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Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Biomed Central Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine BioMed Central Review Open Access Ritual plants of Muslim graveyards in northern Israel Amots Dafni*1, Efraim Lev2, Sabine Beckmann3 and Christian Eichberger4 Address: 1Institute of Evolution, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel, 2Department of Eretz Israel Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel, 3Vigla Panagias, 72100 Agios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece and 4Department of Organismic Biology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria Email: Amots Dafni* - [email protected]; Efraim Lev - [email protected]; Sabine Beckmann - [email protected]; Christian Eichberger - [email protected] * Corresponding author Published: 10 September 2006 Received: 31 May 2006 Accepted: 10 September 2006 Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2006, 2:38 doi:10.1186/1746-4269-2-38 This article is available from: http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/2/1/38 © 2006 Dafni et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract This article surveys the botanical composition of 40 Muslim graveyards in northern Israel, accompanied by an ethnobotanical study of the folkloristic traditions of the use of these plants in cemeteries. Three groups of plants were found to be repeated systematically and were also recognized for their ritual importance: aromatics herbs (especially Salvia fruticosa and Rosmarinus officinalis), white flowered plants (mainly Narcissus tazetta, Urginea maritima, Iris spp. and Pancratium spp.) and Cupressus sempervirens as the leading cemetery tree. As endemic use we can indicate the essential role of S. fruticosa as the main plant used in all human rites of passage symbolizing the human life cycle. The rosemary is of European origin while the use of basil is of Indian influence. The use of white flowers as cemeteries plants reflects an old European influence and almost the same species are used or their congeners. Most of the trees and shrubs that are planted in Muslim cemeteries in Israel have the same use in ancient as well in modern European cultures. In conclusion, our findings on the occurrence of plants in graveyards reflect the geographic situation of Israel as a crossroads in the cultural arena between Asia and Europe. Most of the traditions are common to the whole Middle East showing high relatedness to the classical world as well as to the present-day Europe. Background ing surrounding dates from a period remote and shadowy Plants were used to mark rites of passage both in human in its activity". and in the annual cycle, as well as to decorate and to sym- bolize [[1]:262]. Plants, especially flowers, have been used A century later Vickery [[5]:196] noted: "Flowers symbol- at funerals in many cultures [[1]:66–70; [2]:165–167; [3]: ize human mortality, and are equally symbolic of resur- 3–5]. Folkard [[4]:193] wrote, "All nations at different rection and rebirth, springtime and autumn, renewal and periods seem to have delighted to deck the graves of their decay, and have long continued to provide consolation departed relatives with garlands of flowers. The associa- and hope at critical times in man's life". tion of certain trees and plants with death and its gloom- Page 1 of 12 (page number not for citation purposes) Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2006, 2:38 http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/2/1/38 In the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt (16 – 12 centuries The present article is a survey of the plants ritually used in BC.) flowers of a particular sacred tree were considered life Muslim graveyards of in northern Israel in the context of giving, so they were called "flowers of life". These flowers, their cultural and ethnobotanical background. and flowers of lotus, were used in funerals. Statues and coffins of the deceased were decorated with garlands of Methodology flowers [[6]:89]. The field study (1999–2005) was carried out in 35 Mus- lim villages in northern Israel, mainly in the Galilee. Field According to Folkard [[4]:194] "The flowers strewed over observations included recording plant species in the graves by the Greeks were the Amaranth, Myrtle, and Poly- graveyards. Oral interviews were held with 80 informants, anthous (=Narcissus)... The ancient Christians would 48 who are cited personally (Appendix 1). The average age choose different plants according to the age of the dead of the informants was 59.3 (SD = 18.1) years. Respond- person: the flowers so used were deemed typical of the ents were 41 males and seven females. In general women dead: to the young were assigned the blossoms of spring were reluctant to be interviewed, and when they agreed and summer, to middle age, aromatic herbs and the the interview was held in the presence of other family branches of primeval trees". members. Roman funerals demanded a lot of flowers. The corpse The informants were mainly chosen according to their was adorned as an expression of honour and affection. knowledge of common traditions and/or religious status. The funeral urn was similarly decorated. Flowers were In each village we made a preliminary survey to locate scattered on the guests at the funeral banquet, and wreaths people who are regarded as well immersed in local tradi- of dry and artificial flowers were placed at the tomb. After tions and/or in religious customs. the funeral, fresh flowers, especially roses, lilies and vio- lets, were used to deck out tombs as a memorial to show The informants were asked about the ritual and religious that the dead were still remembered [[1]:67; [4]:195; importance of the plants found in the cemeteries, and [7]:151]. why they were planted there. We used interview tech- niques to avoid a non spontaneous atmosphere and to The ancient Israelites differed from other religions: "The overcome the reluctance of the informants to cooperate, culture of flowers had put down deep roots in most soci- Most informants refused to be videotaped or tape eties of the Mediterranean and the Near East, being recorded. The botanical survey covered 40 cemeteries. We rejected only by ancient Israelites. As we have seen the tried to avoid modern irrigated plots, on which many Israelites accepted neither the sacrifices made to their ornamental plants are grown. Cemeteries older than 50 neighbour's gods nor the garlands that accompanied these years were considered "traditional". For each cemetery we offerings" [[1]:70]. Therefore, as a rejection of their neigh- listed the 20 most common plant species. Two parameters bours' "idolatry", they did not display flowers or plants at were calculated for each plant species: frequency (percent- their ceremonies. In modern times Orthodox Jews do not age of cemeteries in which the plant species appears) and use flowers in ceremonies, synagogues, cemeteries or even dominance (percentage of cemeteries in which the species in houses [[1]:46–47]. Vickery [[5]:187] mentioned "In is the most common one). communities where burial takes place very soon after death, as is the case with Orthodox Jews, flowers are rarely Results associated with mourning, and the substitutes are mainly We divided the list of recorded plants and the oral infor- stones". While Goody [[1]:46–47] stated "Down today mation gathered at the cemeteries into three categories one finds stones not flowers in the cemetery, and then as based on the botanical characters of the plants: 1. Plants reminder rather than offering". Secular Jews bring gar- with aromatic leaves (Table 1); 2. White-flowered plants lands of flowers and leave them on the tombs, but the (Table 2) and 3. Trees and bushes (Table 3). These catego- ultra-religious are forbidden to plant any plant or flower ries were found to correlate, more or less, with oral ethno- upon graves [[8]: IIV; 34–35]. botanical evidence. Interestingly, several authors [9-11] dealing with Muslim Aromatic plants funeral customs, don't mentioned any ceremonial use of Data concerning the presence of aromatic plants in the plants of any kind. While Spoer and Spoer [[12]:131] surveyed cemeteries are presented in Table 1. The follow- mentioned that "sweet smelling herbs" are placed on ing points emerge: graves in Palestine. 1. On average, 6.0 (SD = 4.3; range 0–14) aromatic species were present in each cemetery. Page 2 of 12 (page number not for citation purposes) Table 1: Plants used in graveyards – aromatic plants. Species Frequency of appearance References from the Middle References from other regions (also for funerals, immortality and mourning and dominance (%) East and adjacent countries symbols and death myths) Page12 3 of Three-Lobed Sage – Salvia fruticosa Miller 93.1 (68.9*) S. officinalis (Europe [20, I:666]; England; [14:102]) (=S. triloba L.f) (Lamiaceae) Rosemary – Rosemarinus officinalis L.** 62.0 (10.3*) Iraq and Iran (the Christian section Ancient times [20; II:645–647]; Europe [2:168; 4:196], England [15:428,438; 56:138; (Lamiaceae) of the Mandanean [17:183]) 60:144; 61:150–151]; Cyprus [5:184,187,188] Basil – Ocimum basilicum L. **^ (Lamiaceae) 65.5 Iran [51:191; 28:157]; Egypt Italy and Greece [20;II:54,]; India, (O. sanctum) [26:17–18; 62:22;]) (page number not for citation purposes) [23:95] Mint – Mentha spp.** (Lamiaceae) 50.0 Ancient Egypt [22:214–215; 63:120]; Ancient Minoan [64:6]; Ancient Greece [20;II:366; 65:121; 66:518; 67:XIX] Myrtle – Myrtus communis L. (Myrtaceae) 37.9 Lybia [23:319]; Turkey [68:187; Ancient Greece [ 4:194; 21:54; 58:14,82f; 65:49; 70:12,123ff; 71:8,94f, 426; 72: passim; 69:62]; Syria [12:131] 73:15,33; 74:tab 154; 75:18]; Rome [2:167; 4:465,476,487; 20;I:442; 21:54; 37:144; 76:49; 77:30]; Spain (Muslims,15th century, [78:39]); England (16–17th centuries, [14:102]) Rue – Ruta chalepensis L.
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