Index

Note: page numbers in italics refer to Figures, those in bold refer to Tables. accidents in nuclear reactors 144-6 anthropogenic radionuclide emissions 143- 51 acid deposition 159 apatite group 439-41,440, 442-4, 446 acid generation 175-7 aquifers see reservoirs acid waters 192-3, 322 arsenic pollution 318-20 actinides 67 ash americium 146-8 see also bottom ash; fly ash; incinerator wastes anthropogenic emissions 143-51 electrostatic precipitation 436 borosilicate glasses 41 oil shales combustion 267, 273-7 geochemical behaviour 89-111 tyre combustion 483 immobilization 46-51, 54, 123-8 asphyxiating mine gases 185-6, 189-90 neptunium 78-80 atmosphere see air pollution; emissions plutonium 14-15, 17, 18-19, 76-8, 146-9 atmospheric structure 162, 163 sorption mechanisms 549- 57 automotive tyres energy recovery 475-98 uranyl sorption 545-9 activation energies 114-15, 114 BA see bottom ash adsorption 549 baffle banks 190 see also sorption Bangomb6 natural nuclear reactor, Gabon 123-8, 125, advection 156 547-9 air classification 255-6 barriers 28-30, 516-19, 520, 531-2 air pollution basalt dykes natural analogues 135-41 coal mining 173, 181, 183, 184-6, 190-1 basaltic glasses 114-18 dispersion 156-7 batch leaching tests 626-8, 636, 651 geochemical mitigation 189-90 beneficiation of coal combustion wastes 247-62 geothermal energy 315 bentonite barriers 516-19, 531-2 global 161-6 binary cycle-type power plant 371 health/environmental impacts 154-6 binding mechanisms in cement 598-604 local and regional 156-61 bitumen waste form 54, 55 modelling 158 boilers 481-2, 493 Shilbottle Coalfield, UK 199 boreholes 355, 358 tyre combustion 485 see also wells alkaline fly ash weathering 646 boron pollution 318-20 alkali-hydrogen exchange kinetics 583-6 borosilicate glasses alteration corrosion 583-9 see also corrosion high-level waste 16, 40-1, 54, 89-90 actinide host phases 91-8 production technology 44-6 coal combustion wastes 642-52 bottom ash (BA) 211,225 glasses 115 bricks 428 hydrothermal 124, 131 calcium phosphate minerals 449-51 alternate fuel see tyre-derived fuel ceramics 427-8 alternative energy sources 4, 7, 166 characteristics 412-15 aluminates 590-1,596-8 chemical composition 227-9, 415-18, 419, 425, aluminium phosphates 129-30, 131 437 aluminium pollution 320 definition 247 aluminium-rich minerals 177, 179-80 formation 226 aluminium-iron phases 597, 601-3 glasses 429-30 aluminosilicate fly ash (Class F) 213, 214, 216, 229, incinerator waste 424, 436 232-3,249-51 landfill 607-8 americium 146- 8 leachate systems 451-5, 620 ammonia removal process 260 metal separation 412, 414-15,416 amorphous silica, geothermal scaling 321,322-4 mineral composition 419-20, 420 analogues see natural analogues mineral reaction products 460 ankerite 178, 179 municipal solid waste 411-22 660 INDEX

oil shales 265 HT materials 384-7, 400 processing 252-5 oil shale ash 274-6, 274 quality 249 semi-coke 272 brannerite 94, 96, 102-3, 106 spent nuclear fuels 521-3,521 bricks 428 chemical durability 38-9 brine 287-90 chemical pollution 315-21 brushite 451 chemical stabilization agents 435-73 bum-up effects 67-8 chemical weathering minerals 648-9 burning see fire hazards Chernobyl nuclear catastrophe 144-5, 148, 150 chloride 312 caesium 148-9, 150 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 161-2 calcium carbonate 321,324-6 chloropyromorphite 452-4 calcium phosphate minerals 449-51 chromium 403,404 calcium silicate hydrate 596-7, 600-1 Cigar Lake natural analogue, Canada 124, 126, 128-30 calcium-rich fly ash (Class C) 213,214, 216, 229, clays 233-8, 249-50 coal measures 180 Cambrian sandstones 290-3 fly ash 632, 647-9, 653 Canada phyllosilicates 129, 130 Cigar Lake uranium 123-34, 526 smectite colloids 532-3 heat pumps 511 wetting and drying 188-9 canister corrosion process 519-21 climate changes 164-5 carbon dioxide closed nuclear fuel cycle 8, 17 atmospheric concentrations 153, 165, 166 closed-loop heat pump systems 501-3,502, 507, 510 coal mining 185 co-generation of geothermal power 373 deep aquifer injection 285-96 coal emissions 1, 2, 4, 10, 19-20 co-combustion with TDF 491-5 geothermal energy pollution 315-17 combustion 211,212, 213-16, 225-7, 242, storage mechanisms 286-90 249-51,619-20 carbon monoxide 186, 190 composition 212, 223- 5 carbon sequestration 285-96 geochemistry 174-8, 620-1 carbonate minerals 177-9, 321,324-6 mineralogy 174-80, 224, 225 cascaded use of waste heat 373-4 coal combustion wastes 211-22, 223-46 cement see also bottom ash; fly ash binding mechanisms 596-604 beneficiation 247-62 binding minerals 596-8 disposal 211-22, 641-58 fly ash 211,217-19, 249 environmental impacts 239-42 heavy metals stabilization 595-606 flue gas desulphurization products 219, 238-9, 242 kilns 481,494 formation 225-7 low-level waste 53-4, 55 gases 219, 226, 227 surface sorption 603-4 leachate geochemistry 619-39 ceramics mineralogy 641-2 see also tiles secondary mineral formation 642-52 crystalline waste forms 90 trace elements 240-1,620-1 experimental data 98-105 uses 211,217-19, 220 geochemical behaviour 89-111 coal mining 169-209 incinerator waste 426- 7 see also spoil heaps multiphase 49- 51 environmental consciousness 170-4 single-phase 46-9 environmental impacts 180-4 Synroc 49-50, 54-5, 98-100 geochemical aspects 184- 9 technologies 51-2 glossary of terms 171-2 CFCs see chlorofluorocarbons mitigation measures 189-96 chemical composition pollutant sources and buffers 174-80 bottom ash 227-9, 415-18, 419, 425, 437 Shilbottle-Whittle Coalfield 196-203 coal 223-5 voids 180, 181-2, 192 Estonian oil shales 267-8, 269 coffinite 124, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131 fly ash 227-9, 232, 240, 242, 425, 437 coke 211, 219, 251 geothermal fluids 310-15, 341, 347-9, 361 colloids glasses 586 generation and stability 530-5, 540 INDEX 661

mobility 538-40, 546 nuclear waste forms 38-9 radionuclide interaction 535- 8 dust 186, 190-1,462 column leaching test 628-30, 636, 651 combustion ecosystem establishment 195 coal 211,212, 213-16, 223, 225-7, 242, 249-51, EDS see energy dispersive spectroscopy 619-20 EELS see electron energy-loss spectroscopy oil shales 273-7, 279-80 efficiency of geothermal energy 299 trace elements 621-3 efflorescent salts 176-7 tyres 480, 483-9 Eggborough power plant, UK 622-3 composite wastes 54 electric potential 358-9 composition electric utility boilers 481-2 see also chemical composition; mineralogy electricity generation see power generation nuclear waste 37-8 electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) 78-80 solid waste 488 electrostatic separation 257-9, 436 tyre-derived fuel 484-5, 486-7 elemental composition tyres 482-3,484-5 fly ash 629, 633 concrete 53-4 Nagra/PSI TDB 01/01 563, 565-6 see also cement tyres 486 condensing cycle-type power plant 369, 371 emissions consistent rate law 579-94 anthropogenic radionuclides 143-51 contaminated soil stabilization 447-8 carbon dioxide 1, 2, 4, 10, 19-20 convective geothermal systems 297 deep aquifer storage 290-3 corrosion fuel blends 492, 494 geothermal fluids 322 geothermal power plants 317 glasses 579-94 hydrogen sulphide 337, 338, 378 HT materials 387-95, 403, 404 methane 165 SNF canisters 519-21 oil shales combustion 277-9, 280 covering system 27 opencast coal mines 191 crystalline ceramic waste forms 90 particulate 621-3 crystallization 52 standards 154, 156, 157 stoker boilers 493 data base, Nagra/PSI TDB 01/01 561-77 tyre combustion 485, 489-95 deaths in coal mining 173 energy consumption deep geological disposal 285-96, 516 efficiency measures 165 degassing 321,325 fossil fuels 153 density separation 252-5, 256-7 geothermal power 301, 302, 303 deposition of acids 159 vitrification technologies 382 diffusion processes 612-14 world 1, 2 direct use of geothermal energy 373-4, 375-8, 377 energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) 70, 80 directional drilling 327 energy production dislocation structure 68 see also power production disposal coal combustion 223 see also injection; reuse nuclear power 7, 11 - 14 coal combustion wastes 211-22, 641-58 oil shales 263, 265-6, 269, 270, 280 fly ash 220, 248, 631 waste 3 geothermal waste water 302-4, 338-9 energy recovery HT materials 382, 398-406 mining waste 499-513 nuclear waste 31-2, 515-28, 529-43 MSW incineration 424 spent nuclear fuel 8, 17, 18-19 waste tyres 475-98 uranium tailings 26-32 Engineered Barrier System (EBS) 516, 520 waste tyres 476, 477-9, 477 environmental awareness of coal mining 170-4 district heating 373, 376, 377 environmental impacts Drax power station fly ash 625-36 air pollution 154-6 drilling see boreholes; wells anthropogenic radionuclide emissions 143-51 dry scrubber residues 461 ash beneficiation 248-9 durability coal combustion wastes 239-42 crystalline ceramics 89-111 coal mining 180-4 glasses 579-80 geothermal energy utilization 298-9, 374 662 INDEX

glassfill and glassmad 400-3 mineralogy 213-16, 229-32, 235-8 high temperature materials 400-3 oil shales processing 265 hydrogeological modelling 201-3 particles 217, 228, 235-6, 278, 621-3 nuclear fuel cycle 7-23 Portland cement 211, 217-19, 249 oil shale emissions 278-9 secondary minerals 647-52 Shilbottle Coalfield, UK 198-200 trace elements 621-2 uranium tailings 26 treatment technologies 247-62, 424 waste tyres energy recovery 475-98 tyre combustion 485-9 equilibrium thermodynamics 561-77 use 211,217-19, 248-9 Estonian oil shales 265-79 weathering 646 atmospheric emissions 277-9, 280 former Soviet Union 16-17 chemistry and mineralogy 267-8, 269 fossil fuel cycle 4, 153-67 exploitation 268-9 see also air pollution; coal; emissions oil production and refining 269-70 France, Hot Fractured Rock project 355-67 power generation 263,269, 270 frits, ceramic 428 solid wastes 270-7 froth flotation 259-60 stratigraphy 266-7 fuels ettringite 236-7, 597-8, 650, 653 see also nuclear fuel cycles; spent nuclear fuel European Hot Fractured Rock (HFR) project 355-67 emissions 492, 494 evaporites 135-41 fossil fuel cycle 4, 153-67 EXAFS see extended X-ray absorption fine structure pellets 66-71, 66 exothermic reactions 505-6 pressurized water reactor 521 experimental data see laboratory studies tyre-derived 477, 480-2, 484-5, 486-7 extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) 549, 552-7 Gabon natural analogues 82-4, 123-34, 547-9 garnets 49 FA see fly ash gases FBC see fluidized-bed combustion see also carbon dioxide; greenhouse gases; steam FGD see flue gas desulphurization air pollutants 154, 159 field studies, fly ash leaching 630-6 coal combustion 219, 226, 227 fineness of fly ash 251-2, 255-6 coal mining 184-6, 189-90 fire hazards 172-3, 175,180, 181, 186-7, 191-2, 199 fission gas release 68-70 fissile nuclides 8-9, 13, 17 geothermal 301-2, 312, 321,325, 337, 345-7, 347 fission products methane 165, 184-5, 190, 317-18 gases and metals 68-70 oil shale emissions 277, 279-80 geochemical behaviour 89-111 geochemistry natural reactors 123-8 alteration 91 - 8 types 67 coal ash leachates 619-39 flammable mine gases 184-5, 189-90 coal seams 174 flash-steam geothermal plants 370 crystalline ceramics 89-111 flue gas desulphurization (FGD) products 219, 238-9, landfill leachates 611 - 16 242, 620 mine water heat pumps 503-7 fluidized-bed combustion (FBC) 211,239 mitigation measures 189-96 fluids see geothermal fluids; liquid wastes; water modelling 630 fluoride pollution 320-1 near field 519-21 fluxes of metals 403-6 nuclear fuel cycle 9-10 fly ash (FA) 21 l, 212 phosphates 438-41 beneficiation 247-62 PHREEQC code 518, 519 characterization 232- 5 secondary minerals 642-5 chemical composition 227-9, 232, 240, 242, 425, geothermal energy utilization 437 byproducts 326 composition and morphology 213-17, 227-9, 232, chemical pollution 315-21 240, 242 direct use 298,298, 299-301,301,302, 303, 373-4, disposal 220, 248, 631 375-8, 377 formation 225-7 directional drilling 327 geochemistry 620-1 electricity generation 297-8, 298, 299, 301-6 incineration residues 381,424-5 environmental impacts 298-9, 374 leaching studies 623-36 hot-dry-rock systems 328-9 INDEX 663

scenery spoliation 326 near-fi eld waste- water interactions 516-19 space heating 306-7, 501 radionuclide migration 530-5 uses 299-301 gypsum 219, 650 waste heat problems 369-74 geothermal fluids hazardous air pollutants (HAs) 156 ancient flows 360-1 hazards of coal mining 181-2, 183-4 chemical composition 310-15,341, 347-9, 361 see also fire hazards convection 297 haze 159, 160 disposal 302-4, 338-9 HCFCs see hydrochlorofluorocarbons flow modelling 361 HDR see hot-dry-rock systems gas chemistry 345-7, 347 health effects 154-6, 173, 174, 186 high-T systems 305, 307-10, 322 heat injection/re-injection 302-3, 327-8, 337-54, direct use 373-4, 375-8, 377 355 -67 geothermal energy 297-336 isotopic variations 347-9 ground source 500-3 low-T systems 297, 310, 322 nuclear waste 17-18 microseismicity 359 waste geothermal 369-79 mineralogy 361-4, 365, 366 heat pumps 499- 513 natural tracers 338-9, 344-5, 352 heating reservoir disequilibrium 349-51 district 373, 376, 377 scaling 321-6 space 306-7, 501 tunnel waters 374-8 superheating 372 GHGs see greenhouse gases heavy metals glass fibres 430-1,432 bottom ash 418 glass/water reactivity models 580-2 cement stabilization 595-606 glasses 40-6 landfill leachates 614-16 see also high temperature materials solubility 599 activation energies 114-15, 114 HFR see Hot Fractured Rock project alkali-hydrogen exchange kinetics 583-6 high temperature (HT) materials alteration layers 115 corrosion 403 basaltic 114-15 dynamic behaviour 387-95 borosilicate 40-1, 89-90, 583-9 environmental impacts 400-3 chemical composition 586 glassfill v. glassroad 382-3, 398-406 corrosion kinetics 579-94 physico-chemical characteristics 383-7, 400 dissolution, phase-separated 586-9 processing 383,384, 399 durability 579- 80 Strasbourg test 390-5, 392, 394 fly ash 214, 229, 623-4 Switzerland 381, 411-12 HT materials 383-6 thermodynamics 395-8 incinerator waste 428-31 high-level nuclear waste (HLNW) 15-16, 515-16 phosphates 43-4 compliance requirements 38 reactivity with water 580-2 glasses 40-1, 42, 43-4, 54 secondary minerals 589- 91 immobilization 89-91 secondary raw materials 382-3, 398-406 liquids 37 stability and corrosion 387-95 properties comparison 45 glassfill 382-4, 398-406 repository statistics 526 glassroad 382-4, 398-406 storage 38 glass-ceramics 52-3,429-31,432 high-T geothermal systems 305, 307-10, 322 global warming 153, 162-6 HLNW/HLW see high-level nuclear waste granite 357, 360-1,363 hollandite 48, 94-5, 103-4, 106 greenhouse effect 162, 163 host phases for ceramics 89-111 greenhouse gases (GHGs) 19, 162- 5 Hot Fractured Rock (HFR) project 355-67 ground deformation 180-4, 187-9, 192, 199 hot springs 306-7 groundwater hot-dry-rock (HDR) systems 328-9, 344 carbon dioxide trapping 286-90, 294 HT materials see high temperature materials colloid generation 530-5 human health 154-6, 173, 174, 186 fly ash leachates 625-36 hydrated minerals 235-8 heat source 500-3 hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) 161-2 landfill leachates 607-17 hydrodynamic trapping 286-7, 294 664 INDEX hydrogen sulphide land reclamation 194-6 geothermal fluids 316, 317, 318, 320, 337, 338, 378 landfills mine gas 185 HT materials 398-406 hydrogeology 201 - 3, 307-10 hydrology 608-11 hydrology incinerator waste 607-17 incinerator ash deposits 608-11 leachate geochemistry 611 - 16 leachate composition 612 lysimeter investigation 608, 610-11,612, 614 nuclear fuel cycle 9-10 Switzerland 607-8, 609-10, 611 hydrotalcite 116-17, 117-18 waste tyres 477-8 hydrothermal alteration 124, 131 landscape degradation see ground deformation Lardarello geothermal field 304-5, 340-51 Iceland, geothermal power 305-6, 310, 324 law of consistent rate 579-94 immobilization leachates see also vitrification bottom ash 451-5, 620 ACTs and REEs 46-51, 54 coal ash 220-1,241,619-39 heavy metals 595-606 diffusion processes 612-14 high-level waste 16, 89-91 geochemical factors 611, 614-16 long-term prediction 113-21 HT materials 392-5,402 metals 403-6, 405, 552-7 incinerator ash landfills 607-17 natural analogues 123-34 municipal solid wastes 437, 449-51 phosphate stabilization 435-73 leaching trace elements 652-4 cement 595 impoundments 27-30 coal mining waste 188, 202-3 in-line technologies 383,394 colloids 531 incinerator wastes 381 field studies 630-6 see also bottom ash; fly ash; high temperature glasses 430 materials laboratory studies 625-30, 636-7 hydrology 608-11 nuclear waste forms 38-9, 41 landfill leachates 607-17 phosphate-stabilized ashes 464-5,466 phosphate stabilization 448-9, 455-63 lead 128, 600-1 residues 423-5,435-6 lead-iron phosphate (LIP) glass 44 secondary raw materials 425-31 lightweight aggregate 249, 252-3 injection LILW see low- and intermediate-level waste carbon dioxide 285-96 limestone 179 geothermal waste waters 302-3, 327-8, 337-54, Lindfil diagram 298 372-3 liners 28-9 Hot Fractured Rock project 355-67 LIP see lead-iron phosphate glass Lardarello geothermal field 340-51 liquid wastes inorganic wastes 37- 8 geothermal fluids 302-3, 327-8, 337-54, 355-67 inventories of nuclear waste 15 nuclear 37 ion exchange 583-6 oil shales processing 265 iron oxides 241,647 liquid-dominated geothermal systems 307-10 iron-rich minerals 177-80 long-term prediction 113-21 isotopic composition 347-9 low- and intermediate-level waste (LILW) 37, 43, 44-6, isotopic methods 146-50 53 -4 Italy, geothermal power 304-5, 340-51 low-T geothermal systems 297, 310, 322 lysimeter, landfill investigation 608, 610-11,612, 614 kerogen 264, 269 kinetic mass transfer model 525-6 MCC-1 test 398 kinetics Meaford power station fly ash 625-36 glass corrosion 579-94 melting reactions 214-15, 226 heat pumps 507-9 mercury pollution 318-19 kukersite shales 266-8, 269 meta-schoepite 75 metals laboratory studies see also heavy metals; trace metals ceramics 98-105 bottom ash leachate systems 451-5 fly ash leaching 625-30, 636-7 coal combustion wastes 241 uranium tailings 30-1 fission products 68-70 INDEX 665

fluxes 403-6 structure and availability 563-8 glassfill and glassroad 400-3 unreliable data 568-71,574-5 immobilization mechanisms 442-7 update procedure 561-3 incinerator residues 412,414-15,416, 417-18, 436 natural analogues phosphate stabilization 435, 439-42 basaltic dykes in evaporites 135-41 Strasbourg test 392, 394 Cigar Lake deposit 128-31 methane 165, 184-5, 190, 317-18 Gabon reactors 124-8, 130-1 microseismicity, geothermal systems 359 long-term prediction 113 -21 migration of radionuclides 529-43 spent nuclear fuel 82-4, 523-7 mine gases 184-6, 189-90 uranium tailings disposal 31-2 mine waters 193-4, 201-3, 503-7 uranyl sorption 547-9 mineral trapping 289-90, 291-3,294 natural tracers 338-9, 344-5, 352 mineralogy near field see also secondary minerals geochemistry 519-21 bentonites 517 waste-water interactions 516-19 bottom ash 419-20, 420 neodymium 139 Cigar Lake, Canada 526 neptunium behaviour 78-80 coal 175-9, 224, 225 Nesjavellir geothermal field 305-6, 324 coal combustion wastes 641-58 New Zealand, geothermal power 305 Estonian oil shakes 267-8 ningyoite 128-9 fly ash 213-16, 229-32, 235-8, 623-4 nitrogen oxides 159, 161 geothermal fluid injection 361-4, 365, 366 Northumberland Basin, UK 196 HT materials 383-4 Norway, heat pumps 509-11 phosphates 438-41 nuclear fuel cycles 3-4, 7-23 mines 503, 507-8, 509-11 characteristics 18-19 see also coal mining closed 8, 17 mining wastes 271,499-513 open 8, 9, 17 modelling symbiotic 13, 18 see also analogues; natural analogues nuclear power air quality 158 carbon emissions reduction 19-20 fly ash geochemistry 630 catastrophes 144- 6 fly ash weathering 646 modem reactors 13-14, 19 geothermal fluid flows 361 natural systems 123-4 glass/water reactivity 580-2 production 3-4, 7, 11-14 hydrogeology 201-3 nuclear waste landfill hydrology 608-9, 611 see also actinides; high-level nuclear waste; mineral trapping 291-3 radionuclides; spent nuclear fuel Nagra/PSI TDB 01/01 574 classification 14 nuclear waste management 515-28 composition 37-8 molybdenum 68-70 disposal 31-2, 515-28, 529-43 monosulphate 598, 603 heat content 17-18 monosulphoaluminate 237 laboratory studies 30-1 MSW see municipal solid wastes minerals and solid phases 526 mullite 230 near-field waste-water interactions 516-19 multibarrier concept 516 plutonium 14-15, 17, 18-19, 76-8, 146-9 multiphase ceramics 49- 51 repository performance assessment 572-3 municipal solid wastes (MSW) volume 15, 17 ash composition 425, 437 nuclear waste forms 37-63 incinerator residues 411-22, 423-33 cement 53-4 landfill leachates 607-17 ceramics 46-52, 54-5, 89-111 phosphate stabilization 435-73 chemical durability 38-9 secondary raw materials 425-31 compliance requirements 38 vitrification 381-410, 428-31 composites 54 murataite 47, 48 glasses 40-6, 54, 89-90 glass-ceramics 52-3 Nagra/PSI Chemical Thermodynamic Data Base radiation resistance 39-40 01/01 561-77 nuclear weapons 9, 10 chemical consistency 564-8 dismantling 14-15, 17 666 INDEX

testing 143-4, 148 mineral reaction products 460 mineralogy and geochemistry 438-41 Ohio, USA, carbon dioxide injection 290-3 municipal solid wastes 435-73 oil production 269-70 principles 436-8 oil shales 263-84 solubility products 457-8 see also Estonian oil shales phosphates 49, 129-30, 131 combustion 273-7, 279-80 photo-oxidants 159-61 genesis and composition 264-5 PHREEQC (pH redox equilibrium calculations) northeastern Europe 265-79 201-2, 518, 519 retorting 264 phyllosilicates 129, 130 waste products 265,270-7 phytotoxicity 242 Oklo natural reactors, Gabon 82-4, 123-4, 125 plutonium 14-15, 17, 18-19, 76-8, 146-9 open nuclear fuel cycle 8, 9, 17 pollution see air pollution; chemical pollution; water open-loop heat pump systems 501,507 pollution organic matter polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 277-8, bottom ash 416-17 490-1 fly ash 624 polyphase ceramics 98-100 oil shale emissions 277-8 ponds, fly ash 631 orthophosphates stabilization 435-73 porcelainized stoneware 427-8 oxidation porewaters see groundwater actinides 546 Portland cement see cement coal-bearing strata 175 portlandite 650 pyrite 175-7 potash salts 135-41 uranium dioxide 524-5 powder sintering technique 429, 430 oxides power generation iron 241,647 see also geothermal energy utilization; nuclear nitrogen 159, 161 power SNF 70-1 efficiency 165-6, 299 oxidizing environment 65-88 Estonian oil shales 263,269, 270 ozone depletion 161-2 fly ash emissions 621-3 power plants 317, 369, 371, 622-3 PAHs see polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pozzolanic properties of fly ash 218, 249 Palimpinon geothermal field 323, 339 precipitation palladium 70 acid deposition 159 particles air pollutants amelioration 157 emissions 621-3 landfill leachates 609-10, 612, 613 fly ash 217, 228, 235-6, 278 phosphate stabilization 444-6 passive treatment system 194, 198 prediction with analogues 113-21 performance assessment of repositories 561-77 pressurized water reactor fuels 521 permeability of geothermal fluids 307-8 processing perovskite 48, 95-8, 104-5, 106 ammonia removal 260 phase composition bottom ash 252-5 fly ash 213-16, 229-30, 231 fly ash 255-60 glasses 586-9 HT materials 383, 384, 399 HT materials 383-7 oil shales 265 incineration residues 425 reprocessing, SNF 8-9, 13, 17 oil shale ash 274-6 waste tyres 479-80 Philippines, Palimponon geothermal field 329, 339 production technologies 44-6 phosphate glasses 43-4, 46 pulp and paper mills 481 phosphate stabilization pulverised coal combustion 211,212, 225-6, 247 see also apatite group pyrite oxidation 175-7 calcium minerals 449-51 pyrochlore 46, 90, 91-3, 100-1,106 ceramics 448 pyrolysis 480 contaminated soil 447-8 divalent metals 451-5 quality of fly ash 249-52 longer term performance 464-5,466 quartz 179, 230 mechanisms 455-63 metals immobilization 552-7 radiation 39-40, 41, 68 INDEX 667 radioactive waste see actinides; nuclear waste; reuse radionuclides see also secondary raw materials radioactivity 26, 28 coal combustion wastes 211,217-19, 248-9 radiocolloids 519 fly ash 630-1 radioecology 149-50 heavy metal wastes 595-606 radiolysis 71-2 incinerator waste 423-33 radionuclides waste tyres 476, 477, 479-80 see also actinides Rhine graben 356-7 anthropogenic emissions 143-51 road construction 382-3, 398-406 colloid influence 529-43 Rose Run Sandstone 290-3 colloids interaction 535- 8 Russia 16-17, 265-79 fissile nuclides 8-9, 13, 17 rutile 129 isotopic distinction 146-50 long-term disposal 31-2 safety of nuclear waste disposal 529-30, 561-77 modelling 515-28 Salton Sea 324 natural analogues 523-7 salts, acid generating 176-7 near-field waste-water interactions 516-19 sandstone injection 290-3 oxidizing environment 65-88 saturation reaction rates 580 safety of disposal 529-30, 561-77 scaling of geothermal fluids 321-6 uranium mining 26 scenery spoliation 326 weathering redistribution 76 Scotland, heap pumps 511 radiotoxicity 545 sea level rise 164 rainfall in landfills 609-10, 612, 613 secondary minerals rare earth elements (REEs) chemical weathering 648-9 basalt dykes 135, 136-8 coal combustion wastes 641-58 behaviour 76-8 geochemical controls 642-5 evaporites 138-40 observed 647-50 immobilization 46-51, 54 precipitation in glasses 589-91 plutonium behaviour 76-8 predicted 650-2 re-injection see injection secondary raw materials 381-2, 423-33 reactions see also high temperature materials glasses 582-91 bottom ash 416 secondary mineral formation 643 bricks 428 reactors see natural reactors; nuclear power ceramics 426-7 recovery factor 340 glass and glass-ceramics 428-31,432 recycling of tyres 476-7 HT materials 398-406 see also reuse incinerator waste 425- 31 redox systems 65-6 tiles 427-8 REEs see rare earth elements sediment buffers 29 refining waste 271-3 seismicity 299, 359 regional haze 159, 160 semi-coke 265, 271-2, 271, 272 release of radio nuclides 529-43 separation repositories bottom ash 252-5 see also disposal; reservoirs density 252-5, 256-7 actinides 545 electrostatic 257-9 colloid influence 529-43 fly ash 256-9 geological 8, 9-10 glass phases 586-9 nuclear waste 516 metals 412, 414-15,416 performance assessment 561-77 sequestration reprocessing, SNF 8-9, 13, 17 carbon 285-96 reservoirs trace elements 652-4 carbon dioxide storage 285-96 Shilbottle-Whittle Coalfield, UK 196-203 disequilibrium conditions 349-51 siderite 177-9 fluid composition 337, 339-40 silica scaling 321,322-4 geothermal fluids re-injection 338-9 silicophosphates 49 geothermal systems 307-10 single-phase ceramics 46-9 respiratory diseases 186 slags 211,219, 273-7 retorting process 264, 269-73 slope failure 188 668 INDEX slurry 273 stability smectite clay colloids 532-3 colloids 530-5 smog 158 glasses 387-95, 429-30 SNF see spent nuclear fuel stabilization sodium-aluminophosphate glass 44 see also immobilization sodium-rich glass 583-6 heavy metals 595-606 soils phosphates 435-73 amelioration 276 steam, geothermal 307-10, 337,338, 340-2, 342,343, erosion 326 344, 369-70 impoundment barriers 29 stockpiled tyres 478-9 land reclamation 195-6 stoker boilers 493 phosphate stabilization 447- 8 storage solar radiation 162-3 see also repositories; reservoirs solid solutions 457-8, 467, 573-4 ash 248 solid wastes carbon dioxide 285-96 coal combustion 211-22, 488 fissile nuclides 8, 9 nuclear 37-8 nuclear wastes 38 oil shales 265,270-7 Strasbourg test 390-5, 392, 394 tyre combustion 483-9, 484-5 str~itlingite 237 uranium mining 25-35 stratospheric ozone depletion 161-2 vitrification 381 - 410, 428- 31 strontium 150 solubility structure of host phases 91-8 aluminium-iron phases 601 - 3 studtite 75 heavy metals 599, 602 subsidence see ground deformation trapping 287-9, 294 sulphides 212, 321,504, 506 uraninite 524 sulphur 175-6 solution pH 644-5 sulphur dioxide 159 solution phase immobilization 446-7 sulphur-scrubbing products 219, 238- 9 sorption sulphuric acid neutralization 28 isotherms 600-1 superheating 372 mechanisms 442-4 supersaturation of glasses 389-90 surface 603-4 supplemental fuel 480-2 uranyl 545-60 surface coal mining 174, 186 Soultz-sous-For6ts, France, Hot Fractured Rock project surface immobilization 442-6 355 -67 surface sorption 603-4 space heating 306-7, 501 surface temperatures 164 spent nuclear fuel (SNF) 65-88, 516, 521-3 sustainability of heat pumps 507-9 chemical composition 521-3, 521 swimming pools 298, 300-1,306-7 disposal 8, 17, 18-19 Switzerland microstructure evolution 66-71 bottom ash landfill 607-8, 609-10, 611,612 natural analogues 82-4 HT materials 381-410 oxidising conditions 74, 75-6 incinerator bottom ash 411-22 radiochemical analysis 80 tunnel waters 375-8 radiolysis 71-2 symbiotic nuclear fuel cycle 13, 18 radiotoxicity 545 Synroc 49-50, 90, 98-100 secondary U minerals 72-4 water interface 522 tailings, uranium mining 26-32 spiral concentrators 254 tailored ceramics 50-1, 90 spoil heaps TDF see tyre-derived fuel environmental impacts 174, 180, 183-4 technetium behaviour 69, 80-2 fire hazards 191 technologies France 193 see also processing heat pumps 508 ceramics 51-2 land reclamation 194-6 fly-ash treatment 247-62, 424 slope failure 188 glass production 44-6 spontaneous combustion 175, 187, 191 secondary raw materials 383,384, 399 STABCAL (stability calculation software) 451, Teftal lysimeter, Switzerland 608, 610-11,612, 452 614 INDEX 669

TEM see transmission electron microscopy underground mine pumps 507-8 temperature inversion 157, 158 United Kingdom temperatures power station fly ash 622-3, 625-36 ceramic firing 428 Shilbottle-Whittle Coalfield 196-203 geothermal systems 297, 298, 305, 307-10, 322, Tyneside coal industry 170-4 350-1,351 United States Nagra/PSI TDB 01/01 573 carbon dioxide injection 290-3 stored heat 500-1 fly ash characterization 232-5 surface 164 heat pumps 509 tests nuclear waste 14, 15-16 see also laboratory studies update procedure, Nagra/PSI TDB 01/01 561 - 3 leaching 628-30, 636, 651 uraninite nuclear weapons 143-4, 148 actinides storage 126, 131 Strasbourg test 390-5, 392, 394 Cigar Lake deposit 124 thaumasite 650 Gabon deposit 124-8 thermal conductivity 500 uranium release modelling 523-7 thermal processing 259 uranium thermal treatment 381-410, 411-12 anthropogenic sources 76 thermodynamics Cigar Lake reactor 128-30 data base 561-77 Gabon reactor 127-8 HT materials 395-8 mineralization 124, 126 uranium dioxide model 525 mining 25-35 Three Mile Island nuclear catastrophe 145-6 natural analogues 123-34 tiles 427-8 production 25-6 time-resolved laser fluorescence spectroscopy (TRLFS) secondary minerals 72-4 537, 538, 549 spent fuel behaviour 73-4 titanite 49 tailings disposal 26-32 tobermorite 596, 597 uranium dioxide trace elements modelling 525-6 coal 224 oxidising conditions 74, 75-6 coal ash leachates 620-1,634-6, 651 reducing conditions 74-5 coal combustion wastes 240-1 solubility data 524 combustion 621-3 spent nuclear fuel 65-88, 521-3 geothermal fluids 314-15 uranyl carbonate complexes 552-3 leaching 623 uranyl sorption 545-60 sequestration 652-4 uranyl-quartz systems 554-5 trace metals bottom ash 411,417-18, 419 vapour-dominated geothermal fields 307-10, 337, 340 HT materials 386, 388, 391 vehicle emission standards 157 tracers ventilation systems 190 geothermal fluids 338-9, 344-5, 352 vitrification landfill flows 609 see also glasses; high temperature materials transition state theory (TST) 580, 581-2, 583-4 high level waste 16 transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 68-70, 69, municipal solid wastes 381-410, 428-31 80-1, 85 nuclear waste forms 43, 44-6, 54 trapping of carbon dioxide 286-90, 294 phosphate minerals 462 treatment technologies 247-62, 424 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 161 TRLFS/TRLFIS see time-resolved laser fluorescence spectroscopy Warakei geothermal field 305 TST see transition state theory waste see liquid wastes; municipal solid wastes; tunnel waters 374- 8 nuclear waste; solid wastes Tyneside coal industry, England 170-4 waste disposal see disposal tyre-derived fuel (TDF) 477, 480-2, 484-5, waste fluids see geothermal fluids 486-7 waste geothermal heat tyres avoidance strategies 372-4 see also waste tyres environmental impacts 374 combustion 483-9, 484-5, 495-6 geothermal energy utilization 369-72 composition 482-3 tunnel waters 374-8 670 INDEX

waste tyres water pollution combustion products 483-9 coal mining 170-2, 174, 182, 183-4, 189, 192-4 disposal 476, 477-9, 477 geothermal energy utilization 319-21 energy source 480-2 Shilbottle Coalfield, UK 198, 199-200 used and retreadable 476-7 water resource depletion 182, 189, 194, 200 utilization 479- 80 water-to-air heat pump 501,502 waste-to-energy cycle 4 weathering 76, 188, 646 waste-water interactions 4, 516-19 wells water geothermal fluids 301-4, 338-9, 340, 355 see also groundwater water composition 311 acid 192-3, 322 Werm- Fulda potash di strict, Germany 135 - 41 geothermal waste 302-4, 337-54, 372-3 glass corrosion 389 X-my photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) 554 mines 193-4, 201-3,503-7 reactivity with glasses 580-2 zeolites 589-90 tunnels 374-8 zinc 600-1 wastewater treatment 193-4 zircon 48-9 wells 311 zirconolite 46-7, 90, 93-4, 95, 101-2, 106