Celtic collections and imperial connections

Sally Foster examines the work of the Victoria & Albert Museum’s circulation department in the late 19th century, to explore the reasons behind a growth in the production of plaster casts of early medieval sculpture

ith the V&A (Victoria and wider educational and social The central court casts of Scottish early medieval and Albert Museum) benefits through an appreciation of the National (post-Roman/pre-Romanesque) Wat Dundee planning of ‘high art’ (from 1857 to 1899 Museum of Ireland, sculpture – then commonly to open by 2016, it is timely to the V&A was called the South as we now know it, referred to as ‘Celtic crosses’. This reflect on the earlier role of the Kensington Museum, and was in the 1890s. Note flurry of activity coincided with V&A in Scotland. At the end of part of a wider complex of state- the replicas of Irish the tail end of the V&A Circulation the long 19th century substantial funded cultural and scientific high crosses Department’s dogged advocacy collections of plaster casts of local, institutions that were based in this (image courtesy of reproductions, the success early medieval sculpture appeared district of London). National Museum and detail of which in Scotland in quick succession in museums in of Ireland) was in no small part down to the Ireland, Scotland, Wales and the Why replicas? professional networking that took Isle of Man. These were intended Today we are often quick to place between curators at the for wide public consumption. The dismiss replicas of archaeological annual conference of the newly fuel for this came from the so- things as inauthentic copies, but formed Museums Association. The called Circulation Department of their production and exhibition surviving cast collections embody the V&A, which from the 1880s was a very significant and serious these important relationships, as administered grants to ‘provincial’ enterprise in the long 19th century. we shall see. museums across Britain and The V&A’s Cast Court dating From the 1830s, but mainly Ireland that were preferentially from the 1870s is the most famous in the second half of the 19th for ‘reproductions’: replicas in the example of this in the British Isles. century, there was an efflorescence form of plaster casts of sculpture, Surviving replicas are now historic of production of plaster casts electrotypes of metalwork and things in their own right. Behind of early medieval sculptures in fictile ivories. The Circulation their creation, circulation, use and Europe, primarily the Isles of Department also facilitated after-life lies a series of specific Britain and Ireland. Antiquarians, plaster cast production through relationships that determined why, museums and others manufactured, practical advice and support, as when and in what circumstances exchanged and circulated these well as lending their collections for they were valued, or not. In among each other, mainly in temporary display. The motivation Scotland, between 1901 and 1911, Europe between the signatories of was South Kensington’s agenda Glasgow, Dundee and Aberdeen the 1867 Convention for Promoting for teaching of art, improving invested in the creation and display Universal Reproduction of Works of manufactures through technical art, of bespoke collections of plaster Art for the Benefit of Museums of all

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Countries, but also the diaspora. The The interest in early medieval monuments was overall trajectory for the production of casts of early medieval material as little more than bearers of ornament, and is quite different from that for the Classical and Renaissance material, restricted to the Christian monuments which has a longer pedigree and is much better studied. Across Europe, 19th-century nations began to define The second half of the 19th century Replicas and identity themselves through reference to early was when interest in early medieval From the mid-19th century the medieval history, as most visibly material culture at both an academic burgeoning museum network expressed in the creation of their and popular level really took off. became one of the key expressions national museums, where display of Casts often fell out of favour after of an emergent localism and, in early medieval material culture, not World War I. Their individual fate all but England, national identity. least sculpture, played a key role. The was always locally determined and From this time museums first main catalyst for the initial production institutionally specific but was bound presented the material culture of of replicas of early medieval material up with the broader debates about the the early medieval period to the had been the world fairs, beginning role of different sorts of museums, not wider public and the first modern with the illustrious London Great least the difference between art and scholarship on early medieval Exhibition of 1851. At such fairs archaeology museums. The fate of this sculpture also appeared. Developed replicas of sculpture and metalwork material was also inextricably linked mostly from scratch, the creation were required for display areas, and to the emergence and development of collections of plaster casts are in the case of jewellery for sale. For of different academic disciplines and therefore important as snapshots in the Dublin Industrial Exhibition of curatorial professions for which the time of what things people thought 1853, considerable efforts went into role of plaster casts, in particular, to be important and, given the acquiring suitable plaster casts from proved to be something of a high- political context and subject matter, around Ireland and Great Britain. profile touchstone of difference. are of particular relevance for what they may tell us about the use of archaeological material culture in relation to evolving expressions of Scottish identity. At the end of the century, while the creation of casts of early medieval material was not new (see above), the scale and manner of production were. If we can understand the nature and context of the production of these replicas we can therefore get a better appreciation of the purposes of 19th-century museum collections and develop a critical understanding of how early museums and other emerging professional institutions related to each other at both national and provincial levels The collections of plaster casts and other replicas that provincial museums acquired and displayed are the product of an environment in which they were encouraged Plaster cast of to acquire copies of things — the Nigg Pictish reproduced originals, rather than cross-slab in authentic originals — and in which, the V&A’s Cast in their own words, the ‘benighted Court. Its diverse country curator’ benefited from the collection includes advice of ‘cultured experts’, people a few examples who delivered imperial objectives of early medieval determined by those working for sculptures from what Henry Cole, the founder of Britain and Ireland the V&A, described as the ‘central (© Victoria and Albert storehouse or treasury of Science Museum, London) and Art for the use of the whole

16 HISTORY SCOTLAND - MARCH / APRIL 2015 HISTORY SCOTLAND - MARCH / APRIL 2015 17 kingdom’. We need to unpack this series of relationships. My research has probed into what was selected for display in the new Scottish Museums and who and what informed these choices, and why. The possibilities and directions to explore emerged as I worked through and recognised the potential of the surviving evidence: the physical casts themselves, the associated museum and government archives, and contemporary accounts, such as newspapers. Records occasionally included paperwork associated with the formatori, plaster moulders who museums commissioned to make the casts for them. These sources provided only dismembered clues about evolving policies, practices, ‘Selection of Reproductions of the Above: Aberdeen’s plaster casts of sculpture, electrotypes, players and their personalities, Sculptured Stones of Scotland’: Celtic Court in 1905 autotypes and photographs of art their actions and impacts, but at ‘Eastern Stones’, ‘Govan Stone’, (© Aberdeen Art in the 1890s. In 1904 the Dundee an early stage it became clear from and ‘Western Stones’. The creation Gallery & Free Library acquired ‘a series of the Scottish sources that Robert of this collection was the major new Museum Collections) casts of the finest Celtic Crosses of Ferdinand Martin (1862–1941), an initiative of the Sub-Committee for Scotland’ in a conscious effort to fill ‘Officer of the Circulation’ in the Scottish History and Archaeology. Below: An early a serious blank in their collection, V&A, played a critical role. He is James Paton, Superintendent of the photograph of which they displayed to good someone who does not feature in Museums and Art Galleries of the Glasgow’s Kelvingrove effect in a new building in 1911. In any V&A institutional histories, and City of Glasgow, handled some of Museum in 1901, Aberdeen, a major extension to its whose appearance in V&A archives the practicalities, helped by James shortly after it opened. Art Gallery and Industrial Museum is also very slight. Dalrymple Duncan. Dundee’s (© Museums opened as the Sculpture Gallery museum collection was in line with the Association (www. in 1905 and was an occasion of Celtic collections South Kensington ethos: ‘To educate museumsassociation. immense civic pride, stage-managed When the Glasgow International in Art, Architecture, Natural History, org), reproduced by by James Murray MP, in particular. Exhibition opened in 1901, its and Archaeology the inhabitants permission of the The new building housed on its purpose-built centrepiece, the of Dundee’. On the advice of National Library ground floor a large collection of ‘Glasgow Art Galleries’, now the Professor Gerard Baldwin Brown, of Scotland) plaster casts of sculpture ranging Kelvingrove Museum, housed an art historian at the University from prehistory to the 18th century. the Fine Art, Scottish History of Edinburgh, and under its Paid for by public subscription, and Archaeology Section. A curator John Maclauchlan, the it cost £2,600 to assemble and special section in the west Free Library and Museum included among its glories what was wing was devoted to a began acquiring alleged to be the most complete series of Parthenon sculptures after the British Museum. As at Dundee, this exhibition had an industrial design agenda, here specifically to improve contemporary granite

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working, which it was argued would improve the wealth of the town where ‘There has been an extraordinary lack of invention: and its cemeteries afford fine examples of laborious hideousness’. A ‘Celtic Court’ comprising fifteen casts was created with this particularly in mind. I was struck early on by the very strong similarity between the Scottish and early medieval content of the 1904 Dundee and 1905 Aberdeen acquisitions, and in turn between these and what had been procured for Glasgow’s larger collection of 1901. Examples of early medieval sculptures that they shared in common include Aberlemno no.2 (churchyard), Iona St John’s Cross, Kildalton, Monifieth no.4, Rossie Priory, and St Vigeans no.7. of the public, were ‘an arrangement Summary of training and contacts, Martin was Was this an accident? which has been so much the fortunes of in a position to advise on what appreciated by teachers, pupils, and plaster casts of sculptures it was desirable for a Vision & accident? citizens’. Local staff appreciated sculpture (positive gallery to include; from his grant The derivative nature of Dundee the expertise offered: ‘Away here, developments on work he also knew what had already and Aberdeen is explicable if we so far north, we have no easy the left, negative been cast, and where existing understand how the V&A’s Officers opportunities of seeing examples, or on the right) moulds might be. If necessary, of the Circulation worked – what of knowing which is the right place (© S. Foster) a new plaster cast would also be Martin did. When it came to grants, to apply to’. Aberdeen gave Martin made by moulding an existing he advised museums in Scotland virtually a free hand – he drew up a plaster cast, and this seems to be on what reproductions they should list for Sir George Reid to approve, the case for several of the Aberdeen or could purchase, advised them before organising the procurement, and Dundee casts. The trajectories how to arrange their sculpture arrangement and cataloguing of the of authentic originals and their galleries, and wrote catalogues for casts. Most of this he appears to original reproductions can be them. When visiting to change and have done in his own time. complicated, and require detective rearrange annual loan collections Procuring casts most commonly work and careful observation to from the V&A’s collection, he also involved getting casts made from establish the precise relationships. delivered educational art lectures. existing moulds, or sometimes Early museum The V&A funded the Glasgow At Dundee, Martin’s ‘able and getting sculptures newly moulded, networking: 1901 casts, so Martin is likely luminous’ lantern-slide lectures, and arranging access to these. From detail of a 1903 to have been involved. The V&A delivered before over 500 members his role and informed by his V&A photograph of also paid for the Dundee casts the Museums and this is exactly the same time Association that Martin’s star rose and he delegates at was ordering the casts for a whole Norwich Castle. new museum in Aberdeen. What Paton top row, Martin appears to have done for second from right; Dundee and Aberdeen is to piggy- Maclauchlan and back, in good V&A fashion, on his his wife front knowledge of the pre-existing casts row, fourth from made for Glasgow, and who made left; by process of them (notably Messrs D. and J. elimination, Martin MacKenzie of Glasgow). and his wife sit at the extreme left Associations (© Museums It took a systematic review of the Association (www. early journals of the Museums museumsassociation. Association to better appreciate the org), reproduced by museological context in which the permission of the National ‘Celtic’ and other casts collections Library of Scotland) appeared. Serendipitously – and

18 HISTORY SCOTLAND - MARCH / APRIL 2015 HISTORY SCOTLAND - MARCH / APRIL 2015 19 After he left the Kensington way of looking at art V&A and became (see for example Owen Jones’ 1856 an antique dealer, Grammar of Ornament). Art teaching R.F. Martin acquired actively used the collections in headed notepaper local art and industrial museums designed by Eric set up for this purposes. The Gill. It depicts St emphasis on selection of material Martin sharing his for museums was therefore on types cloak with a beggar. of ornament that manufacturers Whether Gill and and craftspeople could apply to Martin intended it contemporary objects, whose beauty or not, it is a fitting and taste could inspire the public. visual metaphor The interest in early medieval for Martin’s career monuments was as little more than in the Circulation bearers of ornament, and restricted Department where he to the Christian monuments. divided, shared and By contrast, Glasgow’s circulated part of the exhibition did not have the specific nation’s ‘treasury’ agenda of improving the taste (© Victoria and Albert of a nation. Instead, it aimed to Museum, London) promote Scottish history and archaeology to an international audience through a general collection illustrative of, among others things, the country and people of Scotland in prehistoric as well as historic times. Glasgow critically – this also revealed how from 1893 Martin joined in his also needed a collection that the individual key actors I had individual capacity and attended would be a legacy for its new recognised in my other sources the meetings assiduously, often Kelvingrove Museum. were networking. Paton was the accompanied by this wife. He Its selection had not been initiator of the Association, which became Vice-President in 1905. made by Martin, but by a local from its formation in 1890 had More so than any of his Circulation antiquarian, antiquarian Robert an active Scottish presence on Department colleagues, Martin Chellas Graham (best known for its Council until 1907: Paton had the opportunity to develop his The Carved Stones of Islay), (Glasgow), Maclauchlan (Dundee) friendships and professional networks who took advice behind the scenes and Murray (Aberdeen), all at with the staff of the provincial from Romilly Allen, one half of some point also acting as President museums. Reading the Proceedings the magisterial 1903 The Early or Vice-President. The Association of the Museums Association and Christian Monuments of Scotland. met in Glasgow (1896), Edinburgh its successor the Museums Journal Although the criteria determining the Glasgow selection were quite different, Martin largely worked Some effort was seemingly made at Glasgow to from this existing canon of casts to select for Aberdeen and Dundee. cast a range of monument forms, although the Some effort was seemingly made at Glasgow to cast a range art on Pictish symbol-bearing stones was of little of monument forms, although the art on Pictish symbol-bearing interest, except one of the bulls from Burghead stones was of little interest, except one of the bulls from Burghead, (1901), and Aberdeen (1903). provides a vivid sense of the energy and simple cross-incised stones The Associates comprised of the Association’s members, their were then, as they have been until institutions and individuals who critical reflection on their professional recent times, under-appreciated. might work for institutions that concerns, as well as its wider benefits. would not or felt they could not Conclusions join (this presumably applied to Choices There are various explanations for the national bodies). Glasgow The Dundee and Aberdeen why provincial museums around joined in 1890, Dundee in exhibitions are what the V&A Britain and Ireland, some of 1891 and Aberdeen in 1908. expected of South Kensington- which are now national museums, The V&A did not join as an inspired displays. There was a took such an active interest in institution in this period, but proselytising and dominant South the acquisition of casts of early

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medieval sculpture at this time. by 1905/6, Liverpool Museum in Above: Edwardian Dr Sally Foster lectures in heritage The co-incidence of the maturing 1913). A significant factor was that postcard of James and conservation at the University study of early medieval sculpture the V&A Circulation Department Taggart granite of Stirling. and an awakening sense of national still assiduously pedalled grants works, Aberdeen identities made ‘Celtic’ sculpture for provincial museums to (Image courtesy The author gratefully acknowledges perfect for creating and promoting acquire reproductions. Aberdeen City the financial support of the Henry cultural resources distinctive to the A critical vector for the last Libraries) Moore Foundation and the Principal’s countries, and had become a source floruit of this fashion was the Excellence Fund of the University of of inspiration for Celtic Revival additional networking opportunities Aberdeen, and the practical support of artists and craftspeople, primarily presented by the Museums the museums mentioned here. Morag from the 1880s. Association with its annual cycle Cross undertook background research The ‘horizon’ of newly created of meetings. These facilitated and on R.F. Martin. ‘Celtic’ collections is a striking deepened a very specific set of example of what Murray Pittock in short-lived relationships in which Further reading his The Celtic Identity and the British the production of plaster casts Image calls ‘imperial localism’, the of sculpture, particularly early Vision & Accident. The Story of idea that ‘local colour accentuated medieval sculpture, was valued and the Victoria and Albert Museum the glory of the Empire through came to the fore in Scotland. A. Burton (London, 1999) stressing how many cultures it R.F. Martin may not feature in contained, and was welcome’. V&A institutional histories, but S.M. Foster, ‘Circulating agency: There is no hint or resistance or lack he made a considerable difference The V&A, Scotland and the multiplication of ‘Celtic crosses’, Journal of the History of The main catalyst for the reproduction of Collections, 27 (forthcoming; advance access April 2014, DOI: replicas of early medieval material had been 10.1093/jhc/fhu008)

the World Fairs, beginning with the E. McCormick, ‘”The highly interesting series of Irish illustrious London Great Exhibition of 1851 crosses”: reproductions of early medieval Irish sculpture of free choice in the shared ‘Celtic’ to those he worked with in the in Dublin and Sydenham’ enterprises of the V&A, Glasgow, provinces. Through understanding in J. Hawkes (ed.), Making Dundee and Aberdeen. the work of the V&A’s Circulation Histories. Proceedings of the While across the world, art Department in Scotland, and how Sixth International Conference curators in particular were now individual provincial museums on Insular Art (Donington, furiously debating the value of functioned, we can begin to 2013), 358–71 casts, museums in Britain and appreciate the many layers of human Ireland began creating their ‘Celtic’ stories that such replicas embed Irish High Crosses Exhibition cast collections (Wales from 1894, and the considerable past human National Museum of Ireland Ireland 1898–1910, the Isle of Man energies they embody. (Dublin, 2010)

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