DOCSLIB.ORG

Perceptions and Experiences in Elijah Muhammad's Economic Program: Voices from the Pioneers

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Perceptions and Experiences in Elijah Muhammad's Economic Program: Voices from the Pioneers Georgia State University ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University African-American Studies Theses Department of African-American Studies 4-16-2010 Perceptions and Experiences in Elijah Muhammad's Economic Program: Voices from the Pioneers Nafeesa Haniyah Muhammad Georgia State University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/aas_theses Part of the African American Studies Commons Recommended Citation Muhammad, Nafeesa Haniyah, "Perceptions and Experiences in Elijah Muhammad's Economic Program: Voices from the Pioneers." Thesis, Georgia State University, 2010. https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/aas_theses/1 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Department of African-American Studies at ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University. It has been accepted for inclusion in African-American Studies Theses by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES IN ELIJAH MUHAMMAD’S ECONOMIC PROGRAM: VOICES FROM THE PIONEERS by NAFEESA H. MUHAMMAD Under the Direction of Akinyele Umoja ABSTRACT During Elijah Muhammad’s tenure as leader of the Nation of Islam, he launched an eco- nomic program that sought to empower black people in America. This study examines the per- ceptions and experiences of five individuals who were directly involved in Muhammad’s eco- nomic program using a phenomenological approach. The findings of this study revealed that this program helped them develop an identity, provided a way out of economic oppression, improved their work ethic, made them economically self-sufficient, and the pioneers believe that this pro- gram has current applications. INDEX WORDS: Elijah Muhammad, Nation of Islam, Black economic development, Black ca- pitalism, Protestant Ethic, Religion and economic development PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES IN ELIJAH MUHAMMAD’S ECONOMIC PROGRAM: VOICES FROM THE PIONEERS by NAFEESA H. MUHAMMAD A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the College of Arts and Sciences Georgia State University 2010 Copyright by Nafeesa Haniyah Muhammad 2010 PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES IN ELIJAH MUHAMMAD’S ECONOMIC PROGRAM: VOICES FROM THE PIONEERS by NAFEESA H. MUHAMMAD Committee Chair: Akinyele Umoja Committee: Jonathan Gayles Audrea Dunham Electronic Version Approved: Office of Graduate Studies College of Arts and Sciences Georgia State University May 2010 iv DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my mother and father---all that I am and all that I do is because of you both. I thank the Creator for allowing me to pass through two beautiful vessels. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to thank my thesis committee for their guidance and support during the completion of this thesis. Special thanks to Dr. Jonathan Gayles for providing insights on the methodology used in this project. I would also like to thank Dr. Audrea Dunham for assisting me with the theoretical concepts presented in this paper. I extend an “appreciative” thank you to Dr. Akinyele Umoja whose knowledge, devotion, and expertise was more than beneficial for the completion of this thesis. I am also grateful to Dr. Sarita Davis for helping me understand the research method for doing qualitative research. Special thanks to Dr. Leroy Davis for sparking my interest in eco- nomic development. I extend special thanks to Dr. Gnimbin Ouattara for being a mentor who showed profound interest in my undergraduate work on the Nation of Islam and inspired me to continue this project at the graduate level. Finally, to the pioneers of the Nation of Islam who shared with me their perceptions of and experiences in Elijah Muhammad’s economic program. I am so thankful that I have captured your stories and through all of you, I believe that many of the economic problems facing indigent populations can be overcome. Thank You All! vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ v LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 Background of the Problem......................................................................................................... 3 The Economic Philosophy and Program of Elijah Muhammad .............................................. 6 Problem Statement and Purpose of the Study ............................................................................. 9 Who are the Pioneers? ............................................................................................................ 9 Research Design and Method ................................................................................................ 10 Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 12 Nature of the Study ................................................................................................................... 13 Phenomenology ..................................................................................................................... 13 Data Collection and Methodology ........................................................................................ 14 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 14 Conceptual/Theoretical Framework .......................................................................................... 16 Definitions ................................................................................................................................. 17 Assumptions .............................................................................................................................. 18 Scope and Limitations ............................................................................................................... 18 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 19 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................... 20 Literature Search ....................................................................................................................... 20 Overview of the Literature Review ........................................................................................... 21 Historical Overview .................................................................................................................. 21 Empirical Studies on the Nation of Islam .............................................................................. 22 African American Religious Institutions as Economic Agents .............................................. 28 Black Economic Development: Does it Help or Harm? ........................................................ 33 Gap in the Literature ............................................................................................................. 35 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 36 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 39 vii Research Design and Method ................................................................................................ 39 Population and Sample Selection .............................................................................................. 40 Data Collection and Analysis ................................................................................................ 42 Reliability and Validity ............................................................................................................. 42 Internal Validity ..................................................................................................................... 43 External Validity .................................................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS ............................................................................................................ 45 The Pioneers .............................................................................................................................. 46 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 51 Theme 1: Develop an Identity ................................................................................................... 52 Theme 2: A Way Out of Economic Oppression ....................................................................... 54 Theme 3: Improved Work Ethic................................................................................................ 57 Theme 4: Economically Self-Sufficient .................................................................................... 60 Theme 5: A Plan with Current Applications ............................................................................. 63 Summary
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Finding Aid to the Historymakers ® Video Oral History with Robert Sengstacke
    Finding Aid to The HistoryMakers ® Video Oral History with Robert Sengstacke Overview of the Collection Repository: The HistoryMakers®1900 S. Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60616 [email protected] www.thehistorymakers.com Creator: Sengstacke, Robert (Bobby), 1943-2017 Title: The HistoryMakers® Video Oral History Interview with Robert Sengstacke, Dates: December 19, 2003 Bulk Dates: 2003 Physical 7 Betacame SP videocasettes (3:30:47). Description: Abstract: Photojournalist Robert Sengstacke (1943 - 2017 ) is president of the Chicago Defender newspaper. Sengstacke was interviewed by The HistoryMakers® on December 19, 2003, in Chicago, Illinois. This collection is comprised of the original video footage of the interview. Identification: A2003_305 Language: The interview and records are in English. Biographical Note by The HistoryMakers® Photographer and heir of a distinguished African American newspaper publisher, Robert Abbott Sengstacke, popularly known as “Bobby,” was born May 29, 1943, in Chicago, Illinois. Named after the founder of the Chicago Defender, Robert Sengstacke Abbott, Bobby attended the University of Chicago Lab School, Manument boarding school in Pennsylvania and Howalton Day School in Chicago before attending Hyde Park High School. Sengstacke graduated from Central YMCA High School in 1962. Artistic and restless, he attended Florida’s Bethune Cookman College for three and a half years before returning to Chicago. Growing up with the newspaper gave Sengstacke unique access to important events and people. Learning to shoot from Le Mont Mac Lemore, Billy Abernathy and Bob Black of the Chicago Sun-Times in the mid-1950s, Sengstacke’s thousands of black and white photographs of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Muhammad Ali, Gwendolyn Brooks, Amiri Imamu Baraka and other well-known figures, places and events were widely published.
    [Show full text]
  • Information to Users
    INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In th e unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. UMI A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor MI 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 8703587 McFadden-Preston, Claudette THE RHETORIC OF MINISTER LOUIS FARRAKHAN: A PLURALISTIC APPROACH The O hio State University Ph.D. 1986 University Microfilms International300 N.
    [Show full text]
  • 2011/2012 Black History Trivia Bowl Study Questions # CATEGORY
    2011/2012 Black History Trivia Bowl Study Questions # CATEGORY QUESTION ANSWER Along the Gulf Coast of Louisiana, what type of music is played 1 Arts with the accordion? Zydeco 2 Arts Who wrote "Their Eyes Were Watching God" ? Zora Neale Hurston Which one of composer/pianist Anthony Davis' operas premiered in Philadelphia in 1985 and was performed by the X: The Life and Times of 3 Arts New York City Opera in 1986? Malcolm X Since 1987, who has held the position of director of jazz at 4 Arts Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in New York City? Wynton Marsalis Of what profession were Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Countee Cullen, major contributors to the Harlem 5 Arts Renaissance? Writers Who wrote Clotel , or The President’s Daughter , the first 6 Arts published novel by a Black American in 1833? William Wells Brown Who published The Escape , the first play written by a Black 7 Arts American? William Wells Brown 8 Arts What is the given name of blues great W.C. Handy? William Christopher Handy What aspiring fiction writer, journalist, and Hopkinsville native, served as editor of three African American weeklies: the Indianapolis Recorder , the Freeman , and the Indianapolis William Alexander 9 Arts Ledger ? Chambers 10 Arts Nat Love wrote what kind of stories? Westerns Cartoonist Morrie Turner created what world famous syndicated 11 Arts comic strip? Wee Pals Who was born in Florence, Alabama in 1873 and is called 12 Arts “Father of the Blues”? WC Handy Georgia Douglas Johnson was a poet during the Harlem Renaissance era.
    [Show full text]
  • Cultural Dakwah and Muslim Movements in the United States in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries
    JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 5, Nomor 2, Juli – Desember 2020 CULTURAL DAKWAH AND MUSLIM MOVEMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES IN THE TWENTIETH AND TWENTY-FIRST CENTURIES Mark Woodward Center for the Study of Religion and Conflict Arizona State University [email protected] Abstract: There have been Muslims in what is now the United States since tens of thousands were brought as slaves in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Very few maintained their Muslim identities because the harsh conditions of slavery. Revitalization movements relying on Muslim symbolism emerged in the early 20th century. They were primarily concerned with the struggle against racism and oppression. The Moorish Science Temple of American and the Nation of Islam are the two most important of these movement. The haj was a transformative experience for Nation of Islam leaders Malcom X and Muhammad Ali. Realization that Islam is an inclusive faith that does not condone racism led both of them towards mainstream Sunni Islam and for Muhammad Ali to Sufi religious pluralism.1 Keywords: Nation of Islam, Moorish Science Temple, Revitalization Movement, Malcom X, Muhammad Ali Abstract: Sejarah Islam di Amerika sudah berakar sejak abad ke 18 dan awal 19, ketika belasan ribu budak dari Afrika dibawa ke wilayah yang sekarang bernama Amerika Serikat. Sangat sedikit di antara mereka yang mempertahankan identitasnya sebagai Muslim mengingat kondisi perbudakan yang sangat kejam dan tidak memungkinkan. Di awal abad 20, muncul-lah gerakan revitalisasi Islam. Utamanya, mereka berkonsentrasi pada gerakan perlawanan terhadap rasisme dan penindasan. The Moorish Science Temple of American dan the Nation of Islam adalah dua kelompok terpenting gerakan perlawanan tersebut.
    [Show full text]
  • Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam (Part Four in a Series on Islam from Forward Magazine)
    STATEMENT DI-200-4 HATE BEGOTTEN OF HATE: Louis Farrakhan and The Nation of Islam (Part Four in a series on Islam from Forward magazine) by Joseph P. Gudel and Larry Duckworth "I looked over Jordan, what did I see, coming for to carry me home? A band of angels coming after me, coming for to carry me home." (old Negro spiritual) "If in this life only we have hope in Christ, we are of all men the most pitiable." (1 Cor. 15:19) The Christian belief in an afterlife with Christ has been a source of strength and hope for millions of people from the first century to the present. All Christians have longed for the day when there will be no more death, no more shedding of tears, when sorrow and pain have passed away, and when we no longer see "through a glass darkly" but are with Jesus face to face. As the apostle Paul said, "For to me, to live is Christ, and to die is gain" (Phil. 1:21). But Christianity is not simply an other-worldly hope with no thoughts of the present. The apostle Paul went on to declare: "Nevertheless to remain in the flesh is more needful for you" (v.23). Thus the Christian faith is concerned with both our life here and with our eternal life with God after our work here has been completed. In America a movement has arisen challenging Christianity; indeed, arising largely because of the church's failure to meet the "this-worldly" needs of some of the poorest in this land.
    [Show full text]
  • Oral History Collection, Civil Rights Heritage Center Collections Indiana University South Bend Archives
    Oral History collection, Civil Rights Heritage Center Collections Indiana University South Bend Archives Box/ Narrator Biographical information Interview Cassett CD-R DVD-R Release Transcript Online Additional items Community of Folder date e form focus 1/1 Log Book Contains lists and notes on recordings contained in the CRHC Oral History Project. The logs themselves are undated, but since the newest recordings are from 2008, it is presumed that this log is from at least that time. 1/2 Albert, David Mr. Albert was one of the people litigating Brookins versus South Aug. 27, 2001 Yes (1) Yes (2) Yes Yes-E – Two additional audio African American Bend Community School Corporation, addressing allegations that cassettes, undated the school corporation deliberately segregated against Black – Additional release form dated students. Aug. 11, 2004 1/3 Alfaro, Trin Apr. 15, 2010 No Yes (1) No No African American 1/4 Alford, Bishop Donald Bishop Alford was the owner of Alford's Mortuary, one of a few Dec. 4, 2007 Yes (1) Yes (2) No Yes Yes-E IA – See folder 1/49 for document African American African American mortuarists in South Bend. Bishop Alford was Yes-S entitled, "Notes from Oral also a Pastor of the Pentecostal Cathedral Church of God and History Interviews." Christ in South Bend, and a former President of the South Bend – Includes a business card for branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Bishop Alford's mortuary People (NAACP). business. – Includes a release form dated July 23, 2002, yet as of this writing no recording has been found.
    [Show full text]
  • American Stories by Kambiz Ghaneabassiri
    Presented by National Endowment for the Humanities in cooperation with American Library Association and Ali Vural Ak Center for Global Islamic Studies, George Mason University new world of almost limitless potential. When the Khan. By the sixteenth century, this empire had painting is seen from this perspective, virtually faded into distant memory. But in our painting, the only possibility the artist seems to exclude is its cultural legacy can still be seen in the sweeping the presence of any people other than the Spanish zigzag of the landscape, and the angular energy of themselves. And in this sense, for all its exuberance, the rocks and trees—both features highly evocative his painting conveys an image of history that is of Chinese visual styles. anything but connected, one in which Europeans are the only real protagonists, and the world exists only Such details helped to ensure that our painting for them to explore—and, eventually, to conquer. would appeal to Sultan Murad, a famously generous patron of the arts with the tastes of a connoisseur. But look again—for this painting, much like But why, from the comfort of his palace in Istanbul, history itself, holds many lessons to uncover, some would the sultan have been interested in a book obvious at first glance and others scribbled in the about Spanish America in the first place? The answer margins or hidden just beneath the surface. To begin is to be found not in the painting itself, but in the with, look at the unfamiliar writing at the top of the sweeping political events of that moment in world page.
    [Show full text]
  • Biographical Description for the Historymakers® Video Oral History with the Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan
    Biographical Description for The HistoryMakers® Video Oral History with The Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan PERSON Farrakhan, Louis Alternative Names: The Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan; Life Dates: May 11, 1933- Place of Birth: New York, New York, USA Work: Chicago, IL Occupations: Minister Biographical Note Minister Louis Farrakhan was born on May 11, 1933 in the Bronx, New York to Sarah May and Percival Clarke. He was born Louis Eugene Walcott, but would later adopt the surname of Farrakhan after his conversion to Islam. Louis and his brother, Alvan Walcott, were raised by their mother and step-father in Boston, Massachusetts. As a youth, Farrakhan was a Boston, Massachusetts. As a youth, Farrakhan was a talented violinist and athlete. He graduated from Boston English High School and attended Winston- Salem Teacher’s College, during which time he recorded calypso albums under the name “The Charmer.” In 1953, Farrakhan married his wife, Khadijah Farrakhan (born Betsy Ross), and he dropped out of college during his senior year to assist her during her pregnancy. After attending the annual Saviors’ Day address delivered by Elijah Muhammad, Leader of the Nation of Islam (NOI), Farrakhan decided to join the NOI in 1955. Farrakhan became minister of Muhammad’s Temple No. 11 in Boston, Massachusetts in 1956. Nine years later, he was appointed by Elijah Muhammad to serve as Minister of Muhammad’s Temple No. 7 in New York City. Farrakhan worked with the Harlem community to improve the quality of life in the neighborhood, but the decisions made by Imam W. Deen Mohammed to make the NOI resemble Sunni Islam prompted Farrakhan to gather his own supporters and rebuild the NOI based on the leading principles of Wallace Fard Muhammad and Elijah Muhammad.
    [Show full text]
  • Elijah Muhammad's Nation of Islam Separatism, Regendering, and A
    Africana Islamic Studies THE AFRICANA EXPERIENCE AND CRITICAL LEADERSHIP STUDIES Series Editors: Abul Pitre, PhD North Carolina A&T State University Comfort Okpala, PhD North Carolina A&T State University Through interdisciplinary scholarship, this book series explores the experi- ences of people of African descent in the United States and abroad. This series covers a wide range of areas that include but are not limited to the following: history, political science, education, science, health care, sociol- ogy, cultural studies, religious studies, psychology, hip-hop, anthropology, literature, and leadership studies. With the addition of leadership studies, this series breaks new ground, as there is a dearth of scholarship in leadership studies as it relates to the Africana experience. The critical leadership studies component of this series allows for interdisciplinary, critical leadership dis- course in the Africana experience, offering scholars an outlet to produce new scholarship that is engaging, innovative, and transformative. Scholars across disciplines are invited to submit their manuscripts for review in this timely series, which seeks to provide cutting edge knowledge that can address the societal challenges facing Africana communities. Titles in this Series Survival of the Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Making it Happen Edited by Edward Fort Engaging the Diaspora: Migration and African Families Edited by Pauline Ada Uwakweh, Jerono P. Rotich, and Comfort O. Okpala Africana Islamic Studies Edited by James L. Conyers and Abul Pitre Africana Islamic Studies Edited by James L. Conyers Jr. and Abul Pitre LEXINGTON BOOKS Lanham • Boulder • New York • London Published by Lexington Books An imprint of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
    [Show full text]
  • The Nation of Islam October 1960 OFFICE Oftle DIRECTOR CONEIDEN~Jkj
    The Nation of Islam October 1960 OFFICE OFTlE DIRECTOR CONEIDEN~Jkj UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE VUOFFEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION WASHINGTON 25, D. C. October 14, 1960 BY LIAISON Honorable Gordon Gray Special Assistant to the President Executive Office Building Washington, D. C. My dear Mr. Gray: There is enclosed, as of possible interest, Copy 11 of the monograph entitled "The Nation of Islam." This monograph is a study of a fanatical, all-Negro cult in the United States. It sets forth information on the origin of the cult, its present leadership and organization, its openly publicized doctrines, and other nonpublicized attitudes of the members toward the Government, the white race, and the use of violence. Your attention is invited to the Summary and the Conclusions, which appear at the beginning of the monograph. Upon removal of the c assified enclosure, this transmittal letter becomes unclassified. Sincerely yours, Enclosure cGONEIBN T AIsr IFoluseen COPY jn - THE NATION OF ISLAM (Antiwhite, All -Negro Cult In United States) -ir FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE John Edgar Hoover, Director DECLASS; FED Authorhiy 4 '3Y A..J§JLE VAY C60NFf IENk ' _ CONFIDENTIAL~ THE NATION OF ISLAM (Antiwhite, All-Negro Cult in United States) October, 1960 Federal Bureau of Investigation United States Department of Justice John Edgar Hoover, Director 60 I 3, CONFIDENTIA,T" TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE .--- ....... i SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .. iii A. Summary . iii B. Conclusions. vi L. BACKGROUND AND ORIGIN . .. 1 A. W. D. Fard. , . , 1 B. Fard Teaches Violence . 3 C. Elijah Muhammad ... 4 II.
    [Show full text]
  • Malcolm X and Christianity
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by ScholarBank@NUS MALCOLM X AND CHRISTIANITY FATHIE BIN ALI ABDAT (B. Arts, Hons) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2008 Acknowledgements I extend my sincerest gratitude first to the National University of Singapore (NUS) for granting me the Masters Research Scholarship that enabled me to carry out this undertaking. Also, my thanks go out to the librarians at various universities for assisting me track down countless number of primary and secondary sources that were literally scattered around the world. Without their tireless dedication and effort, this thesis would not have been feasible. The NUS library forked out a substantial sum of money purchasing dozens of books and journals for which I am grateful for. In New York, the friendly staff at Columbia University’s Butler Library, Union Theological Seminary’s Burke Library and Schomburg Centre for Research in Black Culture provided me access to newspaper articles, FBI files, rare books and archival materials that provided much content for my work. In Malaysia, the staff at the University of Malaya enabled me to browse through Za’aba’s extensive private collection that included the journal, Moslem World & the U.S.A. In the process of writing this thesis, I am indebted to various faculty members at the Department of History such as Assoc. Prof. Ian Gordon, Assoc. Prof. Michael Feener and Assoc. Prof. Thomas Dubois, who in one way or another, helped shape my ideas on Malcolm X’s intellectual beliefs and developed my skills as an apprentice historian.
    [Show full text]
  • Main Bout, Inc., Black Economic Power, and Professional Boxing: the Cancelled Muhammad Ali/ Ernie Terrell Fight
    Main Bout, Inc., Black Economic Power, and Professional Boxing: The Cancelled Muhammad Ali/ Ernie Terrell Fight MICHAEL EZRA† American Multicultural Studies Department Sonoma State University THERE WAS A MAJOR DRIFT TOWARD ECONOMIC NATIONALISM in many areas of African- American life during the 1960s. Though often viewed as extreme at the time, scholars have come to place it within a constant ideological struggle between black nationalism and integration going back to the nineteenth century and later to the debates between Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois at the turn of the twentieth century, and the work of Marcus Garvey in the 1920s.1 The issues involved all areas of black life, and Muhammad Ali's embrace of black economic nationalism in the late 1960s demonstrates the saliency of nationalism as well as Ali's role as a race leader. At a press conference in January of 1966, Muhammad Ali announced that he had formed a new corporation, Main Bout, Inc., to manage the multi-million dollar promo- tional rights to his fights. "I am vitally interested in the company," he said, "and in seeing †The author would like to thank David Katzman for his guidance on this article. Much of the research for this article was completed thanks to funding by the National Endowment for the Humanities' Summer Seminar for University Teachers. The author thanks the NEH and seminar leaders Steven Riess and Patrick Miller for their generosity. Fall 2002 413 JOURNAL OF SPORT HISTORY that it will be one in which Negroes are not used as fronts, but as stockholders, officers, and production and promotion agents."2 Although racially integrated, Main Bout was led by the all-black Nation of Islam.
    [Show full text]