Marketingowe Strategie Wyborcze

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Marketingowe Strategie Wyborcze AGNIESZKA STÊPIÑSKA MARKETINGOWE STRATEGIE WYBORCZE Wybory prezydenckie w Polsce (1990–2000) Wydawnictwo Naukowe INPiD UAM Poznañ 2004 Recenzenci: Prof. dr hab. Teresa Sasiñska-Klas Prof. dr hab. Jacek Sobczak Projekt ok³adki: Andrzej Stêpiñski © Copyright by Wydawnictwo Naukowe Instytutu Nauk Politycznych i Dziennikarstwa Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu ul. Szamarzewskiego 89 A, 60-568 Poznañ, tel. (061) 829 01 06 ISBN 83-87704-79-2 Sk³ad komputerowy – „MRS” 60-408 Poznañ, ul. P. Zo³otowa 23, tel. (0-61) 843 09 39 Druk i oprawa – „AMK” 62-025 Kostrzyn Wlkp., ul. H. Sienkiewicza 5, tel. (0-61) 817 89 25 Spis treœci Wstêp ................................ 5 Wykaz skrótów .......................... 11 Wykaz tabel ............................ 14 Wykaz rysunków.......................... 14 Rozdzia³ I. Strategia jako element marketingu politycznego ...... 15 1. Marketing polityczny i wyborczy.................. 16 A.Geneza i definicja marketingu politycznego i wyborczego ...... 16 B. Marketing polityczny i wyborczy a marketing komercyjny ..... 24 C. Marketing polityczny a propaganda ............... 29 D.Rynkowa koncepcja polityki: rynek wyborczy ........... 37 2. Strategia wyborcza........................ 49 A.Definicja strategii ....................... 49 B. Elementy strategii wyborczej .................. 54 C. Strategia w kampanii wyborczej ................. 59 Rozdzia³ II. Ramy prawne funkcjonowania podmiotów politycznych na rynku wyborczym ............. 70 1. Pozycja ustrojowa, funkcje i kompetencje Prezydenta RP ....... 72 2. Kalendarz wyborczy i tryb wyborów ................ 77 3. G³ówni uczestnicy rynku wyborczego................ 82 A.Wyborcy ........................... 82 B. Kandydaci .......................... 84 C. Œrodki masowego przekazu ................... 89 4. Zg³aszanie i rejestracja kandydatów ................ 93 5. G³ówne zasady promocji i konkurencji wyborczej .......... 102 6. Reklamy wyborcze w œrodkach masowego przekazu ......... 111 7. Finansowanie kampanii wyborczej ................. 117 Rozdzia³ III. Sytuacja wyjœciowa i struktura rynku wyborczego .... 129 1. Elektorat polski jako element rynku wyborczego ........... 130 A.Aktywnoœæ wyborcza i jej spo³eczno-demograficzne uwarunkowania . 131 B. G³ówne osie podzia³ów socjopolitycznych ............ 135 C. Geograficzne zró¿nicowanie zachowañ wyborczych ........ 147 D.Kwestie spo³ecznie wa¿ne i nastroje spo³eczne ........... 151 E. Spo³eczne oczekiwania wobec kandydatów na urz¹d Prezydenta RP ........................ 163 3 2. G³ówni pretendenci do urzêdu ................... 166 A.Wybory w 1990 roku ...................... 167 B. Wybory w 1995 roku ...................... 173 C. Wybory w 2000 roku ...................... 178 Rozdzia³ IV.Marketingowe strategie kampanii wyborczych ...... 188 1. Strategie personalne ....................... 189 2. Przedwyborcze badania rynku ................... 194 3. Wybór grupy docelowej...................... 198 4. Relacje miêdzypodmiotowe .................... 203 5. Komunikacja marketingowa ................... 212 6. Strategie finansowe ....................... 229 Rozdzia³ V.Wizerunki autoprezentacyjne kandydatów ........ 237 1. Definicja i elementy wizerunku .................. 239 2. Wizerunki poszczególnych kandydatów............... 246 A.Wybory w 1990 r. ....................... 247 B. Wybory w 1995 r. ....................... 261 C. Wybory w 2000 r. ....................... 271 3. Tarapaty autoprezentacyjne .................... 285 Rozdzia³ VI. Przekazy programowe w prezydenckiej kampanii wyborczej 293 1. Typy przekazów programowych i ich rola w kampanii prezydenckiej . 294 2. Obietnice i retoryka wyborcza jako instrumenty rywalizacji wyborczej . 299 3. Zawartoœæ przekazów programowych................ 303 A.Wybory w 1990 r. ....................... 304 B. Wybory w 1995 r. ....................... 317 C. Wybory w 2000 r. ....................... 332 Zakoñczenie........................ 351 Bibliografia ............................ 355 Aneks ............................... 382 WSTÊP Przemiana systemowa w Polsce po 1989 r. przynios³a szereg konsekwencji, w tym tak¿e dla sposobu rywalizowania podmiotów wyborczych o poparcie jednostek upraw- nionych do g³osowania. W sferze wyborów pojawi³y siê nowe zjawiska (promocja po- lityczna, reklama polityczna), zmieni³a siê tak¿e istotnie rola œrodków masowego przekazu w kampanii wyborczej. Odt¹d media stanowi³y nie tylko kana³ upowszech- niania przekazów przygotowanych przez kandydatów i ich otoczenie, ale i sta³y siê sa- modzielnym, aktywnym uczestnikiem wydarzeñ poprzedzaj¹cych akt g³osowania. Zmiany te zrodzi³y potrzebê przyjêcia i zastosowania do badañ takich koncepcji i me- tod badawczych, które pozwoli³yby analizowaæ proces wyborów z uwzglêdnieniem jego nowych elementów. Od po³owy lat 50. w Wielkiej Brytanii i USA prowadzone by³y badania zmierzaj¹ce do odtworzenia g³ównych wydarzeñ kampanii wyborczej, dzia³añ partii politycznych, sztabów wyborczych, samych kandydatów, a tak¿e treœci i formy przekazów pocz¹tko- wo prasowych i radiowych, póŸniej tak¿e telewizyjnych zwi¹zanych z wyborami1. ród³ami dostarczaj¹cymi informacji o tych kwestiach sta³y siê wówczas dokumenty kampanii: deklaracje programowe, materia³y prasowe, taœmy z audycjami wyborczy- mi, plakaty, ulotki oraz obserwacja pracy sztabów wyborczych (np. organizacji wie- ców). Z uwagi na podobieñstwo Ÿróde³ wykorzystywanych do badañ oraz metod ich prowadzenia nurt ten nazywany jest historycznym. W³¹czenie koncepcji marketingu do wspomnianego wy¿ej nurtu badañ politolo- gicznych poprzedzi³y rzeczywiste dzia³ania kandydatów i ich sztabów wyborczych. Nale¿a³y do nich m.in.: opracowywanie wspomnianych reklam politycznych na wzór spotów komercyjnych, promowanie kandydata za pomoc¹ ró¿nego rodzaju materia³ów reklamowych, a tak¿e koncentracja uwagi nie tylko na treœci przekazów, ale i ich for- mie (w tym tak¿e na sposobie autoprezentacji samego kandydata). Kluczowym wyró¿- nikiem dzia³añ o charakterze marketingowym by³o przy tym poprzedzanie wszelkich decyzji badaniami sytuacji wyjœciowej kandydata i jego rywali. Z kolei efektem tych badañ by³o opracowanie strategii wyborczej rozumianej jako „sposób s³u¿¹cy przygo- towaniu i wdro¿eniu tych ofert politycznych, które umo¿liwiaj¹ pozyskanie okreœlonej klienteli wyborczej w celu obsadzenia jak najwiêkszej liczby obieralnych stanowisk [w przypadku kandydata na urz¹d prezydencki, by³oby to obsadzenie tego w³aœnie urzêdu – A. S.], w okreœlonych pod wzglêdem miejsca i czasu warunkach spo³ecznych, kulturowych, politycznych i gospodarczych”2. 1 Systematycznym analizom kampanii wyborczych da³y pocz¹tek badania prowadzone na Uni- wersytecie Oxford, o czym pisze J. J. Wiatr w pracy: Niektóre zagadnienia opinii publicznej w œwietle wyborów 1957 i 1958 (monografia), „Studia Socjologiczno-Polityczne” 1959, t. 4. 2 R. Wiszniowski, Marketing wyborczy. Studium kampanii wyborczych w systemach prezydenckich i semiprezydenckich (Finlandia, Francja, Polska, Stany Zjednoczone), Warszawa–Wroc³aw 2000, s. 76. 5 Zastosowanie do opisu i analizy powy¿szych zjawisk siatki pojêciowej marketingu, opracowanej przez teoretyków organizacji i zarz¹dzania, nie zmieni³o przedmiotu do- tychczasowych badañ historycznych, a jedynie ich perspektywê. Odt¹d odtwarzanie te- matów kampanii (tzw. issues), odkrywanie przedstawianych wyborcom alternatyw, ustalanie pozycji programowych poszczególnych podmiotów, a tak¿e analiza stylów autoprezentacyjnych kandydatów stanowi równie¿ próbê udzielenia odpowiedzi na py- tanie o przyjêt¹ i realizowan¹ strategiê wyborcz¹. Koncepcja marketingu politycznego wpisa³a siê przy tym w nurt wczeœniejszych ujêæ polityki jako gry (rywalizacji i wystê- pu)3, tym razem prowadzonej na rynku wyborczym. Z kolei instrumentalna strona marketingu (zbiór narzêdzi informowania, oddzia³ywania, promocji) traktowana jest obecnie jako typ komunikowania politycznego4. W polskiej politologii pierwszej po³owy lat 90. w badaniach nad wyborami domino- wa³y studia historyczne5. Za moment prze³omowy w praktyce wyborczej uwa¿a siê wy- bory prezydenckie w 1995 r. (dzia³ania sztabu wyborczego A. Kwaœniewskiego), zaœ badania wyborów z wykorzystaniem perspektywy marketingu politycznego prowadzone s¹ w naszym kraju od koñca lat 90. Wiêkszoœæ z przygotowanych dot¹d opracowañ doty- czy jednak dzia³añ partii politycznych w sytuacji wyborów parlamentarnych6 lub te¿ za- wiera rozwa¿ania natury bardziej ogólnej7. Z kolei w niniejszej pracy perspektywa marketingowa zosta³a wykorzystana do badañ nad wyborami prezydenckimi8. Niniejsza publikacja prezentuje wyniki analizy dzia³añ podejmowanych przez pod- mioty wyborcze (kandydatów i ich najbli¿sze otoczenie), zmierzaj¹cych do realizacji okreœlonych d¹¿eñ. Punktem wyjœcia przeprowadzonych badañ by³o przekonanie o ko- niecznoœci uœwiadomienia sobie granic mo¿liwoœci zastosowania narzêdzi, modeli oraz pojêæ marketingu dóbr i us³ug w sferze polityki. Granice te wyznacza, z jednej strony, specyfika rywalizacji wyborczej, która ujawnia siê w kilku wymiarach: praw- nym, instytucjonalnym, kulturowym. Ponadto, niezbêdne wydaje siê dostosowanie elementów marketingu politycznego, wypracowanych g³ównie w kulturze anglosa- 3 P. Pawe³czyk, D. Piontek, Marketing polityczny, czyli zmierzch idea³ów, „Przegl¹d Politolo- giczny” 1998; Socjotechnika w komunikowaniu politycznym, Poznañ 1999; P. Pawe³czyk, Socjotech- niczne aspekty gry politycznej, Poznañ 2000. 4 P. Pawe³czyk, D. Piontek, Socjotechnika. 5 Zob. Dlaczego tak g³osowano. Wybory prezydenckie ’90. (Analiza polityczna i socjologiczna), pod
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