China Continental, Taiwan E Hong Kong: Questões Sobre Nacionalidade E Identidade

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China Continental, Taiwan E Hong Kong: Questões Sobre Nacionalidade E Identidade Universidade do Minho Instituto de Letras e Ciências Humanas Fernanda Aguiar Ribeiro Oliveira Santos Cinemas chineses – China continental, e Hong Kong: e Kong: Hong Taiwan e Hong Kong: questões sobre história, nacionalidade e identidade Taiwan Taiwan China continental, continental, China – Cinemas chineses chineses Cinemas identidade e história, nacionalidade questões sobre Fernanda Santos UMinho | 2020 julho de 2020 ii iii Universidade do Minho Instituto de Letras e Ciências Humanas Fernanda Aguiar Ribeiro Oliveira Santos Cinemas chineses – China continental, Taiwan e Hong Kong: questões sobre nacionalidade e identidade Dissertação de Mestrado Estudos Interculturais Português/Chinês: Tradução, Formação e Comunicação Empresarial Trabalho efetuado sob a orientação da Professora Doutora Sun Lam e do Professor Doutor Paulo Cunha ii julho de 2020 DIREITOS DE AUTOR E CONDIÇÕES DE UTILIZAÇÃO DO TRABALHO POR TERCEIROS Este é um trabalho académico que pode ser utilizado por terceiros desde que respeitadas as regras e boas práticas internacionalmente aceites, no que concerne aos direitos de autor e direitos conexos. Caso o utilizador necessite de permissão para poder fazer um uso do trabalho em condições não previstas no licenciamento indicado, deverá contactar o autor, através do RepositóriUM da Universidade do Minho. ii AGRADECIMENTOS Quero agradecer, em primeiro lugar, à minha orientadora, a Professora Doutora Sun Lam, por todo o apoio ao longo do meu percurso académico e pela inspiração, essencial para que hoje me possa dedicar a um assunto que tanto me apaixona com tanta dedicação. Agradeço, em segundo lugar, ao meu orientador, o Professor Doutor Paulo Cunha, sem o qual este trabalho não seria possível, pela sua disponibilidade e interesse, bem como por toda a atenção dispensada e por todas as sugestões, que foram indispensáveis para que atingisse os objetivos a que me propus neste projeto de investigação. Por fim, agradeço aos meus pais, por tudo. iii DECLARAÇÃO DE INTEGRIDADE Declaro ter atuado com integridade na elaboração do presente trabalho académico e confirmo que não recorri à prática de plágio nem a qualquer forma de utilização indevida ou falsificação de informações ou resultados em nenhuma das etapas conducente à sua elaboração. Mais declaro que conheço e que respeitei o Código de Conduta Ética da Universidade do Minho. iv RESUMO A multiplicidade e diversidade étnica, cultural, linguística, histórica e política dos territórios chineses tornam impossível a tarefa de definir o cinema chinês como coeso e fechado. No caso chinês, as diferenças a nível regional e local, quer motivadas por diferenças étnicas, culturais e linguísticas, quer motivadas por questões históricas e políticas, ou até por uma combinação das duas, aliadas à crescente internacionalização e globalização dos meios de produção, distribuição e exibição da indústria cinematográfica, desafiam a verosimilhança do modelo nacional e motivam uma abordagem transnacional. O caso do cinema chinês é especialmente pertinente para este debate por ser possível distinguir três cinemas nacionais distintos. O presente trabalho centra-se no estudo dos vários cinemas chineses, nomeadamente, o cinema da China continental, o cinema de Taiwan e o cinema de Hong Kong, através da análise da obra de Zhang Yimou, Hou Hsiao-hsien e Wong Kar-wai. Partindo dos conceitos de nação e estado, indispensáveis às noções de identidade e nacionalidade, bem como das abordagens teóricas do cinema nacional e do cinema transnacional, pretende-se examinar as especificidades dos vários cinemas chineses que os distinguem entre si, invocando uma história, uma identidade e uma nacionalidade distintas. Palavras-chaves: cinema nacional; China; Taiwan; Hong Kong; identidade; nacionalidade; v ABSTRACT The ethnic, cultural, linguistic, historic, and political multiplicity and diversity of the Chinese territories make the task of defining Chinese cinema as cohesive and closed impossible. In the case of Chinese cinema, the local and regional differences, whether ethnical, cultural and linguistic, whether historic and political or even a combination of the two, together with the internationalization and globalization of production, distribution and exhibition practices and methods, challenge the verisimilitude and the pertinence of the national model while demanding a broader approach – a transnational approach. Since it can be subcategorized in three distinct national cinemas, namely, the cinema of mainland China, the cinema of Taiwan, and the cinema of Hong Kong, Chinese cinema is particularly relevant for this debate. The present study focuses on the various Chinese cinemas, through the analysis of the works of Zhang Yimou, Hou Hsiao-hsien, and Wong Kar-wai. From the concepts of nation and state, indispensable for understanding the notions of identity and nationality, and the theoretical approaches of national cinema and transnational cinema, the present study aims at examining the specificities of the various Chinese cinemas that make them distinguishable, and how each one invokes a distinct history, identity and nationality. Keywords cinema; China; Taiwan; Hong Kong; identity; nationality; vi 摘要 中国的领土、民族、文化艺术、语言、历史和政治的多样性与差异性使中国电影 的一致性与封闭性成为不可能。中国电影本土和地区的差异,无论从以上的角度,还是 从电影的制作、传播和展示方法的国际化和全球化角度,正越来越多地质疑国家电影的 典型性,针对性和相关性。 现今的电影评论需要一个更广泛的典型 —— 一个跨域化的典型。正因为中国电 影分为三个不同的类别,即中国大陆电影、台湾电影和香港电影,所以中国电影对跨域 化电影类型的分析有着特别的意义。 本篇论文选择了张艺谋、侯孝贤和王家卫的影片为典型案例,对这三类电影加以 分析。从民族电影和国别电影的概念为依据、以文化身份、地域概念以及国际化电影的 理论框架为参照,本论文试图分析中国不同类型电影的特殊性,以及每部电影如展现各 自不同的历史、身份和民族特征。 关键词: 国家电影, 中国大陆, 台湾, 香港, 身份,国籍。 vii ESCLARECIMENTOS Sistemas de romanização No presente trabalho são usados vários sistemas de romanização: o sistema Hanyu Pinyin, o sistema fonético oficial do dialeto mandarim da República Popular da China; o sistema Jyutping, usado para o dialeto cantonês de Hong Kong; o sistema Wade-Giles usado para o mandarim de Taiwan. Apesar de o sistema Wade-Giles estar hoje ultrapassado, tendo sido substituído pelo sistema Hanyu Pinyin que é, também, o sistema oficial de Taiwan desde os anos 50, concluiu-se durante a investigação que a população taiwanesa usa uma combinação de sistemas de romanização: Hanyu Pinyin, Wade-Giles, Gwoyeu Romatzyh e Tongyong Pinyin. Uma vez que a maioria dos nomes e termos estudados surgiam na forma Wade-Giles, e por se ter concluído, também, que é, atualmente, uma das romanizações mais utilizadas pela população, e que o sistema Hanyu Pinyin não é, ainda, amplamente usado, optou-se pelo sistema Wade-Giles para as romanizações do dialeto taiwanês. A utilização de vários sistemas de romanização específicos de cada dialeto acentua o argumento da distinção e especificidade das culturas em que se inserem. Esta perspetiva acrescenta profundidade ao debate que se estabelece no presente trabalho sobre a pluralidade do cinema nacional chinês. Ainda assim, o Hanyu Pinyin é o sistema de romanização de referência, sendo usado em todos os casos ao longo deste trabalho. Os termos em chinês, ou a sua tradução, sempre que pertinente, são seguidos da respetiva romanização Hanyu Pinyin – ex.: etnia (民族 mínzú). Nos casos dos dialetos taiwanês e cantonês, o termo ou a tradução do termo são seguidos da romanização específica (Jyutping ou Wade-Giles), com a respetiva indicação, seguida da romanização Hanyu Pinyin, com a respetiva indicação – ex.: 粵拼 Jyut6ping3 (jtp)/ Yuèpīn (pn); 威翟式拼音 Wei Chai Shih p’in yin (wd)/ Wēi Zhái Shì Pīnyīn (pn). Questão de Taiwan e Hong Kong O presente trabalho discute as várias identidades chinesas – desde as minorias étnicas, até à questão de Taiwan e Hong Kong, motivada por questões políticas. Ainda assim, apesar de ser defendido que existem vários cinemas nacionais chineses, e que o cinema chinês tem uma dimensão transnacional, não se pretende questionar a soberania da República Popular da China. O objetivo derradeiro do trabalho é alheio à dimensão política, centrando-se, acima de tudo, na questão cultural e na expressão artística manifestada através do cinema. viii Índice Capítulo I – Introdução ..................................................................................................................1 i. i. A globalização e a obsolescência do modelo nacional .............................................. 5 ii. ii. Lost in translation ...................................................................................................... 6 iii. iii. A questão nacional no cinema ................................................................................. 10 iv. iv. Cinema transnacional .............................................................................................. 13 v. v. Os cinemas nacionais chineses ................................................................................ 15 Capítulo II – Zhang Yimou e o cinema da China continental ....................................................... 18 1. 2.1. Contexto histórico ................................................................................................ 23 2. 2.2. Análise de filmes - «A Trilogia Vermelha» ........................................................25 2.1. 2.2.1. «Sorgo Vermelho» (1987) ...................................................................... 25 2.1.1. 2.2.1.1. A resistência ao estrangeiro ...................................................... 30 2.1.2. 2.2.1.2. A figura da criança ..................................................................... 32 2.2. 2.2.2. «Judou» (1991) ...................................................................................... 33 2.3. 2.2.3.
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