St . Peter s ; and especially at the ap proach of the bridge which the pilgrims were bound to cross on their way to the Apostle ’ s

tomb . That of Theodosius , which stood at [ 8 1 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

’ the entrance to the Aelian Bridge (Ponte Sant t Angelo) , bore an inscription stating tha it had been raised ad co nclu dendu m opu s o mne

Po rticu u m M aximaru m . Other particulars about th is late network of green spaces and colonnades are to be found in the Guidebooks and Itineraries for pilgrims , the earliest and best of its class being the one formerly in the Pfaeffers library of the Abbey o f , later in that

of St . Mary of Einsiedeln . I have published

this venerable document (in fac - simile) to

prove that in the ninth century, at the time ] of Charlemagne , the preservation of the she te red a highways from Basilica to Basilic was ,

if not perfect , at least certainly excellent .

[ 8 2 ] III IBR RIES V . L A E oldest written document which has come down to us from the earli stele est times o f Rome , namely the 3 2 of the Forum , proves how uncouth the language , how crude the spelling , how incor rect the manner of writing o f our remote an

r b ou stro cesto s was . They used in fact the h p edo n system of engraving their records , so called because the lettering begins from right to left and goes on alternately from left to right atﬁ l like the tracing of a furrow in a wh e e d . And as our progenitors were men of action to rather than men of letters , and more prone use the sword than the pen , it is evident that public and private libraries must have been instituted at a very late period . The ﬁrst important one , mentioned by Varro , had been Aemiliu s the brought over by L . Paulus , con u ero r q of Macedonia , from the palace of King

Perseus , among the spoils of war . Sulla the

Dictator , when in Athens , laid hands on a far richer collection , namely , the library of A elliko n p , which had belonged previously to [ 83 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

Po m o niu s Aristotle himself . p Atticus , the

faithful and intimate friend of Cicero , seems to h ave formed his library more for love of

money than for love of literature . He was

the conﬁdential agent of Cicero , not only in

' o the search for new b oks or new editions , but

as an organizer of the temples of learning .

Meno h ilu s His two assistants , Dionysius and p , ’ had so skilfully put in order Cicero s library , that the illustrious orator could not help writ

ing a letter of thanks to his friend Atticus , the

bookseller . Strange to say, even at this early stage of bibliophily there were men who stole ’ books . One of Cicero s trustworthy ser vants had run away with a certain number of

volumes , and had been followed by detectives “ to the coast of Dalmatia . The theft was e ial no o mat r ly of importance , said Cicer , “ still I feel the loss very much . I shall not follow the development of these o r institutions , mention the names of Roman

benefactors , in whose footsteps modern

patrons have stepped , such as the popes , Six

tus IV and Sixtus V , for the Vatican library ,

N - Co rsiniana Cardinal eri Corsini for the , Car dinals Chigi , Barberini , Casanate for those

bearing their names . [ 84 ] L I B R A R I E S

In 1 7 5 2 a private library was discovered at

Herculaneum , with shelves lining the walls of the apartment , and one bookcase standing by itself in the middle o f the ﬂoor . Altogether there was room for volumes ; rather too

i . e . many from our point of View, , for one Chamber ; but then we must remember that ancient libraries were , probably, never warmed , even in the depth of winter , in order to avoid dangers of co nﬂ agratio n and the inroads of moths . Hence the necessity for making use of small rooms and of overcro wding them with shelves . That is the reason why we , ancient students of the Vatican Library , perished with ﬁv e cold , for four or months of the year , until o Monsign re Achille Ratti , then librarian to and the Holy See , now welcomed to the chair ’ t of St . Peter s by he whole world with joy and

satisfaction , caused the reading room to be

comfortably warmed .

The great book market , the Paternoster

Ar iletu m Row of Ancient Rome , was the g , a quarter situated between the Forum and the

. lib rarn anti u arii Subura Here the and the q ,

- booksellers and copyists , kept their well fur nish ed stores , so often mentioned and described

by Horace and Martial . On each Side o f the [ 8 5 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E entrance door were hung elaborate advertise the ments , giving title and the price of literary novelties , and even the portrait of the author .

As regards public libraries , our knowledge of their organization has been made more com

le te c p by the dis overy , made by Albert Ballu , of the municipal library of Timgad . We have learned for the ﬁrst time that the shelves were located in recesses or niches surrounding the hall ; we have discovered how students or librarians could reach these shelves , even if very high above the ﬂoor ; and where the read ers sat ; and whence came the proper amount of im ad light , and so on . The discovery at T g has , in fact , opened new horizons to us and has C enabled us to identify many lassic buildings , which had remained nameless . Who would

so - have thought, for instance , that the called ’ Sala dei Filo so ﬁ in Hadrian s Villa was ’ but th e library annexed to the Emperor s

his residence , where guests were sure to ﬁnd the latest and choicest works of poets and historians ! Who would have thought that th e two hemicycles of Trajan ’ s Forum and the ’ hall o f Agrippa s baths in the v ia della Palom b ella had the same function ! My own per sonal experience has been wide and successful [ 86 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E on a much grander scale) with the Municipal im ad Library discovered by Ballu at T g , that ab so identiﬁcation became as easy , as it was

lu tel . y sure The hall , which was built against the Cliff of the smaller Aventine , was protected by a double wall , with free space for ventila tion and for circulation of hot air . There were the narrow stairs leading up to the higher rows

e acco m o f sh lves , and marble benches for the mo datio n of students and readers , and many other essential characteristics with which ’ Ballu s description o f his own discovery has 3 3 made us familiar .

Another particular deserves no tice . When Pope Gregory XIII built his magniﬁcent Cap ’ pella Gregoriana in St . Peter s , he made use

of columns of grey porphyry , unique of their

kind , and for a long time of unknown origin .

Their source , however , has been discovered , thanks to the recovery of the workshop in ’ which Pope Gregory s stone - cutters adapted

the shafts to their new destination , and our

ﬁnding , there , a great number of shapeless blo cks and fragments of that unique species of marble The columns had once orna mente d the facade of the ancient Library . We shall henceforth reckon the good Pope [ 88 ] L I B R A R I E S

B u o nco mp agni among the despoilers of Cara ’ calla s Baths .

As regards private institutions of this nature , I remember walking one day up the Clivus Su b u ranu s ( v ia di Santa Lucia in Silice ) where a spacious hall was just being laid bare . I noticed that the walls were rough and u n U plastered p to a certain height, but beautifully decorated in stucco work above the seven - foot line . The decorations consisted of ﬂuted pilasters enclosing square panels , in the centre o f which were medallions in low relief , two feet in diameter . As always happens in these c cases , the pre ious portraits were gone , but not their frames , on one of which I read , APOL L ON IV S T H YAN written in red colour , ,

i e . A ll ni r m . the name of po o u s f o Th ana y , which told as plainly the purpose of the apartment as if the actual boo kshelves and in t their contents had been found si u . We know from th e description of the library of

St . Isidore at Hispalis that on the frieze of the armaria , containing works of a given subject , the portraits of the principal authors were painted , together with epigrams explaining the

armaria contents of the . S By a ingular misfortune , to be deeply re [ 89 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

retted two g , the greatest public libraries of

b iblio th eca A oltinis biblio Rome , the p and the th eca Octaviae al , have never been laid bare , though their site and extent are known with absolute precision , and although their explora tion could be accomplished with no difﬁculty whatever , by a small group of workmen and

the outlay of a few thousand lire . It may be the perversity of Fate or the perversity of man , but these libraries are still lying under

their shroud o f rubbish , awaiting a merciful hand to lift it and to accomplish one of the

greatest discoveries o f the age . The area of the b ib lio th eca Octav iae is still used for an evil

bib lio th eca smelling ﬁsh market , and that of the Apollinis for a kitchen garden ! Both were

magniﬁcent structures . The ﬁrst occupied two wings of the portico surrounding temples of

Jupiter and Juno , and was connected with a

h l - sc o a or lecture hall , which was decorated with a set of pictures by Antiph ilu s and with “ famous works of statuary , such as the Cupid ” the with Thunderbolt , attributed by some to

Scopas , by others to Praxiteles . The Cup id r had been the property of Ph yne , who had

willed it to the city of Thespiae . Caligula

seized it, in spite of the remonstrances of the [ 99 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

libraries . Those of Octavia perished in the 80 A D . ﬁre of Titus , The one of Tiberius seems to have shared the same fate in the ﬁre

1 A 1 D . of Commodus , 9 The one annexed to the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol . was annihilated by a thunderbolt about 2 7 5 AD . That of Apollo caught ﬁre in the night b e

1 8th l th 6 tween the and the g of March , 3 3 AD co nﬂ a ratio n , the g being so sudden and so violent that the Sibylline books alone were

saved out of many thousands of volumes .

Such , then , was the organization of the

temples of learning in ancient Rome . Did the organization perish with the fall of the

Empire , or was its inheritance accepted by the Church ! Did the fathers of the Church ac knowledge its importance ! Can we pretend

that the Vatican library , as reconstructed by

n . Sixtus IV , represe ts a direct transmission from classic times and from the golden age of Asiniu s Pollio and Augustus ! There is no

C doubt about the answer . The hurch accepted

and continued the Greek and Roman tradition .

That Christian communities , since the Apos

tolic times , were provided with libraries of sacred books is proved by many passages in A ta Mart ru m N the c y , from the time of ero to [ 9 2 ] L I B R A R I E S

t that of Julian the Apostate . In the Ac s of Minu ciu s Felix it is related how the magistrates of Cirta went to the meeting - house o f the Chris tians and opened the library to seize the books ;

but the shelves were found empty . Other in stances have bee n quoted in my Ancient 3 4

Ro me . The ﬁrst building erected in Rome under the

Christian rule , for the study and preservation

Archiv u m of books and documents , was the of

D amasu s Pope , who occupied the chair o f St . ’ Peter s betwe en 3 66 and 3 84 . He selected for the site of his establishment the barracks or stables of the Green Charioteers (Statio F ac tio nis Prasinae ) and modelled the structure on the pattern of the typical library at Perga

mum , of which that of Apollo on the Palatine

had been a worthy rival . He began by rais

ing a chapel to St . Lawrence in the centre

o f the area , which corresponds to the Temple of Minerva at Pergamum and to the Temple of

Apollo in Rome . The hall of St . Lawrence , which still exists under a different shape

(Chiesa di San Lorenzo in Damaso) , was sur a rounded by square portico , into which opened the rooms or chambers containing the various

apartments for the archives and for the library . [ 93 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E Mention of this building is frequently made in the literature of the fourth and ﬁfth cen

tu ries to 0 1 AD . , up the year 5 The ﬁrst blow aimed at the institution took place in the seventh century , when the archives of the Pi church were centralized at the Lateran . nally the building itself , repaired and p rob ably disﬁgured from time to time , was levelled to the ground in 1 48 6 by Cardinal Raphael Riario , nephew of Sixtus IV . A new church was then built two hundred feet eas t of the

Riario old basilica , and incorporated by in his magniﬁcent Palazzo della Cancelleria . Those who have visited Rome cannot have forgotten

the wonderful courtyard of this Palace , the ’ ch e d o eu vre f of Bramante , resting (as by a miracle of art) on a double tier of slender

granite columns . These are the very ones which Pope D amasu s carried from the bar o f his racks the Greens to library , and which Cardinal Riario in 1 486 removed from the

library to his palace .

Such in brief was the nature and the history

of ancient temples of learning in Rome , and similarly in Greece and in the more Civilized in ti provinces of the Empire . Can modern s tu [ 94 ]

IX A . POLICE ND FIRE DEPARTMENTS

HE organization of police in ancient and modern Rome offers some curi ous points o f identity and compar ﬁ ison . In the rst place there was then , as there

n is now, a distinction between ordi ary police men , detailed to keep peace and order and to prevent crime within th e radius of the Metro C in politan district of the ity , and detectives or i v estigat ng or political agents . The ﬁrst were Vi iles F ru mentarii Pere called g , the others , or rini g , a denomination the origin of which is not Vi iles : Clear . The g are still alive it is a munici ” pal body o f ﬁremen , called Pompieri , always

co nﬂ a ratio n on the alert not only for cases of g , but also , in the event of earthquakes , of col lapse of buildings , of inundations and so on .

F ru mentarii Pere rini The and the g , detectives , spies , criminal investigating agents , have Gu ardie Re ie changed their name ( g ) , but not their duties . They differ , however , in the style o n of their lodgings . The classic barracks [ 96 ] P O -L I C E A N D F I R E D E P A R T M E N T S the Caelian Hill could almost be compared with o a princely residence , with their large c urts enclosed by co lonnades of precious marble ; with temples where they were wont to perfo rm their religious rites , and with secret lodges for such men as were imbued with the mysterious

o w rship of Mithras and Cybele . One of these mysterious grottoes was discovered in 1 5 67 N near the Church of la avicella . ” in The total number of keepers of order , cluding the inspectors of public markets

Urb ani ( ) and of urban and suburban trafﬁc ,

n was about ni e thousand men . The way we have learned these details is rather interesting . 1 8 2 0 In January , , two marble pedestals were found near the gate of the Villa Celimo ntana

iz V . (Mattei ) in their original position , in the vestibule of the barracks of the ﬁfth Battalion

Statio Co h o rtis V Vi il m ( g u ) . The ﬁrst ped estal bore no dedicatory inscription , therefore no date . The second (and the statue upon it) had bee n offered to Caracalla in the year 2 1 0 by the Prefect of Police , the Adjutant Gen ] ‘ era , the Colonel of the ﬁfth Battalion , the

Captains of the seven companies , the four physicians and surgeons attached to the bar racks , etc . [ 9 7 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

It appears from this document that in the 2 0 year 5 , which is the approximate date of the

1 1 ﬁrst pedestal , the battalion numbered 3

f 2 1 o ﬁcers and 93 0 men . In the year 0 the

1 0 number of the former had decreased to 9 , while the number of the latter had increased to Taking as the average strength of a battalion men all told , the whole police force of the Metropolis must have numbered

men . Comparing these ﬁgures with the total of the population , it is evident that the p roportion between the number of citizens and the number of police in Rome is about the

- same to day as it was under the Empire . It is also a remarkable coincidence that the Y Headquarters , the Scotland ard of the Roman

- S al Police , should occupy to day the same ite , most the same building as of old . As a matter of fact , the building , now annexed to the C Church o f San Marcello , has only hanged its old name of Statio C o h o rtis I Vigilu m into the

u estu r entrale re prosaic one of Q a C . The

o i Statio 1 6 mains the were found in 44, at the d time of Pope Barberini , in the foun ations of

- a r lli o S v o e . the palazz Muti , now Balestra

H o lsteniu s Luke , an eye witness , speaks of

large halls . with columns , pedestals , marble [ 98 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E g ellis ) the janitor or any of the inhabitants of a house in which ﬁre has broken out through the negligence . In case ﬁre should be caused

o u not by negligence but by crime , y must hand over the incendiaries to the Prefect of the City . Remember also that one of your duties is to track runaway slaves and to return them to ” their masters .

During performances in the Coliseum , the air was kept cool and fragrant by the sprays of many fountains and refreshed by pleasant o am h ith e aromas . The arena , or ﬂ or of the p

ac atre , was made to assume various aspects cording to the place of origin and th e variety of the wild animals to be hunted to death . At o ne moment the arena wo uld be shaded by s the palms and tamarisks of the sandy wa tes , at another it would be broken into the rocks and icy caverns of Thrace ; and when amphib ious animals and other monsters of the deep were made to appear , what had just before appeared as a garden or a forest was suddenly changed into a pond surrounded by lotus N plants and other ubian reeds . The nets which protected the spectators from the o n

o rush of wild beasts were occasi nally gilded , and th e aisles or corridors leading to - the seats [ 1 00 ] P O L I C E A N D F I R E D E P A R T M E N T S were studded with cut glass in imitation of jewels . The amph itheatre erected by Scrib o niu s

6 B . C . Curio in 4 , was essentially a double the o f atre , the two semicircular elements which revolved on pivots and rollers , so that they co ul d be brought face to face and closed to o f rm one , unique , round building , without having the spectators leave their seats . One may readily imagine the difﬁculty of the task imposed upon the Roman police to keep such crowds in order and to marshal the various Classes of citizens to the seats or spaces allotted to each of them . TO facilitate this duty the Coliseum was provided with 64 x and e its , the staircases were constructed with such skill that people ascending or descending them could not possibly interfere with one another .

— v ia At the time of its great prosperity , in the second half of the second century of our era Rome boasted of three theatres , three amphitheatres , three circuses , one Odeum , and one Stadium , besides other places of less c importance , reated for various kinds o f spec tacles e . , to be found , g . , in the villas and parks

Maxentiu s of Domitian , Gallienus , , and even [ 1 0 1 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

C the u intilii in those of private itizens , like Q Se timii on the Appian Way , and the p on the i s lan o al v a Tu cu a . According to the fﬁcial manac two of the Empire , of which we possess

No titia editions , the ﬁrst ( ) dating from 3 3 4 AD Cu rio su m , the second ( ) dating from about AD ac 3 5 7 , these buildings were capable of co mmo dating the following number of spec tato rs

Th e Flav iamAmphitheatre Th e Theatre o f B alb u s Th e Theatre o f M arcellu s Th e Odeu m o f D o mitian Th A e Stadiu m o f lexander Sev eru s . Th r e Ci cus Maximus .

TOTAL

Perhaps there is exaggeration in th ese ﬁg

H u elsen ures ; in fact , has shown by careful computation that scarcely persons could ﬁnd room in the Circus Maximus . re Whether he be right or wrong , the fact mains that, compared with such enormous th o f o u r capacities , e largest modern theatres , auditoriums , aquariums , and concert halls sinks into insigniﬁcance . A question to which catastrop hes of even the [ 1 02 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

ladito rial being , and the celebration of the g and hunting games was transferred to the Cir

cus . It took six full years to rebuild the dam

aged sections . The restorations made by Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus can be seen to the present day from the upper bal cony : a patchwork of stones of every descrip

tion , of trunks of columns , of pieces of entablatures , lintels and architraves recovered co nﬂ a ratio n from the sections injured by the g , or taken from other buildings .

The Theatre of Marcellus , the remains of “ which form th e mound known as Monte ” Sav ello ( from the patrician family of that

name once entrenched within its arcades ) , was — N burnt twice once in the ﬁre of ero , July ,

h f 8 1 6 t e o . 5 , and again in ﬁre Titus in Worse

even , was the fate of the Theatre of Pompey the Great , which was gutted not less than four

times in the space of 3 3 7 years . As regards

the Circus Maximus , we know that the ﬁre of

N C ero , which destroyed half the ity , originated among the inﬂammable materials accumulated

under the lower arcades of the building . The damage was so great that in order to save time

and money , and to avoid the tedious work

of quarrying millions of cubic feet of stone , [ 1 6 4 ] P O L I C E A N D F I R E D E P A R T M E N T S the Naumachia of Domitian was demolished and its stone and marble blocks were used for th e reconstruction of the Circus .

We are bound , then , to acknowledge that Roman spectacular buildings were not safe W from ﬁre . But how can we reconcile this ith the fact that they were apparently but a mass of solid masonry and solid stone !

Let us answer ﬁrst as regards the Coliseum . We know from the Records o f the Arval Brotherhood 3 " that the eleven highest rows of b e seats were of wood, their aggregate length ing feet , and their framework strong enough to support a crowd of spectators .

We may compute , then , the approximate quan tity of timber accumulated near the top of the building at one hundred to one hundred and

fifty thousand cubic feet, a prodigious mass of fuel , made more inflammable by the fierce heat

2 of a Roman summer (the ﬁre occurred Aug . 3 ,

2 1 AD . fre 7 ) As regards the theatres , ﬁre quently broke out on the stage and destroyed it , but did very little damage to the rest of the building . We know that in the year 2 83 the stage of the Pompeian theatre was encu m bered with all kinds of inﬂammable tinsel for the performance of pantomimes . The Romans [ 1 9 5 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

were exceedingly fond of this kind of show , and the “ mise en scene of popular pieces was such an elaborate display of ingenuity ,

magniﬁcence , and attention to details , that , in

comparison , all our present attempts of the insi niﬁcanc same sort sink into g e . The few details on the subject which have reached us s ound imaginary . On one oc casion King Tiridates of Armenia was invited by Nero to watch the performance from the Imperial box ; — the whole theatre of Pompey , stage , seats , — boxes , balconies , was gilded for this occa

cav ea sion . The awnings spread over the , to e protect the spectators from the sun , wer made of Tyrian purple gauze which was dotted with stars of gold and bore the image of Nero woven or embroidered in the centre of it under the

u adri a attributes of the Sun guiding his q g . A splendid monumental record of the facts discussed in this Chapter was discovered in 1 8 93 near the Church of S . Andrea del Novi z iato in the foundations of the new Ministero ”

e . della casa Real This monumental record , unknown except to a few Specialists to whom permission of viewing it has been granted by N the Minister , refers to the ﬁre of ero , which

destroyed half the city in the month of July , [ 1 06 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

- twenty third of each year , the day of the

Vulcanalia , the magistrate presiding over each region shall sacriﬁce on the altar a red calf and a pig ; that he shall address to the gods th e following prayer (the text is missing) . This inscription was known at the end of

n 1 6 the ﬁfteenth century and read agai in 44, when Po pe Barberini was laying the fo u nda tions of the church of S . Andrea .

[ 1 08 ] SU ER RESOR S X . MM T T the time of its greatest prosperity it was impossible to determine how far the Metropolitan district ex tended into the Campagna , because the zones or belts of the co ntinentia aediﬁcia (houses ex atiantia tecta adjoining each other) , of the p

(houses standing on their own ground) , and of m the extrema tecto ru (scattered habitations , surrounded by gardens or small farms ) melted into each other without any deﬁnite boundary line . We may take as indicating the possible extent of the suburbs the third milestone out side the Servian walls . The Metropolitan dis trict therefore measured approximately seven

miles on its greater diameter , six on the lesser ,

and these, strange to say , are the exact limits marked for the extension of modern Rome

during the next twenty years . We must not f suppose , however , that life , bustle , tra ﬁc and cultivation stopped altogether at the third mile C stone outside the gates , as was the ase until

a few years ago . There was not a stretch of

[ 1 9 9 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E desert land separating Rome from the hill towns , from the seashore , and from the volcanic

N . lakes of Albano , emi , Bracciano , Vico , etc

It was like a gigantic park , dotted with patrician villas , rising in steps and terraces fro m the foot of the hills to the platform above , each terrace being supported by huge

n m h aea walls , ornamented with niches , y p , and waterfalls . The millionaires of the end of the

Republic , and , on a much larger scale , those o of Imperial times , wned not one but several villas , planned and built in accordance with their designation as winter , spring , and summer

two - . h e residences The ill fated brothers , t

u intilii Q , owned a winter seat ﬁve miles from Rome on the Appian way (now called Santa N Maria uova) , and another on the slopes of

Tusculum (now called Mondragone) , as a sum l ii . Va er mer resort The , likewise , owned a line of villas begin ning at the second milestone of

v ia C rim ni the Latina , and ending near ast e u m

( Marino) . The same luxury of owning two , or even three , country seats is known to have Serv ilian p revailed in the , the Flavian , the

Claudian , and other families of the old aristocracy . There is no denying that the sunny slopes 1 1 0 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

in Poen u m . Great St . Bernard Pass (Jugum ) th n ac This last pass is e best know of all , on count o i recent discoveries made on the Italian as well as on the Swiss side The road , on leaving Aosta by the north gate , ascended to

r to u u m End acinu m (St . Remy) and the j g or in top of the pass . It was lined at short “ terv als with case canto niere or help sta

h as tions , one of which been found at the

C antin de F o ntintes e , a little below the summit

al - on the It ian side . The twenty fourth mile stone is still standing at Bourg St . Pierre , the mileage being reckoned from Aosta to Mar

mansi in mm tigny . The Roman hospice ( o su o Po enino ) stood a quarter of a mile to the south of the modern one , and comprised a temple to the God of the Mountain ; a hospice for weary travelers ; stables and watering troughs , and storehouses for fuel and provi

mansio sions . The or hospice was a stone

ﬂ u es structure , with hypocausts and for the warming of the guest rooms and the refectory , and with projecting eaves in the old Swiss style , to allow the travelers to dismount under shelter . e As regards the Montgen vre , the most pop ular of Alpine passes a comp arison between S U M M E R R E S O R T S the old and the p resent time - tables proves that the mail - coach service between Italy and Gal

N v ia lia arbonensis , the valleys of the Dora and the Durance , has remained absolutely the same , and was divided into the same number of relays until the present day , when it was superseded by railway trafﬁc .

The Romans did not care for lakes . Only one villa is to be found on the shores of Lago

Pau sil o n Mettia H edo nea Bracciano , the yp of , so named because its position on the hill of San Liberato reminded owner and guests of the beautiful promontory between Naples and

Puteoli . The same remark holds good for the

Verb anu s great lakes of the north , ( Maggiore) , L ariu s a s Seb inu s ( Como) , Ben cu ( Garda) , Ceresiu s (Iseo) , (Lugano) , etc . I f we except th e ruins of a villa at Sermione , on the Lago di Garda , attributed to Catullus , and certain ’ reminiscences of Pliny s villa near Torno , on

Lake Como , no other evidence exists to Show that the Romans appreciated the lake district of Gallia Cisalpina .

As regards height above sea level , our fore fathers did not care for the extremes in which we indulge in these days of funicular and cable railways : the altitude of their summer places [ 1 1 3 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E ranged only between one and three thousand

feet . The three highest Roman villas known ’ ’ to me are Trajan s at the Passo dell Arcinaz z o the Anician on the Vu ltu re lla

and a third , probably of the An ti i st an . family, near Rocca di Papa ft )

A few words may be added in regard to the

postal service and its organization . I have already observed “ that traveling was not a i e . pleasant experience in ancient times ; . , for

the public in general . Government ofﬁcials ,

however, generals , ambassadors , magistrates , Im governors of provinces , members of the perial family , courtiers , and patricians had a

much better chance , thanks to the skill dis played by the Romans in overcoming the f o f di ﬁculties offered by the barriers snow,

ice and rock , which separated their country

from the rest of the world . The Alpine and

pre - Alpine roads which they cut across th e Po enine C arnian Maritime , the , the , and the

Istrian Alp s are a miracle of engineering , in being still a workmanlike condition , and

still answering their purpose to perfection . Unfortunately they made easier for the barbaric ho sts of the fourth and ﬁfth centuries [ 1 1 4 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E frontier of th e Peninsula are so many and so striking that th e reader wonders whether I am speaking of past events or of events of which the we have just been witnesses . Were it to possible for me enter into details , without trespassing on the scheme of proportion b e C t tween the various hapters of his booklet , I should mention ﬁrst , the innermost line of defence constituted by the entrenched Camp

a - - - o d Veron Mantua Cremona C ncor ia , with its four arsenals and its four contingents of Al militarized workmen ; next , the network of pine roads connecting the base line with the o f outposts , at the foot and at the head the

° passes of Pontebba , Monte Croce , and Predil the telegraphic stations operating with smoke S ignals by day and with bonﬁres by night , of which stations not less than twelve have been described in the valleys of the Isonzo and the

Tagliamento ; last of all , the organization o f medical help in connection with camp - hospitals

v aletu dinaria ( ) , with their staff of trained v eterinaria assistants , and with the or sta tions for the care of horses and mules . And as if such a network of defences were not su fﬁ cient to insure the safety of the Veneto - Istrian boundary line , a wall seventy miles long was [ 1 1 6 ] S U M M E R R E S O R T S

i me to Vi ach raised from F u pp , and another o f equal strength between L o ngatico ( Unter lo etsch ) and Catalanenb erg (Castrum Catala num) . To conclude this digression , the stra te ical g point , near or at which the fate of the peninsula has been so many times at stake , is to be found at the same Pons So ntii ( Isonzo i bridge , fourteen m les from Aquileia , between Gradisca and Gorizia) which has seen so much bloodshed during the late war . It was crossed by Theodoric a few days before defeating

Odoacer , and by Theodosius after defeating a Eugenius . The same unlucky bridge was t ken advantage o f by the barbarians of Alaric and Viti es o g , by the ferocious Longobards (the w rst scourge that ever crossed the Alps ) , and even by the Moslems of the fourteenth century . No t without reason Claudianus the poet sang at the time of Honorius : Alpince ru b u ere niv es cl So ntiu s amnis mu tatis fu mav it agu is !

It may interest the reader to know that there were guide boo ks and time - tables for the con v enience n of travelers , with a short accou t of the various roads and of their h alting places and caravansaries . The title of these vener

o i E r a ﬂ o i able Bradshaws was u in the East , [ U 7 I A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

I in ri t era a in the West . A fragment of one of these time - tables has been found engraved on a marble slab , a detail tending to prove that at the central post and parcel Bureau in Rome , f o ﬁcers , magistrates , and travelers in general could obtain ofﬁcial info rmation concerning the journey they were undertaking , even if to the remotest provinces of the Empire . The e fragment in qu stion describes the journey , or Ca ado part of the journey, from Cilicia to pp Cia v ia Mo su crene p , the Cilician gates or Hot

And b alis a . Springs , to Tyana , , etc , and adds that the journey could be accomplished in seven days . At all events , there was no necessity in Rome of crowding public bureaus in quest

Milliariu m Au reu m of information , as the in the most conspicuous site of the Forum was easily accessible . It was erected by Augustus in

2 B C . 9 . , in the shape of a column covered with gilt bronze, as a record of the survey of the whole Roman Empire , on which he and Agrippa had been engaged for many years . On it were engraved the distances from the gates of Rome to the p ostal stations on each of the main roads which radiated from the Metropolis . The remains o f its exquisite marble base were 1 8 discovered in 49 near the Rostra . [ 1 1 8 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E which answered the double purpose of a drink

- ing cu p and of a time table ; and , after using it at a given thermal establishment , they would offer it to the local deity in token of gratitude for their recovery . A curious fact has been noted by Mommsen , that although the mile age from station to station varies occasionally on the ﬁrst and third go blets (probably by fault of the engraver ) , yet the total is the XXXX MD CCC . same , namely, miles

We must not suppose that summer resorts were restricted to the hills of Latium or to the inlets and islands of Campania . Etruria and the Etruscan archipelago were also sought by

- the patrician land owners , who were bound to to visit their estates from time time . We have evidence that in certain rare cases the Choice of a country seat was determined by a love of sport . Why should the Domitian family , for instance , have purchased the two lonely islands of Igiliu m and Dianium (Isola del Giglio e Giannu tri la ) off Cape Argentario , and have v ish ed a fortune in covering these rocks with buildings of great magniﬁcence ! The D omitii purchased the islands for the same reason that has induced our King Victor Emmanuel to [ 1 2 0 ] S U M M E R R E S O R T S

e lease Oglasa (Mont Cristo) , namely , for — sport, these islands being the favourite t haunts of the wild goat . Trajan , likewise , buil a shooting lodge on the summit of the Arci maz zo Pass , because the neighbouring moun tains teemed with bears . Then , there is

’ Nero s villa at Subiaco , in one of the wild est canyons of the Simb ru ine range of moun

- he s tains , in which built three dam so as to create three Alpine lakes especially suited for trout ﬁshing . The craz e for a thermal cure of any kind was one of the characteristics of the Latin race ; no matter if the chosen spring neces

f . sitated a long and di ﬁcult journey . At St

- Moritz , at Baden Baden (Aquae Aureliae) , at u Matthiaci Wiesbaden (Fo tes ) , at Bath

(Aquae Solis) , at Bourbonne (Aquae Bormo Tarb ellicae nis ) , at Dax (Aquae ) , at Vichy Calidae e A u en (Aquae ) , at Bagn res (Vicus q

at Aix- - Gratianae sis) , les Bains (Aquae ) , at t t ll S a e ae . Aqui (Aquae y ) , etc , where now gay crowds assemble to be treated for more or less ai imaginary lments , the Roman conquerors had long before raised magniﬁcent establish

ments . These famous Spas were not inferior in comfort or luxury to their modern rep resent [ 1 2 1 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E atives ; artistically and aesthetically they were vastly superior . Pliny the Elder showed partiality towards Ph lae reans two groups of springs , the g , and those at the foot of the Pyrenees . He says the vapour baths at Baiae were so powerful that they could be use d for cooking purpose s . Sore eyes and Opthalmic diseases could be ’ cured at Puteoli and Gab ii; women s com plaints at the Aquae Passeris ; gall stones at Stab iae ; wounds and sores at the Aquae A1 l Cu tili e b u ae ; nervous disorders at a . There were besides antilithic springs in Syria near

Mount Taurus , in Phrygia near the river Gal A i eth o ia . lus , and in p at the Red Springs Modern generations must be grateful to the Greeks and the Romans for the splendid ex ample they set in the matter of care for the

health and beauty o f the body, athletic train

ing , the love of open air life , in short , for whatever was deemed essential or useful to m n sana in r ore ano secure a e s co p s .

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

revolution brought to an end , life became nor mal again o f its own accord . As regards the necessities of life and their distribution , I have gathered from Professor 6 w Leon H mo the follo ing information . Dry bread w as never considered a great delicacy , and the ancient Romans were de cid dl e y of this opinion . Public distribution of f foodstu fs , which were quite Spartan in their in simple character at the beginning , kept n creasing as time went o . Presently came the turn of oil , another essential item for the wel

e timiu s fare of the Citizens . S p Severus was the

ﬁrst to distribute African oil , and under him the

tesserae old grain tickets ( ) found a new use . Towards the end of the Empire there were in th Rome places of distribution , while e 2 0 number of bakeries hardly reached 3 . There is no doubt that the ancients preferred pork to beef and that the Empe ror Aurelianus monopolized control of this trade by ofﬁcial daily distributions of pork meat , naturally u n der police supervision . He did the same for salt , which up to his reign had been _ most Ancu s irregularly distributed , from the time of

S alinac Ostienses Marcius , the founder of the , s to the time o f Agrippa , who proclaimed alt to [ 1 2 4 ] F E E D I N G O F T H E M E T R O P O L I S

be a state property , and its distribution a state privilege .

Up to the beginning of the third century , the distribution of wine had been completely neglected , because water of a superior quality was abundant in the city . Aurelian conceived a new plan for this branch of public adminis r t atio n . He thought of establishing prisoners of war along the Etruscan Maremma to culti vate vineyards for the beneﬁt of the Roman The people . project , however , was given up on account of the malaria which raged through out that district . The Roman government considered not only the sustenance of the citizens ; it considered as well the expensive matter of dress And here also I must mention the name of Aurelian , whose liberal institutions and bounties seemed to know no limit . He furnished his subjects gratuitously with white tunics , with linen shirts for use in Africa and Egypt, and even with those small handkerchiefs which the Romans used to wave , as a sign of applause at public games . Money has never been a superﬂuous com mo dit - y , but the more fatherly minded of the emperors provided even for its free distrib u

[ 1 2 5 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

tion at the time of some great public event . Augustus distributed 445 silver pennies per N 1 00 capita , Tiberius 7 5 , ero , Hadrian 00 Aurelian 5 , and so on . Tickets were also

granted to the peop le , securing free entrance

to the theatres , amphitheatres , and circuses , and even for other places o f licentious amuse

identiﬁca ment . Thus in many ways , personal

tion cards could beneﬁt their possessors .

However , leaving aside absolutely free o f o grants , another method fav uring public economy was the sale of the necessities of life

at a ﬁxed reduced price . For instance , certain quantities of grain were drawn from the gov rnment th e e hoard and sold at a loss , below

average current price . This was a very old

Roman custom , dating from the ﬁfth century

B C . Egypt , Sicily , northern Africa , and even

far - away Moesia were plundered to replenish

state granaries in Rome , Ostia , and Porto .

Later , a speciﬁed form of public bread was prepared and sold at public bakeries at a nom e inal pric which , under Arcadius and Honorius , er fell to a half p enny p pound . The same low f x tari f was ﬁ ed for wine , brought to th e Roman

wharves by way of the river , and sold under the p orticoe s of the Temple of the Sun on the [ 1 2 6 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E p aternalistic rule of Alexander Severus and

Aurelian . Political and military disasters were crISIS followed by an economic , accompanied in by a crisis production , agricultural and otherwise , and in means of transp ortation , by r stoppage of transmarine supp lies , by emig a tion of peasants and labourers to fortiﬁed

D ia lin u im rv a cities . u lc q u s a ! There was also a monetary crisis , because hardly any gold was kept ready to be struck in imperial or co lonial mints , and no silver whatever, while copper was seized and cornered by speculators . The only currency left , therefore , was an alloy of C m to lead , zinc and opper , which was ade circulate at a much higher price than its face value . Fortunately Rome did not know at that

re time the subterfuge of pap er money . The sult o f all these circumstances was a fantastic rising of prices . O f course , the people clam o u re d for the help of the government , which for a long time endeavoured to avoid responsi b ilit y ; ﬁnally , the Emperor Diocletian was compelled to act ; he produced a tolerably good calmiere specimen o f , from which our modern rulers could learn much , both for better as well as for worse . ’ i f 02 AD Dioclet an s tari f , issued in 3 , goes [ 1 2 8 ] F E E D I N G O F T H E M E T R O P O L I S by the name of Edictu m de pretns reru m v enaliu m o r mu , of which several more less tilated copies have been found in Egypt, at

a o ni ea Aez anis Str t c , Lebadia , Megara , , Geron i th s , Mylasa , and these have been collected m 40 by Theodor Mom s en . A comparison of d these more or less fragmentary ocuments , in

Greek as well as in Latin , has enabled the to an x editor reconstruct almost complete te t , which appears in a volume of the great Cor i ti r pu s I nscript onu m L a no u m. The edictu m mercilessly denounces mer chants asking a higher price than the one h marked in the official tariff , t at is to say pro fiteers and speculators , and turns them over to the severity of courts and judges as well as to public contempt . At the same time the Em pe ro r declared that even if the sanctions Ofthe law e appear to be too s vere , it was easy for the people concerned to keep within that law and e avoid fin s and disgrace . The tariff is divided a f b into four sections , namely, ( ) foodstu fs , ( ) matiéres remieres p such as metals , wood ,

. c leather , etc , ( ) manufactured goods such as C utensils , carriages , lothes , shoes , carpets , etc . , d ( ) salaries for artisans and professionals . edictu m Did the of Diocletian , which necos [ 1 2 9 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E sarily refers to most disparate sets of sub ects j , to salaries as well as shoes , to onions as well as corsets , to ﬁsh as well as university ! professors , prove a useful Institution Did it bring forth the desired results ! It certainly caused a quantity of merchandise to disappear ; it caused bloody popular uprisings ; it caused prices to become prohibitive . But as soon as

the Empire regained peace , and as soon as the

C ircumstances , which had brought p ublic wel

fare to such dire straits , underwent a change C for the better , ivic life became normal again

of its own accord . We are at present going through the same difﬁculties in co nsequence of the Great War ; but the voice of our fore fathers seems to repeat to us : Be p atient for a while longer and all will be arranged fo r the ” better . I have already mentioned this subject in

- Chapter VI , quoting well known instances of e n the valu of tow property in Rome . Such values never ceased to rise through th e last centuries of the Republic and under th e Em acco mo datio n pire . The lack of was not due to a sudden inﬂux of immigrants ; it had b e come a permanent evil in Rome as well as in i o n many p rov ncial t w s , caused principally by [ 1 3 6 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

burning question had ﬁnally to be faced by

the government , for the rebellion of tenants against th e rapacity of landlords and house

holders had led even to riots and to bloodshed . The authorities first of all forbade the acquisi tion of tenement houses for the purpose of demolishing them and selling the building materials and building areas , at a profit a pernicious habit much practised in our own time . As a rule , however , these official S measures had but a light effect , as we see from the fact that each emperor felt it his duty to N legislate on the subject , Claudius , ero , S e timiu s p Severus , Alexander Severus , and

others , sometimes in open conﬂict with estab

lish ed - and time honoured regulations . Par

tial demolitions were also forbidden , such as

the removal of columns and marble decorations . Inspectors were named to watch over signs of

decay and possible danger to the inmates . In

case the proprietor disregarded the law , the State itself or any private citizen could occupy the property and repair or rebuild it for his o wn beneﬁt . Under the Emp eror Nero any individual n who ow ed a fortune of sesterces ( 53 , 000 francs) , and who employed half his fortune [ 1 3 2 ] F E E D I N G O F T H E M E T R O P O L I S

to build an apartment house , was rewarded with honorary citizenship , a privilege greatly

coveted . x The houses of the poor were e pensive , with out being comfortable , cold in winter , hot in

summer , carelessly built, with a scanty supply of light and with poorly equipped sleeping

o . ro ms If rents were in arrears , the poor were x e frequently e p lled , and the arches of the bridges of the Tiber and the colonnades sur rounding the temples o f the gods often Shel tere d x humble sleepers at night . These comple problems were aggravated by the immense public works by which the Empire altered the

plan and the Character of the city . The great N structures of Caesar , Augustus , ero , Vespa

sian , Trajan , Hadrian , Caracalla , Diocletian , and Constantine caused the destruction of whole inhabited quarters without any proviso

for the loss . Let one instance sufﬁce for all . Ol m io do ru s According to y p , the Baths of Diocletian could accommodate an army of

clients . They covered an area of

square metres , besides p roviding a swim

- ming pool of square metres . The ex cav atio ns made in the last forty years within

the boundaries of these enormous baths , for

[ 1 3 3 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

the building of the Railway Station , of the

Grand Hotel , of the Massimi Palace , of the monumental fountain of the Acqua Marcia , and for the laying out of a new public garden , have enabled us to reconstruct within a certain meas ure the plan of the quarter destroyed by that

Th erm e Emperor to ﬁnd room for his a . He had to remove a sch o la or meeting hall of a Col le iu m F o rtu nae F elicis g , a temple built on a p latform of concrete , a portico rebuilt by

Cnaeu s Sentiu s Satu rninu s , paved streets , and innumerable walls of private houses . If , in ’ addition , we consider that Caracalla s Baths absorbed a site about as large , not to mention the Temple of the Sun, the porticoes of the

Campus Martius , etc . , all built at the expense of private dwellings , no wonder that the prob lem of housing the population should have proved almost incapable of solution . Although modern Rome is harassed by the same difﬁ u lties o v e rco m c , I am p roud to say that she is ing them by going beyond the Old three - mile limit , measured from the Milliarium Aureum . The next generation will certainly se e Rome n extend as far as the Alban and Tuscula hills , thus — as far as size is concerned — rivalling the old Q ueen of the Ancient World . [ 1 34 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

destinies , or been driven to such desp air as

were the Romans during that fatal triennium ,

long ago . Having lost Saguntum , having use lessly tried to stop the advance of the ninety thousand infantry and twelve thousand cavalry

H ib eru s of the invaders , ﬁrst on the line of the ,

then on those of the Pyrenees , of the Rhone , of lam e the Is , and o f the Mont Gen vre (although the last mentioned were already blocked by heavy snow) ; having lost the battles of Ticinu s and of T reb ia ; having lost the lands of the Pen insula from which the food supply was drawn , f the Romans su fered additional , appalling de at feats Lake Trasimenus and at Cannae , where the question became one of life and death in f the most tragic sense O the word . Throughout this long period of de sperate ﬁghting never a

ray of light shone on the defenders of Italy,

never a success , even momentary or partial , strengthened or revived the spirits of the Ro

man army . The very life of Hannibal seemed to be fatalistically protected by unknown

powers . At the storming of Saguntum his thigh

was struck to the bone , yet he managed to rise

at once as if nothing had happened . Struck

again near Piacenza , his wounds were hardly dressed and bandaged when he tried to storm [ 1 3 6 ] C I T Y L I F E I N W A R - T I M E S

the fortiﬁed camp of Victu mv iae ! Afﬂicted

with ophthalmia , caused by the variations of

winter and spring temperature , he lost the sight of one eye while crossing the marshes of Val N f di Chiana . otwithstanding all these su fer

ings , this half blind leader , this sorely wounded

general , continued to inﬂict upon the Romans

defeat after defeat . In the battle of Trasi menus Romans — says Livy — were killed on the ﬁeld and were scattered

in ﬂight through Etruria , while only

Carthaginians were slain in battle . This hap pened in the autumn of 2 1 7 A few months

2 1 2 1 6 B . C . later , on May , , supervened the

an . disaster , or rather the slaughter , at C nae The Romans had on the ﬁeld infantry and cavalry ; the Carthaginians

infantry and cavalry . At the end of

the engagement , Romans had lost either life or limbs and had been made pris No oners . wonder then , that the announce ment of such terrible calamities should have

created in Rome a feeling of fear and despair , the greater because the people had so much

trusted in victory . The p eople assembled in in the Forum , in the hop e of receiving later telli ence g , but as this was not forthcoming , the [ 1 3 7 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

crowd was brought almost to op en revolution .

Those , dissatisﬁed , kept murmuring to each other : One of our Chief generals h as been de feated , the other has found safety in ﬂight ; wh o or what is to p revent the enemy from ap pearing before our own gates ! Under such alarming conditions , it is easy to imagine what scenes must have happ ened in Rome and in the allied Cities at the announcement of the exter

re mination at Cannae , and subsequently at the cital of the terrorizing cruelties perpetrated by

- the enemy which , repeated to day , have called forth the maledictions of the whole world . ix Let us take an example . S thousand gallant ﬁghters had succeeded in escaping to an im m pregnable hill on the shores of lake Trasi enus , where they could have deﬁed the enemy had it not been for the lack of food and drinking

x water . The ne t day they were asked by the Carthaginians to surrender and to lay down n their arms , with the solem promise that their lives would be sp ared . The acceptance o f that promise , treated by Hannibal with Punic sense

x of honour , resulted in the general e termination

- nﬁdin co . of the too g refugees Hannibal , there fore , must be regarded as one of th e earliest partisans of the theory that international [ 1 3 8 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E cent inquired the way to Casilinu m of a Cam panian p easant ; the latter , for misunderstand

ing the name , was at once condemned to cruciﬁxion . ‘ We have had in the late war instances of o wounded soldiers being sh t , so as to escape

the annoyance of taking care of them . This act of cruelty is described by Livy at the end

o f chapter 5 1 of the twenty - second book : “ The day after the battle of Cannae , when wounded soldiers had been revived by the cool air of the morning , they were all put to death , while their blood was drunk by other u nfo rtu

nates . We have deplored the destruction or even lesser damage done to venerable sanctuaries

at Rheims , St . Q uentin , Louvain , etc . ; but these unnecessary acts of barbarism are not new ; they are but a repetition of the example set by

the barbarians , whom Livy reproached for damaging the temples of Feronia and Juno N Sospita . efarious cruelties and depredations

of warfare , of which , alas , the Central Empires

were guilty, are denounced in the speech which the Consul Cornelius Scipio addressed at Ve nusia to the ambassadors from Campania : “ ” Choose , he said, between freedom and in [ 1 46 ] C I T Y L I F E I N W A R - T I M E S

dependence , or surrender to an enemy who never forgets , to an enemy recruited from tribes who ignore the right and wrong of in ternatio nal honesty , and who speak tongues ” more beastly than human . These enemies ,

e so f rocious by nature , were spurred to new

- in - acts of cruelty by their commander chief , such as ﬁlling the trenches with the bodies of dead and wounded soldiers and compelling o pris ners to feed , like cannibals , on human

ﬂesh . Many among us remember from personal experience the sufferings of the siege of Paris

1 — 1 in 8 7 0 7 . After so many years we hear again of cases of famine , accompanied by utter disregard of the sufferings of women and Chil dren . An interesting comparison may be found in the description left by Livy of the famine of Casilinu m and of the pitiful efforts made by Sempronius Gracchus to relieve the horrors of the siege . First , he sent word to the garrison that he would throw barrels of grain into the river Volturnus , which would carry the food supply to the city , as it ﬂowed p ast the walls . For three successive nights this pitiful stratagem was successful , but on the fourth night , the river being swollen by a heavy storm ,

[ 1 4 1 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E some of the barrels were driven towards the bank occupied by the enemy , and the plan discovered . Gracchus then substituted for the barrels of wheat , loose quantities of nuts which ﬂoated with the current and could easily be gathered by means of crates . Poor resources for a garrison of one thousand men !

There were savage scenes of the famished , throwing themselves from the top of the ram

o r C parts , labouring to onsume the boiled

leather of shields , rats and other animals , and O No all manner f roots . wonder that despond ency spread among the population of Central

Italy . F re ellae One day , when a refugee from g ( Ceprano) had announced the false news of H the advance of annibal , unchecked even by the destruction of bridges and the burning of

p ontoons , women with dishevelled hair rushed

as if for shelter to the temples of the gods , where they raised their hands towards heaven and implored victory for their men and salva

tion for themselves . It was at this supreme th hour that e destinies of war at last changed, th e as if by a miracle, in response to prodigious

will - power of the survivors of the disasters of Ticinu s s , Trebia , Tra imenus and Cannae, and [ 1 42 ]

X Y III . THE TOPO GRAPH OF ANCIENT AND MODERN ROME BOPLE ﬂocking to see Rome from all

" parts Of th e Wo fld are u ndo u b tedly im ij pressed b y thé siz e and magniﬁcence .

o S achl hildin s as / th eT laVi an t at e f / g amphi he r ,

“ a h u e W t e . ( the Pal ce of Caesars , and s ch lik

‘ ' m much more they would eh joy th éir p eregrinas tions through the streets of the Eternal

' they had a better kno wledge o f what lies Co n cealed under the modern accumulation of rub o a nc e bish , at depths varying fr m few i h s to

a maximum of seventy feet . Rome certainly was not built on the American plan In squares

and parallelograms , yet it had many streets OfleVe which , for directness , length and ease might have done honour to any modern Capi n tal . The Via del Corso , for insta ce , the main artery of the City of the Pop es ( to which the names and memory of Paul II and Paul III who freed its course from mediaeval encroach

ments will always remain attached) , is nothing else but a modernization and a superelevation [ 1 44 ] T H E T O P O G R A P H Y O F R O M E

of the Via Flaminia laid out and paved by C .

Flaminiu s Nepos over twenty centuries ago . People loitering in front of the fashionable establishments which line the modern thor o u gh fare little know that the pavement o f the l mini n F a a Road runs under their feet, at a

Six depth of four to metres , all the way from its origin at the foot of the Capitol , at the Ratu mena Porta , to the third milestone by the

Ponte Milvio . Every time I have seen ex cav atio ns made along the Corso for the pur pose of laying drain pipes , or electric cables , or for the distribution of drinkable water , the old pavement of lava blocks has been laid bare .

Again , we are proud of our Via del Q uirinale

(now Venti Settembre) , which we think was

ﬁrst opened by Pope Pius IV . It is enough to dig a hole anywhere along its course from the Piazza di Monte Cavallo to the church of ’ Sant A nese u o ri le C g F Mura , to reveal its lassic predecessor . Even in the heart o f the City of co n fu the Popes , still involved in mediaeval sion , we have been able to discover avenues one mile long , and as straight as a dart , as is the case with the Via Recta , which corre ’ s o nds dell Ac u asanta p to the modern Via q , and delle Coppello , di S . Agostino , dei Coro [ 1 45 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

n nari . A third street , name unknow , runs from southeast to northwest under the modern Giu b b o nari names di Pescheria, del Pianto , dei , Ca ellari k and dei pp , ma ing a total of one thousand metres . It seems that from the time the city was _ " b hilt on thé Palatine Hill (an older Rome has just been found on the Monte Mario) to its ‘n Gau ls q th e f’ l destruction by the o R Ah e s Ju y ,

‘ ‘ Romans dwelt In h iifS With h h u hlike t atc ed walls and conical roofs, not those which to the present day give shelter to h t e na. e sheph rds of the Campag . As long as this system of habitations lasted , families dwelt in a s ingle room level with the ground ; but when stones and tiles began to take the place of boughs and boards , the height of buildings increased . Livy describes Tanaquil addressing the p eop le through the windows of the upper part o f the house ; but she was a lady o f royal birth and her style of living was exceptional . The e primitive huts , s - h the scattered In disorder over seven _ W — -

— ' made aCCessiblh b y means of rough paths or

“ Afte h e cu out Of . t stairways t the live rock _r, _ retreat of thé invaders no advantage was taken of th e almost complete destruction of the city

[ 1 46 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E over the Campus Martius Caesar h d p lanned a , n - ‘ l u ‘ _ w to divert the course o fth e Tiber along tm m Of V rid e and mke the atican g , to a a Campus

’ Prati di C astello o f the present , but he was assassinated before he could carry his scheme saw

i B C . hf§ deas . take shape before 44 , for he built not only the ﬁrst permanent theatre , with its surrounding porticoes and gardens , but also constructed four temples , some of which are still traceable in the subsoil .

ma d u fl t 1 It y ly be said i _ 39ﬁ pw f fi o h Ck S . , but left it built of marble Suetonius

‘ says Of th is great man that he was fond of erecting costly structures under the names of his wife , sisters , and nephews , like the Basilica O f Gaius and Lucius , the portico of Octavia , and the theatre of Marcellus . He would also urge wealthy friends to follow his example of erecting new buildings or of repairing and beautifying old ones . His call was responded to by L . Marcius Philippus , who restored the temple of Hercules Musagetes (leader of the Co rniﬁciu s Muses) ; by , who rebuilt the temple o f Diana on the Aventine ; by Cornelius Bal

Statiliu s w bus , with his theatre ; by Taurus , ith 1 48 ] T H E T O P O G R A P H Y O F R O M E

his amphitheatre . Agrippa surpassed all of them in the number and greatness of his con stru ctio ns . Strabo , the geographer , gives the following radiant account o f the Campus Mar tius as it appeared in the early part of . the reign “ o f Tiberius : The old Romans were so bent upon things and actions of national interest that they paid little or no attention to the beauty of their city ; but the Romans of the present day have filled it with many a noble structure . Pompey , Caesar , Augustus , his son , his wife , his sisters employed all their energy and lavished great sums of money toward this end , so that Rome may truly be proclaimed the ” finest City of the Empire . The description of ’ Agrippa s contributions towards the same pu r pose is quite astonishing . He chose as the axis of the new quarter the Via Flaminia which runs ° ' 1 6 0 3 west of the meridian , and filled every available space with porticoes , enclosure for l ath etic sports , artificial lakes , the Pantheon ,

D irib ito riu m the Septa Julia , the , the electoral buildings , the Admiralty , etc . However , the Prince who surpassed his predecessors (as well as successors ) for the beauty and magniﬁcence Piano Re olato re caL of his g is Ne ro, the greatly u mniated n Emperor , who , accordi g to tradition , [ 1 49 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

t ﬁrst set ﬁre to the city, hus clearing the ground the care of re W io the two best architects of his days , Severus and Celer . The account of their joint work , as given by Tacitus , would do hon our to all the Hausmanns and B agalz ettes of

modern times . By holding before our eyes ,

at a certain distance , a plan of the mediaeval ’ C B u falini s so ity (like ) , unspoiled by the e niz called modern improvements , w can . recog e s here and there sections cheme, with streets crossing each other at rigl1t angles and __

modern metropolis. ‘ I take a particular interest in Nero ’ s work

: for two reasons ﬁrst , because I have seen with my own eyes a section of the burned city ; secondly because I have found the

grave of Celer , one of the two creators of ’ the new metropolis and o f Nero s Piano Re

o lato re g . The quarter gutted by the great conﬂ agration 6 of July , 4, which I have seen and surveyed

and described , is the one lying at the bottom of the valley be tween the Caelian and the Pala

tine , through which the Viale di San Gregorio

- N . C now runs The pre eronian ity, lying at a [ 1 50 ]

A N C I E N T A N D MO D E R N R O M E the name of Nero among the most genial cre

o e at rs of garden citi s, he linked his name to a park one mile square which was named the U U th e Golden H o u se ac DOM S A REA , , on

count o f its unsurpassed beauty . It is enough to say that it contained waterfalls supplied by an aqueduct 4 5 miles long ; lakes and ponds shaded by ancient trees ; with harbours for the imperial galleys ; a vestibule with a bronze

colossus , one hundred and twenty feet high ; porticoes three thousand feet long ; farms and

vineyards , pastures , ﬁelds , and woods teeming with game ; z o Olo gical and botanical gardens ; sulphur baths supplied from the springs of the

A u ae Alb ulae “ Med q , sea baths supplied by the iterranean ; thousands of columns with capitals of Corinthian metal ; hundreds of statues re moved from Greece and Asia Minor ; walls in laid with gems and mother of pearl ; banquet ing halls with ivory ceilings from which rare ﬂowers and costly perfumes fell gently on the

recumbent guests . More elaborate still was

the ceiling of the state dining room . It is de in scribed as spherical shape , carved in ivory

to represent the starry heavens , and kept mov i ing by machinery , in im tation of the course of

stars and planets . The reason why I am so [ 1 5 2 ] T H E T O P O G R A P H Y O F R O M E partial to the memory of this wicked youth is x that throughout my long e perience , every time I have happened upon his footsteps I have ’ r found myse lf surrounded by ch ef d o eu v es . In Rome itself we cannot move a step in the archaeological quarters without coming into contact with his name and his work . The same observation must be repeated in connection with his country seats , such as the villa at

o - N Subiaco where the s called iobid was found , Antiu m or the villa at , from which the famous i l F n u l . a c a has come to light In fact , most of the classical masterpieces (such as the group L ao co On e of the ) which adorn our mus ums , N ’ come from ero s possessions , especially from the area of the Golden House . an We must not think , however , that the cient city , to the study and to the investigation of which we have devoted our lives , dates ex clu siv el y from the time of Nero . Enormous ﬁres ravaged his engineering or architectural work , over and over again , as for instance , the 80 A . D ﬁre of Titus , . , which considerably dam aged the region north o f the Capitol , including th e portico of Octavia , the Admiralty, the N baths of ero and Agrippa , the Pantheon , and , of course , many public and private buildings [ 1 53 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

of secondary importance . Here we come again Piano Re olatore to a new g , that of the Em ero r p Hadrian , made for the reconstruction of the burned districts . In consequence of these periodical ﬁres and reconstructions , the Rome with which we have

to deal is not the Rome of our dreams , the C representative of the Golden Age , but a ity of the fourth century, far advanced in the path i of decadence , joint work of Dioclet an and

C Constantine , of whose lumsy and heavy style of masonry we have such impressive examples

as their Baths on the Q uirinal , the Basilica N Sesso rian ova , the Palace , the Thermae H elenianae H ero On , the Senate House , the

Romuli , the Constantinian Basilicas of St .

Peter , St . Paul , St . Lawrence , and the Saviour Pa r ar hi (with the adjoining t i c u m Lateranense) . Just as the damages of the appalling co nﬂ a

ratio n 1 1 AD e g of Commodus , 9 , were mad good Pian Re olato re Se timiu s u by th e o g of p Sever s ,

Carinu s 2 8 AD so those of the ﬁre of , 3 , were rep aired with the help of the Piano Rego lato re

M x ntiu s . of a e , Diocletian , and Constantine

And , naturally enough , this being the last (King Th eo doric largely resto red the city ; he no v o did not build it ex ) , we have no more [ 1 54 ]

A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E

b e en totally obliterated , without reason or excuse .

After the vain attempt of King Theodoric , of which mention has already been made , u n Rome soon became a heap of ruins , giving healthy shelter to a population which from the million of the Golden Age had dwindled to 000 souls , dying of hunger and malarial fever , while the seat of the Papacy was transferred to the charming banks of the Rhone at Avignon . Rome owes its salvation to the genial Popes N of the Renaissance , such as icholas V , Martin

V , and Sixtus IV , whose initiative was to be magniﬁcently followed in the next century by

Paul III and Sixtus V . The inspiring genius of this revival and the leader of the ﬁrst improvements in the abject C Po ntelli conditions of the ity was Baccio , to th whom we owe e Churches of S . Maria del

Popolo , S . Pietro in Montorio , S . Maria della

fa Pace , S . Agostino , the Sistine Chapel , the

cades of S . Pietro in Vinculis and of the SS .

Apostoli , the hospital of S . Spirito , the Palace o of the Govern Vecchio , the Palace of the

Popes near S . Maria Maggiore , etc . The aspe ct of the city was considerably im o f proved by the erection these buildings . [ 1 5 6 ] T H E T O P O G R A P H Y O F R O M E

Early in the ﬁfteenth century the modern spirit , so methodical in all things and so partial to the straight line , began to manifest itself in the cut ting o i spacious streets through the ruins of past ages and rambling mediaeval habitations .

0 1 8 By a Bull , dated March 3 , 4 5 , Martin V revived the Classic institutions of the Aediles and of the magistri viaru m (commissioners of streets) . Eugene IV straightened and paved several lanes in the Campus Martius ; Nicholas

V opened the Via di S . Celso ; Paul II paved “ the Corso . Sixtus IV was named the Great Builder ” (gran fabbricatore) on account of the many improvements made under his rule ; and Alexander VI carried the Via Alessandrina through the heart of the Borgo Vaticano . In justice to Pope Sixtus V we must give him praise for designing , three and a half cen tu ries Piano Re lat r ago , a g o o e which has been accepted and adopted by the living generation

. was in its fundamental lines It , and it is in the shape of a wheel , the hub of which is con stituted by the group of S . Maria Maggiore ,

ra t and the spokes , by the straight avenues dia to ing from that church the Pincian Hill , to the

Q uirinal , to the Lateran , to the Gate of S . Lo

. in renzo to S Croce Gerusalemme , etc . This [ 1 5 7 ] A N C I E N T A N D M O D E R N R O M E great pontiff was so bent upon seeing his plans

Of carried out that , before the persecution the z Spanish Ambassador , Count Olivare , could ob bring him to a premature grave , he knew no stacles , but destroyed everything which stood in

his way, whether great ruins of the classic age

or mediaeval churches and monasteries . These wanton acts of destruction possibly account for the change of feeling among the people . The same Municipal Magistrates who had ordered a N 2 6 the erection of a st tue to him on ovember , 1 8 5 5 , to commemorate the return of peace and

plenty , thus announce the death of the Pope to

2 the Town Council on Monday , August 4 ,

1 0 : - 59 To day , our most holy Lord , Sixtus V , has departed this life amidst the rejoicing and

mutual congratulations of all classes of _cit ” i ns z e . As far as the latest Piano Rego lato re is con

cerned (designed by the well - known engineers

Viviani and Saint Just, for the transformation of the City of the Popes into a city of the its Kings) , what has been gained by adoption

compensates us for what has been lost . Those who complain of the transformation make us think of the miser who mourns the loss of a

farthing , while gathering handfuls of gold . [ 1 58 ]

NOTE S AND BIBLIOGRA PH Y

N O T E S

Ta k B nd M e i ine 1 2 . f. H . 0. o ee o o a C y l r , Gr i l gy d c , 2 2 in h r t ee e and Rome B o o n 1 . t e Ou D eb o G st , 9 , p 34, t r c

Series . l 2 I n ri tio nu m e ed in v . u Co o . o f th e Co sc 1 3 . ll ct VI rp s p n u m L ati o r . I r lliu I nscri tio nu m L no u m S e e 1 . o . C . O e s 4 , p ati r l cta

ll i T 1 2 l n o 2 2 . t . ru m. Co ec o u 8 8 v o . 6 , rici, ; II , 4 l it. n o s 2 2 8 o l n 2 8 v o 1 c . v . . a d . 5 . Op . , 4 ( II ) 9 3 ( R h e n n m r 1 6 . G o u Ob v a o o n e a a o . g , s r ti s c rt i st ps ” e u ed an en b o u in Arch aeo lo ia 2 2 s als s ci tly y c lists , g , IX . 7 l rii emm c 2 2 E . eteris me o cu a et . 4 S ax . p de v dici g a Tra e i M m 1 j ct ad o sa 7 74 . 1 i 2 60 : u a in e e cu m es e nev e . D e L e b u s . . 7 g , II 4 q l g s t u u m ddi o u m h u m ne exci itu r a e a e e u t a r a t , q a a p lt r [ l g ] , cu i au o d en e iu ncti escu nt im cu m lo se elirei r t s , ast il p r i u u e v e se fra d e esto . n e n L . D A h Po ti 2 v . 1 8 . G e ano a ci o a t M ri i , gli rc iatri ﬁ , ls ,

I I 2 0 . l . 1 8 . Vo . Ro ma 7 . p , 4 9 “ D o ke Th e o n i f . . C ab h men 1 C . W . 9 . J r , Nati al Est l s ts ” o f n n in M ed ev a Ro me in Th e D u b n Rev ew E gla d , ia l , li i , —1 0 — 1 B ok L e C 06 . XXIII . 94 , 3 5 3 7 P . J l , n ch e memo e dei F o n in Ro ma in B ul e no e a a ti ri ris i , l tti d ll ’ m na i m Co mmis on e A h eo o i C o u e d Ro . si rc l g ca l a, XXXIV — A W L a h o a F ranco ru m R me 0 6 0 1 06 . d e o 4 ( 9 ) aal , sc l , , 1 8 6 9 . 2 de I L h f. An o n o Waa u o u l e 0 . C s o o t i l , g i Pii t rrit ri

V no Ro me 1 886 . atica , , Eu éne au ln e D e a e d n 2 1 . S C o is . S r g i r , pit sacri r i S pi i L n tu s o 1 6 . , y s , 49 ’ h n M u a H ndb o o k F o r T v e — R 2 2 . J o rr y s a ra llers o me And I ts Env on ed o n o f 1 8 ev ed b L anciani ir s, iti 75 , r is y , L n n o do .

f L an i ni Th e Go l en D Th Re n 2 . C . c a O e na a e 3 , d ays f iss c I B n nd New o k 1 R me o o a 06 . 1 n o 0 . , st Y r , 9 , p 3 2 H en Th édenat o m e a 1 2 . 1 0 . . 4 ri , P p i, P ris , 9 , p 7 ; cf A e I ts L e a r u u Mau o m nd A t an e b F . g st , P p ii, if , tr slat d y Ne k W . e e L ond o n and w o 1 0 K ls y , Y r , 9 4. 2 I n o z v di Anti 5 . N ti ie degli Sca i chitd c o mu nicate alla ' R A e 1 8 an in . ccad mia dei L incei ( 8 4) d Pagan and Ch ristia n [ 1 64 ] N O T E S

k — 68 Th e w o 1 8 2 6 2 . Ro me B o o n an d Ne Y , 99 , pp . 3 , st r ’ paintings h av e b een repro du ced in co lo u r in M onu mentz ’ Ined u b b a dal I n u o di C o sp o ndenz a Ar iti, p lic ti l stit t rri h eolo ica Su emen 1 8 1 . c g , ppl t , 9 2 t u o n e n n th e o w th and n o m 6 . Par ic lars c c r i g gr tra sf r a tion o f th e o ld Ferriz h o u se into th e w o rld - kno wn Farnese h a e b een o le ed and u b h ed b v enne Palace , v c l ct p lis y Na , L ne du a F arnése a Ro me 1 8 and b es o rigi s P lais , 9 7 , y in u me 11 o f th e S o a de v di Ro m my self v o l t ri gli sca i a, — m 2 1 02 . Ro e v o . , ls , 9 3 2 no li D o men o D e o U b o Cen men o 7 . G ic , scripti r is, si t ” R m v n il sa o B o b o n o in A h v o S o e a di o a a a ti cc r ic , rc i i ci t S o a a t ri Patri , XVII 2 8 Th e o t o e o f B o o n are o f an en e dif . p r ic s l g a tir ly ferent na u e w h o u an mo nu men a ea u e t r , it t y t l f t r s . 2 Th e o o e o f Co n n ine and o f Th eo d o u 9 . p rtic s sta t si s w e e th e e e en iv e o f th e la d o n r last r pr s tat s c ssic tra iti . Co n u F o ma b Ro o n i 0 . U i mae o et au cto ritate 3 s lt r r s , c sil Regiae Academiae Ly n caeo ru m edidi t Ro du lp h u s L an c an Ro manu M l an 1 01 i i , s , i , 9 . ’ ’ 1 . Cf. Lanciani L Itin erario di n ed eln e l o rdine di 3 , Ei si B enede o C n o n o in M o nu men An h tt a ic , ti tic i pu b b licati

' er u a d e Re e A em dei L i ez — 2 c a nc . p c r lla al c d ia , I 43 7 45

H . o dan To o ra hic d er S d R o m i J r , p g p ta t m Alterth u m B e n 1 8 1—1 0 6 6— , rli , 7 9 7 ; II , pp . 4 6 63 . 2 An exh u v 3 . a e a o u n Of h o d e o f Ro man , sti cc t t is l st n p o n is g v en in m New Ta e o Old Ro me L o n i scri ti s i y l s f , d o n 1 01 Ch e , 9 , apt r I . A . b er Bal u L es R ne 3 3 , u de T mga Pa 1 8 l t l i s i d, ris , 9 7 ; 2 Gu de u é d e T m a 1 1 0 h i ill str i gad, P ris, 9 ; T eatre e t fo ru m de Tim ad s 1 02 g , Pari , 9 .

. L anciani An en Ro me I n Th e L h R 34 , ci t ig t o f ecent Ex v o n B o o n and New o k 1 888 1 8 ca ati s, st Y r , , p . 7 .

. . A Cf . . B e . a li n 3 5 , g , o , Ce o v edu e di Ro ma an a rt t t tic , F enz e 1 1 1 and . B o n S . Adm R ir , 9 , P art li , ira do o manaru m anti u itatu m v eteris l tu r R m scu ae v e a o e 1 6 . q ac p stigi , a , 93

6 . G . H enz en A F ru m Ar aliu m B e n 3 , a a v 1 8 . ct r t , rli , 74

Cf . M . S c 3 7 . . Cartne Wa a e B L and And S ea E y , rf r y , B o o n 1 2 wh h d u n n an st , 9 3 , ic isc sses a cie t d mo dern meth [ 1 65 ] N O T E S o ds o f w arfare ; this v o l u me appears in th e Ou r D eb t to e e G ree ce and Ro me S ri s . h is mémo L e e de 8 . Co n u e e u e 3 s lt ir , stip ll acq R me 1 8 2 li ri o . Ap ol na , , 5 f F F A b o R m n o B o n 2 C . . . b o a o 1 3 9 . tt , P litics, st , 9 3 , 1 fo r u h e di u s on o f th d and fo r ref p . 54, f rt r sc s i is E ict erences ; th is v o lu me appears in th e Ou r D eb t to Greece n e e a d Ro me S ri s . I L a no u m ol . 0 . n Co us v . 4 rp ti r , pp 800

[ 1 66 ]

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

T B a im e F AN An E o no m H o o Ro me . o R K , . , c ic ist ry f lt r , 1 20 9 . F A 2 A H w o k 1 . T . Ne N o o Rome . R K , , ist ry f Y r , 9 3

B . Ro me 1 2 F AN T . Ro m n u d n th Re u b o e . R K , , a il i gs f p lic , 9 4 FRI L AN L I Ro man L e an d M nne s u nde ED DER , UDW G, if a r r t E n r n o n L o n o . sh . h e Early mpire . 4 v ls E gli t a slati d n n Ne o k 1 —1 1 o a d w 0 . Y r , 9 7 9 3 lm L R e i I ta and D a . F T IN A. O AM . o man C n R H GH , , iti s ly a tia N w o k 1 1 e 0 . Y r , 9 F I M A L n h n Ro m N w ia e . e OT NG A . . Mo nu me o C R H H , , ts f rist k 1 8 o 0 . Y r , 9

2 Y 2 R nd h d To . . . 1 H A L H . o me a t e o . . S W D EY , , rl day N , 9 3 H A 8 2 o k 2 A k in R o me o s . New 1 88 . . C . Wal v . RE, J , s , l Y r , nn Ox d 1 1 V I L F n en T n n . F . o H A . A w o . ER E D, J , ci t Pla i g f r , 9 3 d e t th e u b o e o ns o H EL I F W . Gu o C B G, K . . , i P lic ll cti f C a An u e in Ro me n h an o n b lassic l tiq iti s , ( E glis tr slati y h 2 1 — n M u e ad . v o . L e z 8 . F . a d F . ) 6 . J ir ls ip ig , 95 H S C L Th e Tw o B o o k o n th e e u o C . W S ER HE , , s at r pply f

th Ro me n tin . B o n 1 e C o o F ro u s o 8 . ity f , f st , 99 H U E Th Ro ma n F o u m 2 n s h n o LS EN CH . e a n , , r , E gli tra sl ti b B er N k Ca . ew o 1 0 . y J . . rt Y r , 9 9

N H ST A T o m n o n t Ro m H O S . C o an o Ox d . o J E , U R , pa i ist ry f r . 1 2 h a e o n 1 . C A h e u e 9 pt r rc it ct r .

L ANCI ANI RO OL FO Th e Ru n and Ex v a o n o An ent , D , i s ca ti s f ci Ro m B o n and New o k 1 e . o 8 st Y r , 9 7 .

’ ’ M L I N AL F L Av entin d n L Anti t u i é . ar 1 06 ER , RED, a s q P is, 9 . Th em MI L T N H . O . e R n o An ien Ro me 2 o v s. DD E , J , ai s f c t . l L o nd n 1 8 2 o , 9 .

B . T e L ATN S . h To o a h and n men o P ER, , p gr p y Mo u ts f 2 B An en Ro me . o o n 1 1 1 ci t st , 9 . PYM D O A Re n om th e L e a u e nc en , R , adi gs fr it r t r o f A i t Ro me in n h n o n N ew o k 1 2 . , E glis tra slati s . Y r , 9 3

R C A B b a L L i I S N C . O . b a e A S ke h o H RD , E , i lic l i r ri s, tc f

b r r H o m 00 B . C a i o . to A 1 in o n y f 3 4 , D 0 . P e , st ry r , 5 r c t 1 1 9 4 . R OD OCANACH I E . L e Ca o e Roma n n u e et mo , , pit l i , a tiq [ 1 68 ] B I B L I O G R A P H Y

h n i a o n b F . L w a 1 0 . n a derne . P ris , 9 5 E gl s tr slati y

n New o k and L o ndo n 1 06 . to . Y r , 9 l F o o Ro n o Ro me 1 1 GG D E I ma . . R IERO . , 9 3 U , E , r

A a o n o a e in I I . o . SA N F . E C f Pl a y B , a al , l ssic ss ci ti s c s t l

B o o n 1 2 1 . st , 9 A C om n o n to L n 3 i o a u d e . E . S SAN S . ) DY , J , ( Ed t r , p a i ti t i s 2 h e n nd 1 1 . Cf. a e o n To o Camb ridg , E gla , 9 c pt r p g me b Th o ma Ash w h h h o Ro b b b o . rap y f , y s y , it i li grap y E e R A T n l o me . N w H av n nn H OW ERM AN G N e e Co . S , R , t r a , , 1 2 9 4 . d o H a v d E o n M H W . a C si l S T . Y H , , ( E it r) , r r ssays las ca B o o n an New k d o 1 1 2 . h e . C e S u bj cts st Y r , 9 apt r o me A e o an An en Ro man C b M H S . V , sp cts f ci t ity , y .

M o rgan . Th eu h w R . me . L n STOBART . C e G an as o o do n , J , r d r t at , 1 20 9 . h T O M AS EM IL Roman L e Unde t e C e . New H , E, if r a sars L n n 1 8 h o k and o do . C a e Y r , 99 pt r II . ’ l E ir T M EM IL Ro me e t m e . 1 O AS 8 . H , E, p Paris, 9 7 TH ED ENAT H NRI L e F o u m Ro m n et les F o u m Im , E , r ai r s ' 8 eria u x . r 1 0 . p Pa is , 9 L e in th R n o T C T G . e om W d o Ne o and U KER, . , if a rl f r t L n n an N k 1 1 l . o do d ew o 0 . S . u Pa Y r , 9

/ B T rt th WAL TE S . h e A o e Ro m n N . ew o k R , W , f a s Y r and L o ndo n 1 1 1 , 9 . 2 WIS SOW A G . Re o n nd u u er R me n u d o . Mu h en , , ligi K lt s r c , 1 1 2 9 .

[ 1 69 ]

AUTH ORS AND TITL ES

No hwe te n Un ve it . oh n A. S o H OMER . J c tt , rt s r i rs y PP R b in o n The J ohn H o kin D av i M . o SA HO . d s , s p s t Universi y . ’ I in Co e e C mb d e . F . L . L u EURIP D ES . cas , K g s ll g , a ri g ’ h e a n . S CL S . T AES CHYL US AND SOPHO E . J pp rd , Ki g s

Co e e C mb id e . ll g , a r g ‘ d Obe n Co e e. L o u . L o ARI SI OPH ANE S . is E r , rli ll g

M A m D mo u h Co e e . h e D . D E OSTHENE S . C arl s da s , art t ll g

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