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AN ETHNOMUSICOLOGICAL STUDY OF CUBAN

by Maria del Calzon

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the College of Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Education

Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, August, 19?4 ~0 \

© 1974

MARIA DEL CARMEN CALZON

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

ii AN ETHNOMUSICOLOGICAL STUDY OF CUBAN MUSIC

by Maria del Carmen Calzon

This thesis was prepared under the direction of the candidate's thesis advisor, Dr. Kenneth H. Robinson, Department of Curriculum and Instruction. It was submit­ ted to the faculty of the College of Education and was accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education.

iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My most sincere appreciation and thanks to Dr. Kenneth H. Robinson, Professor of Education at Florida Atlantic University and advisor of my master's degree program. His help and encouragement as well as his sin­ cere guidance has meant a lot during the difficult years as an undergraduate and has been essential during my graduate studies at Florida Atlantic University. He has always been there, ready and willing to help, anytime he was needed. To all the people who kindly gave of their time and effort to help in the preparation of this study, es­ pecially Dr. Rosa Abella, Acquisitions, University of Library, my most grateful thanks. To my family, my parents for their support, my sister, Puri, for many hours spent correcting and recheck­ ing this work, to my brother, Frank, who started me in music many years ago, my thanks and love. But most special in her help, my ten-year-old sister, Mary Ann, to whom I dedicate this work; may music bring into her life as much happiness as it was brought into mine.

iv ABSTRACT

Author: Maria del Carmen Calzon Title: An Ethnomusicological Study of Cuban Music Institution: Florida Atlantic University Degree: Master of Education Year: 19?4

The study of 's music has been a source of the utmost neglect, even though its influence is felt ­ wide through the use of native Cuban instruments and forms. It is rare to see credit given where it is due. This thesis was prepared as an introductory text into the area of Cuban music through the compilation and cata- gorization of the basics, influences in the music, native musical instruments, musical forms and . The research included intensive translations of rare, out of pr int books, as well as massive analizations of musical compositions.

v TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I . INTRODUCTION ...... 1.. II . INFLUENCES ON THE MUSIC ...... 3 Indian European African III . NATIVE INSTRUMENTS ...... 12 Tumbadora Bongo a Maracas Claves GCliro I Cencerro I Quijada ( Tiple I Religious Drums IV. MUSICAL FORMS ...... 23 x Vals Tropical < Contradanza Habanera '- Danza Danz6n <- Danzone t e I( Son x Zapateo Guajira Pun to Cr io lla Canci6n Pregon Congo Cha - cha-ch6.

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued Chapter v. COMPOSERS • ...... 38 Alonso Mor on, Porras , and Ortiz Miguel Velazquez Teodora Gines Esteban Salas Juan Par(s Antonio Raffel {n Manuel Saumell Robredo Jose Wh ite Kawanagh Gaspar Villate y Montes Miguel Failde Gumersindo Garay Gaspar Aguero Eduardo S6nchez de Fuentes Antonio Mar{a Romeu Jorge Anckerman Ernestina Lecuona Luis Casas Romero Noises Simons Gonzalo Roig El iseo Grenet Amadeo Roldan Alejandro Garcia Caturla Jose { to Fernandez VI . INFLUENCES UPON ...... VII . CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS • . . BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 55

vii CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The study of Cuba ' s music has been a source of the utmost negZect, even though its infZuence is feZt world-wide through the use of native Cuban instruments and forms . It is rare to see credit given where it is due. Remember the Rumba Symphony by HarZ Mac Donald and from Gershwin, his Cuban Overture . And the overture to the orchestr al version of Saudades do BrasiZ , which the French Milhaud developed from a theme of a Cuban danz6n by Antonio Romeu • ••• let's mention separately Edgar Varese, who uses in his symphony, Ionization, the percusive Cuban instruments known as claves,guiros, maracas, and bong6. 1 The Zist of composers who have used the Cuban instru- ments is very Zarge, so much so that these instruments are rarely thought of as Cuban any more. Much the same has happened with the typicaZ Cuban rhythms, the great dissem- ination has made them an innate part of jazz and rock, as

well as classical compositions.

1Recuerdense la Rumba Symphony de Harl Mac Donald y, de Gershwin, su Cuban Overture . Y la obertura de la version orquestal de Saudades do Brasil , que el compositor frances Milhaud desarrol l6 sobre el tema de un danz6n cubano de Antonio Romeu • ••• citemos aparte a Edgar Varese, quien emplea en su sinfon{a Ionization los instru­ mentos percusivos cubanos conocidos por claves, guiros, maracas y bongo. Fernando Ort{z, La African{a de la Musica Folklorica de Cuba (Habana : Publicaciones del Ministerio de Educacion, 1950) , p . 122 . 2

This thesis was prepared as an introductory text into the area of Cuban music through the compilation and catagorization of the basics, influences in the music, native musical instruments, musical forms and composers. The research included intensive translations of rare, out- of-print books, as well as massive analyzations of musical compositions.

The main purpose of this thesis is to bring out the importance that Cuban music has had and presently has in contemporary music through an intensive study of its background, components and character. We have exported with our music more dreams and delights than with tobacco, more sweetness and energies than with sugar. Afro-Cuban music is fire, taste and smoke; it's syrup, ele­ gance and comfort; like a sounding rum that you taste through your ears, that with its contact equalizes and unites people and through the senses livens life. The intense of the Cuban people can not be denied.2

2 , . Los cubanos hemos exportado con nuestra musLca mas ensonaciones y deleites que con el tabaco, mas dul­ zuras y energ{as que con el azucar. La musica afrocubana es fuego, sabrosura y humo; es alm{bar, sandunga y alivio; como un ron sonora que se bebe por los o{dos, que en el trato iguala y junta a las gentes y en los sentidos dinamiza la vida. No se puede negar la intensa musical­ idad del pueblo cubano. Ibid., p. 2 . CHAPTER II

INFLUENCES IN THE MUSIC

Cuba's population consists of a mixture of Asians, Africans, and Europeans . Asians--mainly Chinese--make up less than 1 percent, while blacks make up one-eighth of the total population, and , one-seventh. The re­ mainder--or three- fourths--is white , mostly of Spanish descent . There is no trace of Indian, since the original population of the island was made extinct by the when they colonized the island in the 16th Century . The Indians , though not physically present, still influence modern Cubans through their legacy of the use of several plants , among them the tobacco and cassava; and of their unique houses, the bohio, a rustic dwelling with a dirt floor and a thatched roof, found today still in use throughout the interior of the island. The Indian influence upon Cuba ' s modern music is very slight and deals only in the realm of instrumenta­ tion. Actually the only indication that can be found that they had any kind of music at all is found in letters and journals of the period when Indians were still found on the island. One such source is a letter from the Bishop of Sarmiento to the King of ~

3 4

If the Indians did not have things to do, they will only bother themselves with "are{tos" and other vices • ••• If they were free, they would only loaf and make "are{tos", and then lives will be lost, owners~ their ranches, and Your Majesty, the island.~ In the chronicle of Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo, there is an account of how are{tos were danced: These people had a good and gentle manner to commemorate things past; and this was in their son9s and , which they called areytos", which is the same which we call singing while dancing . 4 These are{tos produce a lot of speculation as to their form and manner of performance since none survived the death of their makers. Other than knowing that they were antiphonal in character and that they were used to retell old stories while dancing, not much is known about them. Even their name is a product of evolution from the Spanish description of them, 'airitos', or little airs. Oviedo also mentions a drum more or less in the style of the hollow logs used in : Sometimes they would mix with their singing the sound of a drum, which is made from a round log, hollow, concave, and as thick as a

3como los indios no tengan que hacer, no se ocuparan sino en are{tos y en otros vicios y disoluciones • ••• Como sean libres, no haran sino holgar y hacer are{tos; y en ello perderan vidas y animo, y los vecinos sus haciendas, y Vuestrc Majestad la isla. , La M~sica en Cuba (Habanc Editorial Luz-Hilo, 1961), p. 20. 4 , Tentan estas gentes la buena y gentil manera de re- memorar las cosas pasadas e antiguas; y esto era en sus can­ tares y bayles, que ellos llaman areyto, que es lo mismo que nosotros llamamos baylar cantando. Ibid. 5

man ••• but they do not put skin on it, instead carve holes, like rays, through it, because of which it would resound very badly. The "atambor" must be played on the ground, as it will not re­ sound if in the air.5 Las Casas y Lopez de G6mara, in his chronicle, also mentions that the Indians had what was probably the predecessors of the present day maracas: ••• some "sleighbells," very delicate, made of wood that had been carved, and with little stones inside. 6 It is also known that these original inhabitants of the island used marine shells as well as turtle shells to produce sounds. They also constructed small "flutes" from bamboo or bones. Just as their civilization and their are{tos were lost, so were their instruments and drums; the only orig­ inal instruments that survived and are in use today are the maracas, the guiro, and the claves. The Caucasian population of the island is mostly of Spanish descent, although British, Canadian, and Amer­ icans were a part of it until 1959 and the Castro takeover.

5Algunas veces con el canto mezclan un atambor, que es hecho de un madero redondo, hueco, concavado, e tan grueso como un hombre ••• pero no le ponen cuero, sino unos agujeros e rayos que trancienden a lo hueco, por do rebomba de mala gracia. El atambor ha de estar e chado en el suelo, por qa~ teniendolo en el ayre no suena. Ibid., pp. 20, 21. 6 ••• unos cascabeles muy sutiles, hechos de madera, muy artificiosamente, con unas piedrecitas dentro. Ibid. 6

Since then and members of Iron Curtain countries take the place of the Europeans and Americans whose pro­ perties were confiscated by the regime. The most influ­ ential of these, upon the music and its history have been the Spanish. Because of this great influence, Cuban music can be divided into two main categories, Afro-Cuban music or that influenced by the Africans, and Euro-Cuban or that influenced by the Europeans. Both developing separately until the twentieth century, when they hecame very diffi­ cult to separate due to their fusion into a unique Cuban idiom. In the Euro-Cuban classification; French, English, and Spanish influences are found, although the latter is the most prevalent. From the French came the "vals tropi­ cal" which was an adaptation of the typical French .

From the English, Cuban music acquired the ~ ontradanza which later gave way to the , danz6n, and danzonete which was originally an English count·ry . This in­ fluence later was responsible for the ballroom type dances which eventually became extremely popular. But from the Spanish the Cubans .received the greatest legacy in their music. Cuban music is based on Spanish forms and melodies. Most of the music found from this section of Euro-Cuban music is scored for the small or tiple; occasionally for the violin and the human voice. It was confined to ?

white groups in the countryside, the typical guajiros or peasants, and to the upper class in the cities. "If the elements of our music are either Negro or Spanish, there is no doubt that the Cuban peasant's is an echo of Spain.,? More con firmation of the validity of the pre- ceding quotation is found when and puntos are analyzed and it is discovered that the usual ending is on the dominant instead of the tonic. "Our peasant cadence is a derivation of that of , which seems to be a semi-cadence of A minor, but which in fact is a cadence of an E tonic of the Phrygian mode."8 The Spanish forms underwent modifications. The tempo was slowed down and the beat shifted until new rhythms emerged. And, if we also observe the instrument with which the peasant accompanies himself, the sound regis­ ter in which his voice moves, the color of his voice and the dynamics of the song, we cannot but associate it with the singing of Andalusia; ••• 9 European influences upon Cuban music may be found in the areas of harmony and melody, Euro-Cuban music is mostly based on Spanish forms and uses European harmony

?Emilio Grenet, Popular Cuban Music (: Carasa & Co., S. en C., 1934), p. XIV. 8Ibid. 9 Ibid. 8 through the incorporation of the guitar. This kind of music includes a vast use of improvisation. The European influence also provided the rudiments for concert music, known in the island as , i.e., as opposed to popular; and gave way to the musical theatre which took as its mold the Spanish . Early in the twentieth century Euro-Cuban music fused with Afro-Cuban music and formed such forms as the rumba, conga, son, and bolero. Each facet contributing an integral part, one the harmony and melody and the other the characteristic rhythms. The black in Cuba has had much influence on the music of the island, mainly due to the culture which emerged after the Spanish mixed with the African and evolved into what can be called today Afro-Cuban. Cuban music may be said to be over half black. African rhythms still dominate Cuban music. The dances for which Cubans are well known, the rumba and the conga, are actually popularizations of secret religious dances. Fernando Ortiz, a very well known historian, says that most Cuban music evolved from the love affair of the African drum and the Spanish guitar. The one greatest influence in the music comes from "Santer{a." Santer[a is the African religion which the blacks brought to Cuba and to which they incorporated items 9

of Catholic ritual and mythology . The practitioners of Santer{a consider themselves Catholic and believe that the names of the Catholic saints are merely translations of the Nigerian names of African gods . There are many versions or rites in Santer{a. All of them use music in worship; usually using a few drums which have a distinctive African beat . They also sing, normally in the foreign language used in Santer{a, which is closely related to the language brought over with the Africans. One of the most important sects of Santer{a is the "Abakua." The Abakua is a secret society which practiced wild rites including that of child sacrifice. The beliefs of the cult emphasize the dangerous influences which threaten people, particularly those of African descent, for whom Cuba is full of "evil shadows . " In Santer{a, periodic festivals are celebrated, primarily secular holy days of religious origin, during • which they have special rites which they perform. An American traveler, Irene Wright, was delighted to be taken to a Yoruba society under the name of St. Joseph, to observe what appears to be the initiation of a female devout: We were accompanied by a member, a , the leader of an orchestra well known in Havana . Before we reached the house, we heard the nervous beat of the drum which takes the place of the tom-tom 10

••• and the accompanying rattle of gourds shaken up and down inside a beaded net. Three young Negroes standing on a bench manipulated the gourds; another seated below them pounded the drum • ••• The music was unquestionably African. In the open space on the stone floor, before the players, members of the organization danced, not together, but singly, jerking and gesticulating in a circle round and round. They sang in an African dialect. We were told that one song, movements to which simulated snatching from above, was a prayer to Saint Barbara for blessings. In an adjoining room, we were shown altars. One was to our Lady of Mercy, one to St. Joseph, and one to st. Barbara at the base of whose shrine was an iron image of a black jockey • • • • These altars were decorated with cheap hangings and tawdry trinkets • ••• In another room, in which also was a bed, elaborately trim­ med with yellow satin and ribbons, was an altar to the Virgin of Cobre. There were dishes of food before it, in the process of being blessed ••• and there was a soup tureen which, we were given to understand, held a holy secret. We returned to the dancing in time to see one apt performer throw a fit (that is, she was being subjected to a series of rites which made the profanity leave her)~ 'The saint ' had entered into her. Immedi­ ately, another woman unbound her hair and removed her shoes. They hustled her into the other room and she returned clad in a garment which seemed to imitate the robes and altar images of the Virgin and Sa ints • ••• She wore gold and brass bracelets which jingled as she danced • ••• She proceeded to salute all present by throwing her arms about the shoulders of men and women alike, one after another, kissing them on the cheek, if they were women, and rubbing each of her shoulders to each of theirs in turn, if they were men. As she went she collected pennies and dimes ••• Sometimes in this condition, those who had 'the saint' prophesied and prescribed remedies fort~ ( sick.1U

10 Irene A. Wright , The Early -- 1491-1586 (: MacMillan , 1616). 11

The rituals of Santer{a vary according to the nsanteron from an imitation of Catholic ritual, complete with candles, The Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary, and appropri­ ate ritual gestures, to the deliberate creation of a hys­ terical atmosphere in which the nsantero n and other per­ sons present are possessed by the spirits. In addition to cults of ethnic origin, various cults of a more artificial character have arisen from time to time. Spiritualism in various forms is perennially popular, usually with a strong emphasis on the hysterical experiences and cures .

Cubans of upper and middle classes tended to re- gard all cults of Santer{a and the like as witchcraft . In the upper class stories these groups were only used to frighten children: nThe fiafiigos come for bad little children. " Through the passage of time this religion has proliferated and moved upward through all social classes. Today Santer{a claims many members from the middle and upper classes . CHAPTER III

NATIVE INSTRUMENTS

TUMBADORA The tumbadora or conga drum is a large single headed drum, built in the shape of an elongated keg . It is worn slung over the shoulder, or fitted with adjust­ ab le legs . In the typical Cuban orchestra, they are used in pairs but it is not unusual to see three or four used at the same time , each tuned to a different pitch. The main function of this drum. is to provide the main bass r ~gister sound in the rhythmic section of the c?mposition. This drum is also used by the practitioners of santer{a to communicate with the saints, sometimes having up to six players with the rhythms rising to a feverish pitch. The conga drum is played with the bare hand, never with a stick. This leads to extensive calluses on the hands of the player, which in turn allow him greater freedom in striking the drum. Several parts of the hand are used to provide a variety of sounds. The extended fingers of either hand produce a sharp clear sound while the thick part of the palm gives a thick dull thud. The head of the drum is struck in different places according to the sound wanted.

12 14

TIMBALES When first seen, these instruments resemble two snare drums but upon closer inspection it is discovered that they do not have any snares and in fact possess only one head. The shell holding the head is made of copper or spun brass and is mounted on a stand. The timbales consists of two drums, one tuned higher in pitch than the other. The higher sounding drum is placed on the player's right . The timbales are played with sticks which re­ semble regular drumsticks but are thinner and straight and do not have a knob at the end. The drummer uses all the basic beats including a few occasional rim shots. The timbales, however , have an unusual manner in which they can be played. Thi s style is called '~aila" which means pail . To play in this style the right drum­ stick provides a steady eighth note pattern played on the outer shell of the drum while the other alternates between the two heads with another rhythmic pattern. The timbales provide the basic drum sound in Cuban music since snare drums or the typical drum battery are not used. The timbales are a must in the typical Cuban orchestra. 13

The edge produces a tone rather high in pitch, the center tone is deep and rich.

BONGOS The bong6 or bongoes are composed of two drums, each with one head. They have been said to look like two buckets united in the middle by a piece of wood. One drum is larger than the other and their heads are tuned to pitches a third or a fourth apart. The player holds the drums between his knees while sitting with the deeper toned bongoe to his right. Similar to the conga, the bong6s are struck only with the hand. They are also used in the r£tes of santer{a and the play­ ing of this instrument also tends to be quite painful until the hands become toughened by the contact with the head or skin. The bong6s are considered the free agent in Cuban music since they are not required to stick to any particu­ lar rhythm but are free to improvise. They are played with the extended index and middle fingers of both hands which strike the head of each drum according to the sound wanted. The edge gives a clear and sharp tone; the middle, a thick, rich sound. The piercing '~op" sound usually associated with this instrument is achieved by striking the rim and the head simultaneously. 15

The maracas are the best known of all the Cuban instruments. They are widely used and have ceased to be thought of as Cuban. The maracas are one of the instru­ ments which survived the extermination of the Indians by the Spanish in the 16th century. The maracas are made of a hollow gourd--lately plastic has been substituted--filled with shot, seeds or pellets. These are fitted with handles. The maracas are held in each hand in a natural grasp. They are shaken up and down in short arcs using wrist motion to make the seeds inside strike the shell.

The basic function of this instrument is to pro­ vide a steady flow to the music by sounding a co n tinuous eighth note pattern. The motion is always alternated be­ tween the hands with accents added to fit the melody and the movement is always made with the wrist, never with the arm. The maracas provide the Cuban orchestra with a typical crisp and rhythmic sound.

CLA ~S The claves, also called the "palos" or sticks, are the most important instrument in defining the rhythm of Cuban compositions since they beat an "off the beat" or syncopated pattern and give Cuban music its particular 16 flavor. The claves incarnate the rhythmical tyranny of our song and, breaking down its immutable formula, lead the steps of our dancers who fol­ low the clqves as closely as the shadow follows the body.11 The claves are made of rosewood and are about six or seven inches long and about one inchin .diameter. One of the claves has a higher pitch than the other, the re­ sult ing.soun,9. being similar to that of the woodblock. They are held, one in each hand, taking care that the contact between the hand and the clave is as slight as possible, since the fEeer the clave, the more resonant the tone. One clave is held slightly between the ends of the fingers and the thumb of the left hand , resting slightly upon the thick part of the palm. The palm of this hand faces up and is cupped to add resonance . This stationary clave is struck with the other clave which is held in a natural grasp by the right hand. The pattern which this instrument repeats over and over without much change from song to song is in cut time and consists of a dotted quarter followed by an eigh th tied to a quarter note in the first measure, and a quarter rest, two quarter notes and another quarter rest in the second measure. This pattern is sometimes retrograded

11 Grenet, Popular Cuban Music, p . XVII.

J. j' j t ) j ~ 1? to fit the melody, that is, putting the second measure first. From this peculiar syncopated rhythm later evolved the known by the same name as the instrument, clave.

The guiro is the other Cuban instrument which sur- vived the extermination of the Indians by the Spanish in the 16th century. The blacks had adopted it upon their arrival on the island. Its use is extensive in Cuban lit- erature--especially in peasant music. The guiro, a specie of long squash, dried with a hardened rind, amplifies in its hollow interior the sound produced by a fine wand of hard substance when scratched against transvereal cuts made on the surface of the giliro.12

Modern giliros are als0 made of c~rved wood, although the tone produced is of a different quality than the original gourd material. The guiro has an oval shape and has.; b@en said to resemble a fat . Its top surface is notched. Holes are cut in the underside for the thumb and fingers of the left hand. The instrument is held in this manner. The scratching done with the playing stick is

12Ibid., p. XIX. 18

always alternating directions, up and down. The giliro has no particular rhythmic pattern but changes to conform with the melody.

CENCERRO Th e cencerro or cowbell is another of the instru­ ments which is so widely used that it has stopped being thought of as a Cuban contribution. The cencerro is very necessary to the Cuban rhythm section since it is another instrument which contributes to the peculiarity of the sound associated as typically Cuban. Its name is very appropriate since it resembles a cowbell without the striker inside. Cowbells come in a variety of sizes but those smaller than six inches do not produce an acceptable sound. The bottom edge of the cowbell is a'lways wrapped in tape to stop most of the reverberation since the sound characteristic to this instru­ ment is dull in character. The cencerro is struck with a variety of things, among which is a drumstick and a clave which has been wrapped in tape. A variety of tones can be obtained from it depending upon what it is struck with and where it is struck. The simple basic beat for the cowbell consists of quarter notes, accenting the first and third beats by playing them on the open or wide end of the cowbell. A 19 numerous number of variants of this basic pattern are also acceptable.

QUIJADA The quijada or jawbone is the most peculiar among Cuban instruments. As its name implies, it is actually made from the jawbone of an ass. This jawbone must con­ tain the original teeth of the animal since it is these loose teeth that make the sound after being dried in the sun. The quijada is played by holding it in one hand allowing the teeth to rattle in their sockets when struck with the other hand. It is used to provide accents and plays simple rhythmic patterns, mostly single tones . Although the quijada is a basic Cuban instrument, it is not in wide use today since its production has been re­ stricted to a few countries and has not been allowed to be imported into others , for health reasons. One of these countries is the , where other substitutes for the instrument include a reasonable facsimile of the instru­ ment, but with bells instead of teeth. This instrument and the sound it produces is totally unacceptable, since it soulnds like sleigh bells and its sound has no relation to the original instrument . 20

TIPLE At first sight, the tiple appears to be a small guitar or ukulele but upon closer inspection, it is dis­ covered that it has either six strings, two sets of three each, as opposed to the four which the ukulele normally has. It is actually about thirty inches long and about five inches wide at its widest part. Sometimes it can re­ semble a lute in shape.

It is not in wide use today. When it ~is . used4 it , is used mostly in by guajiros or peasants. Together with the claves and the maracas, the tiple is used to accompany singers in forms like the habanera, the , and the guajira.

TRES This stringed instrument is very similar to the tiple. It is also used to accompany singers in the peasant forms. The major difference between the tres and tiple is in the number of strings. The tiple has six strings and the tres, as the name implies, has only three. However, both instruments are easily transferable since the tiple has two strings tuned to each pitch, which happen to be the same as those in the tres.

RELIGIOUS DRUMS Many drums are used in the rituals of santer{a. Most have names--all are sacred--and they are used to 21 communicate with the sain ts. It is believed that the voices of the spirits speak through these drums, the playing of which is not taught to non-members. They come in different sizes and shapes. On many occasions several different sizes are played at once. Since they are so numerous, this study is restricted to the few major ones.

The ~ata is also called the Yoruba drum because of its origin. It is hourglass shaped with two heads. It is held across the knees of the player, and is played simultaneously on both heads. The drum body is made from a tree trunk hollowed by fire, usually cedar or mahogany. Its heads are adjustable through a system of tension using bull's hides to connect both heads. The batas come in three main sizes. The larger

is called Jya--mother--~nd has around it small bells or cencerros. The middle size is called Itolele and the smallone, Okonkolo. The heads of these drums have a circle §fa special substance, which besides its religious sig­ nificance, makes the sound produced deeper and richer.

ARARAS This drum, used by the sect of the same name, is used mainly in the provinces of and La Habana. 22

Unlike other sacreddrum~ these are played with small sticks of flexible wood. They differ from all others, in that the system of tension is based upon the use of pegs. They are usually decorated with religious drawings. The most important of these drums are Nonuf6, Nonajo, Guegue, Asajun, Aplit{, and Achebolisa.

ABAKUA These drums, used by the secret society of the same name are ma de of cedar and the heads are made of goat's hide. They are open at one end and are adjusted throu9h a system using hemp and tightened with wedges placed around the instrument. The large drum is called Bonk6 Enchemiya; the others respectively, Ob{ Apa, Bian­ kome, and Kuchi Yerema. CHAPTER IV

MUSICAL FORMS

It is extremely difficult to select the most important forms in the repertoire of Cuban music, simply because there are so many of them. Many forms can be traced back to foreign beginnings; others evolved from their original forms and blended with others to form a unique style. Still others are mixtures of so many dif­ ferent influences that it is almost impossible to cate­ gorize them. It is enough to define them. Here then, is a listing of the most significant forms found in Cuban music.

VALS TROPJCAL This dance form, also called vals del pa{s, was very popular at the beginning of the century. Its be­ ginnings can be traced back to the French waltz intro­ duced in the island by the English. It is a dance using a very slow 3/4 time not unlike the French form. Usually romantic in nature, it was danced by couples close to­ gether in a very leisurely way . Although not popular today , it is still danced at birthday parties where girls celebrate their fifteenth birthday. The girl celebrating chooses various couplesto dance the vals with her and her partner. These couples

23 24 practice for months learning to do this elaborate dance. When they do, they wear the elaborate dress of the period when these dances were prevalent, which was at the be- ginning of the twentieth century.

CONTRAD WZA The importance of this form lies in that it gave wag to two highly popular dance forms--the danza and the danz6n. The is no longer in use for its orig- inal purpose, to dance, yet it is sometimes used by com- posers as a concert form. The contradanza was the root from wh ich sprang the ballroom danza in the second half of the past century. The danz6n, which appeared in the last quarter of the century, and the danzonete, in which the danz6n allies itself with the so~ . to which it cedes the last part.13 The con tradanza has its origins in the English country dance which not only gave it its name but which also provided the highly elaborate steps of the dance. "Our contradanza, as a dance, belongs to the so-called square dances in which all the couples in the ballroom col- laborated to form diverse figures. These were called Parade, Chain, Sostenido, and Cedazo. 14

lJGrenet, Popular Cuban Music, p. XXX. 14Ibid. 25

The oldest known cantradanza is "San Juan Bailon," dated 1803. The best known composer of is Manuel Saumell Robredo.

HABANERA The habanera also had its origins in the dance although later it was adapted and became a song form. Using a 2/4 rhythm, it is usually divided in phrases of four to eight measures with no particular variation. The most important characteristic of the habanera is its famous rhythm. It has a peculiar rhythmic accent which consists of a dotted eighth, followed by a sixteenth and two eighths . The HABANERA is possibly the most uni­ versal of our musical genres . This is demonstrated by the Spaniard Sebastian Yradier and the Frenchman Jorge Bizet, the former being the author of La Paloma and the Latter of the beautiful Habanera of his opera Carmen. 15

It is interesting to note that the song ~a Palomd' is mis- takingly considered by most Americans to be typically Spanish in character, and is usually quoted as such. Some of the most outstanding habaneras are: "Cubana" by Sanchez de Fuentes; "Bella Cubana" by White; "Flor de

Yumur { 11 and 11El Qui tr {n 11 by Anckermann; and the most famous of all, 11 Tu, 11 by Sanchez de Fuentes .

15Ibid. , p . XXIII . 26

This dance was a direct evolution from the contra- danza, originally also a but later it evolved into dacning by couples. Always in 2/4 or 6/8 time, the danza consists of a paseo (little walk) or introduction of eight measures which were repeated, and a second part wh ich was usually sixteen measures long. It was danced in a marathon style without any rest or stopping while it was all repeated several times. Like other early forms , it was adapted into a con­ cert form after the danz6n became the popular dance . The early have been lost . The only ones available to- day were published from 18?0 to 1880. The best known danzas were written for piano by Ignacio Cervantes . We might assert that allour composers have cultivated this genre, adopting a reverent atti­ tude and baring their innermost feelings , before the door opening into the noblest stream of pure music in whose fleeting briefness we seem to devine the Rglpitating sources of the grandest Cuban form. 1 DA N~6N Derivating from the danza, the danz6n caught on with the dancers of 18?9, when it was invented by Miguel Failde, and went on to become the most popular dance form ever in the island. It is still in very wide use among

16 Ibid. , p . XXXI . 27

the Cuban popuZation, having been compared to the fox- trot in the United States. The d.(]l nzon, Z ike the danza, starts with an intro- duction, the paseo, eight measures Zong which is then re- peated. After the initiaZ section, there is an obZigatto for cZarinets which Zasts for about sixteen measures; then, the introduction is repeated and Zeads to a different sec- tion, which varies from composition to composition. Every time the introduction is pZayed, it is sZightZy changed with ornamentation.

A (paseo) A (paseo) B (cZarinet obZigatto) A (paseo) C It is interesting to note that the danz6n is aZ- most impossibZe to pZay by a f oreign orchestra or , since many of its characteristics are understood--that is, not written down but passed on from to musician • , . . • the timbaZes and the guiro, which are what reaZZy determine the rhythm of the danz6n, have no written parts, pZaying said instruments ••• ad Zibitum, with an extra­ 1 ordinary precision and richness of accents. n 7

17 • •• los timbaZes y eZ gWiro, que son los que realmente determinan el ritmo del Danz6n, no se les es­ scribe parte aZguna tocando dichos instrumentos ••• ad libitum, con una precision y riqueza extraordinaria." Eduardo Sanchez de Fuentes, El Folk-lor en la Musica Cubana (La Habana: Imprenta El Siglo XX, 1923), p. 34. 28

Another facet of the danz6n , which also is very difficult to perform, is the . The cinquillo is the characteristic rhythm of the danz6n, which is also used in other Cuban compositions. The problem arises out of the fact that the cinquillo is not performed as written. It is usually written in a two bar pattern; a dotted eighth followed by a sixteenth and two eighths in the first bar, and an eighth rest, two eighths, and another eighth rest in the second bar. There are variations in the way it is performed just like there are variations in the way it is written. Usually it is performed, short­ ening the rhythmic formula into five notes; eighth, six­ teenth, eighth, sixteenth, eighth, sixteenth. The name cinquillo comes from the Spanish word meaning "five," cinco. DANZO~ETE The danzonete came as a mixture of the danz6n and the son. "Jazz submerged our danz6n into the most absolute 18 oblivion and during several years it was not used at dances. u "The old danz6n did not offer anything new to the dancers . From Miguelito Failde, to Valenzuela and other well known

18arenet, Popular Cuban Music, p . XXXIII . 29 composers of the danz6n, it had not changed. ,19

After realizing that his band was losing business because of the lack of popularity of the danz6n, Aniceto D{az, a band leader, decided to unite the danz6n to the son and create a brand new form, the danzonete. "I decided to go on from the danz6n respecting it, but transforming it into another geare that participated in the innovations 20 which the son brought us: human voice and unanimous rhythm. " The danzonete, which does not make use of the cin- quillo, starts with an eight bar introduction which is not repeated, and which ends on the tonic, as opposed to the dominant for the danz6n. The second part is for violin and is thirty-two measures long, returning briefly to the introduction and using it as a bridge toward the third section which is anywhere from sixteen to thirty-two measures long.

"The son invaded Havana about 1917 and started a fashion which captured the enthusiam of our dancers and

19El viejo danz6n no ofrec{a nada nuevo a los baila­ dores. Desde Niguel ito Failde, pasando por Valenzuela y dem6.s destacados cultivadores del danz6n, este no hab{a cambiado. "Aniceto D{az, "0rigen del Danzonete," Signos en la Ex- presion de los Pueblos (May-August, 1971), p. 46. 20 necid{ partir del danz6n respet6.ndolo, pero transform6.ndolo en otro genero que participara de las inno­ vaciones que nos tra{a el Son: voz humana y ritmo un6.nime. Ibid. .30

21 disputed the supremacy of the danz6n. n The son devel­ oped i h. the eastern sect ion of Cuba . It is in 2/4 time and is usuall y sixteen measures long . Although similar to the rumba it is much slower in tempo . It makes use of a basso continuo and is characteristic of extreme syncopa- tion. Due to the simplicity of its form, which is merely a repetition of an original refrain of not more than four measures called montuno and which is sung in chorus, and a contrasting motive for a solo voice which does not go beyond eight measures , the son se~s bound by a close relationship to the rumba .

Even though the son became extremely popular in the early part of the century, its origins are very old. It dates back to the time of .Ma Teodora, circa 1570. The instrumentation of this colorful piece is made up of the following instruments: double bass, guitar , tres, bongo, claves, maracas , and trumpet . Some well known sones ate: · "Son de la Loma" and "La .Mujer de Antonio" by Miguel .Matamoros ; "Las Tres Lindas Cubanas" by Castillo and "Lamento Cubano" by Eliseo Grenet . It is from this form, in particular '~chale Salsita" a son by Pirieiro, that

Gershwin took the principal theme for his "Cuban Overture. 11

21 Grenet, Popular Cuban Music, p . XXXVI . 22Ibid . 31

ZAPA TEO Using 6/8 time, this form is the typical and traditional peasant dance. It is rarely used today ex- cept in the country and by guajiros. It is ma de up of two main sections, the dance and the decima. The dance is very moving and rhythmic.

The dance is executed by couples, man and woman facing each other some distance apart, marking the fluent rhythm with the feet and keeping the body motionless. The heel strikes on the floor, the short steps of the dancers and the rhythm in general of the gestures which accent the dance could be no ~ore eloquent as regards the origin of this dance. 3 Although there are different assump tions regard ing this form, it is generally accepted that the dance is by nature of Spanish origins. The decima is a passage of improvisatory nature, made up on the spot by the singer and usually deals with whatever is happening at the time,i.e., the singer may thank the host of the party, or congratulate someone for a new baby, or a birthday, etc. The instruments used in the zapateo are the tres and the guiro.

GUAJIRA This peasant form evolved from the zapateo, al­ though it differs from it in tempo being a slower 6/8 or 3/4. Unlike the zapateo, the guajira makes no use of

23 Ibid., p. XIX. 32 embellishments or large cadences. It is composed of two parts, the first in a minor key while the second part modulates to a major key . Th e guajira is rarely seen t oday .

PUNTO This form also came from the zapateo . Its tempo is a slow 6/8 or 3/4 like the guajira but the punto has only one major part and it is always in a major ley . This form is also called . It makes use of improvisational passages or decimas.

CRIOLLA The criolla is another typical peasant form,also from Spanish origins. Its exact origin is not known but it is believed that it has been influenced by the Columbian , although this form is a little more moved. The criolla is usually written for piano and voice.

CLAVE This form is somewhat moved with a lot of synco­ pation or accents on the weak beats. It imitates the rhythm of the claves . It is usually written for two voices and has an African flavor. The clave vn its ortgtn was a composition to be sung by choral groups, accompanied by rhythmic instruments (such as drums , rattles, claves, etc . ) who formerly went from place to place through the streets of the city . These groups were composed of 33

negro sLaues who were permitted certain days for this joyfuL demonstration. The most outstanding date was King's Day. Men and women, wearing coLor­ ful costumes, keeping in correct formation, would go through the streets singing the which they had prepared and rehearsed as a choral group of popular character would do. The groups ~~emselves were generically known as c laues • • • "

CANCI6N The canci6n has an introduction of four to eight measures, usually instrumental, then it divides into two parts, either major or minor. Usually, it contains four measures that are melancholic or sad, then two measures to change tonality lead to the major key. It is very sim- ple ih form and has a passionate character. The canci6n; meaning song, is very flexible. It can be written for any number of voices and accompaniment--usually piano.

PREG6N The preg6n is a definitively Cuban genre among the most characteristic. This form originated from the calls of the peddlers trying to sell their wares in the street. The intonation of the voice announcing an article acq~ires a clear profile, producing real musical pertods • ••• some of these calls of itinerant v~nder~ are transmitted from generation to genera­ tton wtthout suf fering any alteration.25

24 Grenet, Popular Cuban Music, p. XXII . 25 I b i d. , p. XLI. 34

The bolero, aLthough of Spanish origin, has a typically Cuban flavor since it was adapted and changed. The original Spanish bolero was written in 3/4 time. The Cuban bolero slowed down the tempo and chamged the meter to 2/4. It also shifted the beat until a new rhythm emerged. The bolero has tendencies toward the minor and usually has a sad connotation. It is written for voice and accompaniment, sometimes guitar. Well known include "La Cl eptomana" and "Ahora que Eres M{a. "

GUARACHA The guaracha has its roots in the canci6n and is actually a type of song form. Originally it was a Span­ ish dance but when it was brought over to the island it lost that character and became a very amusing and happy song. It is usually written in 6/8 time although there are a few written in 3/4. Most of the found are concerned with the happy existence which blacks are sup­ posed to have. Rk BA The rumba is one of the best known Cuban forms. Because of its popularity, however, it is found that many of the pieces considered to be rumbas are actually fast versions of other forms, like sones or even canci6nes. 35

They are d iametrically opposite to the character of the original rumba . The music consists of an eight measure phrase which is repeated over and over almost indefinitely . It is usually in 2/4 time and makes wide use of triplets. The melody of the rumba is a lmost always an excuse for the rhythm since that is what makes the form popular. The majority of rumbas are written with absurd texts which happen to be a result of the rhythmic i mpulse. The rumba with its close African origin, always existed hidden within the lowest strata of our society due to the licentious character of the dance . As in the zapateo , the couplesare separated but the strikes with the heel and the leg movement inherent to the zapateo are transferred in the rumba preferently to the hips and shoulders where the movements are organ­ ized according to a sensually aggressive attitude of the man and a defensive attitude of the woman . 26

CO GA The name conga refers to a group of people who would sing and dance in the street following the beat of the conga drum. It is of definite African flavor . About the only thing all have in common is the rhythmic pattern. is accented on all even measures. The dancers mark the rhythm with their legs and accent the s yncopation with their bodies.

26 Ibt·d. , P • XVL II. 36

Originally, it was the negro slaves who expressed themselves in this manner on the days assigned to these dances. From the advent of the Republic the conga became an element of political propaganda and its songs, always in jocular vein, annou.ncgd ,.th~ triumph of some candidate or the de­ feat of his rival. The tails or followers of these conga groups were composed of elements from the lowest social strata in whom the rhyt~ became a sort of obsession bordering on delirium. 7 These congas were only danced during electoral periods. It was only much later that the novelty of dancing in a t ail winding around the ballroom caught on. It is interesting to note that the popularity of the conga as a spread from , where it was taken by Cuban , to the United States. Only then was it accepted by "respectable" Cubans. Famous congas in- c lude "La Conga, " "Para Vi go Me Voy, " "Alegre Conga, " and "Uno, Dos, y Tres. "

PACHANGA The pachanga very closely resembles the conga in form although the rhythm varies. This popular dance form, however, allows the dancers to dance as couples as opposed to the tail in the conga. The pachanga almost always pro­ vides a commentary on political or social events. Like the conga, it started with the lowest levels of society spreading upward through the social classes.

27 Ibid., p. XXX VII I. .37

TANGO CONGO The tango congo is used mainly for the theatre. It is used to express the sentiments of the blacks or slaves. The tango congo uses the same rhythmic pattern as the Habanera; the dotted eighth, sixteenth and two eighths, but speeds up the tempo until it is similar to the conga.

COMPARSA The comparsa is actua lly a conga which has been adapted to a specific theme. They are given names like "The Hawk," "The Serpent," "The Beautiful Bird," etc . These are rehearsed and later are danced in the streets. This occurs every year at the "Carnavales "--a celebration very similar to the ·~a r di Gras" of New Orleans . The dancers are very ornately dressed in typical costumes and carry huge lanterns which they make gyrate.

CHA-CHA-CHA The cha-cha-cha is the best known Cuban form world­ wide. It evolved as a mixture of the Spanish and African influences . It takes the melodic and harmonic elements from the first and the basic moving rhythm from the last . This dance iform is the most popular among Cuban danc2rs who dance it in couples accentuating the pecul~arly syncopated rhythm--quarter, quarter, eighth, eighth, quarter-­ with their feet . Cha-cha-chas are usually written in 4/4 time . CHAPTER V

COMPOSERS

It is extremely difficult to select the most im­ portant among the vast list of Cuban composers. In con­ sideration for time and space, only those who have made a major contribution and the best known ones are included in this work. They are listed chronologically by date, whenever possible.

ALONZO MOR6N, PORRAS, and ORTIZ These were the first musician-composers known to in the island. They were members of the expedition which began the conquest of Cuba in 1511. Alonso Moron was a guitarist; Porras was a singer; and Ortiz played the viola as well as the guitar; and it has been said that

he was a master of the dance as we l Z. "With Ortiz, Porras and Moron, and with various military musicians of the con­ quest, Cuba had received, in its early colonial existence, the musical legacy of the pen{nsula. "28

MIGUEL VELAZQUEZ Miguel Velazquez was the first musician-composer

28 , . con or t lZ,· Porras y Moron,' y con varios de los muslcos militares de la conquista, Cuba hab{a recibido en so temprana existencia colonial, el legado musical de la Pen{nsula. Alejo Carpentier, La Nusica en Cuba (Habana Editorial Luz-Hilo, 1961), p. 1 • '

38 39

to be born in Cuba, and was the son of a Spaniard and an

Indian. He was a relative of Diego Velazquez, the first governor of the island. He studied in Sevilla, Spain; concentrating on voice and organ. He became the organist

in the Cathedral of Santiago in 1544. He is considered to be Cuba's first native musician.

TEODORA GINtS Also known as Ma Teodora, this colorful character in the music of Cuba became the first musical celebrity. Together with her sister, Micaela, another musician, a Spaniard named Pascual de Ochoa formed the first orchestra. This small group would play at festivals, parties, and sometimes even at church services. In 1553, however, Micaela and Ochoa left their native city of and went to Havana where they formed an orchestra with Pedro Almanza, a Spaniard, and Jacome Viceira, a Portuguese. Ma Teodora was left behind and became even more famous for her songs. One of the major contributions this peculiar character made to Cuban music happened accidently after two strings broke from her bandola--a five-string Spanish instrument. She adapted her music and kept on playing, thus providing Cubans with the predecessor of the tres.

Ma Teodora was immortalized in the son which carries her name: historically this is the first to be written down in Cuba.

ESTEBAN SALAS (1?15-1803) Esteban Salas wa s the first Cuban composer whose music has come down to us through the years. His compo- sitions were mostly relig ious in nature. His importance in the development of Cuban music lies in the fact that he contributed to the advancement of music at a time when Spain and all of the colonies were sunken in complete musical backwardness.

It was Esteban Salas who began the di f ferentia- tion between popular and cultured music on the island. Salas was a priest and found ed a musical chapel at the Cathedral of Santiago.

JUA N PARtS (1?59-1845) Juan Par{s was the successor of Esteban Salas at

the Cpthredral of Santiago; following the example of his predecessor, he was a prolific composer and an advocate of the promulgation of musical knowledge.

Not only was he an important and prolific composer, but also became the most loyal artistic follower that the composer from Havana could have ever dreamed to have. Thanks to Par{s, the church became an academy, a concert hall, a rehearsal hall, and a library, promoting continuos and diverse mu­ sical manifestations.29

29No solamente fue un importante y fecundo com­ positor, sino que r esult6 el mas fiel heredero artistico 41

Par{s, also a priest, is undoubtedly one of the most important men in the development of music in Cuba. It was through his efforts that the serious study of music became popular in the island.

ANTONIO RAFFELIN (1796-1882) One of the early composers of Cuba, he was dedi­ cated to the advancement of music in the island. He tried by any and all means to enlarge the interested public to the point where he would give free private lessons. He was the founder of the first philharmonic orchestra in Cuba, the Philharmonic Academy of Cristina.

MANUEL SAUMELL ROBREDO Born in Havana, Manuel Saumell is considered the father of the nationalistic movement in Cuban music. He was prophetic in his use of modalities and rhythms which became popular much later under different names, i.e., he was the first to use the form of the danz6n, yet he called it contradanza. He is considered responsibile, either directly or indirectly, for the invention of the contra­ danza, th~ habanera, danz6n, guajira, clave, criolla, and que hubiera podido sonar el maestro habanera. Gracias a , el templo fue academia, sala de conciertos, local de ensayos, biblioteca, alentando continuas y diversas manifestaciones musicales. Alejo Carpentier, La Nusica en Cuba., Ibid. p. 99. 42 of the typical modalities found in Cuban music. "Every- thing that was done after him, was to extend and concen- trate elements that were already fully exposed in his works. "30

J OSE WHITE (1835-1918) Born in Matanzaz, he studied in the famous Con- servatory of Paris where he excelled in the study of the violin. He came to be called "The Cuban Paganini." Al- though traveling extensively through Europe and America, White was one of the few who remained in touch with the Cuban character. His most famous work, "La Bella Cubana" has world renown.

IGNACIO CERVANTES KAWANAGH (1847-1905) Born in Havana, Cervantes also studied at the Paris Conservatory, where he gained fame as a concert pianist. Ignacio Cervantes was a prolific writer and composer. He was the author of many and varied works for orchestra, many for chamber orchestra, some for piano and

voice, a few choral works, one opera, and two . I ' . His most famous works, however, are the danzas, which he

50Todo lo que se hizo despues de el, fue ampliar y particulaizar elementos que ya estaban plenamenta ex­ puestos en su obra. Carpentier, La Musica en Cuba, p. 111. 43

wrote for piano and which have been played all over the world.

GASPAR VILLATE Y MONTES (1851-1891) Although not considered as important as Cervantes, Villate is still well known. Villate composed many works, but his greatest works are in the area of the theatre-­ he was the first opera composer of Cuba. His operas are well known in Europe, where they are consistently played. Villate is considered Cuban because of his place of birth; his music, however, is written in the European style and lacks any of the national characteristics.

NIGUEL FAILDE (1852-1921) Miguel Failde was the i nnovator of what became the craze of all Havana--the danz6n. His first danz6n was called "Las Alturas de Simpson" and was played for the first time on J anuary 1, 18?9. Failde is one of the most important composers, since his form influenced all Cuban composers who came after him.

GUNERSINDO GARAY ( 18 68-1968 ) Sindo Garay became extremely popular with his boleros which were danced all over Cuba, and which became popular in the United States during the "" period. Among his best known works are "," "La Tarde," and "Virgen del Cobre." 44

GASPAR AGUERO (1873-1951) A great musician and composer, he was also a famous teacher, and it is for this that he is mostly remembered. He was a music professor at the Escuela Normal in Havana, at the National Conservatory, and at the Asociaci6n de Dependientes del Comercio in Havana.

EDUARDO SANCHEZ DE FUENTES (1874-1944) A great musicologist, he was also a musical critic and a leader in his field. He was president of the Nation­ al Academy of Arts and Letters, and of the Society of Cuban Authors. A fine composer, among his best known works are: "La Dulce Cana." a zarzuela; "Yumur[," an opera; and "Ta, " an habanera.

ANTONIO MARfA ROMEU (1876-1955) "The magician of the keyboard" he was called, and undoubtedly lived up to his name. He is the most prolific writer Cuba has ever had with 2,000 danz6nes attributed to him. He also was the best interpreter of that form.

JORGE ANCKERMAN (1877-1941) Also a prolific writer, Jorge Anckerman was well known for his zarzuelas. He wrote 500 zarzuelas. He is also known as a great pianist and conductor. He was born and died in Havana. 45

ERNESTINA LECUONA (1882-1951) Like her brother, Ernesto, she was a fine composer. Among her best known works are: "Ahora que eres m{a " and "Me od i as."

LUIS CASAS ROMERO (1882-1950) He was the creator of the "criolla" which started a new romantic style. He composed his first "criolla" "Carmela" in 1909, but the song by which he is remembered, having attained great fame, is "El Mambi."

HOIStS SIMONS (1 884-1945) The writer of the preg6n "El Manisero" was born in Cuba and died in Madrid, Spain at the age of 61. Throughout his life he composed always with the typical sound of Cuba in all his songs. Among his well known songs is '~aria."

GONZALO ROIG (1 890-1970)

His first song '~uelo" for two voices was written when he was fourteen years old. At seventeen, he wrote his first stage work. His first love seemed to be the stage as he wrote the music for more than 200 works. He was best known as a conductor, having founded the three major orchestras in Havana; The Symphonic Orchestra of Havana in 1922; the Orchestra Ignacio Cervantes in 1924; and the National Opera in 1937. Among his best known works 46 are "Cecilia Valdes" and "Quiereme Mucha . "

ELISEO GRENET (1893- 1950) His compositions are even popular today . He wrote many pieces and 46 zarzuelas . He introduced the "conga" in Europe and the United States where he visited at the beginning of this century . For his work in intro­ ducing Cuban music throughout the worl d , he received the "Great Cross of Carlos Manuel de Cespedes" from the gov­ ernment, Cuba's highest award.

ERNESTO LECUONA (1895- 1963) He is the best known Cuban composer, abroad and in the island. Although he was an extraordinary pianist, he is best remembered for his musical compositions . He is very much included in the list of nationalistic com­ posers. Among his very well known works : '~iboney," "Malaguefia," "La Comparsa," "Damisela Encantadora," and "Si empre en mi Coraz6n . "

AMADEO ROLDAN (1900-1939) A very fine pianist and composer; his music is known for its Afro-Cuban flavor . He was director of the Philharmonic Orchestra of Havana . Among his best known works is "Overture on Cuban Themes . " 4?

ALEJANDRO GARCiA CATURLA (1906-1940) Born in Las ViZZas, he was a composer of foZk­ Zoric and native themes. He is considered one of the Latin American musicians most important in this century.

Among his works are: "Three Cuban Dances," "Cuban Over­ ture," and many Afro-Cuban songs and sones for piano.

JOSE!TO FERNANDEZ Born in Havana , he was the creator of the "Guan­ tanamera," in 1929. For that piece it is safe to say he has earned the most popuZarity, since the song has been transZated into many, many Zanguages. It acquired inter­ nationaZ fame after Pete Seeger sang it at Carnegie Hall in 1963. CHAPTER VI

INFLUENCES UPON JAZZ

Contrary to the development of the black culture in Cuba where they were allowed to play their own music and worship their own gods, blacks in the United States were compelled to worship in the religion of their owners. This compulsion brought about a complete degeneration of the African culture and idioms and served to bring black music underground. Except for the possessions of other countries, i.e., New Orleans, which was French and Catholic, most blacks in the United States were instructed in the Protestant religion. Because of this Protestant influence which re­ stricted the use of music to the church, black music was confined to spirituals, work songs, etc. It was in New Orleans that blacks began expressing themselves and start- ed forming bands in the tradition of the French military bands, which would play for funerals and other big events. On the way to the cemetery with an Odd Fellow or a Nason--they always buried with music you see--we would always use slow, slow numbers such as "Nearer My God to Thee," "Flee as a Bird to the Mountains," "Come Thee Disconsolate." We would use most any 4/4, played very slow; they walked very slow behind the body. After we would get to the cemetery, and after the particular person were put away, the band would come on to the front, out of the graveyard. Then the lodge would come out • and they called roll-fall in line, and

48 49

then we'd march away from the cemetery by the snare drum only, until we got about a block or two blocks from the cemetery. Then we'd go right on into --what the people call today -ragtime. We would play "Didn't He Ramble," or we'd take all those spiritual hymns and turn them into ragtime-- 2/4 movements, you know, step lively everybody. "Didn't He Ramble," "When the Saints Go March­ ing In," that good old piece ' ~in 't Gonna Study War No J.!ore," and several others we would have and we'd play them just for that effect.31 Other than the French, the most important influ­ ence on the jazz idiom was the addition of Afro-Cuban rhythms. These rhythms were often mistakenly called Afro-Spanish because of the language. Spanish melodies were more hardy, frequently because they had already blended with West African influences in the West Indies. A large borrowing consisted of Afro-Spanish rhythms such as the tango and , which Jelly Roll Morton called the ". n.32 Cuban rhythms were carried by slaves shipped from to Cuba and subsequently shipped to New Orleans by their owners. Three thousand Haitian slaves were shipped this way during the years of 1809 and 1810 which was 85 years before historians claim the beginning of what is known today as jazz. The largest Cuban influence on jazz occurred much later when American band leaders began to hire Cuban 1 1 ~~~~,~~~ .

31Marshall w. Stearns, The Story of Jazz (New York: Oxford University Press , 19?2), p. 61. 32Ibid., p. ?3. 50

The powerful and largely rhythmic influence of Afro-Cuban music on jazz and especially bop reac~ed a peak in the winter of 194? when band leader Dizzy Gillespie hired the Cuban drummer, Chano Pozo, for a Town Hall concert. Backed by the acrid brass of a young and hungry band , Pozo crouched in the center of the stage and flailed a many-voiced conga drum with blistered hands. He held the audience in awe-struck silence for thirty minutes, chanting in a West African dialect, while he built from a whisper to a shout and back again. "T}]q_ greatest drummer I ever heard," said Gillespie.JJ Many other musicians were influential in Amerivan jazz, among whom were who introduced the conga; Mario Bonza, an arranger who worked with Cab Calloway; Juan Tizor, a Puerto Rican who worked with Duke Ellington to produce many compositions using Cuban rhythm. There are many stages in the process of blending jazz and Cuban music which existed simultaneously. On one hand, after the triumph of Chano Pozo ••• many established orchestras-­ Stan Kenton, Jerry Wald, Gene Krupa, Nat King Cole, Woody Herman--fiired one or more Cuban drummers. In the words of Stan Kenton: "Rhyth­ mically~ the Cubans play the most exciting stuff. n..:A

The Latin bands were also influential; especially those of Machito, Tito Puente, Miguelito Valdes. The two most influential Cuban musicians were Perez Prado and Xavier Cugat. Perez Prado, a very popular band leader

33Ibid., p. 243. 34Jbid., p. 149 . 51 was the one t o introduce the into the American scene . Xavier Cugat introduced almost all of the impor- tant Cuban forms into the American jazz idiom, which, up to then, had not been completely accepted. Xavier Cu gat ••• who rates as the Guy Lombardo of , found that American dancers could not follow the real Cuban versions. So he chopped them up, putting the deep conga drum accent on the fourth beat and making it ~Qund almost like a march anyone could follow . 5~ Through a ll these Cuban musicians, Cuban rhythms were introduced into the jazz idiom and later carried over into modern rock . It is not unusual to hear strains of an old Cuban song drifting from a popular modern rock tune.

35Ibid. , p . 246. CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Ethnomusicology is the study of all the of people in a specified area--any specified area--and frequently in terms of its cultural context. Thus , if the music of Bali, Thailand, Nairobi, or Japan is ethnic music to a Connecticut Yankee or a native farm-belter from midwest, U.S.A. then just as surely the music of Mozart, Ellington, the Stones, or Stravinsky is ethnic music to the ear~ of the Maori , the Ashanti, or the Kankanay.3~ The study of Cuban music in the schools is bene- ficial for two main reasons. The first is quite obvious; it benefits Cuban children. It is necessary that Cuban children be given the opportunity to learn about their music and their culture. These children face a serious problem of acculturation. They are unaware of their own culture--they speak Spanish poorly, and many times do not consider themselves as Cuban; yet they speak English poorly and with an accent. Since they live among Cubans, they practice Cuban customs, and very important, they are con- sidered Cuban by everybody else. Thus, even though some communities have become, by law, bilingual; these children in their communities are in the middle of a very serious and pressing problem. Music is only one of the basics

36Malcom E. Bessom, "Overtones," Music Educators Journal, Vol. 59, No. 2 (October, 19 72), p. 5.

52 53

which these children must be taught, if only to ach ieve an acceptable self-image. The second reason which is just as important as the first, is that the study of Cuban music will not only broaden the horizons of American children, but will also give them an understanding and a new perspective toward all other kinds of music. Ethnic music is by nature a current music--it belongs to real people. In a time when American society is oriented toward the present and the future, students often have little patience with an educational sys­ tem that ~pends so much time on music of the past, often ignoring music that is shaping their present and their future. The fact that ethnic music is contemporary and at the same time is tied to an identifiable group of people makes it appropriate and of interest to today's music.3? For the same reason that children learn geography, should they not learn the cultures of the people in t hose far lands which they study? For the same reasons which provide f or the study of history, should children be re- stricted into learning places and times, or could they just as easily be given an insight into t hose peoples' cultur e? The questions which can be asked are many. It is without a doubt that ch ildren would profit from the study of ethnic music. "Thus, ethnic music in education fulfills

37Ricardo D. Trimillos, "Expanding Music Experi ence to Fit Today's World," Music Educators Journal, Vol. 59, No. 2 (9ctob er 2 , 19 ?2), p. 90. 54 a basic function of aLL education--providing the student with valid alternatives. "38 Through the help of a very kind and understanding principal, Dr. Solomon Lichter, two courses have been added to the curriculum at Miami Beach Senior High School, Miami Beach, Florida. The two courses are entitled: Ethnic Music--Black, and Ethnic Music--Cuban. The course on Cuban music was taught the last half of the 19 ?3-?4 school year and was a tremendous success. The enrollment doubled for the 19?4-?5 school year. However, two classes of ethnic music at the Miami Beach Senior High School do not seem to be adequate. Ethnic 'populations in America through long practice, are quite sensitive to tokenism id any form, no matter how well intended. To use Mexican music in schools simply becaus~ some students are is not reason enough.59

Ethnic music, in all its forms, should be included in every well-planned curriculum from the elementary school through all the grades, and including high school. Only then can music and music sensitivity be brought to every student.

38Jbid., p. 91. 39Jbid., p. 90. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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AgUero y Barreras, Gaspar. '~l Aporte Africano a la Musica Popular Cubana." £studios Afrocubanos, 1946. Aguilera, Francisco, ed. Handbook of . Miami : University of Florida Press, 1954. Aims, Hubert . The History of , 1511-1868. New York: Octagon Books, 1965. Alvarez Conde, Jose. Arqueolog{a Indocubana. Habana: Publicaciones de la Junta Nacional de Arqueotog{a y Etnolog{a, 1956. Ardevol, Jose. Musica y Revoluci6n. Habana: Ediciones Uni6n, 1966. Argeliers, Le6n. El Paso de Elementos por Nuestro Folk­ lore. Habana: Camera and Leon, 1952. • "De la Contradanza al Danz6n . " Signos en la Expre­ ----si6n de los Pueblos (May-August, 19?1): 28-34. Arredondo, A. El Negro en Cuba. Habana: Editorial Alfa, 1939. Arrom, Jose Juan. Historia de la Literatura Dramatica Cubana. New Haven: Yake University Press, 1944. Atkins, Edwin F. Sixty Years in Cuba. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1926. Bartlett, Harry R. and Ronald A. Holloway. Guide to Teaching Percussion. Dubuque, Iowa; n.d. Bascom, William R. "The Focus of Cuban Sant er {a, " South­ western Journal of Anthropology VI No . 1 (1950): 64-68.

____ • "The Yoruba in Cuba." Nigeria No . 3? (1951): 14-20. Bessom, Malcom E. "Overtones." Music Educators Journal Vol. 59 No. 2 (October, 19?2): 5-?.

55 56

BIBLIOGRAPHY- Continued

Betancourt, Juan Rene. Doctrina Negra. Habana: P. Fernandez, 1955. Blesh, Rudi. Shining Trumpets: A History of Jazz. New York: Knopf; 1946. Blutstein, H., et al. Area Handbook for Cuba. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Printing Office, 19?1. Boretz, Benjamin and Edward T. Cone. Perspectives on Contemporary . New York: W. W. Norton, Inc., 1972. Buchner, Alexander. Instruments of the World. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1972. Burton, Jack. Blue Book of Tin Pan Alley. New York: Cen­ tury House, 1951. Cabrera, Lydia. Anag6, Vocabulario Lucum{. Habana: Edi­ c i ones , E. R • , 195 7 • ----• El Monte . Habana: Ediciones E. R., 1954. • La Sociedad Secreta Abakua. Habana: Ediciones ----E. R., 1954. Cabrera , Raimundo. Cuba and the Cubans. Philadelphia: Levy type, 1896. Carbajo, Antonio. Cancionero Cubano. Miami: Language Research Press, 1969. Carpentier, Alejo. La Musica en Cuba. Panuco , : Fonda de Cultura Economica , 1946. de Toledano, Ralph, ed. Frontiers of Jazz. New York: Frederick Ungar ·Publishing Co., 1962. Dexter, Dave. Jazz Story . New York: Prentice Hall, 1964. Diaz, Aniceto. ''Origen del Danzonete." Signos en la Ex­ presion de los Pueblos (May-August, 19?1):45-46. Enefer, Douglas s. Jazz in Black and White . London: Alliance Press, 1945. 57

BIBLIOGRAPHY- Continued

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Go~dberg, Joe. Jazz Masters of the Fifties. New York: Macmi~~an , 1966. Grenet, Emi lio. Popular Cuban Music . Habana: Carasa and Co., s., en c., 1934. Handy, William c. and Abbe Niles. A Treasury of the . New York: c. Boni, 194-9 . Henriquez Urena, Pedro. A Concise History of Latin Ameri­ can Cu~ture. New York: Praeger, 1964. Hernandez, Gisela and Olga De Blanck. Cervantes: 4-0 Danzas. Habana: Ediciones De Blanck, 1959.

Hernandez Ba~aguer, Pab~o. Cata~ogo de Musica de ~os Archivos de la Catedral de Santiago de Cuba y del Museo Bacardi. Habana: Biblioteca Naciona~ Jose Marti, 1961 .

Hobson , W i~der. American Jazz Music. New York: W. W. Norton, 1939.

Hood, Mant~e . The Ethnomusicologist . New York: McGraw­ Hi~~ Book Co., 19?1. Illan, Jose M. Cuba: Facts and Figures of an Economy in Ruins. Miami: Agencia Interamericana de Publi­ caciones, 1964- . Keepneus, Orrin and Bell Grauer. A Pictorial History of Jazz. New York: Crown, 1955. 58

BIBLIOGRAPHY- Continued

Jorr{n Enrique . "Origen del Cha- cha- ch6. . 11 Signos en la Expresion de los Pueblos (May - August , 19?1) : 49- 50.

Lachatanere, Romulo . '~as Religiones Negras y el Folk­ lore Cubano . 11 Revista Hisp6.nica Moderna IX . (Jan­ uary-April, 1943): 138 - 143 • . Manual de Santer{a : El Sistema de Cultos --- -,Lumcumi." Habana: Editorial Caribe, 1942.

Malm, William P. Music Cultures o the the East and Asta. Eng ewoo C t Preniice Hall, Inc . , 196?.

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• "El Movimiento Africanista en la M~sica Cubana . " - - ---Estudios Afrocubanos, II, No . 1 . 59

BIBLIOGRAPHY- Continued

• Glosario de Afronegrismos. Habana: El Siglo XX, ----1924. Cuba. u-

• Las Cuatro Culturas Indigenas de Cuba. Habana: ------Arellano, 1943 . . "Los Cabildos Afrocubanos." Revista Bimestre ------Cubana, XVI, No. 1, 1921 • • Los Negros Brujos. Madrid: Libreria de F. Fe., ----1906 . . Los Negros Esclavos . Madrid : Libreria de F. ------Fe ., 1916 •

• "Una moderna secta espiritista de Cuba. n ----Bohemia, XLII , No . 3 (1950): 8,9; 13?-139. Ponce t, Carolina. "Los A l tares de Cruz. " Arch i vos del Folklore Cubano . Vol. IV, 1924. Reisner, Robert George. The Literature of Jazz: A Pre­ liminary Bibliography. New York: New York Pub ­ lic Library, 1954.

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• El Folk-lor en la H~sica Cubana. Habana: ------Imprenta El Siglo XX, 19 23. • "La Mus i ca Cub ana y sus or {genes. " Bole t {n ------Latino-Americano de Musica . 1938 . • Panorama Actual de la Musica Cubana. Habana: ------Molina and Co., 1940. ______. Prologue to PoEular Cuban Music, by Emilio Grenet. Habana: Carasa and Co., s., en c., 1934. Schuller, Gunther. Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development. New York: Oxford Press, 1968. BIBLIOGRAPHY- Continued

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Stearns, Marshall w. The Stor~ of Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press, 195 • Tab{o, Ernesto and Estrella Rey. Prehistoria de Cuba. Habana: Academia de Ciencias de Cuba, 1966. Tait, Malcom. "Increasing Awareness and Sensitivity through World Musics." Music Educators Journal), Vol. 59, No. 2 (October, 19?1): 8j;89. Tallant, Robert. Voodoo in New Orleans. New York: Mac­ millan, 1946. Treadwell, Bill. Big Book of Swing. New York: Cambridge House, 1946. Trinillos, Ricardo D. "Expanding Music Experience to Fit Today's World ." Music Educators Journal. Vol. 59, No. 2:90-94. Uvlanov, Barry. A History of Jazz in America. New York: Viking Press, 1952. Valdivia, Roberto. "Los Abor {genes de Cuba? Vi ven Todav{a?" Artes Blancas (February, 1946): 11-13. Vidaurreta, Jose L. "Ensayo sobre la Musica Cubana." Estudios Afrocubanos, II, No. 1. Williams , Martin T. ed. The Art of Jazz. New York: Ox­ ford University Press, 1959 • • Jazz Masters of New Orleans. New York: Mac ­ ------millan, 196?. 63

BIBLIOGRAPHY - Continued

------• ed. Jazz Panorama. New York: Macmillan, 1962. ------· The Jazz Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press, 19?0. Wright , Irene A. The Early History of Cuba: 1492-1586. New York: Macmillan , 1616.