Professional Development of Executive Hotel Chefs in South Africa

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How to cite this thesis

Surname, Initial(s). (2012). Title of the thesis or dissertation (Doctoral Thesis / Master’s Dissertation). Johannesburg: University of Johannesburg. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/102000/0002 (Accessed: 22 August 2017).

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE HOTEL CHEFS IN SOUTH AFRICA

GERARD VINGERLING

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment for the Degree

Master in Tourism and Hospitality Management

at the

College of Business and Economics

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Supervisor: D.S. Hewson

Co-supervisor: C.H. Mabaso

MARCH 2020

PLAGIARISM DECLARATION

I declare that this dissertation is my own original work, conducted under the supervision of Ms Daryl Hewson and Ms Cynthia Mabaso. It is submitted for the degree of Masters: Tourism and Hospitality in the College of Business and Economics at the University of Johannesburg. This work has not been submitted as part of a degree at another institution but it has informed the production of journal articles written by the same author.

I know that plagiarism is wrong. Plagiarism is to use another’s work and to pretend that it is one’s own.

• I have used the Harvard Method for citation and referencing. Each contribution to, and quotation in, this essay/assignment from the work(s) of other people has been attributed and has been cited and referenced.

• This essay/assignment is my own work, and it has not been partially or wholly copied from another.

• I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone, to copy my work with the intention of passing it off as his, or her, own work.

• I acknowledge that copying someone else’s assignment or essay, or part of it, is wrong, and declare that this is my own work.

Signature: ______Date: 3rd April 2020

GERARD VINGERLING

Student no. 809433976

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my principal supervisor, Ms Daryl Hewson, my co-supervisor Ms Cynthia Mabaso, who have been extremely helpful, and who have offered their unwavering assistance, support and guidance during this journey. Their in-depth knowledge and experience have helped me, and it has made this research a success.

In addition, I wish to thank the following for their contribution towards the completion of this study:

• The Tsogo Sun Hotel Group, for allowing the use of their facilities for data collection.

• All the Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs that helped make this study possible.

iii DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate my thesis to the following people in my life, without whom this thesis would not have happened:

• Mrs Daryl Hewson, my lecturer of 26 years ago who was one of my subject lecturers for my diploma in Food Service Management, and recently, my supervisor that helped me with my Degree thesis and now my Master’s thesis. Her passion for the cheffing industry spurred me on to take on my Master’s and write my dissertation on this topic. I am very grateful to her for her guidance, advice, knowledge and support throughout it all.

• My wife and greatest supporter, Rose, without whom I do not know if I would have reached this point. Thank you for being the ‘wind in my sails’, for pushing me to achieve my dreams and for allowing me the latitude to give this thesis my all.

• My daughter, Jennifer, whose PowerPoint skills I marvel at. She is the ‘true Queen’ of PowerPoint in our family. Thank you for having done the graphics needed for my thesis.

iv ABSTRACT

The initial establishment of culinary arts as a vocational or semi-professional occupation has created problems for later models for the culinary training within the industry, and this has led to ongoing tensions within the industry that are evident today. The culinary occupation relies on many different industry stakeholders in the development of culinary arts, skills, and knowledge training for chefs today. The chef has no control over the formal education and industry preferences on what culinary skills and knowledge should be taught. This has led to the steady erosion of curricular control by chefs, industry and educational facilities. The different fields in the culinary profession inform one another and create modes of collective action, modernising the culinary field. In doing so, they inform the industry on how to develop Executive and Executive Sous Chefs professionally to cope with the changing and challenging modern demands now placed on them.

Key words: Culinary skills, Executive Chef, knowledge, professional development

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

PLAGIARISM DECLARATION ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii DEDICATION iv ABSTRACT v LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF FIGURES xi LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS xii CHAPTER ONE: STUDY ORIENTATION 1 1.1 Introduction to the hospitality industry 1 1.2 The Executive Chef 2 1.3 Culinary education environment 4 1.4 Statement of the problem 6 1.4.1 Questions 6 1.5 Purpose and scope of the proposed study 7 1.6 Study motivation 7 1.7 Research aim and objectives 11 1.8 Significance of the study 12 1.9 Study structure 13 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Professional development 16 2.3 Profession 16 2.4 Professionalism 16 2.5 Hybrid professionalism 18 2.6 The chef profession 18 2.7 Gender 19 2.8 Age 20 2.9 Race 20 2.10 Workplace experience 20 2.11 International experience 21 2.12 Lifelong learning 21 2.13 Mentoring 21 2.14 Leadership 22 2.15 Professional development in chefs 23 2.15.1 History of the professional development of chefs 23 2.15.2 History of the kitchen brigade 24 2.15.3 The modern kitchen brigade 25

vi 2.15.4 Division of labour 26 2.15.5 Chefs’ titles in the kitchen brigade system 27 2.15.6 Chefs’ identity 28 2.15.7 Professional cooks/chefs 28 2.15.8 Chefs’ professionalisation 29 2.15.9 Professional competence 30 2.15.9.1 Job satisfaction 30 2.15.9.2 Career development 30 2.15.10 Apprenticeships 32 2.15.11 Past and present institutional qualifications 33 2.15.11.1 Certificates 35 2.15.11.2 Diplomas 35 2.15.11.3 Degrees 36 2.16 South African National Qualifications Framework 37 2.16.1 Unemployment 38 2.17 South African Qualifications Authority 39 2.17.1 National qualifications framework 40 2.17.2 Qualifications sub-frameworks 40 2.18 The National Skills Development Authority 42 2.19 Government department of tourism associations 42 2.20 Quality Council for Trades and Occupations 43 2.21 Professional qualifications structure 44 2.21.1 Certification of non-qualified chefs 44 2.21.2 Certification of professional titles without a formal qualification 44 2.21.3 Certification of professional titles with formal qualification 45 2.22 Labour market 46 2.23 Proposed conceptual framework 46 2.24 Production of knowledge 51 2.25 Chefs’ structure and competencies 52 2.26 Process of professional development 58 2.27 Continuous professional development in chefs 60 2.28 Model of a chef’s career 61 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 64 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 Research questions 64 3.3 Case study design 64 3.4 Ethical considerations 65 3.5 The research design 66 3.5.1 Sample population, size and procedure 68

vii 3.5.2 Sample selection and size 68 3.5.3 Sample procedure 69 3.6 Data collection 70 3.6.1 Curriculum vitae data analysis 70 3.6.2 LinkedIn 71 3.6.3 Using curriculum vitae data 72 3.7 Data analysis 73 3.8 Validity and reliability in research 74 3.9 Chapter summary 74 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 76 4.1 Introduction 76 4.2 Research aim and objectives 76 4.3 Quantitative findings – biographic Information 77 4.3.1 Gender profile 77 4.3.2 Age profile 77 4.3.3 Racial profile 77 4.3.4 Number of Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs 78 4.3.5 Respondent grade level passed 78 4.3.6 Respondents’ National Qualifications Framework level of education 78 4.3.7 Years of study in higher education 79 4.3.8 Respondents working in 4- and 5-star hotels 79 4.3.9 Type of culinary establishments worked 80 4.3.10 Average number of years of experience 80 4.3.11 Average number of years of international experience 81 4.3.12 Average number of years in different positions in the kitchen brigade structure 81 4.3.13 Conclusion 82 4.4 Qualitative Findings: Chefs’ Professional Development 82 4.4.1 Introduction 82 4.4.2 Categories and themes 83 4.4.3 Workplace learning (the chef) 84 4.4.4 Conclusion 91 4.5 Workplace Skills (Chefs’ Education) 91 4.5.1 Conclusion 96 4.6 Career education (company training) 96 4.6.1 Conclusion 103 4.7 Mentoring and leadership (the Executive Chef) 103 4.7.1 Conclusion 107 4.8 Human Resource, Company Training and Industry Professional Body outcome 107 4.8.1 Conclusion 113

viii CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 114 5.1 Introduction 114 5.2 Conclusions based on the study objectives 114 5.2.1 Summary of respondents’ profiles 115 5.2.2 Conclusions based on the first study objective 115 5.2.3 Conclusions based on the second study objective 116 5.2.4 Conclusions based on the third study objective 120 5.2.4.1 Access 120 5.2.4.2 Stages 121 5.2.4.3 Progression 121 5.2.4.4 Mentoring 122 5.2.4.5 Leadership 122 5.2.4.6 Transformation and development 122 5.3 Recommendations 123 5.4 Limitations of the study 124 5.5 Concluding remarks 125 REFERENCES 126 APPENDIX A: ETHICAL CLEARANCE TO CONDUCT RESEARCH. 146 APPENDIX B: REQUEST TO COMPLETE THE RESEARCH SURVEY 147 APPENDIX C: DATA COLLECTION GUIDE: EXECUTIVE AND EXECUTIVE SOUS CHEFS - CURRICULUM VITAE 148 APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW GUIDE: EXECUTIVE CHEFS/EXECUTIVE SOUS CHEFS 150 APPENDIX E: INTERVIEW GUIDE - MANAGERS/INDUSTRY PROFESSIONAL BODIES 155 APPENDIX F: TURNITIN DIGITAL RECEIPT 157 APPENDIX G: TURNITIN SIMILARITY INDEX 158 APPENDIX H: AFFIDAVIT 159 APPENDIX I: GRAMMARIAN CERTIFICATE 160

ix LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Chefs’ titles and functions in the kitchen brigade system 27 Table 2.2: Multidimensional model of innovative culinary competency 55 Table 3.1 Qualitative versus quantitative methods 67 Table 4.1: Gender of the respondents 77 Table 4.2: Average age of the respondents 77 Table 4.3: Ethnicity of the respondents 78 Table 4.4: Position of respondents 78 Table 4.5: Grade of the respondents 78 Table 4.6: National Qualifications Framework level of respondents 79 Table 4.7: Years of study of respondents 79 Table 4.8: 4- and 5-star hotels worked by the respondents 80 Table 4.9: Variety of establishments and years worked by respondents 80 Table 4.10: Average years of experience of respondents 81 Table 4.11: Average years of international experience of respondents 81 Table 4.12: Average years spent in different positions within the kitchen structure 82 Table 4.13: Categories and themes derived from interviews 84

x LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Model of innovative culinary competency 3 Figure 1.2: Pathway for evolving qualifications framework for the Canadian culinary industry 10 Figure 2.1: Adapted standard kitchen brigade structure 25 Figure 2.2: Competency model 31 Figure 2.3: National Qualifications Framework 41 Figure 2.4: National Skills Development Authority 42 Figure 2.5: Government department of tourism associations 43 Figure 2.6: New qualifications structure 45 Figure 2.7: Competency framework model 49 Figure 2.8: The culinary spectrum 52 Figure 2.9: Relationship between workplace learning, company training and continuing professional development 59 Figure 2.10: A model of the chef’s career 62 Figure 4.1: Chefs’ professional development 83 Figure 4.2: Workplace learning (the chef) 85 Figure 4.3: Workplace skills (chef’s education) 92 Figure 4.4: Career education company training 97 Figure 4.5: Extract from the Group’s generic job description for Executive Chefs 103 Figure 4.6: Mentoring and leadership process 104 Figure 4.7: Human resource, company training and professional body influence on a chef’s professional development 108 Figure 5.1: Adapted conceptualisation of career pathway to provide a clear structure for continued professional development 120 Figure 5.2: Proposed framework for professional development of executive chefs 120

xi LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

BEE Black Economic Empowerment

BTech Bachelor of Technology

CAASA Culinary Arts Association of South Africa

CATHSSETA Culture, Arts, Tourism, Hospitality and Sports Sector Education and Training Authority

CCE Centre for Culinary Excellence

CDP Chef de Partie

CL Company learning

CPD Continued professional development

CV Curriculum vitae

DHET Department of Higher Education and Training

FEDHASA Federated Hospitality Association of South Africa

FET Further education and training

GDP Gross domestic profit

HASA Housekeepers Association of South Africa

HE Higher education

HEI Higher education institution

HEQSF Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework

NAMB National Artisans Moderation body

ND National Diploma

NDip National Diploma

NQ National Qualification

NQF National Qualifications Framework

NSC National Senior Certificate

xii NSDA National Skills Development Authority

OSF Occupational sub-framework

PD Professional development

QCTO Quality Council of Trades and Occupations

RASA Restaurant Association of South Africa

SACA South African Chefs Association

SAQA South African Qualifications Authority

SETA Sector Education and Training Authority

TBCSA Tourism Business Council of South Africa the Group The Tsogo Sun Hotel Group

TVET Technical and vocational education and training

TWG Technical Work Group

WPL Workplace learning

WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council

xiii CHAPTER ONE STUDY ORIENTATION

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY

According to the Culture, Arts, Tourism, Hospitality and Sports Sector Education and Training Authority (CATHSSETA), the hospitality industry in South Africa and many associations around the globe, namely the Canadian Restaurant and Food Service Association, the US National Restaurant Association, and the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, are forecasting a rapid growth in the food service industry up to and beyond 2020 (South African Tourism, 2007:102). This rapid projected growth has raised serious concerns within the hospitality industry about catering for this demand for future culinarians. Ensuring that future culinarians receive the required skills and training will require skilled labour, in this robustly growing sector (Snell & Hart, 2008:48; Roche, 2012:4; Nicolaides, 2013:64; Gonzalez, 2016:1).

The United States Department of Labor projects that between 2016 and 2026, employment of chefs and head cooks will grow by approximately 10%, a percentage that is higher than the average of all occupations within the hospitality sector. It is anticipated that the majority of job opportunities for chefs and head cooks will be in food services and restaurants. These job opportunities will be a direct result of industry growth and the need to replace those leaving the occupation (O*NET OnLine, 2019).

South Africa is no different and will feel the effects of this growing trend. The World Travel and Tourism Council and The Tourism Business Council of South Africa reported that the direct contribution of travel and tourism to GDP in 2014 was 3% per annum, was expected to rise to 3.8% in 2015, and to 4.6% by 2025 (South Africa. Department of Labour [SA DoL], 2016). The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) and Tourism Business Council of South Africa (TBCSA) reported that in 2014 tourism contributed 4.5% of total employment, grew by 3.8% in 2015 and by 2025 would contribute about one million jobs, an increase of 3% p.a. (SA DoL, 2016).

Minister Derek Hanekom reported to the WTTC that travel and tourism would contribute in the region of R424.5 billion to the overall economy in 2018, before growing by 3.5% a year to R598.6 billion or 10.1% of gross domestic profit (GDP) in 2028 (Anon, 2018:online; Osterloh, 2018:online).

With this increasing trend in tourism and the many social, technological and ecological changes that are taking place in society and the workplace today, the occupation and role of chefs around

1 the world is changing, with a drive for a better skilled and more educated workforce (Svensson, 2006:182).

1.2 THE EXECUTIVE CHEF

Professional chefs working in a sector related to the food service or hospitality industry are referred to as ‘culinarians’ (a person skilled in the preparation of food). This includes chefs, food service operators, restaurateurs, writers, bloggers, marketers, vintners, photographers and stylists, sommeliers, nutritionists, as well as academics from hospitality, publishing, tourism, media as well as other related industries and professions (O*NET OnLine, 2019:online). A culinary professional wears many different hats—artist, scientist, businessperson and culinary explorer. The meaning of the word ‘culinarian’ comes from cooking schools established after World War II for Executive Chefs. The first school established for professional chefs and managed by professional chefs was the Culinary Institute of America in Hyde Park, New York in 1946 (Ryan, 2003:4). The graduates were referred to as ‘culinarians’ (Mack, 2012:104; Roche, 2012:20; Cossio, 2016:online; Gonzalez, 2016:40; Traud, 2017:7).

Numerous writers describe the Executive Chef of today as a craftsperson, teacher, artist, executive, leader, administrator and manager (Baskette & Baskette, 2004:31; Carroll, 2007:115; Draz & Koetke, 2010:48). Modern Executive Chefs are increasingly being forced to take on more managerial roles as their industry changes, as opposed to the head chef in the past who simply had to rely on skills based on the technical mastery of cookery. Many employers today, perhaps as many as 60%, are looking for Executive Chef candidates who have a higher education like a college-level culinary diploma or degree with some sort of managerial content (Mack, 2012:3; O*NET OnLine, 2019:online).

Within the kitchen, the head chef or Executive Chef plays a combined role, that of a creative chef as well as a managerial role. In the traditional hierarchical kitchen brigade structure, the position of Executive Chef represents the pinnacle of culinary achievement. If one has worked in a professional kitchen, a hotel restaurant or even a hotel front of house job, one would know the weight carried by the title of Executive Chef (Culinary Schools.org., 2019:online).

The profession of Executive Chef is one of scientific mastery and artistic innovation, one that is highly challenging within the hospitality industry. It is therefore of vital importance that such positions are occupied by individuals who possess the relevant skill set that will equip them to perform with culinary and managerial competence. From the chef’s perspective, success within this field, as well as the level of competency, is generally acquired through on-the-job training (Zopiatis, 2010:461).

2 As in a business, the Executive Chef in charge of a kitchen is seen by Harrington (2005:49) as the chief executive officer, with his or her team members as the board of directors. However, Fine (1996:93) suggests a number of images that could be used to illustrate the multitude of roles that an Executive Chef fulfils. Balazs (2002:250) describes an Executive Chef as a manual labourer, a professional business leader, an artist, a food scientist, a craftsperson, a humanist and a philosopher.

Hu (2010a:68) structured a multi-dimensional model of innovative culinary competency, comprising culture, aesthetic, product, management, creative, service and technology. Figure 1.1 below depicts the interlinking of the varied competencies that Executive Chefs need to possess.

Figure 1.1: Model of innovative culinary competency

Source: Hu (2010a:68)

Cultural enrichment and identity allow chefs to demonstrate their ability to create works of cultural identity, innovating and introducing new domestic and foreign products and cultures into their work and seek to express these cultural connotations through their dishes (Hu, 2010a:66).

The aesthetic element of cuisine nourishes people’s sense of beauty and taste (Hegarty & O’Mahony, 2001:4). The knowledge of basic aesthetics is a concept of how things look and feel, using one’s sensory abilities and the capacity to admire art and beauty, skills in the

3 sensibility of how food should look and taste, and a positive attitude towards presenting beautiful food (Hegarty & O’Mahony, 2001:4).

Technology competency: includes knowledge of basic food principles, cooking science and chemistry, use of technology in food processing and embracing new and modern cooking equipment (Hu, 2010a:70).

Product competency: chefs should have the skills to be create innovative products, have knowledge of products with original flavours, the ability to create commercial flavoursome and attractive products (Hu, 2010a:70).

Service competency: chefs should have the skill and competence to match food and beverage, deal with customer complaints, knowledge of service and controls, ability to communicate with customers and have a positive attitude (Hu, 2010a:71).

Management competency: chefs should possess management skills and knowledge, such as innovation, process management, current knowledge of future food trends, the ability to manage and collect information, manage positively in times of change and crisis, and develop an innovative management style (Hu, 2010a:70).

Creative competency: chefs should be able to express creativity, have the ability to use divergent thinking, including knowledge of basic culinary science, and a positive attitude to developing new ideas and optimism (Hu, 2010a:71).

Modern culinary education needs to produce chefs with the talent and drive to perform in their chosen profession, who are able to use their taught skills and knowledge, their intellect, intuition, imagination, emotions, and physical sensory skills to transform raw food into culinary creations (Hu, 2010a:71).

1.3 CULINARY EDUCATION ENVIRONMENT

The initial establishment of culinary arts as a vocational or semi-professional occupation has created problematic models for culinary education, which have led to ongoing field tension between vocational and academic education and is still evident today (Cossio, 2016:online). Academic transfer courses, a system to prepare students who wish to complete up to two years of a Bachelor's degree before transferring to a four-year college or university, were most easily accepted by university assessment evaluators. In the case of culinary arts, the courses most often articulated were hospitality and nutrition courses as these fields have terminal university degrees (PhD). As traditionally in the past and still now in today’s times, there is no mandate for formal education. The impact of institutional preferences on the culinary curriculum has led

4 to the steady erosion of curricular control by chefs, producing instability in the field (Fligstein & McAdam, 2011:18).

Cossio (2016:online) believes that culinary education breeds continued conflict and disempowerment in the field of the culinary arts and leaves needs that are unfulfilled, specifically chefs’ technical skills, which are required for successful employment within the culinary industry. The changes that have developed from the traditional model of chef apprenticeships, a time consuming and expensive process in the development of the associate culinary degree, are now given in universities and has necessitated a reconsideration of culinary education. What needs to be accomplished is an intertwining of technical skills and academic knowledge.

From the industry’s point of view, the need for qualifications in the different departments in the hotel industry varies. Food and beverage, housekeeping and reception positions were not seen as requiring specific skills but rather a ‘general hands on industry experience’ was more important. However, now qualifications are important for kitchen positions (Brien, 2004a:91).

Being an Executive Chef or restaurant owner is the aspiration of many culinary arts students. Although these students may receive a combination of technical training and classroom theory, many future chefs are not prepared in terms of the management skills required to run a profitable organisation (Roche, 2012:49).

A 10-year study conducted by Johns & McKechnie (1995:10) on career demands, learning perceptions and requirements for courses of accreditation and career success, found that some of the skills required are not necessarily even included in culinary programmes. These should include marketing, sales, computer/IT studies, career advice, organisational theory and human relations/personnel. This is over and above the focus on technical cooking skills, teamwork and leadership—skills that are essential to the end product of a great meal. Learnings of some business, food service, accounting and management competencies are also a requirement of most programmes (Harrington, Mandabach, Thibodeaux & Van Leeuwen, 2006:35; Müller, Van Leeuwen, Mandabach & Harrington, 2009:170).

A hotel and restaurant management degree in combination with an associate culinary arts degree may enhance the skills necessary to meet the challenges of the future for these graduates. There needs to be more emphasis on the curriculum and current culinary programmes, and the transferability of these skills for future culinary students (Wollin & Gravas, 2001:51).

Successful tertiary graduates need to develop essential skills such as problem-solving, hospitality management, teamwork and people skills, along with a sensitivity to multi-cultural

5 needs and an understanding of diversity within the workplace (Müller et al., 2009:172). Severson (2007:18), after analysing a large number of culinary school graduates, found that there is a disconnect for those that leave the industry and that it is conceivable that there is a disconnect between student perceptions of the school’s curriculum and the culinary industry’s needs.

According to Walker (2008), the culinary profession in many Western countries is among the largest employers of culinary workers. Due to the critical role that cooks and chefs perform, as well as the increasing importance and magnitude of the culinary industry, formal culinary learning institutions for culinary education were established. Their main aim was to ensure that culinary students meet the successful needs of the culinary industry (Harrington, 2005:40). Industry now demands a more educated and skilled culinarian that can cope with the current and future growth of an ever-developing, changing and rapidly growing industry, with increased complexities envisaged for the present and future (Roche, 2012:5; Cossio, 2016:online; Gonzalez, 2016:42; Traud, 2017:1).

1.4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

1.4.1 Questions • What value do chefs with formal culinary education add to the culinary industry from the perspective of the companies that are hiring chefs with National Qualifications Framework (NQF) qualifications of NQF Level 4, NQF Level 5 and NQF Level 6?

• Does industry perceive a difference in value of these professional chefs on the different levels of formal culinary education available today?

• Is there a relationship between the value of their formal culinary education and the levels they hold within the culinary brigade structure, or lack of company training and on-the- job learning, and the value they place on good leadership and mentoring within the culinary environment?

• Does this influence the organisation’s hiring of chefs or Executive Chefs?

• Do organisations believe that having a formal culinary education before entering the workplace increases a chef’s chances of career success, promotion and income potential in the culinary industry?

• Do organisations think that a lack of education has a detrimental effect on their progression to the position of Executive Chef or Executive Sous Chef?

Considering these questions, the main problem statement is:

6 What value do the stakeholders in the South African culinary industry place on the professional development of Executive Chef and Executive Sous Chefs in South Africa?

1.5 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE PROPOSED STUDY

The purpose of this study is to examine the perceptions of the key stakeholders relative to their formal culinary education and their professional development. Furthermore, the study seeks to investigate how processes can be streamlined in their overall education, company training and learning processes and strategies. Finally, the research endeavours to determine the role of formal culinary education, skills and knowledge and training in the professional development of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs.

1.6 STUDY MOTIVATION

According to Allen and Mac Con Iomaire (2016:107), there is a paucity of research on Executive Chefs in the hospitality literature. This study seeks to fill the gap by profiling Executive Chefs working in the Republic of South Africa, who overcame many perceived difficulties in their workplaces based on a vocational education, and succeeded in the culinary industry to reach the top of their culinary professions (Collins, 2002:94; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:108).

For many years now, in a rapidly growing culinary industry worldwide, an uneasy relationship has existed between the hospitality culinary education system and the culinary industry for training of cooks and chefs (apprenticeship). The traditional system, which is inappropriately described as an “apprenticeship in cookery”, is still the main model used to train chefs. (Chefpedia.org., 2012:online; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:109). This model may well be the wrong way to train cooks and chefs, as it leaves the apprentices hanging awkwardly between the culinary industry and culinary education system (Chefpedia.org., 2012:online; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:109).

The quality and value of culinary education for graduates and industry chefs has become increasingly topical. Chefs are highlighting the need for a review of the culinary education environment, as well as expressing concern with the reduced quality of the culinary industry workforce. The high attrition rate of workers emphasises the need to relook the curriculum. A sound foundation for advancement of culinary arts education would be dialogue between key stakeholders in the education system, such as educators who are responsible for grooming students for entry into the restaurant industry and those preparing a successful future workforce. Traud (2017:7) argues that culinary industry professionals must be tasked with mentoring and

7 leading graduates to develop their skills and knowledge to strengthen the industry. An analysis of culinary education comes from recent graduates who, first-hand experience the success of the educational system in preparing them for life in the industry, along with a continuation of their development (Kram, 1988:659).

Today’s culinary students have developed perceptions about the culinary industry from extensive media reporting. A rise in the popularization of the chef’s profession, along with an increase in the awareness of the pleasure of eating out and a growing interest in pursuing a career in the culinary industry, has a direct link to the increase of food-related programmes on television and on the Internet. Pratten, (2003a:456) stated that for the “millennials” or “echo boomers” who are entering the workforce for the first time, there is a clash between reality of the industry and their expectation of immediate results and success. This perception was fuelled by the numerous reality food-based programmes broadcast on visual media platforms (Twenge, 2014:5). The result is that culinary trainees struggle to come to terms with a working culinary environment which has a long and old tradition of authoritarianism, long working hours and particular conditions (Pratten, 2003b:240). These factors lead to the high attrition rate within the industry.

At present, the culinary industry attracts and accepts low calibre or unqualified labour due to tradition but there is a high attrition rate because of long hours and low pay. This in turn results in these unskilled labourers receiving inflated salaries due to the higher positions that they hold within the food and beverage departments—the result of a lack of skill to fill positions at a higher skill level. In this way, the pool of qualified labour within the culinary industry is reduced, which in turn results in an even lower calibre of applicants being attracted to the industry (Brien, 2004a:88).

The culinary industry could benefit from chefs who are able to bridge the link between the practical and the theoretical. This would ensure a realistic view and eliminate unrealistic expectations from the culinary industry.

Research into how and why culinary instructors change from industry professional chefs to culinary educators has yet to be examined although a few academics have conducted some research in the field of culinary education (Harrington et al., 2006:32; Hertzman & Stefanelli, 2008:138).

The transition of culinary educators into the field of academia is not directly through an education qualification, or a plan to become a culinary educator. Instead, the majority of culinary educators are backed by many years of professional expertise and identity from

8 practising and perfecting their craft as industry professional chefs (Smith & Boyd, 2012:63). The same can be assumed for professional chefs having changed from chef to educator. These new industry chef educators may have some experience of scholarship from past tertiary education but very few know what it truly means to be a culinary instructor at a learning institution as their professional experience as an culinary educator is lacking (Jones, 2008:96; Smith & Boyd, 2012:64).

Figure 1.2 below is “an evolving qualifications framework for the Culinary Industry of Canada” (Canadian Tourism Human Resource Council [CTHRC], 2010:1) and shows two ways in which a future culinarian can obtain the level of chef. One is mainly through industry employment and workplace training, and the second is through post-secondary general education and industry- specific courses (CTHRC, 2010:1).

9 Figure 1.2: Pathway for evolving qualifications framework for the Canadian culinary industry

Source: CTHRC (2010:1)

10 1.7 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to contribute to the understanding of what key stakeholder perceptions are of the professional development that currently exists in a 4- and 5- star hotel group in South Africa. Furthermore, this study seeks to identify who the Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs are and to provide the first comprehensive verifiable data on the profile of Executive Chefs in South Africa (Fine, 1996:91). The study further aims to gain insight into how senior, seasoned and experienced Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs have progressed in their careers within the 4- and 5-star hotels with or without relevant academic qualifications and who have managed to hold reputable positions and successful careers within the culinary industry (Nicolaides, 2013:64; Birdir & Canakci, 2014:209).

Further aims are to:

• Explore the culinary industry’s beliefs that any form of formal culinary education enhances a chef’s chance of career success and income potential in the industry;

• Investigate if a chef’s education, or lack thereof, benefits their progression in their career development;

• Determine if industry and culinary organisations provide the skills and knowledge that are required by chefs to become Executive and Executive Sous Chefs in a 4- and 5 star hotel; and

• Explore the perceptions of South African Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs regarding professional development.

The specific objectives are: i) The first objective is to obtain a biographic profile of the professional development of Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs in 4- and 5-star South African hotels using curriculum vitae (CV) data. ii) The second objective is to examine the perceptions of key stakeholders (company Human Resources Departments, company Training Departments and professional development bodies). iii) The third objective is to contribute to the related scholarship by proposing a framework of recommendations, based on the research findings, which could be used to develop strategies in Company Training Departments and Human Resources Departments on the professional development of chefs.

11 1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

CATHSSETA reports that in general there is a shortage of skilled people within the South African hospitality sector and that there is a struggle to fill certain positions such as pastry chefs, head chefs and Executive Chefs. CATHSSETA further indicates that because there is a shortage of skills or a lack of skills within certain skill levels that are needed, these positions have not yet been created (CATHSSETA, 2010:online; EuroMed Academy of Business, 2013:online).

There is a skills mismatch in South Africa and other nations in that the qualifications available within the hospitality sub-sector, for example, have relevant titles but the content of these courses is not what the hospitality industry requires for that specific position. A qualification in hospitality management in one institution, for example, has different course content to what similar course titles reflect at different hospitality training institutions. Generally, great emphasis is placed on courses such as Food Preparation, Culinary Studies and Beverage Operations but management courses are sidelined in such qualifications (Kraak, 2009:380; EuroMed Academy of Business, 2013:online; Nicolaides, 2013:66).

Executive Chefs within the culinary industry express disempowerment and loss of control over culinary training methods, curriculum, standards and production methods within the kitchen. This results in Executive Chefs becoming frustrated within the rapidly changing culinary environment, as well as the usurpation of their expertise in the system of higher education (Cossio, 2016:online).

Many employers within the culinary industry complain that the education system for chefs is not delivering relevant and appropriately trained chefs because the culinary curriculum is outdated. The curriculum is not current, despite the culinary training industry’s claims that the curriculum and methods are continuously upated and are endorsed by “industry” (Carnevale & Goldstein, 1991:563; Grubb, 1997:77; Chefpedia.org., 2012:online).

Increasingly, research indicates that the traditional apprenticeship as a learning strategy to train chefs may not be as applicable in today’s modern world as it used to be in the past (Vickerstaff, 2003:269; Chefpedia.org., 2012:online). For example:

• Culinary schools are frustrated to see that their basic skills training is not generally reinforced in the workplace (Miles, 2007:266).

• Educational institutions believe and expect that industry will reinforce skills taught at culinary schools but this is a contradiction (Harrington et al., 2006:36).

12 • Corporate companies may put profit first at the expense of quality of on-the-job training (Mack, 2012:9).

• Culinary learning institutions educators expect industry to reinforce the skills taught to apprentices (Brown 2005:47).

• Students who are deemed competent at school are expected to do well in industry (Brown, 2005:47).

• The training and supervision of apprentices within the workplace is often supervised by older apprentices or lower ranked chefs with limited experience in the kitchens. They should not be the ones doing the training (Horng & Lee, 2009:105).

• Many kitchens are run by students or unqualified cooks who give contradictory training from the training received at culinary school (Horng & Lee, 2009:102).

• There is conflict between the culinary educators who are the experts in training and assessing, whilst the employers’ aim is to deliver a product and service to make a profit (Miles, 2007:266).

Many employers within the culinary industry use the apprentice system to take advantage of government incentives to reduce their wage bills (Vickerstaff, 2003:269). However, despite government incentives to industry to maintain the apprenticeship model in cookery, it still suffers a decline in participation and attrition (Abend, 2011:10). The younger generation are now more aware of their working future and feel they do not need the apprenticeship model afforded to them by governments (Chefpedia.org., 2012:online). The unqualified workforce in the form of apprenticeship will always be paid less, which increases the drive to become more educated, placing great pressure on education (Carnevale & Goldstein, 1991:563). The qualified workforce will always be paid more, which will stimulate and motivate learners to grow and progress and to avoid the apprenticeship (Stierand, Dörfler & Lynch, 2008:9).

1.9 STUDY STRUCTURE

The study is structured in five chapters as outlined below.

Chapter One This chapter introduces the study and states the research problem and research objectives. Furthermore, the chapter outlines the study rationale, linked to the proposed outcomes.

13 Chapter Two This literature review chapter discusses the theoretical and conceptual underpinnings that are linked to the research topic. The chapter articulates the current debates that are found within the extant academic scholarship generally and with particular reference to the South African context.

Chapter Three Chapter Three addresses the methodology applied in the study and explains the methods used in collecting and analysing the data, with the aim of satisfying the study objectives. The chapter outlines the research questions that guided the study development, presents a discussion of the study design, as well as the sampling procedure involved.

Chapter Four Chapter Four presents the main findings, based on the data gathered from the surveys, interviews and analysis of the CVs. The findings are discussed relevant to the literature review and the predefined study objectives.

Chapter Five Chapter Five summarises and concludes the study. The main discussion centres around the conclusions that were drawn, based on the study objectives. Recommendations are suggested in terms of future research in the professional development of Executive Chefs.

14 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Since 1994, tourism and hospitality in South Africa has experienced significant growth throughout the country (Telfer & Sharpley, 2007:214), which has resulted in a shortage of skilled Executive Chefs and cooks in the culinary element of the hospitality industry. This phenomenon does not only affect South Africa but also many countries around the world. According to Maumbe and van Wyk (2011:366), “South Africa, like many other countries, suffers a skills shortage of catering employees such as Executive Chefs and cooks”.

There is a large skills shortage in the kitchen brigade, which is a worldwide phenomenon that affects the whole industry, even though the tourism sector in South Africa was identified as the fundamental sector that should drive economic growth (Pratten & O’Leary, 2007:70; Robinson & Beesley, 2010:765). However, this sector is hampered by the critical skills shortage within the culinary industry, as well as by its history where it suffered from a skewed and imbalanced demographic of chefs. Maumbe and van Wyk (2011:366) point out that the skills shortage in professional chefs has lead to the recruitment of overseas chefs. Goldsmith and Zahari (1994:28) argue that even though cooking skills vary from basic to advanced, the necessity for high end skills calls for greater education and training at all levels of the culinary industry (Lashley, 2009:345).

According to Balkaran and Giampiccoli (2013:2012), universities and further education and training (FET) colleges all offer various qualifications and programmes to people with or without Matric. There is a diverse and varied culinary training structure with an appropriate National Qualification path into the industry. However, there is a need for a more coordinated and structured framework and strategies to address a chef’s development. Pizam, (2016:116) reports that today chefs’ jobs have become so complex that they can no longer be traditionally trained on the job in an apprentice model. They have become professional managers, which is a specialised function that requires a combination of vocational learning, academic education, company training and real world experience (Hadges, 2016:1). It is safe to claim that the professional development of Executive Chefs has been ignored by industry for a long time, with many publications, reports and articles discussing problems faced by Executive Chefs, the changing environment and demands within industry (Birdir and Canakci, 2014:207).

15 2.2 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Historically, in the course of the development of occupations there has always been a distinction between vocational and professional professions (Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:3). The vocational sector of occupations applies to students or apprentices who work for many years under the guidance of a master craftsman, learning skills that enable them to conduct their own trade in the future. This was manual work, where practical on-the-job training was the essence of learning skills, sometimes under an apprenticeship scheme but mostly on one’s own under the guise of on-the-job training or “learn as you go” (Grubb & Lazerson, 2005:29; Roche, 2012:93). This arrangement of master and apprentice has existed for hundreds of years and still exists today (Gonzalez, 2019:75).

2.3 PROFESSION

The term “profession” has always referred to specific occupations in law, medicine and engineering. These are known as the liberal occupations, involving a long and expensive education and very closely regulated by the Knowledge Society, which is predominantly controlled by higher learning institutions (Evetts, 2003:395). Van Ruler (2005:159) points out that through higher education institutions (HEIs), namely colleges and universities that specialise in the authority of scientific knowledge, tertiary-based knowledge has become more highly prized than work-based knowledge (Roche, 2012:35). HEIs standardised the criteria needed to certify professional knowledge by establishing entrance exams, formal study courses, degree requirements and licensed and registered exams. This all created the belief that formal education was the most important education (Roche, 2012:2; Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:1).

Due to the modernising world, the pressure to restructure occupations and pressure to professionalise by the Knowledge Society has increased the knowledge base of all new and emerging occupations. Other occupations are now struggling for higher status and better positioning in society, tending to want to professionalise (Freidson, 2001:54). According to Evetts ( 2003:395), Van Ruler (2005:160) and Noordegraaf (2007:761), there are currently changes in professionalism due to the changes in customer service requirements within society, making expertise more complex.

2.4 PROFESSIONALISM

The lack of consensus on the meaning and approaches to conceptualisation in the debate on professionalism has been noted by several authors (Evans, 2008:20; Gewirtz, Mahony & Hextall, 2009:23; Urban & Dalli, 2012:157). Professionalism today emphasises high status, control over occupational work content, prerequisites for occupation, high level knowledge of 16 theoretical education, occupational privileges and ideologies of professional occupations (Freidson, 2001:54; Bound, 2011:107; Abbott, 2014:197). To achieve professionalism requires continued self professional development, critical self-engagement, continued self-improvement and lifelong learning by experts who wish to be regarded as professionals (Hegarty, 2004:134).

Noordegraaf (2007:761) and Bastola (2014:26) state that the conception of professional development is rooted in specialised institutions of knowledge and formal schooling. It is a striving for advancement, progression and sustainability. The training and development of traditional professions like doctors, lawyers and engineers is supplemented today by new occupations like managers and administrators, professional and practical experts who do not have strong educational backgrounds but have professional knowledge obtained expertly and informally. These occupations seek to be regarded as legitimate professions.

Professional development is typically conceived as taking place through formal structured learning sessions or individual reading and desktop searches. However, there is now a considerable body of literature acknowledging that learning takes place through the everyday activity of the workplace, where we learn cultural norms and ways of being and thinking. Engaging in workplace activities contributes to worker identity, directing conscious thought and mediating how individuals engage in the workplace (Bound, 2011:107).

Numerous authors agree that the traditional approach to professionalism, which was controlled by HEIs with their ideological approach to professionalism, can no longer account for the development in occupations and professions that exist today. Professions are changing and evolving with the modern demands of society and are no longer clear cut, even though there is a drive to standardise the changing occupational fields; the new and emerging occupations now want to be recognised as professions too (Evans, 2008:21; Abbott, 2014:197; Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:1).

Newly recognised professionals are employed by organisations and practise their occupations within these organisations, having effectively become salaried professionals (Murphy, 1990:18). Their professional work is now pressured by organisations to include administrative and managerial roles as these professionals’ progress in their careers gets partly replaced by managerial control (Evetts, 2012:8). Most professions enter into management functions, applying the methods and principles of management to everyday problems in the organisation, even though he or she is still a craftsperson or practitioner, exercising the art of management and profession simultaneously (Van de Scheer, Stoopendaal & Putters, 2008:19).

In summary, Noordegraaf (2007:762) notes with some reservations that it can be said that management is a type of professional expertise and managerial decision-making a professional task, which then leads to a hybrid professionalism.

17 2.5 HYBRID PROFESSIONALISM

Hybrid professionalism arises when professional and managerial principles come together, how work is coordinated, how authority is established, and what values are at stake (Noordegraaf, 2015:187). Saaristo (2001, cited by Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:4) argues that, “...perceived openness is the most distinguished feature of hybrid professionalism.” Roosipõld & Loogma (2014:4) add that hybrid professionalism includes the features of no strong institutionalisation of professional organisations and education in formal and non-formal training, high standards of service delivery, mixed control of managerial, professional and customer practices amongst customers, work and action, ethical codes, ethical conduct, communication with the public and public relations.

Hybrid professional practices in which professional work is (re)organised in one way or the other. Contradictory professional and managerial principles such as autonomy and control, or quality and efficiency, are combined to establish contemporary professional actions (Noordegraaf, 2015:187).

Professional development is a relevant complex concept in today’s labour market (Noordegraaf, 2007:761; Bound, 2011:108; Bastola, 2014:30). However, while the general literature shows a complex general understanding of hybrid professionalism and how it integrates professional development of vocational professions by linking managerial principles, nowadays, the roles of Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs are related to management work and organisation, marketing and service, organisational culture, culinary activities, theory-based research and organisational ethics (Roosipõld, 2011:276). The chef’s profession has not been well researched and hence the need for greater enquiry. There is no special education provided for Executive Chefs even though there is vocational development for chefs (Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:2).

To fully understand professional development in the chef profession, the following section discusses the foundation of current professional development of chefs.

2.6 THE CHEF PROFESSION

To discuss the professional development of chefs, one needs to consider how the kitchen environment and occupation relates to the chef’s development. As confirmed by numerous authors, the kitchen is a tough environment with long, unsociable and irregular working hours all days of the week. Professional cooking is highly stressful and very demanding. Most kitchens are assertive, aggressive and boisterous environments with an authoritarian style of management. “Such work discipline is essential to advance in this profession” (Pratten, 2003b:237).

18 This requires high levels of dedication and commitment from chefs who in return are poorly paid, as highlighted by numerous authors (Fine, 1996:90; Pratten, 2003b:237-238; Murray- Gibbons & Gibbons, 2007:32; Robinson & Barron, 2007:913; Jonsson, Ekström & Nygren, 2008:53; Mac Con Iomaire, 2008:43; Wang, Horng, Cheng & Killman, 2011:999; Haddaji, 2018:121). The chefs who endure these conditions are individuals that have an intense desire to cook, are very competitive by nature, strive for continuous improvement, are committed to learn and take on challenges (Lu & Ramsey, 2013:52). “Drive, focus, determination, vocation, passion, dedication, sacrifice, volatility, creativity, psychological mindset and patience are what builds a chef” (Palmer, Cooper & Burns, 2010:311).

These chefs, to develop professionally, need to plan their career, improve and attain mastery in a job that requires acquisition, attention and refinement of skills and knowledge (Krause, 2013:68). This can only happen if learning activities and resources are provided accordingly.

2.7 GENDER

World wide the male dominance in the culinary industry is reflected by numerous authors that have established that in the higher culinary positions, males hold the majority of positions over females, for example 95% in Cyprus, 85% in Spain, 83% in the American Culinary Federation and 59% in Taiwan. South Africa is no different, with the majority of all senior positions being held by white males due to the lack of transformation in the hospitality sector (Balkaran & Giampiccoli, 2013:209; Alberta Government, 2017: online).

However, it was also found that females within the hospitality sector in the United Kingdom made up 50% of the food and beverage department (Pratten & O’Leary, 2007:68), 46% of the Taiwanese hospitality sector (Wang et al., 2011:997), and 59% of the Irish catering workforce (Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2017:18). Although these statistics show employment equity regarding gender in the hospitality sector, it reveals it is still more likely for a male to reach a top culinary managerial position than it is for a female. Boone, Veller, Nikolaeva, Keith, Kefgen and Houran (2013:230) report that research shows that females are in the minority of top culinary managerial positions, which they believe is due to females prioritising their families. Its low attractiveness to females was also blamed on male bias in higher positions within the industry (Baum, 2002:343).

On the extreme side of the culinary profession and due to male-dominated kitchens, there are frequent instances of sexual, physical and emotional abuse, verbal rebuke and humiliation, as well as physical violence, which affects all members of staff, especially the lower ranking cooks

19 and females who are starting in the culinary industry (Meloury & Signal, 2014:97; Haddaji, 2018:94).

2.8 AGE

There is a paucity of data dealing specifically with the ages of Executive Chefs, other than the studies done in America and Cyprus, which found that American chefs were on average between 45–54 years old and in Cyprus they were between 20–50 years of age (Kang, Twigg & Hertzman, 2010:171; Zopiatis, 2010:460). However, Allen and Mac Con Iomaire (2016:13) found in Ireland that 48.8% of Executive Chefs were in the 30–40 year age group. There is no existing data on the ages of Executive Chefs in South Africa.

2.9 RACE

Since 1994, specific attention has focused on African chefs and cooks in relation to social- economic transformation of the culinary industry due to the historical fact that it was a white male-dominated industry, especially in top management. Until recently, transformation of this industry has been slow. It has been noted as one of the weak implementers of Black Economic Empowerment policies (Maumbe & van Wyk, 2011:366). “There is a scarcity of chefs but more specifically black chefs in the tourism sector” (Tangri & Southall, 2008:711).

Although today the transformation of the chefs in the hospitality industry within South Africa means it is made up mostly of black employees, few African chefs hold junior management positions such as sous chef positions within the culinary industry, which suggests more improvement is required (CATHSSETA, 2010:54). “74% of chefs are African employees, which is extremely positive to note and is indicative of the transformation of this occupation” (CATHSSETA, 2010:54).

Kaplan (2004:217) mentions that although skills development can lead to transformation of management in the culinary industry, its professional skills development process is fragmented and will jeopardise development and transformation of potential culinary managers.

2.10 WORKPLACE EXPERIENCE

Numerous authors agree that gaining workplace experience is an essential part of a chef’s learning, normally referred to as informal learning. It is achieved in various ways in the workplace—by learning from others, obtaining experience, receiving corrective feedback from supervisors or managers, participating in work activities and competitions, learning by trial and error, and learning from mentors that guide and advise one in the working environment. This includes working in different types of companies and positions within the culinary industry, 20 making sure chefs work in a wide range of work environments (Mac Con Iomaire, 2008:48; Haddaji et al, 2018:286).

According to James (2006:1), the process of knowledge and skill construction was as much aided by the indirect guidance of the production environment of the kitchens as by the direct guidance of the chefs.

2.11 INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE

A large number of culinary professionals in South Africa are leaving the country to seek international experience and recognition, thus increasing their status and value if they were ever to return. This creates a vacuum, increasing the industry’s demand for qualified chefs, which leads to over-compensation of underqualified and undertrained chefs, resulting in gaps in the latter’s professional development. This situation needs to be resolved by continuous training and interventions by company or training institutions. These areas of growth and development need to be developed to encourage the continued professional development of chefs (Jooste, 2007:192). According to Jooste (2007:146), these avenues of growth do not yet exist and professional development still needs to be pioneered.

2.12 LIFELONG LEARNING

The concept of lifelong learning exists in culinary arts and the hospitality industry as education, training, company learning and professional development and is necessary to stay abreast of the modern world’s changing and developing demands. In this modern age of information explosion and an ever-changing industry, updated education and skill standards for all stakeholders is needed. The movement towards a highly skilled and technologically adept workforce indicates a need for training, lifelong learning and education (Jooste, 2007:61). Lifelong learning comes not only through academic studies but learning in many different ways from magazines and books, from the internet, culinary competitions, food trade shows, training with suppliers, visiting other restaurants and hotels, learning from others, learning in the workplace, communicating via social media and much more (Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:4).

2.13 MENTORING

Murray (2002:456) describes mentoring as a deliberate pairing of a more skilled or experienced person with a lesser-skilled or experienced one, with the agreed-upon goal of having the lesser- skilled person grow and develop specific competencies.

The process of lifelong learning takes the form of a mentor, who is an important tool in learning (Lai, 2010:443). A mentor is described as a high-ranking person, an influential senior 21 organisation member with advanced experience and knowledge within the organisation, who is committed to sharing knowledge and skills to inject upward mobility and support in a protégé’s professional career (Roch, 1979:14; Collins, 1983:51; Kram, 1988:659). It is a long-term relationship between an employee and manager or supervisor, in which the more experienced individual guides, advises and shares experiential knowledge with a younger, less experienced employee to better their professional knowledge and growth (Mac Con Iomaire, 2008:44). Mac Con Iomaire (2008:61) believes this should be more common in the kitchen workplace and in turn, create a more nurturing environment, which will decrease the attrition of chefs and create better professionals. Employees that have been mentored and have gained knowledge, skills and core values should become productive sooner than those with the traditional methods of on-the-job learning (Phillips-Jones, 2000:online).

2.14 LEADERSHIP

Cooks or chefs are supposed to follow the Executive Chef’s instruction and direction, follow his or her lead through his or her strong personality, loud outbursts and his or her demand for respect (Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:109). Executive Chefs generally show a very strong authoritarian leadership style, with a demanding and aggressive personality allowing them to force order and respect in the kitchens (Black, 2015:30) and creating a masculine culture of being competitive and bold in the kitchen environment (Harris & Giuffre, 2015:185).

Saunders (1981:14) found that learned occupational behaviour and the culture in a work setting both influence the role and performance of chefs. The authoritarian manner of a chef, which is expected by the brigade of the chef, will in time be emulated and replicated. These beliefs, attitudes and behaviours, which are reinforced by unwritten rules and practices within the kitchen culture, will eventually become part of the new Executive Chefs’ leadership style. It is a self-perpetuating cycle.

According to Yen and Teng (2013:401), the Executive Chef's role in the kitchen is to lead the kitchen brigade and set the rules for what workplace behaviours are acceptable or not, either positive or negative. Kim and Brymer (2011:1020) note that the effectiveness of the Executive Chef’s leadership style and skills will determine how he or she runs and manages the kitchen brigade. In the kitchen brigade, where there are many layers of authority, instructions are passed down from the Executive Chef to the Sous Chefs. These instructions are either in the form of mentoring or delegation by the Executive Chef. The Executive Chef’s leadership style can either be acceptable or unacceptable, depending on his or her exposure to mentoring and leadership in his or her own learning years (Schyns & Schilling, 2013:138). Ward (2017:25)

22 believes that this will ultimately determine the effectiveness of his or her kitchen brigade, the effect on the retention of the kitchen brigade, their progress and how the future kitchen leaders will behave once they themselves reach the level of Executive Chef. Zopiatis (2010:461) indicates that an Executive Chef requires a broad spectrum of skills and abilities. Most importantly, the chef needs to be an effective manager and have culinary competencies but these characteristics must be supplemented by team leadership and management skills (Guyette, 1981:476). Ward (2017:44) believes that mentoring and leadership styles will affect retention or attrition of chefs within the kitchen brigade as business grows. Mentoring and leadership work hand in hand to influence the effectiveness of the commercial kitchen.

2.15 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHEFS

This section addresses the professional development of chefs through a past and current lens. The foundation model of Auguste Escoffier’s kitchen brigade is a point of reference of current professional development practice (Escoffier, 1987:50). This is framed firstly by a discussion of apprenticeships and followed by the introduction of formal institutional training to supplement or replace apprenticeships entirely (Roche, 2012:20). The shift in point of access and progression impacted significantly on the fundamental concept of professional development in the kitchen brigade. It did, however, remain and continues to be the predominant model for the professional development of Executive Chefs. (Gonzalez, 2019:2).The remaining part of this section discusses the history of professional training of chefs

2.15.1 History of the professional development of chefs It was not until the middle of the 18th century that the first professional chef moved into the public domain, previously belonging to the nobility and middle class. The introduction of professional cooking for the middle class was not an overnight thing, at first only offering very simple menus (Escoffier, 1987:50). Only by the end of the 18th century was there establishment of French restaurants offering a more elaborate menu to the public. This created the greatest French chef of all time, Chef Careme, the first chef to streamline French cuisine. In the process, he published 11 volumes of recipes and cookery insights and managed kitchens for both public and private dining (Escoffier, 1987:52). What further contributed to his prestigious position is that he cooked in England, introducing the wonders of French cookery to that country, making him sought after by the rich and famous.

It was not until the middle 18th century that the first professional went public. Until that time, only the great houses of the nobility could afford to maintain a chef (Escoffier, 1987:52).

23 By the early 19th century, public restaurants became embedded in French culture and into the middle and upper class lifestyle, who were accustomed to having someone cook for them. This resulted in the middle and upper class not having to sacrifice too much of their day. In turn, this created the demand for dishes that the patrons desired, rather than what was being served as the dishes of the day. Restaurant patrons expected different dishes to be served at the same time, even though they had different preparation and cooking times. To address these demands, the chef brigade was introduced into the kitchen structure and so the kitchen brigade was born (Gonzalez, 2019:3).

2.15.2 History of the kitchen brigade Designed in 1903 by the French chef, restaurateur and writer, Auguste Escoffier, who set out to increase the efficiency of the kitchen by outlining a service structure that would make the service of A la Minute a system of preparation and finishing dishes to order. This enabled the kitchens to meet the new customers’ expectations (Escoffier, 1987:53).

With the demand in restaurant kitchens to increase the efficiency of time between cooking and service, two major aspects were influential—the military and Fredrick Taylor’s Efficiency Movement system. The kitchen brigade used the military system of the chain of command and delegation (Gonzalez, 2019:3) where head chefs or cooks would be the commander-in-chief and their instructions were obeyed immediately and without question. This made knowing what to do simple and streamlined the preparation and cooking process.

Fredrick Taylor’s Efficiency Movement system was designed for factory workers who were seen as stupid and had no need to be educated. The aim was to increase production in factories at a cheaper rate and to produce more in less time, in turn creating a bigger profit (Escoffier, 1987:52; Kanigel, 2005:210; Jensen, 2017:online). These principles prioritised output, structure and efficiency over workers’ needs.

Escoffier (1987:52) believed that the structure and rigidity of the brigade would help maintain order and professionalism and was designed in a way best suited to serve customers. Even though the author was an advocate of professional and supportive environments, his aim was to instil organised discipline, although this has been linked to stress and pressure. The autocratic nature of kitchens today, with the many negative connotations associated with the culinary profession, 100 years later the kitchen brigade system is still in use today (Escoffier, 1987:55; Cullen, 2012:7; Lee, 2014:93).

24 2.15.3 The modern kitchen brigade Escoffier’s partie or kitchen brigade system, with his approach to structuring the working and training environment, is still in existence (Dodgshun, Peters & O’Dea, 2011:16). This is one of the most common kitchen organisational structure in which all the kitchen staff work. As illustrated in Figure 2.1 below, James (2006:8) believed that the kitchen would not function or meet its objectives without a kitchen staff being within this structure. Understanding the basic structure of the kitchen brigade is important in understanding its cultures and customs, where the single most important person in the kitchen is the Executive Chef, who leads the whole kitchen brigade and is known by all the chefs within the kitchen as “Chef”. This is an honorary title not given lightly to the Executive Chef by the kitchen brigade but through his or her years of hard work, knowledge, skill and experience. This person manages the kitchen, designs menus and oversees the business aspects of the kitchen (Birdir & Canakci, 2014:207; Gonzalez, 2019:6). The tasks and activities are organised in various sections within the hierarchy of the kitchen brigade structure. The chefs prepare and deliver different parts of the dishes, depending on their location, position and the level they hold within the kitchen, in tandem and in an ad hoc fashion in conjunction with the other chefs (James, 2006:7).

Figure 2.1: Adapted standard kitchen brigade structure

Source: Gonzalez (2019:6)

To this day, all kitchens follow this hierarchical structure, which is dependent on the type of establishment and the requirements of its production needs within its environment (James, 2006:5). The hierarchy of the kitchen brigade structure draws its influence from the military

25 ranks, which provides structure within the different levels of the kitchen, giving a clearly- defined role for the positions found in the kitchen brigade. As with the military, one starts at the bottom, regardless of one’s qualifications on entering the profession, progressing up the ladder, depending on the years of skills, knowledge and experience accumulated. One would then slowly work up the kitchen ranks and eventually become the Executive Chef (Escoffier, 1987:52; Taylor & Taylor, 1990:42; Gonzalez, 2019:14).

2.15.4 Division of labour There are five levels within the structure and organisation of the kitchen, which emanate from Smith's (2010:2) division of labour—the hierarchy, tempo, space, kitchen routines, and work flow. The greatest improvement in the productive powers of labour, and the greater part of the skills, dexterity and judgement with which it is anywhere directed or applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of labour (Smith, 2010:1).

In the commercial kitchen, using the five divisions of labour will bring together the different components of a menu item to be prepared and served to a guest, bringing together the division of labour into two dimensions—the horizontal and the vertical (Beckett & Hager, 2002:123). The chef’s skills, the chef’s dexterity and judgement, and the cooperation and coordination of all the chefs, will result in a smooth and efficient routine within the different sections of the kitchen.

The vertical dimension represents the hierarchical structure where each level is specialised and each chef is responsible for a particular aspect of food production and running of the kitchen. From the Commis Chef, to the Chef de Partie, to the Sous Chef, to the Chef de Cuisine, all the way up to the Executive Chef, there are functions and duties that must be carried out. As per the military ranking structure, the commands are delegated from the Executive Chef, down the structure to the relevant levels. Figure 2.1 explains each position within the kitchen brigade system (James, 2006:2; Gonzalez, 2019:54).

The horizontal dimension represents the different sections found within the kitchen levels. They are function-specific, different departments that have been firmly established and deeply engrained in the kitchen structure. As an apprentice, the chef would work all the different departments and once the chefs have found their niche, they tend to stay in those departments (James, 2006:2; Gonzalez, 2019:54). Once sufficient skills, knowledge and experience have been accumulated, the chef will then be promoted to the next level within the kitchen structure (Gillespie, 1994:19) as illustrated in Table 2.1 below.

26 2.15.5 Chefs’ titles in the kitchen brigade system Table 2.1 below illustrates the titles of the various positions held within the kitchen hierarchy system.

Table 2.1: Chefs’ titles and functions in the kitchen brigade system Position Responsibilities Duties Executive Chef The Executive Chef often is the • Involved in the end running of the celebrity chef or the face of the business establishment that oversees the • Planning and execution of menus entire kitchen or multiple • Formulating the budget kitchens • Supervising and hiring of staff • Quality control • Food costing • Communicating to the media • Managing • Food creation • Human resources • Industrial relations (Birdir and Canakci, 2014:208; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:109; International Culinary Studio, 2019:online; Gonzalez, 2019:7) Executive Sous Chef They run the kitchen in the • Manages in the absence of the or Chef de Cuisine absence of the Executive Chef. Executive Chef The Executive Sous Chef or • Runs the activities in the kitchen Chef de Cuisine is the second in • Manages the pass command in the kitchen. Is the assistant to the head chef • Quality control or Executive Chef . • Plans and implement menus • Creates workflow • Staff schedules • Overseeing daily ordering of food stocks • Manages customer relations (International Culinary Studio, 2019:online; Gonzalez, 2019:7) Sous Chef A Sous Chef needs to be skilled • Training new staff in all areas of food preparation. • assigning daily duties and tasks, They often give suggestions for • Coordinating schedules and logistics. new menu items. They also take on a supervisory • Fill in for the Executive Chef role within the kitchen • Take over from any of the Chefs de Partie (International Culinary Studio, 2019:online; Gonzalez, 2019:7) these chefs fall under the Sous Chefs.

Chef de Partie The Chef de Partie oversees one • Working in different sections of the section of the kitchen; they do kitchen most of the actual cooking in the • Saucier kitchen. Prepare one aspect or • Grillardin item of food in a department within the kitchen. • Entremetier • Patisser 27 • Tournant • Garde-manger • Aboyeur (James, 2006:3; International Culinary Studio, 2019:online; Gonzalez, 2019:7)

Source: Adapted from Gillespie (1994:19)

2.15.6 Chefs’ identity Like the military aspect of the brigade is the identity, all work provides some sort of identity. The cooking career provides an opportunity for expressing multiple unique identities (Snow & Anderson, 1987:1336). According to Fine (1996:90), the cooks identified and made themselves famous in the following ways:

• Firstly, the cooks saw themselves as professionals; • Secondly, they saw themselves as artists creating and developing beautiful and interesting things; • Thirdly, they saw themselves as businesspeople, selling their products in exchange for money they had to be business savvy to survive; and • Lastly, they saw themselves as manual labourers, using their hands to make products for sale.

Fine (1996:90) further suggested that there are more identities possible but sees these identities as fluid and ever-changing over time, allowing chefs to craft their own identities, rather than having their work define them.

2.15.7 Professional cooks/chefs According to Fine (1996:91), chefs see themselves as professionals, even though there are no barriers to entering the culinary profession. Roosipõld and Loogma (2014:5) indicate that cooks obtain their profession by special education although there is a vocational education standard for chefs. Cooking school is an option but a culinary degree is not required to start work as a chef (Gonzalez, 2019:15). Roche (2012:52) state that formal culinary education is not a predetermined requirement for employment in a professional culinary kitchen. Whilst cooks can still enter the culinary industry at a low level position like apprentice or Commis Chef or even dish washer and work their way up without investing in formal education, legitimizing the profession has developed through the establishment of culinary schools and formalizing the training process for cooks (Mandabach, Revalas & Cole, 2002:68). Even though Gonzalez (2019:3) argues that learning on the job is still possible as per the traditional route, working kitchens are designed for production rather than education. However, for potential chefs entering the industry and looking for an learning environment which will allow them to ask

28 questions, be guided, make mistakes and experiment, culinary schools then become an attractive option (Pratten, 2003a:454).

2.15.8 Chefs’ professionalisation Before 1970, the cooking industry was viewed as manual labour—an environment to which not many people were drawn. It was considered a job rather than a profession (Fine, 1996:95). In 1976, leading chefs applied to the Department of Labour for their status to be changed from domestic workers to that of professionals. They wanted their legal status to reflect the hard work, expertise and knowledge that chefs brought to the culinary industry (Fine, 1996:95). This proposed legal change was part of the stimulus that encouraged more educated and middle- and upper-class individuals to pursue a culinary career. Cooking professionally then became the aspiration of many and a job of which to be proud (Fine, 1996:94; Friedman, 2018:16).

Due to the legitimisation of the culinary profession, there followed the establishment of culinary schools and the formalisation of the training process for cooks/chefs (Mandabach et al., 2002:69). Growth was initially slow in the development of culinary schools but after World War II, more culinary schools opened in community colleges, to train returning veterans in the culinary industry due to the stimulated growth of the post-war economy (Scarrow, 1982:2644; Mandabach, 1998:97; Brown, 2005:48). By 1980, the majority of all the culinary schools in America and South Africa were colleges or technical colleges (Scarrow, 1982:2644; Kriel & Perumal, 2015:4839).

Whilst there are numerous hospitality and related programmes offered in South Africa today, higher hospitality management education in South Africa had a modest start dating back as recent as 1969 with the introduction of the National Diploma (ND) Hotel Management and Administration at Witwatersrand College of Advanced Technical Education in Johannesburg (Kriel & Perumal, 2015:4840)

Continuing into the last decade of the 20th century and the early stages of the 21st century, the image of hospitality occupations and in particular the chef’s occupation, has improved significantly (Pizam, 2016:117). They do not come from strong educational backgrounds but have acquired professional knowledge in an informal and experiential way (Saaristo, 2001, cited by Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014: 3).

They have emerged and are pursuing legitimate professions (Noordegraaf, 2007:761). They have become professional managers overseeing large kitchen brigades consisting of tens if not hundreds of kitchen staff members who serve thousands of meals per day in high tech kitchens (Pizam, 2016:117). Roosipõld (2011:275) argues, “Nowadays, chefs’ roles are related to

29 management work and organisation, marketing and service, culture, food-making, theory-based research and organisational ethics.”

2.15.9 Professional competence In today’s highly competitive and swiftly changing culinary environment, chefs must be professionally taught and trained, to have at least completed an advanced education in culinary arts, to have continued industry training and to continuously keep upgrading their skills within the culinary environment (Alexander, Lynch & Murray, 2009:55; Hu, 2010b:582). A successful chef’s professional competence relies on the chef remaining in the industry over a long period to succeed in this current competitive culinary environment (Birdir and Pearson, 2000:205). The culinary industry needs highly qualified chefs and expand their contributions towards the professional development of chefs (Richardson, 2009:382). Because chefs are critical to the success of the culinary industry, it is important to enable the chefs to find satisfaction in their professional competencies within their job, which will be important for the hospitality industry’s manager (Pratten, 2003a:455; Pratten & O’Leary, 2007:71).

Professional competence is defined by Kane (1992:163) as the degree to which employees can apply work conditions to their professional knowledge, skills, motives and traits, and includes high-level skills such as critical thinking, teamwork, communication and permanent learning. The connective, affective and psychomotor domains all play important roles in the development of competent culinary professionals (Litchfield, Oakland & Anderson, 2002:1455; Brough, 2008:36).

2.15.9.1 Job satisfaction Job satisfaction is the employee’s feeling about the current job. This relates to their current work impressions, their past work experiences and on-the-job rewards. Job satisfaction is a recognised relationship between what the employee acquires and expects from the job and how valuable and important the job is to them (Lawler, 1995:79). Therefore, job satisfaction in the hospitality industry is an indication that job selection and current job satisfaction are the primary concerns for chefs entering or moving jobs within their careers (Lawler, 1995:79; Ko, 2012:1004).

2.15.9.2 Career development There are many options available in career development. This goes beyond simply being promoted within a company. It is about improving, maintaining and developing one’s future skills (Yang & Gysbers, 2007:157). There are many reasons why companies invest in future development for their employees, which include improving employee performance, exposing employees to corporate culture, enhancing management development, reinforcing company 30 core values, and facilitating and advancing employees’ careers and employee perks provided by the company (Yang & Gysbers, 2007:157). Refer to Figure 2.2 below.

The chef’s career advancement in the culinary industry is a specialised and complex combination of basic education, vocational training, academic education, company training and real world experience that the industry will recognise (Hadges, 2016:1). Chefs can no longer be trained on the job in the old apprenticeship model as their jobs have become very complex. Many of the chefs today have studied in HEIs and culinary schools that offer certificates, diplomas and degrees, thus showing that the culinary occupation is being professionalised (Ko, 2012:1005; Bastola, 2014:14; Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:4; Hadges, 2016:1; Pizam, 2016:1; Haddaji, 2018:3).

Figure 2.2: Competency model

Source: Ko (2012:1005)

With the establishment of culinary schools and the difference in culinary educational backgrounds, a rift has been created between cooks that had attended culinary school and the cooks that underwent a traditional apprenticeship, an educational approach that has over time started to fall away. “They believed that the only way to become a great chef was through apprenticeship and by surviving the physical and verbal abuse of the kitchens” (Fine, 2008:39).

Apprenticeship chefs view learning in culinary schools as not learning the real way. Despite most chefs saying that a culinary education is still not a prerequisite to work in kitchens, the starting pay rate for entry chefs is the same, no matter what your educational background is when you enter the industry, even though culinary schools attract learners with the promise of

31 a leg up in the industry. Over the years, this has created controversy (McKeever, 2013:online; Canavan, 2014:online).

2.15.10 Apprenticeships Vocational education has been in existence since the middle ages when craftsmen guilds controlled the practice of all skilled occupations. Students were called apprentices and worked for a number of years under master craftsmen to learn the skills necessary to conduct the trade. This organisation of masters and apprentices continued throughout the world for hundreds of years and is still used today in many parts of the world (Roche, 2012:36).

Allen and Mac Con Iomaire (2016:109) define apprenticeship as a system of training a new generation of practitioners, a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often accompanied by some studying. It involves an agreement of working for instruction and being taught a trade, in return for the person’s work and time. In the case of culinary schools, this agreement evolved when structured education was added offsite at a learning institution, and apprenticeships then became a partnership between a training provider and a culinary school, where both were responsible for the development of the apprentice chef becoming a competent professional cook (Chefpedia.org., 2012:online; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:109).

It is often assumed that the path from childhood to adulthood is the ‘golden age’. According to Vickerstaff (2003:269), the path from school to work was fairly unproblematic in the 1950s and up to the 1970s because the worldwide labour market was upbeat and apprenticeships and jobs were readily available in all careers. Up to the mid-1970s full-time jobs and apprenticeships were relatively plentiful for young men but schools at the time gave very little guidance or preparation to school leavers for work (Vickerstaff, 2003:270). Research seems to indicate that through the period 1945–1980 more young males aspired to apprenticeships than were actually available, as this was the prevailing global environment and chef apprenticeships were no different (Vickerstaff, 2003:273).

However, Yang (2001:11) points out that in earlier years the culinary profession was not regarded as a good profession. In the old days, culinary arts and techniques were excluded from school education systems and overlooked by society. Most of the culinary professionals during that time underwent lengthy and time-wasting apprenticeships.

Traditionally, the apprenticeship, as described by Dennen and Burner (2008:425):

...has been associated with learning in the context of becoming skilled in a trade or craft by a skilled artisan, a task that typically requires both the acquisition of knowledge, concepts, and perhaps psychomotor skills and the development of the ability to apply the knowledge and skills in a context-appropriate manner, and far pre-dates formal schooling as it is known today.

32 The belief that culinary students should be trained vocationally at the time for immediate job placement was an unchallenged assumption until concerns arose in the 1980s that such a strictly reductionist training approach could limit students’ long-term abilities to improve their career success and earning potential (Carnevale & Goldstein, 1991:563; Grubb, 1997:77).

The following section traces the laws covering apprenticeships.

2.15.11 Past and present institutional qualifications The British law of 1788 covering masters and apprentices accompanied colonisation around the world. This law remained in place till 1894 (Ray, 2001:44). After the review of the Master and Apprentice law in 1894, there were legislative changes and it was replaced by the Apprentices Act of 1901, reviewing institutional apprentice training, a review of apprentice training principles and structured wage increases. Conditions of Employment provided a more structured framework for apprentices (Smith & Keating, 1997:216; Ray, 2001:44). The biggest transformation of early professional development represented by the kitchen brigade was the massification of education for chefs when the apprenticeship system proposed by Escoffier in 1884 no longer had the capacity to deliver trained chefs in a short enough period to address the depleted number of active chefs during World War I. Ongoing reform took place in response to changing workplace needs that saw the reduction in 1918 of the length of traditional apprenticeships from seven to five years. This reduction in the length of the apprentice programme was a response to skills shortages and the demand for qualified tradesmen that were needed, in combination with the increased industrial development that took place after World War I (Escoffier, 1987:54; Ray, 2001:44; Hamilton & Higman, 2003:67). Formal culinary education started in the US in 1927 with the opening of a commercial cookery and baking training school in Los Angeles (Mandabach et al., 2002:70). Growth in this period was slow. After World War II, more programmes opened at community colleges to train returning veterans in culinary arts because of the booming post-war economy (Scarrow, 1982:2644; Mandabach, 1998:97; Brown, 2005:47). The advent of ‘chef schools’ not only accelerated the delivery of skills and knowledge but became a more cost-effective approach to a process that had previously taken decades (Escoffier, 1987:53). According to Ray (2001:44), the apprenticeship was then further reduced in the 1960s to four years, which it remains until today.

Today, chefs consider two forms of culinary professional education. The first is formal education, wherein an aspiring chef attends a culinary school and graduates with a certification. The individual will be recognised by the industry for having obtained a certain level of education or expertise in the field of professional culinary education or in food service, in the form of a certificate, diploma or a degree (Rehn, 2012:344).

33 According to Miles (2007:266), the second one that does not follow the formal pathway is informal education. Instead, a school leaver with aspirations to become a chef would begin an apprenticeship. Traditionally the apprentice would start as a pot washer and later progress to preparing vegetables and slowly progress to the different stages and departments found in kitchens. Over time, the apprentice would take on increasingly demanding roles, working up through the hierarchy of the kitchen as his or her practical skills develop (Abend, 2011:116). Rehn (2012:344) posits that although the apprentice does not achieve any formal certification following such a path, it is still highly regarded amongst chefs that an individual has undergone this form of training in numerous highly regarded kitchens.

Even though there is no requirement for a formal education in the culinary industry, the requirement for an entry level chef or cook for employment is a culinary certificate, diploma or degree. This assists with entry into the bottom of the culinary brigade structure but should also give a more rapid advancement within the culinary industry (Gonzalez, 2019:7).

As noted by Pratten (2003b:240), these days some sort of formal culinary education is required and in most cases in the US a college degree is expected by the hospitality industry from new entrants at all levels when entering the profession. However, the irony is that the apprentice in a modern kitchen today is individually exposed to only a narrow skill set unique to that kitchen environment and consequently, to grow and develop skills in the initial years, the apprentice and has to change jobs regularly with different employers. In this way, apprentices are assured of professionally developing their skill set, whilst at the same time, becoming competent as a chef and earning a salary (Cossio, 2016:online).

To determine the effectiveness and content of culinary education, there is a need for further research at a global level. However, the success of an individual in reaching the top of the kitchen brigade structure and working as an Executive Chef has been shown to benefit curricula developments (Harrington, 2005:41; Müller et al., 2009:167; Mesch, 2012:19; Shani, Belhassen & Soskolne, 2013:447; Sporre, Jonsson & Pipping Ekström, 2015:236).

Roche (2012:1) reports that post-secondary institutes offer diplomas, certificates and degrees in culinary arts and related services, such as food production and culinary management. These schools are extremely diverse and vary by numerous criteria, including different types of degrees offered, curricula, student selectivity and cost. The variety of culinary learning institutions available to the culinary student poses a challenge in deciding which school to attend and also to the employers of the culinary graduates from these programmes looking to recruit new employees (Roche, 2012:1).

34 2.15.11.1 Certificates Certification courses are popular among culinary workers, who must be legally certified in fields like food service safety or beverage sales (Traud, 2017:34). Over time, qualifications diversified based on a ratio of 70% skills and 30% knowledge, introduced at many culinary training institutions who offer coursework/certification. These are focused coursework programmes, which typically take a few months to complete and cover one specific practical skill in the culinary arts, such as knife skills or bread-baking.

Certificates have become an important career credential for students and employees and an important indicator of one’s ability to get the job done. Many types of certificates exist and the number of people seeking them and organisations offering them are both growing rapidly (Foster & Pritz, 2006:14).

To be acknowledged as meaningful and useful, certification must be established on certain principles. These principles include quality and currency (Foster & Pritz, 2006:17). Further, the certificate assessment must be based on principles of reliability, validity and fairness. As the number of certificates increases rapidly, not all certificates can be guaranteed to meet quality criteria (Foster & Pritz, 2006:17).

The certificate gives students a specific goal to achieve. This has many benefits for students and individuals. If it is a career-technical programme with a competency-based outcome, it will offer many opportunities to gain a certificate. If the programme offers flexibility in certifying competence and is not attached to a formal programme, students are still developed and achieve a sense of accomplishment when obtaining a certificate. Some certificates are even transferable for credits in a degree programme. Certificates are seen within business and industry as a professional credential that has high value, making individuals more employable (Foster & Pritz, 2006:15).

2.15.11.2 Diplomas With the introduction of diplomas giving a higher ratio of 50% knowledge to 50% skill, Zopiatis (2010:460) in his Cypriot study found that the majority of chefs had at least a two-year diploma in culinary arts. Many other authors found this trend in culinary studies in recent times, even if it is a one or two-year diploma that is obtained before entering into the job market (Raybould & Wilkins, 2005:204; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:111).

Many learning institutions offer short programmes for diplomas or certificates which provide training for entry-level positions and can often be completed in a year or less and students may prefer to hone their skills through these programmes first (Traud, 2017:23). A vocational degree

35 such as a diploma in culinary arts, which is typically a full-time study in an educational institution, normally takes about two years to complete and takes an in-depth look or focuses on one aspect of training, such as catering or pastry arts (Traud, 2017:24).

2.15.11.3 Degrees Goyette (2008:461) found an increasing trend worldwide for those working in the culinary field to attend university and obtain degrees as these became more available. Ladkin (2000:226) reports that many chefs who join the culinary industry have completed undergraduate and post- graduate degrees in a wide variety of culinary disciplines. This is important to note today.

Students explore a wide range of training within a Bachelor’s degree programme. This degree generally requires four years of full-time study to complete and often focuses on a range of culinary topics, such as business, general culinary arts and management (Traud, 2017:2). In South Africa, National Diplomas and Bachelor of Technology degrees are offered by Universities of Technology, where students need to complete a three-year NDip in hospitality management, possibily followed by a one-year BTech degree focusing on the development of middle management positions. However, both qualifications require the student to exhibit managerial skills (South African Qualifications Authority [SAQA], 2014:14).

There are no regulatory requirements that one has to have a degree or any formal culinary education whatsoever to enter the culinary profession in South Africa today. Any educational requirements are at the sole discretion of the employer. Therefore, it would be valuable to ask the professional chefs in the industry for their perspective on formal culinary education today and what effect or influence it has, if any, on their hiring preferences (Roche, 2012:3).

With this increasing trend of attaining university degrees within the culinary industry for those chefs working in the culinary profession (Goyette, 2008:462), the majority of these university culinary arts graduates end up with their first jobs within the industry being entry-level cooks in the kitchen brigade structure (Hertzman & Maas, 2012:53). Despite arguing the case for not going to college, many within the industry conceded that culinary employees who have a tertiary education usually have less risk of unemployment and earn higher salaries when entering the profession than their apprentice counterparts do (Steinberg, 2010:2). It is important to note that recently, many chefs who join the culinary industry are now completing undergraduate and post-graduate degrees in a wide diversity of culinary education courses (Ladkin, 2000:266; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:114).

Higher education in South Africa can play an important role by providing qualified hospitality management graduates to address the skills shortage in middle and higher management, who

36 will be ready for the world of work (Thornton, 2007:30). It is acknowledged that the value of formal education cannot be ignored in relation to the workplace. Turkson and Riley (2008:584) report that young hospitality graduates with university qualifications, when compared to hospitality managers within the same age and position, demonstrated a better sense of the complete management picture and competence than the managers without a university degree.

The new trend of obtaining Bachelor degrees in culinary arts that are being offered in more HEIs internationally, shows an increased urgency and demand by industry for better quality training for chefs (Gustafsson, Öström & Annett, 2009:270; Shani, et al., 2013:448). Compared to international studies conducted by Bolton, Meally, Blair, McDowell and Cowan (2008:291), there has been a dramatic rise in Executive Chefs obtaining degrees, which is extremely significant within the culinary industry. According to Hegarty (2004:83), the transformation of culinary education, which has transformed the vocational occupation to a more liberal occupation, appears to have been pioneered in the Republic of Ireland but this trend is beginning to be replicated internationally with new programmes appearing in Australia, Canada and New Zealand. This international trend deserves further research (Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:114).

Roche (2012:5) believes that another aspect that influences formal culinary education is the relationship between the high cost of culinary education and post-graduate earnings, which has become a focus point. The question is whether the high cost of tuition and the incurrence of high debt by the student, who enters the industry at the lowest level, earning very poor pay after graduation, puts the student at financial risk. The job generally does not pay enough to allow the student to make loan re-payments as well as meet day-to-day living expenses, resulting in a potential loan default. This brings into question the risk-benefit of tertiary education within the industry (Roche, 2012:5).

Moolman and Wilkinson (2015:80) argue that the further one progresses up the kitchen brigade system, the greater the demand for managerial knowledge from the chefs, which at present is only obtainable from HEIs (Moolman & Wilkinson, 2015:80; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:114).

2.16 SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK

To address the growing mismatch of qualifications in South African, the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) was introduced to monitor what culinary qualifications were delivering (SAQA, 2014:8). Earle-Malleson (2009:56) and Kraak (2009:380) note from the skills audit that most training for the sector was provided at NQF Level 4 and below, with NQF

37 Level 1 receiving the most effort at that stage. This corresponds with the high level of unskilled employees in the tourism sector. Consequently, it did not assist in addressing the large skills gaps at management and strategic levels (Earle-Malleson, 2009:248). Current education and training provision should be analysed to determine how skills needs in the tourism sector are being addressed.

Earle-Malleson (2009:206) raises an important point from the 2007 Skills Audit report, namely that for most of the tourism sector, and in particular for the dominant hospitality sub-sector, in- house training, work-shadowing and mentoring remain the most important source of skills development. However, such training is generally non-strategic and non-accredited.

Several studies on skills in the tourism sector show that the supply of skills is impeded by the common problems of time pressure, high employee turnover, low wages and the inability of assessing the benefit of training (Nicolaides, 2013:80). This results in graduates having a perception that tourism is an industry that does not provide an adequate income despite working long hours. Skilled graduates move to other economic sectors, thereby depriving the tourism sector of the much-needed skills (James, 2006:19; Balkaran & Giampiccoli, 2013:209; Nicolaides, 2013:79; Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:2; Makumbirofa & Saayman, 2018:1).

The brigade system still dominates the model for professional development. It can be concluded that addressing the problem of scarce skills in the hospitality sector does not require intervention at the education system level alone but must also address the problem of non-retention of skills by the hospitality sector (Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:3; Gonzalez, 2019:69). Research has shown that even if the educational system produces graduates who are capable of filling the scarce skills gaps, these graduates would still not be retained in the sector if the issues of long working hours, low wages, time pressure and lack of continuous staff development are not addressed. To address scarce skills and retention, there is the need for a multi-pronged intervention which focuses not only on the educational system but also on the hospitality system (James, 2006:20; Balkaran & Giampiccoli, 2013:210; Nicolaides, 2013:65; Makumbirofa & Saayman, 2018:3).

2.16.1 Unemployment South Africa has to address its high unemployment problem by creating more job opportunities at the lower skill levels. However, there is a substantial gap in terms of learners’ foundation and life skills, and school leavers with poor numeracy and literacy skills (Balkaran & Giampiccoli, 2013:212). Furthermore, in South Africa structural unemployment denies the majority in the country access to productive assets, markets, certified skills and from benefiting from any increase in jobs or work opportunities. For chefs that have weak formal educational 38 backgrounds, tertiary institutions usually have high academic entry requirements. There should be better structured qualifications facilitated by government to provide the financial means to create more flexible and customized entry requirements to enhance access into HEIs for these aspiring chefs (Balkaran & Giampiccoli, 2013:210; Nicolaides, 2013:65; Kriel & Perumal, 2015:4839).

The aim of the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) is to find meaningful progressive pathways between universities and colleges, pathways to transfer between institutions at similar levels, as well as ‘sideways’ between SETAs and learning institutions (Maringe, 2012:3). Although training providers have informal networks and arrangements with employers and associations, more formalized relationships between training providers and employers are generally lacking. Assistance by industry in the training of trainers and educators to meet quality assurance and certification standards can contribute to skills development in the sector. Business could be incorporated for the revision of the curriculum, subjects, topics covered and creation of a database of case studies, practical exercises and internship programmes for work-learning (Roche, 2012:36; Gonzalez, 2016:43; Traud, 2017:2).

In the hospitality industry, most especially educational and career development structures need to improve, in the light of increasingly demanding and discerning customers. In South Africa, there is the further challenge to address skewed demographics among kitchen staff (Balkaran & Giampiccoli, 2013:209). Although many institutions in the country do offer hospitality qualifications, high costs prevent many from accessing these opportunities. On the other hand, some training providers opine that graduates are not the first choice of employers and in the dominant hospitality sector there tends to be a preference for staff with experience over those with qualifications. There seems to be a drop in hospitality-related course entries, although the pass rates for hospitality courses have been good (Balkaran & Giampiccoli, 2013:210; Nicolaides, 2013:64; Moolman & Wilkinson, 2015:85; Makumbirofa & Saayman, 2018:5).

2.17 SOUTH AFRICAN QUALIFICATIONS AUTHORITY

The NQF, established through the passing of the South African Qualifications Authority Act No. 58 of 1995, was the outcome of the second macro-level policy. This policy, which moulded the environment, was aimed at directing the education system into a single framework comprising three bands and eight levels. It carried all qualifications and created pathways from the lowest to the highest level (and ‘sideways’) and included qualifications from short courses to doctorates (SAQA, 2016:online). This aligning of qualifications allowed for the categorising of various NQF levels and higher bands. The last three years of high school, as well as colleges,

39 were placed into the FET band, with all work above that level being defined as Higher Education. This included Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) colleges that work alongside schools rather than being categorised as post-school entities (SAQA, 2016:online; Wedekind & Watson, 2016:61).

2.17.1 National qualifications framework The original NQF provided for an eight-level framework and was introduced in South Africa in 1995 (South Africa, 1995:online) This framework placed the NDip and BTech qualifications at Levels 6 and 7. In 2008, these levels were increased from 8 to 10 (South Africa, 2008:online), with levels 5 to 10 being allocated to HEIs. However, it did not make provision for BTech or NDip qualifications at a Level 6 (Moolman & Wilkinson, 2015:86). This has resulted in HEIs being afforded the opportunity to offer a general (level 7) or professional (level 8) Bachelor’s degree. Development of a Bachelors’ degree within hospitality management can be applied in two ways, thanks to the development of the research-based competence framework. This framework can be used to design a new curriculum, as well as to be applied as an evaluation tool against the existing outcomes of the NDip and BTech curricula against the competences in the developed framework (Moolman & Wilkinson, 2015:86).

2.17.2 Qualifications sub-frameworks Three qualifications sub-frameworks are brought together under the NQF, namely General and Further Education and Training Qualifications Sub-Framework (GFETQSF), the Higher Education Qualification Sub-Framework (HEQSF) and Occupational Qualification Sub- Framework (OQSF) (Akoojee, 2008:297; SAQA, 2017:online). This is illustrated in Figure 2.3 below. These sub-frameworks are interdependent and enable learners to move from one sub- framework to another with ease, thereby enabling them to design their education and training path.

School in South Africa starts out as Basic Education (otherwise known as General and Further Education and Training Qualifications Sub-Framework). Should a learner decide to leave mainstream education at the end of Grade 9, they can move into a vocational route by continuing their education through a TVET college, or remain with the basic education to achieve a National Senior Certificate at NQF Level 4. Either of these routes will allow learners to continue to higher education or obtain other higher occupational qualifications, thereby enabling them to move across the sub-frameworks to reduce their chances of not furthering their education and training (Moolman & Wilkinson, 2015:82).

Figure 2.3: National Qualifications Framework

Source: Wedekind and Watson (2016:61)

41 2.18 THE NATIONAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY

The management of skills development within specified sectors, such as the hospitality sector, is handled by the National Skills Development Authority (NSDA), along with its extensive network of 24 Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs), and CATHSSETA (see Figure 2.4 below). CATHSSETA’s role is to act as a facilitator and coordinator between industry and higher education institutions in an effort to align education with the requirements of a booming industry (Nicolaides, 2013:64).

Figure 2.4: National Skills Development Authority

Source: South Africa (2008:online)

2.19 GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENT OF TOURISM ASSOCIATIONS

CATHSSETA is represented by a number of employer associations (see Figure 2.5 below), with each one being a key skills development stakeholder. Such employer associations include the Culinary Arts Association of South Africa (CAASA), the Federated Hospitality Association of South Africa (FEDHASA), Housekeepers’ Association of South Africa (HASA), Restaurant Association of South Africa (RASA) and the South African Chefs Association (SACA). Most of these employer associations are active in CATHSSETA, from board level to chamber committee level, with each of them providing sub-sector specific expertise, knowledge and

42 input into all skills development initiatives and projects undertaken by CATHSSETA (Nicolaides, 2013:70).

Figure 2.5: Government department of tourism associations

Source: CATHSSETA (2010:online)

2.20 QUALITY COUNCIL FOR TRADES AND OCCUPATIONS

To develop new chef and cook qualifications in South Africa that meet labour market requirements, South African chefs have been involved with the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) since 2013 (South African Chefs Association [SACA], 2017b: online). The Technical Work Group (TWG) was formulated to complete the Trade Test, which was piloted at the Centre for Culinary Excellence (CCE) in Auckland Park, Johannesburg. After much deliberation, the TWG identified and eliminated many issues, including some content in the Trade Test. The final draft was accepted by the National Artisans Moderation Body (NAMB) at the end of 2016 (Bolton, Samuels, Mofokeng & S.A.Q.A., 2016). 2017 saw the upgrade of the chef qualification from NQF Level 4 to NQF Level 5, with the credits being upgraded accordingly, along with an upgrade of the cook qualification to a two-part qualification, being Kitchen Hand and Food Handler. There has been a redevelopment of several other part-qualifications in which South African chefs have been involved, one of which is that students can start out as a Food Handler and then work their way up to Head Chef. Similarly, the modules are transferrable from upwards to downwards. If a student is unsuccessful in achieving a qualification at a higher NQF level, there is portability downwards

43 to achieve a lower qualification. These changes to both chef and cook qualifications, were designed and signed off by a core group of individuals, including those individuals who originally developed the qualification. These qualifications were then updated to reflect the changes and sent to the QCTO for the registration process (SACA, 2017b:online).

2.21 PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS STRUCTURE

2.21.1 Certification of non-qualified chefs A recent attempt to meet labour market requirements was to develop a certification for non- qualified chefs (see Figure 2.6 below) to be recognised by SACA, allowing SACA to award designations to their professional members registered with SAQA, as well as certifications for non-qualified chefs. This ground-breaking programme recognises chefs and cooks who are able to demonstrate their competence and who meet the prescribed criteria through their experience, skills and ability (SACA, 2017a:online). The programmes are described in the sections below.

2.21.2 Certification of professional titles without a formal qualification This applies to all cooks and chefs based on their current culinary skill level and experience within the hospitality industry without a formal qualification. They can apply for certification for the following professional titles:

Cook Requirements are a minimum of three years’ culinary work experience and candidate must be currently employed as a cook or chef within the hospitality industry.

Chef de Partie Requirements are a minimum of five years’ culinary work experience and the candidate must be currently employed as a Chef de Partie within the hospitality industry.

Sous Chef Requirements are a minimum of seven years’ culinary work experience and the candidate must be currently employed as a Sous Chef within the hospitality industry.

Head Chef Requirements are a minimum of nine years’ culinary work experience and the candidate must be currently employed as a Head Chef within the hospitality industry.

Figure 2.6: New qualifications structure

Source: SACA (2017b:online)

2.21.3 Certification of professional titles with formal qualification The certification applies to all cooks and chefs based on their qualification and years of experience with a Culinary Diploma or recognised equivalent culinary qualification and the required years of experience within the hospitality industry. They can apply to be SAQA registered for the following professional titles:

Cook Requirements are three years’ experience. The candidate is still in culinary school and is currently employed as a cook within the hospitality industry.

Chef de Partie Requirements are a culinary diploma and three years’ culinary work experience. The candidate is currently employed as a Chef de Partie within the hospitality industry.

Sous Chef Requirements are a culinary diploma, five years’ kitchen experience and the candidate is currently employed as a Sous Chef within the hospitality industry.

Head chef Requirements are a culinary diploma, seven years’ kitchen experience and the candidate must be currently employed as a Head Chef within the hospitality industry.

45 On the application for the Certification of Professional Titles, the candidate needs to submit a portfolio of evidence, a full list of requirements and criteria, which will be supplied by the South African Chefs Association (South African Chefs Association [SACA], 2017a:online). This will must be completed and submitted for the process of the accreditation to begin.

2.22 LABOUR MARKET

Numerous researchers have highlighted the very high level of staff turnover in the hospitality industry, specifically in the culinary workplace (Brien, 2004b:35; Robinson & Barron, 2007:913; Robinson & Beesley, 2010:765; Wang et al., 2011:998). The culinary working environment has frequently long hours of work (Mac Con Iomaire, 2008:44; Wang et al., 2011:997) that are unsociable. They include working on weekends and public holidays and working times are irregular and cross the 12-hour band (Pratten, 2003b:237; Robinson & Barron, 2007:913). There are also high stress levels due to heavy workload and pressure intervals (Murray-Gibbons & Gibbons, 2007:32; Mac Con Iomaire, 2008:43; Wang et al., 2011:998). This is coupled with low wages in the beginning and limited opportunities for promotion and progress within the industry (Jauhari, 2006:123). The culinary industry by nature is very labour intensive (Washington, Feinstein & Busser, 2003:243). Other problems experienced by culinary staff within the industry include discipline issues and hot, cramped kitchen conditions, especially in summer where units may not have the correct ventilation systems (Pratten, 2003b:238).

2.23 PROPOSED CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

In the current study, the author examines the occupational changes, the implications of professionalisation and professional learning using Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs in Gauteng, as an example. The study aims to interpret the theoretical framework of professionalism by exploring the beliefs and opinions of Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs and their assessments of their work. The methodological approach is qualitative, relying on semi-structured interviews with Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs who are experts in the field of Culinary arts in Gauteng. However, new managerial and leadership roles have become very topical. The researcher argues that professionalisation can lead to hybrid professionalism of chefs, which involves communication with the public, reliance on practical knowledge, no formal learning and reflexive control over their work.

A significant distinction is made between vocations and professions in the course of the historical development of occupations, where practical and physical knowledge typically refers to the lower-level occupations of manual work. The term profession is associated with

46 progressive occupations such as doctors and lawyers, which necessitates a long and expensive education, including theoretical knowledge and developing graduates for self-regulation. However, many improvements in education have helped develop and advance the restructuring of occupations (Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:1).

First is the trend by the Knowledge Society–the pressure to professionalise occupations, thus increasing the knowledge foundation of most of the occupational disciplines. Many new, emerging and integrated occupations tend to professionalise and struggle for a higher status and better position in society (Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:2).

Second is the standardisation trend that is guided by the globalising economy that affects various occupational fields differently, and third is the major changes in professionalism that have occurred because of changes in customer attitudes and requirements and the meaning of service in society. Therefore, expertise in professional knowledge is becoming increasingly complex and the understanding and acquisition of professional knowledge has changed as well (Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:4).

The traditional or conceptual interpretation of professionalism emphasises powerful institutionalisation of an occupational group, the entry to the profession, control over the content of work, commonly approved professional codes of ethics, theoretical knowledge, certain perceptions of those occupations as long and high-level, and educational preparation involving privileges of the occupation (Evans, 2008:26; Abbott, 2014:140).

There are two approaches that can be recognised in professionalisation, namely de- professionalisation and re-professionalisation. De-professionalisation occurs where practitioners in some occupations and in different cases mainly believe that their professionalism has been devalued within the industry, when practitioners are faced with increased pressure from external assessments and accountability within the industry, from control standards and evaluations involving reform processes (Evetts, 2006:515; Lai, 2010:443).

Re-professionalisation is where occupational changes have in some cases been forced by occupational groups on professions to alter their working roles to include their professional and principal values, their core identities, reflecting their work concerns (Helsby, 1999:301). Furthermore, the professionals have been pressured to take over administrative and managerial roles in organisations.

The field of management itself has been marked by conflict between two opposing views of professional knowledge. Firstly, the manager is a technician whose practice consists of applying

47 the principles and methods derived from management science to the everyday problems of his/her organisation. Secondly, the manager is a craftsperson, a practitioner of an art of managing that cannot be reduced to explicit rules and theories (Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:5). Nowadays, chefs’ roles are related to management work and organisation, marketing and service, culture, food-making, theory-based research and organisational ethics (Roosipõld, 2011:275).

The competency framework model in Figure 2.7 below illustrates the different levels of competence in the hospitality industry.

A competency model is a descriptive tool that identifies the skills, knowledge, personal characteristics and behaviours needed to perform effectively a role in the organisation and help the business meet its strategic objectives. In short, it is an integrated set of competencies required for excellent performance (Shippmann et al., 2000:704).

Competency models, in contrast to job analysis, focus on how work is accomplished and how objectives are met, which is increasingly more task- and work-focused (Lucia & Lepsinger, 1999:93; Shippmann et al., 2000:703; Schley, 2003:210).

Figure 2.7: Competency framework model

Source: Cheng (2012:57)

The competency model’s true value is revealed when a person’s development can be assessed to determine their competencies in the form of skills and knowledge that they currently have or may still need to obtain to perform their selected profession or industry tasks (Ennis, 2008:5; Campion, Fink, Ruggeberg, Carr, Phillips & Odman, 2011:225). For these different types of competencies, there needs to be a definition that will identify and illustrate objectives, together with an observable and measurable performance indicator for assessing individuals (Markus, Thomas & Allpress, 2005:117; Campion et al., 2011:225).

The different tiers, as per Cheng (2012:222; 58; 230; 216), are listed as follows:

Tier 1: Personal effectiveness • Interpersonal skills: Display the skills of being able to work with people. • Integrity: Display accepted social and work behaviours. • Professionalism: Maintain a professional appearance and uphold ethical standards.

49 • Initiative: Demonstrate a willingness to work and an ability to take on existing and new responsibilities. • Willingness to learn: Understand the importance of problem-solving and decision-making and being able to learn from new information from current and future activities. • Dependability and reliability: Displaying responsible behaviours at work. Tier 2: Academic competencies • Reading comprehension: The ability to read and comprehend policies and procedures, understand instructions, emergency procedures, and understand training material, which includes all written documents. • Business writing: The ability to write messages in a common language to workers, work cliques and customers, structure reports to work associates and managers, and letters to customers. • Mathematics: The ability to use mathematics to calculate conversions between currencies or units of measure, rates and taxes, and make basic calculations. • Basic computer proficiency: The ability to use a personal computer with its related functions, applications and programmes. • Communication skills: To be able to listen and speak in an understandable language. To communicate in a common language spoken well enough to be understood by supervisors, co-workers and customers. • Listening and speaking: Know how to identify, gather and find essential information.

Tier 3: Workplace competencies • Business fundamentals: Have business knowledge of general management principles, financial business acumen, business economics and business ethics.

• Teamwork: To apply a personal or collaborative effort with a group of staff to achieve a common goal, to help meet customer expectations and needs, complete work assignments and arrange schedules.

• Adaptability and flexibility: To have a positive attitude to change and to adapt to the variety of changes that will take place in the workplace.

• Marketing and customer focus: Actively look for ways to identify market demands and meet the customer or client needs.

• Problem-solving and/or decision-making: Apply problem-solving and critical-thinking skills to help resolve workplace conflict and grow the business.

• Making, planning and organising: Plan and prioritise work to manage time effectively and accomplish assigned tasks.

50 • Applied technology: To develop skill and knowledge capabilities to troubleshoot and operate mechanical and electrical equipment.

Tier 4: Industry-wide technical competencies • Hospitality principles and concepts: To understand the principles of the hospitality industry in relation to the industry’s knowledge and function.

• Hospitality operations and procedures: To demonstrate the understanding of the operations and activities in the hospitality industry in relation to performing setting ups, controlling and monitoring activities, and improving hospitality services to meet industry requirements.

• Customer service and cultural sensitivity: Listen, assist and provide professional customer needs, and help identify and acknowledge cultural diversity to help meet and predict customer needs.

• Quality assurance and quality control: maintaining quality service to guests through products being served, ensuring quality processes and maintaining service specifications, whilst at the same time, ensuring that customer expectations, both during and after guest stays, is met.

• Sales and marketing: Promote and sell industry services.

Tier 5: Industry-sector competencies • Guest services general: Being competent and demonstrating knowledge in guest procedures in relation to guest arrivals and departures and having knowledge of the surrounding area and attractions.

• Hotel operations: Understand hotel the organisational structure and operations of the hotel in relation to services offered to hotel guests.

• Health and safety: Showing and having knowledge governing health and safety within hotels.

• Laws and regulations: Knowledge of local hotel regulations and laws that relate to the establishment and surroundings.

2.24 PRODUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE

The process of culinary knowledge production has three key factors—production of knowledge, reconceptualization of knowledge, and the reproduction of knowledge. These all emerge when

51 analysing how culinary knowledge can address awareness of culinary education by chefs within the culinary industry.

Traud (2017:7) believes that the producers of culinary knowledge within the culinary industry are the culinary industry chefs but that they have no influence on the current curriculum of culinary arts education being taught to students, as well as curriculum redevelopment in university-based institutions. This is because, until recently, globally the majority of chefs emerge from a vocational education background and cannot influence culinary curriculum as they have no access to higher learning institutions.

Figure 2.8 below illustrates how chefs are the knowledge creators, progressing from novice to professional and own the space of innovators in the culinary field (Shtaway, 2016:online). Traud (2017:75) talks about the recontextualization of knowledge. This involves defining professional development and continuing professional learning structures for culinary arts educators to reflect and resemble the learning of active members of the restaurant industry. Traud goes on to talk about the reproduction of knowledge. This involves the investigation of the connection between culinary education and the culinary industry to strengthen their relationship through professional networking and current experiences in a professional environment.

Figure 2.8: The culinary spectrum

Source: Shtaway (2016:online)

2.25 CHEFS’ STRUCTURE AND COMPETENCIES

This discussion focuses on the current relevance of the brigade system as developed by Escoffier (2020:54) in relation to the development of qualifications to supplement the brigade system as a model for professional development in the profession. The brigade system, as previously stated, was designed by Escoffier to professionally develop experienced chefs into 52 chefs de cuisine (executive chefs) (Escoffier, 1987:54). It did so through a system of apprenticeships, which over time were supplemented by a range of institutional qualifications that widened access (Gonzalez, 2019:77). While current access to the profession is still relatively open to include school leavers (Grade 12 NSC and 10), there has been a clear shift towards employing culinary students with NQF 5 level certificates and diplomas, NQF Level 6 diplomas and NQF Level 7 Bachelor of Technology degrees (Balkaran & Giampiccoli, 2013:211; Moolman & Wilkinson, 2015:84).

The global effect of dumping down average skills levels in hospitality and tourism, it is difficult to argue that they have eliminated demand for higher order skills within other sectors of the industry (Robinson & Barron, 2007:913).

This possible shift can be largely attributed to the change in current competencies required to perform the role of Executive Chef in hotels. While the original brigade system recognised a need for mathematical and written literacy for progression, the process was implicit. To progress within the brigade system, certain basic non-practical skills needed to be mastered, for example, a Chef de Partie needed to be able to read and write recipes to produce standardized menus in a specific time frame. These meals must be of a similar standard at every meal and this required a standard recipe. Implicit in the chefs position, too, was the knowledge skills associated with numeracy, being able to produce only the required amount of food that could be sold to remain profitable (Ennis, 2008:4; Parker and Walters, 2008:70; Hadges, 2016:1; Gonzalez, 2019:7).

Numeric and language literacy in the kitchen was (like culinary skills) facilitated through the apprenticeship model wherein the person directly above in the kitchen hierarchy transferred their knowledge in the workplace (Pratten, 2003a:454; Hu, 2010b:584; Rahmawati, Komariah & Auliana, 2015:65; Gonzalez, 2019:7). When the brigade system was first introduced as a system of professional development, person-to-person skills transfer was sufficient to take a suitable Commis Chef over a period of 20 or more years to a level of Chef de Cuisine or Executive Chef (Hadges, 2016:1).

The primary competencies of a Chef de Cuisine in 1876 were to run the kitchen, coordination of staff and deal with the everyday functions of the kitchen. The Chef de Cuisine is overseen by an Executive Chef, who is often the celebrity or better-known face of a restaurant and who may incidentally oversee multiple establishments (Escoffier, 1987:54; Gonzalez, 2019:6).

A staff of cooks is led by a chef de cuisine, literally the chief of the kitchen. This chef designs menus, may oversee business aspects of the restaurant, and, during service hours, is usually stationed at “the passe” where plated dishes are inspected before being sent out to customers. It is the chef’s responsibility to call out orders, delegate tasks during service, and manage quality

53 control. They are like the conductors of the kitchen, overseeing the bigger picture of a meal for a table and managing timing so that each dish is done at the same time (Gonzalez, 2019:6).

As this job description evolved, so too did the competencies required. While pre-work qualifications like certificates, diplomas and degrees have played an increasing role in preparing chefs entering the profession for the complex set of competencies now required to be an Executive Chef (Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:4), professional development is still a crucial component of progression.

They have to possess knowledge and skills in a variety of business disciplines such as financial management, accounting, marketing, human resources management, operations management, engineering and legal aspects (Pizam, 2016:116).

The identification of Executive Chef competency is a major step towards the professionalisation of the very important fields of training and development in the culinary industry. There are many definitions of competence or competency.

Competence can be seen as a molar concept similar to the concept of intelligence, with its major components being skills, judgment, attitudes and values, entry skills, knowledge, ability and capacity (Birdir & Pearson, 2000:205).

Hu (2010a:65) structured a multidimensional model of innovative culinary competency— culture, aesthetic, product, management, creative, service and technology. The current competencies of an Executive Chef are listed by Hu (2010a:68-69) in Table 2.2 below.

54 Table 2.2: Multidimensional model of innovative culinary competency

Source: Hu (2010a:68-69)

55 Hu (2010b:582) believes modern institutions of culinary education strive to generate culinary chefs with the knowledge and skills of achievers, who are capable of using their intellects to transform raw food into a culinary creation using their intuition, imagination, emotions, and physical sensory skills. Permanent culinary workplace chefs strive constantly to be aware of new culinary skills, knowledge and ideas, which will benefit both their professional and personal lives. Brown (2005:47) reports that innovative culinary competencies include 69 items in seven categories—culture, aesthetics, technology, product, service, management, and creativity. These results are congruent with other related studies on competencies.

The nature and role of the modern chef’s occupation has changed significantly in recent times as chefs have become professionals managers (Pizam, 2016:116). Nowadays a chef’s roles are related to management and organisational work, marketing and services, cultural influences, food preparation, theory-based research and organisational ethics (Roosipõld, 2011:277). “Their jobs have become so complex that they can no longer be trained on the job in an apprentice model” (Ko, 2012:1004).

The Executive Chef, who is considered the most important employee within the hotel kitchen department (Birdir & Canakci, 2014:207), is now also recognised as having a specialized function (Hadges, 2016:1). To develop professionally and to get better at mastering the job requires acquisition, attention and refining one’s skills and knowledge. Hendley (2017:300) states, “defining these qualities as important skills, ones that commercial chefs might lack, centrality of artistry, technical proficiency, toughness and leadership as status markers.”

Several researchers highlight the skills and expertise necessary for a chef:

1) Technical skills are qualities obtained within the workplace by gaining and using learned expertise in performing physical and digital tasks (Harrington et al., 2005:200; Hu, 2010a:70; Ko, 2012:1005; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:129; Pizam, 2016:116; Suhairom et al., 2019:205)

2) Cognitive skills are the basic skills your brain uses to reason, think, learn, read, pay attention and remember. These skills acknowledge information, working together by taking and moving this learned information into a bank of knowledge that you use every day at school, in life and at work (Hu, 2010b:582; Ko, 2012:1005; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:110, 2017:190; Pizam, 2016:116; Suhairom et al., 2019:211).

3) Creativity involves transforming your dreams, imagination and ideas into reality by seeing hidden patterns and making connections between things that are not normally related, and come up with new ideas and solutions which largely form part of problem-

56 solving (Hu, 2010a:66; Robinson & Beesley, 2010:769; Ko, 2012:1006; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2017:9; Suhairom et al., 2019:211).

4) Business skills are skills needed to effectively manage your business using skills like marketing, financial management, sales and customer service, leadership, project management and planning, communication and negotiation skills, delegation and time management, problem-solving and networking (Harrington et al., 2005:216; Birdir & Canakci, 2014:208; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2017:10; Suhairom et al., 2019:211).

5) Managerial skill is also part of leadership skills, often used interchangeably as they both involve decision-making, planning, problem-solving, delegation, communication and time management. Effective managers are normally good leaders, which becomes a critical role for a manager who must ensure that all parts of the organization are functioning cohesively (Hu, 2010a:71; Ko, 2012:1006; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2017:10; Wellton, 2017:96; Gonzalez, 2019:42; Suhairom et al., 2019:217).

6) Motivational/mentoring skills. Mentorship is a relationship in which a more experienced and knowledgeable person helps to guide a less experienced or less knowledgeable person but he or she must have a certain area of expertise (Mac Con Iomaire, 2008:48; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2017:11; Haddaji, 2018:4; Suhairom et al., 2019:206).

7) Environmental skill refers to the development and support of managers in relation to their knowledge, abilities, values and attitudes towards the general population in which they reduce their impact of human activity on the environment in which we live (Hu, 2010b:586; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2017:11).

8) Personality factors are skills that can be described as personality and behavioural traits that determine how people act in a workplace, including how they manage themselves, perform their work and interact with co-workers and management (Birdir & Pearson, 2000:207; Mac Con Iomaire, 2008:48; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2017:12; Haddaji, 2018:112; Haddaji et al., 2018:268; Suhairom et al., 2019:207).

9) Demographics refers to the understanding the demographic of your target customers is critical for the success of your business. You need to understand them, their age and race to decide exactly what your product and service mix will include (Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:118; Haddaji, 2018:8).

10) Perception of success happens when somebody or something is able to use their own skills, physical ability and knowledge in combination with what they have access to within their environment to produce a result that has a positive effect on their life and the

57 environment around them (Ko, 2012:1006; Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:2; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2017:2; Suhairom et al., 2019:206).

11) Communication skill is the action of conveying meanings from one person or group to another through the use of mutually understood common language, signs and symbols (Balazs, 2002:247; Harrington et al., 2005:216; Hu, 2010b:584; Ko, 2012:1006; Birdir & Canakci, 2014:208; Suhairom et al., 2019:207).

When mapping these competencies against the exit outcomes of culinary certificates, diplomas and degrees, it becomes evident that there is implicit acknowledgement that chefs entering the profession, even with a qualification, require professional workplace development. While the brigade system provides a blueprint for progression of a chef, it was not originally designed to accommodate all the competencies currently required by an Executive Chef in a 4- and 5-star hotel (Birdir & Canakci, 2014:207).

The gap therefore exists in research to map what competencies are required by current Executive Chefs in hotels and how the brigade system model can inform best professional development practice to meet these requirements.

2.26 PROCESS OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

To become an Executive Chef there needs to be a process of imparting knowledge, training and experience to an individual by the company (Hadges, 2016:1) whilst in the employ of that organisation. In turn, it realises the ability of the employee to apply, within the working environment, knowledge, skills, motivations and traits in performing the job (Kane, 1992:163). The company then, within its structures, provides the employee with the necessary environment to practise the trade and impart skills for which the employee was hired (Haddaji, 2018:89). Whilst applying the trade, the employee in turn gains experience from learning from colleagues, participates in developments, makes mistakes, learns by trial and error and gets feedback from managers and supervisors (Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2017:8). This process of informal learning is defined by Haddaji (2018:89) as work-based learning.

Workplace learning encapsulates expectations, knowledge, skills and attitudes that facilitate the integration inside the kitchen and the professional kitchen working environment (Haddaji et al., 2018:270).

Workplace learning is important to chefs who combine informal and formal learning processes to become proficient in their trade to progress. It requires a combination of learning strategies like vocational training, academic education, company training and real world industry

58 experience (Hadges, 2016:1). All professions require a continuous update of skills and knowledge within the workplace. Billett (2001:13) states that the contribution of workplace learning was not always fully acknowledged, due to the nature of its physical working environment. Steyn (2004:217) points out that professional development does not end after acquiring an education such as a certificate, a diploma, a degree or an apprenticeship. Once an aspiring chef has entered into the workplace, complacency and a reluctance to develop hinders skills advancement and development. Learning can only progress if facilities are involved and committed to ongoing learning processes (Robinson & Carrington, 2002:239).

The literature suggests a combination of learning processes to facilitate professional development. Many stakeholders need to connect and be committed for the process to develop a competent Executive Chef.

Figure 2.9 below illustrates the continuous learning cycle of a chef once in the workplace environment. The figure shows the processes that influence the chef’s professional development, helping career development and progression within the organisation. The chef will enter the workplace with a culinary qualification for workplace skills, which is the initial education for an entrant into the culinary field. Haddaji et al. (2018:269) highlight that the chef will be subjected to career education (company training).

Figure 2.9: Relationship between workplace learning, company training and continuing professional development

Source: Researcher’s own construct

Companies may provide development programmes to upskill their employees within the workplace (Jiang & Klein, 2002:249) but these need to be relevant to the department and 59 position within the culinary brigade and supervised by mentors that will pass on knowledge and skills (Albors-Garrigos et al., 2013:20).

Mentoring and leadership will fall to the Executive Chef, the common “leadership style in the kitchen, the one used by the chef and who mentored them” (Haddaji et al., 2018:280). It is recommended that mentoring and leadership should become commonplace in the culinary industry (Ward, 2017:3). Creating an improved and nurturing kitchen environment will improve working conditions, retain chefs and develop better chef professionals, giving them support and motivation to take the initiative and to take risks, with corrective reinforcement and most importantly, encouragement (Bartholomew & Garey, 1996:125; Crafts & Thompson, 1997:42; Mac Con Iomaire, 2008:46).

Continuous professional development (CPD) is necessary for a chef’s success in the profession (Ottenbacher & Harrington, 2007:444). Their development process relies greatly on leadership within organisations, innovation and motivation within kitchen environments (Albors-Garrigos et al., 2013:21). CPD is further influenced by relationships between chefs, cooks and apprentices, their senior chefs, as well as company management (Stierand, Dörfler and Lynch, 2008:9). This continuous learning is mandatory for the success of chefs as it increases their efficiency and their professional knowledge and skill in the workplace (Cormier-MacBurnie, Doyle, Mombourquette & Young, 2015:554). Therefore, the relationship between the chef and the organisation is necessary to boost professional development for the chef to be able to progress in his or her career and ultimately reach the level of Executive Chef.

It is important to note that the learning environment of chefs is also the production environment, where the aim of the kitchen is to produce foods for resale to make a profit. Its ultimate function is a financial one, where making profit and maintaining budgets becomes the most important factor. This does not make it the ideal environment for knowledge- and skill-sharing, although this does take place. These are the conditions and environments in which chefs work and learn (James, 2006:5).

2.27 CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHEFS

All culinary professionals require an update of knowledge and skill (Jooste, 2007:185). The career progression of a chef relies on continued training, development and motivation from the organisation during career development (Bastola, 2014:16). There is limited literature on continuous professional development of chefs but Wayant (2011:31) believes that hospitality employees regard company training as a useful part of it. If the training is continuous, hands on, on-the-job, and its content relevant to the position and level of the employee at work, it will

60 be purposeful development. Unfortunately, most professional development programmes are short workshops, brief courses, conferences or seminars with limited relevance to the position or job at hand (Robinson & Carrington, 2002:240). The company must realise that the training is not only developing new skills and knowledge for the benefit of the employees but also for their own professional wellbeing and ownership (Jooste, 2007:69).

The chef’s career progression path suggests that the chef profession as a whole has much scope for advancement but it requires attention from management and the employer for the chefs to advance in their careers (O’Leary & Deegan, 2005:421; Chuang, Yin & Dellmann-Jenkins, 2009:323).

It is important for organisations to recognise and identify the changing and challenging learning and working environment for chefs to progress in their careers and at the same time identify the need for growing the talents of future chefs to progress in their careers (D’Annunzio‐Green, Maxwell & Watson, 2008:720; Chuang et al., 2009:323; Palmer et al., 2010:311).

2.28 MODEL OF A CHEF’S CAREER

Figure 2.10 below illustrates a proposed model of a chef’s career, adapted from Haddaji (2018:148). It is derived also from the literature review of a chef’s career progression and relationships (Zopiatis, 2010:459; Ko, 2012:1005). The figure illustrates that the output is career evolution. It further identifies the primary elements in the development of chefs as workplace learning and its environment, as well as the required skills in the workplace. The two moderating factors are mentoring and leadership and a further recognised element is the barriers that hinder a chef’s development. These identified criteria and the categories that Haddaji identified formed the base and structure of the current study.

Figure 2.10: A model of the chef’s career

Source: Researcher’s own construct adapted from Haddaji (2018:148)

Workplace learning Cormier-MacBurnie et al. (2015:522) examined the chef’s informal and formal workplace learning and specifically considered the chef’s learning outcomes and strategies. This included the barriers and facilitators of workplace learning and the learning strategies that are important to managers and organisations. It is a process whereby people, as a function of completing organisational tasks and roles, acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes that enhance individual and organisational performance (Hicks, Bagg, Doyle & Young, 2007:61).

The framework includes similar codes to the framework of Haddaji et al.’s (2018:277) study.

Workplace learning strategies, workplace learning outcomes, barriers to workplace learning and facilitators of workplace learning informed the framework of the present study.

Learning strategies Crouse, Doyle and Young (2011:39) identified more than 30 studies that had been done on learning strategies. Van Rijn, Yang and Sanders (2013:610) outline three generic informal learning strategies:

• Ask for feedback from supervisors;

• Keep up to date; and

• Acknowledge sharing.

62 These are used by many occupational and professional groups, as learning from doing work is a regularly identified strategy (Doyle, Findlay & Young, 2012:259). These are “ways that people acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes” (Crouse et al., 2011:40).

Specific learning activities and strategies identified by Cormier-MacBurnie (2010:73) are in many respects the learning strategies of chefs. These include completing specific tasks, usually as per the structure of the kitchen in which they work, a copy of those of other professions and organisations.

Chefs have a complex history of development that has shaped and influenced the culinary industry. The chef profession is confronted by many challenges and obstacles in the journey of professional development.

63 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The preceding chapter outlined the problem of career progression of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs. It is a complex relationship and is the responsibility of many different organisations within the culinary industry. The current study focuses on the need to analyse all the stakeholders’ responsibilities and contributions towards the continued professional development of Executive Chefs within the Tsogo Sun Group. This chapter presents the processes and procedures used in collecting the data for the study. The key focus is on the approaches adopted in the research design, the methods and tools used, the sampling process used for the data collection and how the data was analysed.

The framing of this study is a criterion-based purposeful sample. The selection of a phenomenological approach means that each participant must have a connection to culinary education, have shared work-life experience, and current industry workforce relations. The overall criteria are exposure to culinary education, a culinary industry member, a culinary graduate, employer or employee within the hospitality industry (Robinson, Solnet & Breakey, 2014:66).

3.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

To realise the objectives of the study the following questions were developed.

• What is the profile of the professional development of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs in 4- and 5-star South African hotels?

• What are the perceptions of key stakeholders on professional development?

• What would be a useful framework of recommendations for policy formulation or planning and practical application in the context of professional development in hotels?

3.3 CASE STUDY DESIGN

To help answer the study questions, Tsogo Sun Hotel Group, the largest hotel group in South Africa (hereinafter referred to as the Group), was selected (Tsogo Sun, 2019:online). The Group owns and manages 153 hotels and has the highest concentration of 4- and 5-star hotels in South Africa. The Group overview shows that the majority of the Group’s 4- and 5-star hotels are located in the Gauteng province, more specifically, in Johannesburg and its surrounds (Tsogo Sun, 2019:online). They have as many as 35 hotels across all categories and star gradings in

64 Gauteng province. The Group prides itself on having over 300 food and beverage outlets, offering a complete food and beverage experience with a wide range of restaurants, banqueting facilities and room service in its 4- and 5-star hotels (Tsogo Sun, 2019:online).

The Group has 14 hotels in Johannesburg and was identified as the best entity from which to select Executive and Executive Sous Chefs (Tsogo Sun, 2019:online).

The hotels had to be complete service hotels in relation to Food and Beverage with multiple food outlets, and a full kitchen brigade structure, reflecting all the culinary positions (Gonzalez, 2019:42). This would provide a realistic view of the duties and responsibilities of the different departments and levels found within the 4- and 5-star hotel kitchens.

The research sought to focus on a dominant and established South African hotel group, which presumably had company policies and procedures in place. The Tsogo Sun Hotel Group met the criteria, as the study would investigate the professional development of South African executive and Executive Chefs, and the perceptions of the Human Resource and Training Department perceptions on this topic.

It was important that all 4- and 5-star properties had permanently employed Executive and Executive Sous Chefs in the kitchens and who operated within a kitchen brigade structure. There also needed to be a training policy and procedures in place. This was determined by an Internet research audit and personal knowledge of the Group that was willing to participate in the study.

3.4 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

To ensure compliance with ethical research principles, the following procedures were followed:

• The study received ethical clearance from the University of Johannesburg’s College of Business and Economics Higher Degrees Committee (see Appendix A).

• A letter of consent from the principal supervisor was shown to all the interviewees and an explanation was given explaining that the information that will be recorded will be kept confidential and informed them of their right to withdraw at any time during the course of the study and that the data would be used for academic purposes only (see Appendix B).

• The research purpose and objectives were explained to the participants prior to the commencement of the interviews.

65 3.5 THE RESEARCH DESIGN

The initial aim of the study was to investigate the profile of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs in South Africa. To achieve this goal, the best method was to collect 150 CVs nationally from 4- and 5-star hotels within South Africa (Birdir & Canakci, 2014:207). No specific hotel group was targeted for this initial phase. This was merely to otain a profile, as done in Allen and Mac Con Iomaire's study (2016:116). The orientation of the research design was to establish the demographics of the larger national cohort of the Executive and Executive Sous Chefs, to seek to ascertain a picture of the South African culinary workforce of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs within 4- and 5-star hotels. The basic categories were applied, with particular focus on gender, race, age, career data, type and level of education, job progression, career progression and chef brigade movements in relation the kitchen brigade (see Appendix C). This data was then analysed to determine which Executive and Executive Sous Chefs would be interviewed.

The qualitative method was applied to ascertain how Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs understand and interpret the changes to their occupation, as well as what meaning they ascribe to those changes from the perspective of professionalisation.

Table 3.1 below compares qualitative and quantitative research characteristics.

66 Table 3.1 Qualitative versus quantitative methods

Source: Creswell, Hanson, Clark Plano and Morales (2007:208)

In qualitative research, the researcher needs to design a study with a clear understanding of the stage or stages at which the data will be integrated and what format this integration will take (Creswell et al., 2007:236).

A semi-structured interview was the data collection instrument (see Appendix D). The interviews were conducted with 11 Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs in 5- and 4-star Gauteng hotel properties within the Group, of both genders. Two of the interviewees had NQF 6 in the field of culinary arts or equivalent, and the rest of the interviewees had a minimum NQF rating of 4 and 5, both of which represented formal education, one in vocational and the other in professional education.

In qualitative research, open-ended questions are asked so that the participants can best voice their experiences unconstrained by any perspectives of the researcher or past research findings. An open-ended response to a question allows the participant to create the options for responding (Creswell & Poth, 2017:52).

67 In preparing qualitative interview guidelines, one proceeds from the concept of “ideological professionalism” for every topic (Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:13). One open question was asked, with leading questions on the assumption of the theory. Such questions try to change the implicit comprehension of the interviewee into an explicit understanding (Evans, 2008:23; Abbott, 2014:217). These questions proposed the position with which the interviewee could agree or not, and whether they were in accordance with his/her subjective theories. Open-ended questions were used as it was imperative to the study to allow for greater in-depth examination of participants’ responses (Creswell & Poth, 2017:52).

One-on-one interviews were conducted. “One-on-one interviews are useful for asking sensitive questions and enabling interviewees to ask questions or provide comments that go beyond the initial questions” (Creswell & Poth, 2017:164)

The interviews were conducted at the research institution or at a venue preferred by the participant. Only on the approval of the participants would interviews be recorded. Field notes were taken during the interviews. Thereafter the recorded interviews were transcribed using Dragon software for coding and data analysis.

A semi-structured interview was applied as the data collection instrument to interview the Human Resources manager, the Training manager and an Industry Professional Body to get a deeper understanding of the challenges to the professional development of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs (see Appendix E).

3.5.1 Sample population, size and procedure The sample for this study is a purposeful, criterion-based sample (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010:320). The phenomenological approach meant that each Executive and Executive Sous Chef must be in the culinary profession, have a connection to the current culinary industry workforce, and a culinary education or equivalent (Cullen, 2010:96). The overall criteria were exposure to culinary education and a senior position such as an Executive or Executive Sous Chef within a 4- or 5-star hotel which has a full kitchen brigade structure.

3.5.2 Sample selection and size The first stage of purposeful sampling was to collect and analyse the 148 CVs collected nationally from Executive and Executive Sous Chefs from different hotel groups within South

68 African 4- and 5-star hotels. The CVs were collected through an employment agency, which verified the information contained in them via LinkedIn .

The purposeful sampling section focused on the biographic data of the respondents, collecting data from the CV, regarding Gender, Race, Age, Career data, Type and level of Education, Job progression, Career progression and Chef brigade movements in relation to the kitchen brigade. This is in line with Allen and Mac Con Iomaire's, (2016:116) study which profiled head chefs in the Republic of Ireland.

From analysing the CV data, the following informed the initial qualitative part of the study, which was the selection of the interviewees. This purposeful sample focused on participants that are culinary industry experts in the subject matter on the phenomenon under study (Patton, 2002:169). Eleven Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs were interviewed, selected from the 150 CVs collected nationally. The Group has 14 4- and 5-star hotels in Johannesburg and 22 within the overall Group, hence the small selection of 11 Executive and Executive Sous Chefs gave a 50% representation of the 4- and 5-star hotels. This is similar to the sample selected in the study of Ward (2017:77) on Executive Chefs. Ideally, the study’s criteria would have been to select two Executive and Executive Sous Chefs with an NQF Rating of 6 and the rest making up the NQF Rating of 4 and 5.

At the second stage of the qualitative study, the Group’s Human Resource manager, Group Training manager and professional industry body were examined to determine the factors related to company cooperation between Company Training and Human Resource policy that affect or influence chefs’ professional development.

3.5.3 Sample procedure The preparation of the interview guidelines proceeded from the concept of “ideological professionalism”. For every topic, one open question was asked, with leading questions on the assumption of the theory. Such questions tried to change the implicit comprehension of the interviewee into an explicit understanding (Roosipõld & Loogma, 2014:13).

Semi-structured interview data were collected, transcribed into Microsoft Word and then exported into a data analysis program for coding, analysis and interpretation using Atlas.ti software. All participants in the interviewee process was assured that their identities and all data would be protected.

69 3.6 DATA COLLECTION

The interviews were recorded. The semi-structured interviews were done in two parts. The first part comprising the Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs, and the second part was the interviews with the Group’s Human Resource manager, Group Training manager and the professional industry body. The length of the interview was determined by the individual’s detailed responses and the depth of the probing questions. Before the interviews took place, a time and place were agreed upon where the interview would take place. Most interviews lasted between 60 and 90 minutes. In some instances, additional probing questions were posed to interviewees, which extended the duration to 90 minutes. The continued conversation enables the interviewer to get a clearer and more complete understanding (Konkol, 2013:99). The participants were able to speak freely about their views on the questions. In some cases, the interviewee gave shorts answers to questions, and indicated via body language that they did not want to expand on their answers. This was accepted, and the interview moved to the next question. The interviews were completed within 4–5 weeks, spaced a few days apart, allowing the interviewer to absorb and understand responses but not allowing enough time to lapse in between and to lose the connection when transcribing (Seidman, 2006:128).

The interviews were structured within a framework of six categories:

• Workplace learning; • Workplace skills; • Barriers to progression; • Mentoring and leadership; • Career education; and • Professional development. Each section was completed first before the interview began the next category. These categories were modelled around a study done by Haddaji (2018:274).

3.6.1 Curriculum vitae data analysis The purposeful sampling from the CVs was categorised by a predetermined set of variables, which were transcribed into an Excel spreadsheet. Microsoft Excel is widely used by scientists for data collection, calculation and sophisticated and highly customizable macros which can be formulated using Excel Visual Basic spread sheets (Zhang, Huo, Zhou & Xie, 2010:306).

The data were grouped and compared, giving a clear understanding of the data obtained from the CVs, which in turn informed the qualitative part of the study.

70 The following information was extracted from the CVs and transcribed into Microsoft Excel for further analysis:

• Name • Age • Gender • Race • Current position Executive Chef or Executive Sous Chef • Matric or grade passed • Qualification • Years of study • Year obtained • Type of certificate • Level of NQF Qualification • Name of institution qualification obtained • Number of hotels worked • Grade of hotel worked • Types of catering establishments worked - Lodge or guest house, country club - Corporate catering worked - Cruise liners - Multiple food outlet complex - Restaurants worked • Total years of experience • International experience • International experience years • Registered professional body • Years of experience as a: - Commis Chef/apprenticeship - Demi chef - Chef de Partie - Sous Chef - Executive Sous Chef or head chef - Executive chef - Complex or group Executive Chef 3.6.2 LinkedIn The CVs were verified using LinkedIn. “LinkedIn suggests a professionally-oriented performance, providing templates for self-presentation that follow resume formats” (Papacharissi, 2009:200).

71 The main purpose of LinkedIn is to provide professional information, in the form of a concise CV, with the intention to establish connections, as well as to view the connections of their connections via search queries on an inexpensive professional web page (Skeels & Grudin, 2009).

The platform allows the user to determine how much of their profile to share with the public and its connections, as well as to ask for and make recommendations from other members. Similar to a CV, a person’s LinkedIn page is mostly static, apart from new connections. This is an easily constructed, inexpensive source of information, in which to market oneself for potential employment, with there being less chance of deception than carrying out the same form of marketing in private profiles or traditional resumes. Only LinkedIn profiles are publicly available, with less chance of not being truthful in one’s online resume and thereby gives a reason to check the correctness of information from two different sources (Guillory & Hancock, 2012:135).

3.6.3 Using curriculum vitae data The utilisation of CV data is striking because of its tremendous richness (Dietz, Chompalov, Bozeman, Lane & Park, 2000:420). The CV is an important tool for providing a potential employer with a clear-cut indicator of employment movement from one work environment to the next, as well to represent a person’s knowledge, experience, record of accomplishment, a brief history of a professional life’s journey, an obligation of professional accuracy, as well as a job resource (Cañibano & Bozeman, 2009:88). It lists an individual’s entire career—from scholar to career professional—and serves as a historical record that evolves over time, capturing changes in an individual’s interests, jobs, movements and collaborations. It is a valuable data source for people interested in career trajectories, research evaluation or educational studies, whilst at the same time containing useful, concrete information on the timing, sequence, and duration of jobs, work products (articles and papers written), collaborative patterns and scholarly lineage.

A CV represents a record of accomplishment, a brief history of a professional’s life journey, a personal services advertisement, as well as a job search resource (Cañibano & Bozeman, 2009:86). For this reason, it is important that one’s CV contains accurate data that is constantly updated to ensure that it is readily available to those requiring it. In the 1990s, a few researchers used CVs but mainly as a supporting source of information. Only recently has this changed to the CV now being seen as a character of self-conscious and reflective methodology as opposed to one of many data sources (Long & McGinnis, 1985:225; Bonzi, 1992:111; Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1992:921; Long, Allison & McGinnis, 1993:703; Long & Fox, 1995:45).

72 Although CVs have potential as data sources for research, there are a number of methodological problems that have to be addressed, such as availability, accuracy and coding of CVs (Dietz et al., 2000:419). Several CV studies have been conducted by numerous researchers (Gaughan & Bozeman, 2002:17; Gaughan & Robin, 2004:570; Dietz & Bozeman, 2005:350; Lee & Bozeman, 2005:673) and other groups have joined this research agenda, including Mangematin (2000:741) and Cañibano, Otamendi and Andújar (2008:17).

It is for these reasons that CVs are an attractive data resource as not only does the researcher have the opportunity to obtain bibliographic information (Lepori & Probst, 2009:125) but also to integrate that information with other information on careers, research background and geographical mobility to understand the structure and dynamics of a field (Hicks, 2004:475; Nederhof, 2006:85).

A new, emerging trend is the use of CVs to evaluate policy impacts, as CVs can be reliably coded to reflect valid career constructs as well as to represent prospective, longitudinal records of scientific careers (Dietz et al., 2000:419). The CV is an important data source for researchers and science policy analysts and it is surprising that the analysis of CVs for research evaluation and purposes of scientific policy only began seriously less than a decade ago (Cañibano & Bozeman, 2009:95).

3.7 DATA ANALYSIS

After each interview, the information from the interviews was transcribed and completed before the next interview began, from Microsoft Word converted into Rich Text Format so that the interviews could be auto-coded into Atlas.ti software. Atlas.ti was deemed the best program to enhance analysis of the interview data, to increase reliability and to perform coding to minimize errors in data collection. Atlas.ti has increased functionality to retrieve, sort and analyze data (Richards, 2014:106). Coding is primarily an interpretive act and is not an exact science. The objective of coding is to identify and understand themes that emerge and to uncover the deeper meaning of the embedded themes in these narratives and subsequent responses (Konkol, 2013:78).

Thematic analysis techniques were used to analyse the data as done in the study by Ward (2017:69). As the present study was qualitative in nature, patterns were developed and themes were identified to arrange the data in an organised fashion, categorising the numerous themes into categories with similar meaning. According to Smit (2002:69), the use of computer software in data analysis should support data and not steer the data analysis but provide greater flexibility and speed.

73 In the data analysis of the interviews, the text of the primary data was examined using Atlas.ti after which the repertoire of answers/meanings was extracted under each broad category. Lastly, the contents of the broader categories were generalised and interpreted as the characteristics of the chefs’ professionalism.

3.8 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY IN RESEARCH

Reliability is concerned with the consistency, reliability or accuracy of the data collection method used and the accuracy of the data collection procedure (Bryman, 2016:275). Reliability is how logical, truthful, robust, reasonable, meaningful and useful the research in question is (Quinlan, 2011:114). Validity refers to the accuracy of the measuring tool used to measure the specific concept that the researcher intends to measure (Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 2013:232), while the dependability of research is the degree to which the research can be repeated and still produce the same results (Quinlan, 2011:120; Bell, 2014:121).

The constructs of validity and reliability in qualitative research differ from those in quantitative data. Noble and Smith (2015:34) argue that qualitative data in research is criticised for its lack of scientific rigour. Reliability in terms of quantitative research does not repeatedly produce the same results as in the case of qualitative research (Henning, van Rensburg & Smit, 2004:54). Bryman and Bell (2014:28) point out that validity and reliability in quantitative and qualitative research should not be evaluated by the same constructs and if so, would indicate that qualitative research would elicit absolute truths and therefore the validity and reliability of the data collected should be about the dependability of the data in qualitative research.

3.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY

Chapter Three discussed the research methodology applied in conducting the present qualitative study. The reasons behind purposeful sampling were elucidated, as well as the process that was followed in the qualitative part of the study in terms of data collection. This explained the sample size, the population and the procedures implemented. The data from the semi-structured interviews were collected and transcribed, analysed and coded using Atlas.ti. Given that research on the professional development of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs is very limited in the context of South Africa, a biographical profile was deemed useful in informing the qualitative design of the study.

The next chapter presents the key findings from the surveys conducted.

75 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The broad goal of the study was to hear the collective voices of South African chefs in a 4- and 5-star hotel group on a variety of issues related to their professional development. The reviews and survey results from the qualitative study aided to identify and understand the important aspects of professional development of chefs’ culinary education and their culinary working environments.

Using qualitative data, the researcher answered the research questions by analysing the data obtained. The purpose of analysing the CVs of current Executive Chefs was to obtain a biographical profile of the professional development of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs in 4- and 5-star South African hotels.

The purpose of the qualitative data was to examine the perceptions of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs with NQF Levels 5 and 6 qualifications regarding their professional development, as well as to examine the perceptions of key stakeholders from the hotel training and higher education on Executive and Executive Sous Chefs’ professional development in hotels.

4.2 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES

As stated in the introductory chapter, the main aim of the research was to determine the different tracks of professional development of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs currently employed within the Group in South Africa, with specific focus on 4- and 5-star hotels.

The specific objectives were: i) The first objective was to obtain a biographic profile of the professional development of Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs in 4- and 5-star South African hotels using curriculum vitae (CV) data. ii) The second objective was to examine the perceptions of key stakeholders (company Human Resources Departments, company Training Departments and professional development bodies). iii) The third objective was to contribute to the related scholarship by proposing a framework of recommendations, based on the research findings, which could be used to develop strategies in Company Training Departments and Human Resources Departments on the professional development of chefs.

76 4.3 QUANTITATIVE FINDINGS – BIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

The data were obtained from an analysis of the CVs from the 148 Executive and Executive Sous Chefs in 4- and 5-star South African hotels.

4.3.1 Gender profile The Executive and Executive Sous Chefs in their current positions are mainly male, this being very similar to studies in most countries, where females are in the minority (Raybould & Wilkins, 2005:203; Kang et al., 2010:171; Zopiatis, 2010:461; Wang et al., 2011:998; Hertzman & Maas, 2012:53; Haddaji 2018:2; Gonzalez, 2019:9).

Table 4.1: Gender of the respondents Gender of the respondents (n=148, in %) Gender % Male 90 Female 10

4.3.2 Age profile The average age of current female Executive and Executive Sous Chefs is 37.33 years and the average age of male Executive and Executive Sous Chefs is 40.16 years. This is in contrast to other studies, which show a wider range of ages for female and male chefs in the hospitality industry. Similar studies found that on average, Executive Chefs are 40 years old (Kang et al., 2010:174; Zopiatis, 2010:459; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:110; Haddaji, 2018:8).

Table 4.2: Average age of the respondents Average age of the respondents (n=148, in %) Gender Average age Male 40.16 Female 37.33

4.3.3 Racial profile The data showed that white male Executive and Executive Sous Chefs dominate the 4- and 5- star hotels that were surveyed, followed distantly by Indian, Black and Coloured Executive and Executive Sous Chefs. This status was also observed in studies done in Ireland and America, where white males dominate the industry (Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2017:17; Makumbirofa & Saayman, 2018:2; Gonzalez, 2019:10). It has been suggested by Kriel and Perumal (2015:4840) that the reason for the low percentage of black chefs may not only have been because of the political situation in South Africa but that the hospitality industry, which is

77 essentially a service industry, could have associations with being a servant, rather than being a service (Kriel & Perumal, 2015:4840).

Table 4.3: Demographic of the respondents Demographic of the respondents (n=148, in %) Race % White 68.9 Indian or Asian 16.2 Black 11.4 Coloured 4.5

4.3.4 Number of Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs From the data obtained from the CVs, 85.1% were Executive Chefs and 14.8% were Executive Sous Chefs in the 4- and 5-star hotels in South Africa. A similar result was obtained in the Republic of Ireland by Allen and Mac Con Iomaire (2016:109).

Table 4.4: Position of respondents Position of the respondents (n=148, in %) Current position % Executive chef 85.1 Executive Sous Chef 14.8

4.3.5 Respondent grade level passed The results show that 94.5% of the Executive and Executive Sous Chefs passed Matric (Grade 12), giving them access to further learning. This, however, is dependent on their Grade 12 pass marks. A good Grade 12 pass allows students access to higher education in culinary training institutions, TVET colleges, technical schools or universities (Moolman & Wilkinson, 2015:80).

Table 4.5: Grade of the respondents Grade of the respondents (n=148, in %) Grade % Grade 12 94.5 Grade 11 3.3 Grade 10 2.7

4.3.6 Respondents’ National Qualifications Framework level of education The NQF was an effort by the educational authority to map qualifications into a single framework for the entire education system. The system comprises three bands with eight levels.

78 All qualifications, from short courses to doctorates, are placed on the framework (SAQA, 2016:online; Wedekind & Watson, 2016:62). The data show that the majority of Executive Chefs and Executive Sous Chefs have a NQF level of 4 and 5 and only 9.4% of them have a NQF level of 6, which is equivalent to a diploma with no degree. Bolton et al. (2008:291) found that a mere 5% of the chefs they surveyed held a degree.

Table 4.6: National Qualifications Framework level of respondents NQF level of the respondents (n=148, in %) NQF level % Certificate NOF 4 49.3 Diploma NQF 5 36.4 Diploma NQF 6 9.4 Degree NQF 7 0

4.3.7 Years of study in higher education The majority of the Executive and Executive Sous Chefs surveyed have entered HEIs, doing courses of one to two-year duration. Zopiatis (2010:460) found that the majority of chefs in the Cypriot study had a two-year diploma, which shows that they do believe there is value and benefit in having formal culinary education. Roche (2012:56) and Gonzalez (2016:39) believe that any level of formal culinary education is an entry level requirement that chefs should have, even if it is a certificate or diploma in culinary education. However, there is a difference that needs to be acknowledged between a two-year diploma and a three- to four-year degree (Harrington et al., 2005:196). The four years of study indicates that the student chef did an apprenticeship or an in-service block release programme.

Table 4.7: Years of study of respondents Years of study of the respondents (n=148, in %) Years % One 26.3 Two 44.5 Three 16.8 Four (Apprenticeship) 7.4

4.3.8 Respondents working in 4- and 5-star hotels Of the Executive and Executive Sous Chefs surveyed, 86% have worked in 4-star hotels and 84% have worked in 5-star properties within their careers. Birdir and Canakci (2014:207) report that Executive Chefs working in 4- and 5-star hotels face numerous managerial challenges.

79 Table 4.8: 4- and 5-star hotels worked by the respondents 4- and 5-star hotels worked by the respondents (n=148, in %) Grading of the hotel % 5 stars 84.6 4 stars 86 3 stars 4.6

4.3.9 Type of culinary establishments worked The Executive and Executive Sous Chefs surveyed worked in a variety of culinary establishments, with the majority working in hotels and restaurants throughout their careers. Initially, chefs change establishments to grow their careers, gaining knowledge, experience and stature, continuously seeking the next best position (Mac Con Iomaire, 2008:44; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:111). However, Borkenhagen and Martin (2018:5) believe that chefs churn through jobs, from one status to another, even when at the peak of their careers.

Table 4.9: Variety of establishments and years worked by respondents Variety and years of establishments worked by respondents (n=148, in %) Average number of years Average number of chefs worked in culinary worked in culinary establishments establishments % Establishment Years % Lodge or guest house, 1 41.2 country club Corporate catering 1 46.6 Cruise liners 1 7.4 Restaurants 2 62.8 Hotels 3 100 Multiple food outlet 1 0.67 complex

4.3.10 Average number of years of experience The study found that the average experience of the Executive and Executive Sous Chefs was 20 years, similar to the studies done in Cyprus with an average of 20 years and America with an average of 24 years (Kang et al., 2010:170; Zopiatis, 2010:459).

Haddaji (2018:3) emphasises the vital importance of patiently working and learning within the industry to achieve success in the culinary field. The Executive Chef is a specialized function requiring a combination of vocational training, academic education, and real world experience, which is only achieved over a number of years (Hadges, 2016:1).

80 Table 4.10: Average years of experience of respondents Average years of experience of respondents (n=148, in %) Years 20

4.3.11 Average number of years of international experience It was found that 55.4% of the respondents had worked internationally at some point in their career development, for an average of three years. Jooste (2007:146) found this to be important in the South African context, which the chefs believed was an important part of their career development.

Table 4.11: Average years of international experience of respondents Average years of international experience of respondents (n=148, in %) Years % Respondents with international 55.4 experience Average years of international 3 experience

4.3.12 Average number of years in different positions in the kitchen brigade structure It is evident that all the chefs surveyed began at the bottom of the culinary ladder, starting as an apprentice or in a Commis Chef position. They all had to start at the bottom and progress through the culinary brigade structure, gaining skills and knowledge, working towards promotion and higher levels of increased responsibility, leading and ultimately reaching the status of Executive or Executive Sous Chefs, as is the practice in the profession. All the Executive or Executive Sous Chefs surveyed had spent time working in all the different positions within the kitchen ranks, which is known as the Partie system and has been compared to a military structure. The average time spent in each position is similar to results of other studies (Pratten, 2003a:455; Hadges, 2016:1; Borkenhagen & Martin, 2018:2; Gonzalez, 2019:1).

81 Table 4.12: Average years spent in different positions within the kitchen structure Average number of years spent in different positions within the kitchen structure (n=148, in %) Average number of years Average number of chefs spent working in that position with experience in that position Position Years % Comis Chef 2.5 83.8 Demi Chef 2.1 6.7 Chef de Partie 2.7 69.5 Sous Chef 3.5 83.7 Executive Sous Chef/Chef de 4.1 68.9 Cuisine Executive Chef 10.2 79.7 Group Chef or Complex Chef 3.6 4.0

4.3.13 Conclusion The data collected from the CVs of the South African Executive and Executive Sous Chefs gave a clear and interesting picture of the education, development and progression of these chefs in the 4- and 5-star hotel environment in South Africa.

4.4 QUALITATIVE FINDINGS: CHEFS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

4.4.1 Introduction Figure 4.1 below, derived from the qualitative interviews, illustrates the overall development process of the chef. Along this journey, the chef will encounter many obstacles represented by education level, working environment and exposure to company training. All these barriers in the different environments will influence the chef’s rate of progression to the level of Executive Chef. Once the position of Executive Chef has been attained, the chef becomes a vital link in the process and becomes the mentor and leader of the next generation of chefs. Depending on professional development, the chef will become the promoter of progression or the obstacle that other chefs will encounter. As Ko (2012:1004) points out:

The culinary arts field is interdisciplinary, involving technical skill, education, communication, business expertise and basic food knowledge this is achieved by creating a stable work environment that encourages development.

Figure 4.1: Chefs’ professional development

Source: Researcher’s own construct

The interview questions were broken down into four different categories and discussed under the headings of Category 1: Workplace learning (the chef); Category 2: Workplace skills (chefs’ education); Category 3: Career education (company training); and Category 4: Mentoring and leadership (the Executive Chef). These categories were adapted from Haddaji et al. (2018:148).

4.4.2 Categories and themes Six distinct themes emerged from the 11 semi-structured interviews with Executive and Executive Sous Chefs. The researcher categorised the themes of the survey interview questions into four categories as stated above. Barriers to progression featured in all four categories, revealing unique obstacles in the progression process of the Executive Chef.

All categories were derived from the qualitative methods described in Chapter Three. Table 4.13 below shows the categories that emerged from the interviews and the themes that emerged from each category.

83 Table 4.13: Categories and themes derived from interviews Career education Mentoring and Workplace learning Workplace skills (company leadership (the chef) (chef’s education) training) (executive chef) 1 Chef’s training Culinary skill Company training Career development Chef’s relevant 2 Chef’s learning strategies Higher education Chef’s growth courses Chef’s leadership and Company 3 Culinary standard Mentoring authority expectancy Work based Kitchen 4 Career progression Financial skill learning theory management Performance 5 Kitchen training Culinary education Leadership expectations Chef’s determination and Industry 6 Chef education dedication expectations 7 Culinary passion Chefs industry Job promotions Chef’s working 8 Career satisfaction Chefs qualifications demands Working 9 Starting culinary industry environment Work based skill 10 Culinary expectations Practical 11 Culture shock Chef’s growth

12 European chefs’ culture Career commitment

Career 13 Racial and gender bias preparedness Career knowledge 14 Government legislation and growth Professional 15 development

Culinary experience 16 vs growth

17 Company demands

Source: Researcher’s own construct

4.4.3 Workplace learning (the chef) Figure 4.2 below illustrates that before the chefs enter the culinary industry, they have control over their skills, such as their initial education, their passion, drive and dedication, and determination to succeed. However, once entering the industry, chefs are subject to criteria outside of their control and it is up to them how they navigate these obstacles and use them to their advantage in their career path to professional success, eventually attaining the position of Executive Chef. This journey is unpacked in the claims below.

84 Expectations, knowledge, skills and attitude facilitate the integration inside the kitchen and the professional kitchen working environment (Haddaji et al., 2018:268)

Figure 4.2: Workplace learning (the chef)

Source: Researcher’s own construct

Theme 1: Chef’s training The respondent chefs expressed the view that workplace learning had always been an essential part of the chef’s entry into the culinary industry.

I am a product of years of self-training and look where it has gotten me! I achieved Executive Chef level at a very young age and never looked back (Respondent).

Despite the school qualifications that this chef has, his or her development will combine different learning strategies, formal and informal learning, which in both instances, gives the chef access to the culinary industry (Druckman, 2010:24).

My education in general from when I started school to when I finished had nothing to do with my chef’s education. My education at hotel school played a big part as I was in full time boarding college and learnt to work and live with chefs as a team. In a chef’s life, practical experience is mostly where you learn your trade (Respondent).

The chefs believe that all forms of training—practical or theoretical—add to their development.

85 Theme 2: Chef’s learning strategies The older chefs, currently 50 years and older, entered the industry through informal learning in the form of apprenticeships as that is how it was done at the time or what was available in their day.

When I was a waiter and beginning as a chef, I learned that doing in house training programmes you would get more experience as you do more practical hands-on work. My Executive Chefs and Sous Chefs influenced that as that is how they began (Respondent).

On the other hand, the younger chefs pointed out that they had a choice when entering the culinary industry to either start as an apprentice or attend culinary school after they had finished school.

I did not do any apprenticeship, I studied at the University of Technology in Durban (Respondent).

The younger chefs felt that this choice gave them a feeling of control of how they could enter the culinary industry.

The apprentice learns the trade on the job, physically working and earning a wage while progressing under a mentor or Executive Chef. This trade is learnt over many years in different ways—through experience, learning from others, learning from feedback from mentors, learning through trial and error by making mistakes and working in different establishments. This was the traditional entry point and learning method of chefs for many decades (Cormier- MacBurnie 2015:522).

Theme 3: Chef’s leadership and authority Today’s chefs acknowledge that they have a choice of formal learning after leaving school by entering a HEI that offers culinary courses through cookery schools, colleges, and universities.

When I started the basic requirements were a diploma in professional cookery. And 6 months practical experience to obtain the NQF Level 5. The learning, however, never stops (Respondent).

All these cookery schools, colleges, and universities offer varied courses and give practical experience, preparing the learner for his or her chosen career as a chef.

My journey was different because I studied hospitality management instead of doing professional cookery. So, I entered the professional kitchen with less practical knowledge, so I was more mentally prepared (Respondent).

The chefs that underwent formal learning believed it gave them the edge but to succeed as a chef, one needed a varied set of skills, whether formal or informal, as suggested by (Cormier- MacBurnie et al., 2015:522).

86 My promotions are a result of a hard work ethic, a passion for ongoing learning and the will to improve myself (Respondent).

However, an essential part of a chef’s success is his passion for the industry.

Passion is the biggest factor when learning the basics in which you need to enter the field (Respondent).

Theme 4: Career progression An overwhelming number of chefs felt that the culinary industry was a profession with which one needed to be in love. In addition to the determination to succeed and work for it, there is a need to be passionate about the job (Jeou-Shyan & Lee, 2006:5; Johns et al., 2007:9).

All the chefs expressed the view that the most important part of starting in the culinary industry was an uncompromising passion to become a chef. Success in the culinary industry required the ability to overcome challenges, which was viewed as non-negotiable. This aligns with what Allen and Mac Con Iomaire (2017:11) state, that aspirant chefs would face challenges in this tough industry. The chefs reported that they needed to be passionate, dedicated, committed, ambitious, driven, determined and focused.

Every chef has their own attitude and procedures but you have to be dedicated to the profession. You have to work hard in every aspect of being a chef and you have to be passionate. If not, you will hate your job every day of your life (Respondent).

It was further found that the chefs felt that these traits were vital to succeed in the culinary industry and it is what enabled them to navigate and control their progression in the culinary world.

Theme 5: Kitchen training One respondent claimed that the progression towards the goal of Executive Chef in the workplace is dependent on workplace learning and developing many skills that will be acquired over a long learning process. Depending on the route that was taken to enter the culinary field, all chefs start out in their career in professional kitchens as a Commis Chef, cook or trainee chef (Roche, 2012:21; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2017:9).

It was long hours, hard work and a great learning block from which to base one’s career (Respondent).

You need to dedicate a lot of your time and put a lot of additional time in to learn and absorb as much practical knowledge as possible (Respondent).

Learning to be a chef is an ongoing process that continues throughout the on-the-job learning, which is a crucial feature of the profession.

87 Theme 6: Chef’s determination and dedication The chefs all recognise that their initial professional development was when they were exposed to work-based learning. Learning the practical side of this profession, through on-the-job training, is given to the Commis Chef, cook or trainee chef or by many other senior chefs within the kitchen brigade. Chefs de Partie, Sous Chefs and Executive Chefs all play a part in the practical development and progression of the junior chefs.

It was always down to the Executive Chef. He was the one who set the standard, not only the standard but also the level at which he expects you to perform day in and day out, regardless of any factors, for example tiredness, fatigue or personal problems (Respondent).

For these young chefs to evolve into professional chefs will require a long period of hard work, ambition, determination and strong resistance to stress, relying on mentors under hard working conditions.

Theme 7: Culinary passion This they believed is why it is very important for the chefs that begin in the culinary industry to start from the bottom and to progress through the levels.

The hierarchical ladder starts with a trainee status, this first position is considered essential as new entrants need to complement their academic skills and learn on how to acquire necessary skills and techniques for cooking (Haddaji, 2018:20).

The chefs realised that to progress through the ranks of the kitchen, work-based learning for the Commis Chef, cook or trainee chef meant that they would need to master technical skills, professional expertise, social skills and consistency whilst being able to work quickly and effectively under pressure. They would do this by multitasking whilst doing manual work and mastering cooking technicalities.

There was a standard of preparing and cooking food that was set out. If you had to dice an onion, you had to do it the way you were shown and no other way. If you had to cook a fillet of fish in the pan, it had to be done the same precise way all the time. Consistency is the most important skill and if you were not consistent you would be called out on it. Once you had the relevant skill you would be given more responsibility (Respondent).

Theme 8: Career satisfaction Chefs create their own learning strategies by learning from their mentors or other senior chefs within the kitchen. Good or bad, these mentors would influence their development in cooking methods, communication, interactions between subordinates and management, competitiveness and public recognition (Harris & Giuffre, 2015:92). Chefs are exposed to many different management styles throughout their careers.

88 My strategy was to take part in every opportunity offered by the company to develop my skills, to better myself, to progress myself into the next level (Respondent).

The best learning is from other chefs. Good or bad, it is how chefs learn and are taught the skills they are needed. This is a time-proven method (Respondent).

It is up to the chefs to work out which parts would influence their management development without any other guidance or knowledge from which to gauge. All the chefs agreed that the best way to progress one’s career was to work under a good mentor (Bozionelos, 2008; Mac Con Iomaire, 2008:48).

Theme 9: Starting in the culinary industry All the chefs mentioned that they had access to company short training courses, which are developed specifically for their company through their training departments. The interviewed chefs stated that the company offers the chefs cooking courses that range from preparing sauces to baking, knife skills and food costing (Wang et al., 2011:997). The Executive Chef would select which chef from within his or her kitchen brigade would do these courses, with the selection being very dependent on workflow and workload.

The company does have an effect in terms of courses offered, either financial, hygiene or new food styles but as anything in life, if you are taught the right way from the beginning, then it’s a whole lot easier to progress in the industry as a chef. My split would be 40% education, 40% your own drive and passion and 20% company-related progress (Respondent).

The chefs felt that this was beneficial to their growth as a chef but knew the criteria were random and no company course development plan was available. It all depended on the Executive Chef.

Theme 10: Culinary expectations The company developed specific generic courses that would cover all the hotels' many departments, including courses on industrial relations, conflict management and understanding financial documents but not concentrating on specific departmental or individual development needs.

This is a tough question. When you get to a certain level and the opportunities are less, it seems that it’s a pointless exercise as you are hitting the ceiling already as an Executive Chef. If I was to answer that question from a sous chef level, I would say YES, it does. But again, is it for the company or the employees’ benefit? (Respondent).

Many of the chefs believed that the company training courses helped them through their growth development within the company but felt that there were not any developments for them within the higher levels of kitchen management or to progress further.

89 Theme 11: Culture shock The older chefs stated that the South African kitchens in which they started out were very European-dominated, with very strict traditions, where respect was earned and one was privileged to have skills and knowledge passed down. Only total commitment and subservience allowed one the opportunity to learn and grow.

It was a very white, European-dominated working environment with a lot of foreigners with some crazy work ethics, very strict and an authoritarian management style. It was driven by strict rules and instructions. It was very westernised foods pre-dominantly run by German and French chefs which would dictate the kitchen culture you had to conform to keep a job, whether you liked it or not (Respondent).

This they believed impacted heavily on a chef’s work-based learning within the kitchen environment. The younger generation of chefs felt that although there were strong traditional kitchen traditions, these were not as strict as in the past, as related to them by industry chefs. The kitchens today are more integrated and are run by South African chefs.

Theme 12: European chefs’ culture Today’s chef agrees that some of this old culture still remains in kitchens (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005:829; Farrell, 2016:3). However, now that they had reached the level of senior chef and did not conform to that old, long-standing culture, they were trying to grow a more supportive and learning culture for future chefs.

It was hard not to be like your mentors but over time you had to change to become more responsible and respect the people you work with. Become a teacher, not a dictator (Respondent).

Even though they acknowledged that the culinary environment would not change, they could change the culture.

Theme 13: Race and gender bias When starting out in the culinary industry, some of the chefs experienced the old issues of race and gender, which affected their work-based learning. Some felt that this restricted them from accessing learning and ultimately slowed down their progression in the kitchen environment, which was out of their control at the time. A female chef stated:

The environment was very tense when I started in the kitchen as black students were not allowed to be admitted in apprenticeship. This opportunity came by at a later stage in my career. The culture was also very against female chefs, which made it difficult to develop internally. With putting in extra hours and always doing as being told, I absorbed the knowledge of food secretly (Respondent).

The chefs felt that the culinary industry of today is much more integrated and accessible to all, offering equal opportunities unless one was in top management.

90 Theme 14: Government legislation Others found that in more recent times, their progression through the ranks to a senior level within the kitchen was hampered by government policies, which restricted their growth.

It was not easy being a young white male and getting the recognition for a job well done. Being a young white male, I found that I was passed on the promotion because of the colour of my skin and not my ability (Respondent).

This is because hospitality companies have to conform to government equity legislation in the workplace, which according to the chefs, forces some of them to move to countries without these restrictions.

4.4.4 Conclusion A chef’s entry and progression in the culinary industry has many control points and obstacles in the progression to Executive Chef level. The chef has significant control over his or her access into the industry, either through apprenticeship or employment in the culinary working environment—there are not many educational restrictions on entering the culinary industry. Dedication, passion and expectation all play a vital role in entry and success in the industry. His or her main learning strategy is practical, on-the-job training and learning, depending on mentors. Other aspects of a chef’s progression are dependent on the learning environment, such as access to company training, working demands and direct managers. Kitchen culture, gender and race also play a part in the chef’s development within the kitchen environment. Considering all these factors, chefs traverse an uncertain path towards their ultimate goal of reaching the position of Executive Chef.

4.5 WORKPLACE SKILLS (CHEFS’ EDUCATION)

Figure 4.3 below illustrates that regardless of education or level of qualification, the chef still begins the culinary journey at the bottom of the brigade structure. It does show, however, that the higher the education level, the quicker the chef will move up through the kitchen structures. The chef will need less developmental time, skills and support on the learning journey to attain the pinnacle of achievement. “Skills are needed to succeed and to evolve as a chef to reach professional development” (Haddaji et al., 2018:268).

This category is unpacked in the themes below.

Figure 4.3: Workplace skills (chef’s education)

Source: Researcher’s own construct

In the most significant responses in Workplace Skills (the Chefs’ Education), from the quantitative data retrieved from the chefs’ CVs, it was noted that the educational status of chefs varied from NQF Level 3 to NQF Level 5 but few had obtained a NQF Level 6 or higher.

The culinary industry has always been a vocational industry that attracts all forms of school leavers, where no formal educational qualifications were required for entry. From those early apprentice days, there are now many more learning institutions that offer learning courses to prepare potential culinary applicants for the industry (Roche, 2012:9).

Theme 1: Culinary skill The older generation of chefs that were interviewed claimed that the apprenticeship model, which is the traditional model of practical based learning which they entered the culinary field in, is how they began to learn the culinary basics. This attracted them as school leavers, as they could not access higher educational facilities. This is how they started working in the industry; this was their only option and they believe this is still the best way to become a chef.

I was very young (15) when I had the yearning to become a chef. I knew this was what I wanted to do, and having a passion for food, I knew it was for me. Coming from a family of tradesmen, it was important for me to have a trade. My Dad always told me ‘get yourself a trade, it’s very important in life!’ My expectations were to learn skills, work with people in a team environment, produce creations that make people happy and progress in the ranks along the way. I have not looked back. It has been a great journey (Respondent).

92 The younger generation of chefs believed differently—that general education and higher education were vital to their start in the industry and later, to their progression in the culinary industry.

Most importantly a Matric to start. Then a diploma in professional cookery. This to me was the foundation that I needed to get the right start. The rest is all practical experience (Respondent).

Today, as pointed out in the previous section, the chefs have varied opinions on how the culinary field can and should be accessed—including the old apprenticeship model and the other many forms of educational institutions offering culinary training courses to potential chefs with varied NQF level outcomes.

Theme 2: Higher education Chefs pointed out that they are now exposed to many different learning institutions offering a variety of different courses designed for the culinary industry. This creates confusion and a feeling of entitlement to bypass certain levels within the traditional kitchen hierarchy—from universities offering diplomas and degrees, speciality learning institutions specialising in culinary programmes, even using industry placements to expose students to practical training, TVET colleges and Government QCTO, all offering varied culinary courses to industry entrance.

A lot of aspiring cooks and chefs in the trade have not come through the old system. They go to an expensive culinary school and come out expecting to be Chefs de Partie or Sous Chefs (Respondent).

However, they agreed that better education helped their growth within the industry.

I was kept back on development, such as promotions, as my knowledge was limited. I therefore decided to study further (Respondent).

The chefs unanimously agreed that further education was essential to improve their development within the kitchen environment, regardless of the source of their culinary education. In their view, it still gave one a better start than beginning as an apprentice.

I think it’s both but mostly on experience but education gives you the edge (Respondent).

Theme 3: Culinary standard The chefs further highlighted the need for speciality culinary learning institutions like the TVET colleges and Government QCTO to raise and standardise the training standards for culinary courses, mentioning that the trainees of today are of a low and random culinary standard and then enter the industry with different culinary basics. This situation demands much more corrective training to get trainees up to an acceptable standard within the kitchen environment.

93 I believe the standard should be raised. Chefs are being allowed to work with no diploma in many companies throughout South Africa. They are training through government programmes and after six months, with little to no experience, they are being employed. This lowers the standard of our culinary offerings (Respondent).

They unanimously agreed that the culinary courses need to be standardised and linked more with the practical industry, and that there should be better collaboration between the culinary stakeholders.

Theme 4: Financial skill The Executive and Executive Sous Chefs stated that they are no longer cooks but are becoming managers. As the industry grows and changes, it demands a more management-style skill set from Executive and Executive Sous Chefs, to which they must adapt. Hotels demand from Executive and Executive Sous Chefs to be more financially and management competent.

There needs to be a financial course to understand the business better. For example, reading an income statement and understanding expenses. There are also needs for more in-depth IR and HR courses as chefs’ jobs are now changing. Chefs are not just cooks but are business entrepreneurs focusing on the entire food and beverage operation (Respondent).

All the chefs recognised this demand and believed that this was a reason why many chefs left the hotel industry to become restaurant chefs, where this was not expected from them.

Theme 5: Culinary education The majority of the Executive and Executive Sous Chefs that have NQF Levels 4 and 5 felt that the demands on today’s Executive Chefs were more challenging in the field of management and finance, which was not part of their curriculum in the specialized culinary schools or government colleges from which they had graduated. They felt that they needed to learn this skill by trial and error or perhaps from a good mentor.

It has its place but is not effective in a busy professional kitchen - you will get eaten alive for not being able to do the job of the position you are in. Under guidance at a more senior level, that is learning to be a senior sous from an exec sous, yes, I believe it works (Respondent).

They felt that this learning was critical to their professional progression but also felt that this could place their development in jeopardy, depending on the learning ability of the chef.

Theme 6: Chef’s education The three NQF Level 6 chefs who did culinary degrees at university, believe that management and finance that was taught at university was very beneficial to their development and gave them the advantage of coping with the ever-changing demands placed on chefs today.

94 It fast-track decision-making based on fact than gut feel. Your intellect is advanced to take head- on the challenges of change. Tertiary education gives you the freedom to think out of the box without limitations or fear. You become more of a calculated risk-taker than a conservative thinker. You become open to embrace new learnings in your field of speciality. The variables to a tertiary-educated chef are many and positive (Respondent).

The three NQF Level 6 chefs found the management part of the degree course vital in their progression through the ranks in the kitchen. This helped them identify good and bad management styles to which they were subjected throughout their careers, developing their own. They felt this paid off in their executive positions within the kitchens.

My varsity education gave me a good background on how to manage, and with the practical experience, and company learning helping me with my growth (Respondent).

It did help me as the readiness for management was already taught to me. It was connecting the experience part to the knowledge (Respondent).

Chefs agreed that their level of education helped them cope with the demands of the 4- and 5- star hotels kitchens of which they were in charge.

Theme 7: Chef’s industry entry The chefs believed that regardless of what qualification was obtained from higher learning institutions, one should enter the industry at the bottom, beginning as a trainee and that as one progressed through the ranks, so skills were developed through the different departments and kitchens within the industry. That is how knowledge and skills are shared and complemented by the education received from the higher education institutions.

I still think that climbing the ladder and doing your time through each stage is extremely important, so regardless if you have a tertiary degree or an 18-month course, you still start at the bottom. It’s a personal work ethic, knowledge and characteristics that drive you up the ladder (Respondent).

The chefs felt it was imperative to start from the bottom in the kitchens and that it was vital to the understanding and growth in the kitchen environment. However, they also recognised that further education enhanced the potential of the chef.

Theme 8: Chef’s qualifications The chefs agreed that having a diploma or a degree from higher learning institutions did help one to move more quickly through the ranks in the kitchens. However, the key to boosting advancement in the kitchen environment was the ability to connect theoretical and practical knowledge.

Reaching the executive position depends on three things: experience you gain over the years; the level of education you acquired and the development you get when progressing up the level. I still

95 believe we need better education, especially when developing an Executive Chef - the one that raises your awareness and training or concentrates more on special skills that are needed to reach such a position (Respondent).

Executive Chefs agreed that the chef of today needs a great deal of education and practical experience to become effective Executive Chefs, as demanded from the industry today.

4.5.1 Conclusion The chefs of today have many choices to enter the culinary field, whether through the old traditional apprentice way or the modern way with culinary institutions offering a better start to a culinary career, with little restriction other than their school Matric results. At the end of the day, both methods produce chefs.

The Executive Chefs suggested that the hotel culinary environment of today has a great demand for better educated chefs once they progress into the higher management ranks within the kitchens. Chefs that had been fortunate enough to study at university said that they had a better prepared skill set to adapt to the new culinary demands.

The chefs that had not had this opportunity would have to learn through years of practical experience, drawing from the knowledge of the many different managers under which they would work. Under good or bad mentors, they would have to, by trial and error, create their own management style that would allow them to cope with new culinary demands.

Chefs have many choices of how to navigate their professional development and regardless of the direction they choose, each presents numerous challenges. As the working environment changes, for some chefs the progression will be quicker than others but all will require different development support to reach their ultimate goal as an Executive Chef.

There are so many different demands on a chef today. We are not just cooks anymore. We are serious managers with consequences (Respondent).

4.6 CAREER EDUCATION (COMPANY TRAINING)

Figure 4.4 below illustrates the chef’s journey through the company training and learning environments, all the criteria by which the chef will be assessed, including the demands from the company regarding performance of duties.

Different factors that harden learning processes and evolution inside the kitchens as well as factors that can help surpass them or simply build a successful career (Haddaji et al., 2018:268).

This will influence the chef’s professional development and is unpacked in the themes below.

Figure 4.4: Career education company training

Source: Researcher’s own construct

The chef, who has now entered the working environment with practical learning in Category 1 and the different levels of education discussed in Category 2, begins a new journey of development through company training.

Theme 1: Company Training The chefs acknowledge and recognise that company training is a part of the chef’s professional development process. The company training, in combination with his or her working environment, will influence growth whilst moving up the culinary ladder.

The company’s in-house training definitely helped as I did do in-house culinary programmes whilst growing in the field at different hotel groups. I had no external culinary training other than what I learned or got in the hotels (Respondent).

Chefs believed company training to be beneficial and crucial in the beginning years of a chef’s development.

Theme 2: Chef’s relevant courses Chefs recognised that company training is important and adds value to a chef’s development through the initial career growth years. They emphasised that there needed to be an element of good education as a foundation to take advantage of company training.

97 I would say the first and most important factor is education. This is your foundation. Many good chefs out there do not have a Matric and this is career limiting. The rest comes down to work ethic. Yes, company development is important, however, if you do not have the drive and the will nothing is going to happen for you (Respondent).

They agreed that if the chef had a limited education, company training at least gave some sort of educational benefit to his or her working development.

Theme 3: Company expectancy The chefs acknowledged that their work demands played a big role in their ability to develop, as there is a lot more pressure with all the additional responsibilities and management tasks required from them in an ever-changing industry and what companies expected from them.

Work environments have changed for chefs - not like the apprentices we received with less skills. There are now more reports, costs controls, budgets, responsibilities, human resource issues and staff managing than ever before (Respondent).

Today there is a very different demand on Executive Chef skills than there was in the past. Chefs are responsible for things for which they were not even trained and had to learn it on the job, through trial and error and from various mentors.

Theme 4: Work-based learning theory The chefs pointed out that because their working environment is so busy and hands-on, with long working hours and limited days off, that although they would love the additional company training, it was generally hard to pull themselves out of the kitchens or find the time to attend company training.

Not much except for the generic hotel courses that you need to do but being in the kitchens, there is never time to go and do off-site training courses (Respondent).

You need to dedicate a lot of your time and put a lot of additional time in to learn and absorb as much practical knowledge as possible (Respondent).

This was directed to all the levels of staff in the kitchens who felt that they had to make the effort if they wanted training.

Theme 5: Performance expectations The chefs acknowledged that there are many different company training courses but one needed to be selected to do the training. This is not to be confused with on-the-job training as the working day progresses and being shown how thing are done practically. This experience is geared to reinforce the company training courses.

98 Advertising the courses internally, the Executive Chef selects candidates, he then informs the chef, and the Executive Chef has a pre-course discussion and then sends the chef for training (Respondent).

I have attended very few courses with the company in my career, except for the generic hotel courses that you need to do but, being in the kitchens, there is never time to go and do off-site training courses (Respondent).

The Executive Chef received the available courses online and had to select which chef would attend the company training, if there was time or available chefs from which to select.

Theme 6: Industry expectations As well as the company’s short courses, the chefs had online training courses, which are linked to external certified training companies, which the kitchen employees would need to do in their own time, using the company’s computer facilities.

Being in the kitchens, there is never time to go and do off-site training courses. I still remember the first time I was given a computer. I had no idea how to operate it (Respondent).

The chefs found this problematic as one had to share the computers and many of the kitchen staff were not computer literate. These computer facilities were located in the employee dining rooms, which were not environments conducive to learning.

Theme 7: Job promotions The chefs found the company courses to be unstructured and arbitrary—geared for the lower levels of the kitchen and not linked to a training plan for one’s personal development.

Company training structures change the company standards. There is no structured format for training, just random courses (Respondent).

There were no relevant company training courses for chefs, except how to cook stuff which could, or would, be taught in the kitchens already (Respondent).

The chefs all suggested that there should be better structure and relevance to company training.

Claim 8: Chef’s working demand Some of the chefs found the company training courses to be beneficial to their initial growth in the company.

I believe my company has all the tools and training available to help me achieve any desired position (Respondent).

Company training always helps. Any type of education in the business is good (Respondent).

99 When the chefs responded from their current Executive and Executive Sous Chef level, they felt that the courses were not geared for their development at the level which they currently managed.

Theme 9: Working environment The Executive and Executive Sous Chefs felt very strongly that the company needed to develop courses which were more relevant to their development needs from the more senior positions in the kitchens, which today are more management and finance-oriented. This would better prepare them for executive positions in the 4- and 5-star hotels.

I believe we need such courses. I believe chefs should be made aware that from Sous Chef position up is what is considered as management level. We need courses that will mould them more into managers than just chefs. Courses that will equip them with all necessary skills needed for one to be a manager, because presently the level of alertness depends on which chef you are working with or which company you’re working for (Respondent).

A good understanding of accounting, marketing, and Human Resources is important (Respondent).

It was felt very strongly that the company expected a competent Executive Chef and Executive Sous Chef but they did not receive the relevant training from the company.

Theme 10: Career development Not all the chefs of today feel that training is essential to their development and will continue on the same course as many other chefs, yet find themselves stuck on certain levels in kitchens. Rather, to avoid the need for additional learning, they would find other positions in the industry that do not have similar demands.

A lot of what a Sous Chef and upwards needs is not so much cooking but admin and HR. These are not areas that chefs particularly care about and extra training would ease the transitions to Sous Chefs and upwards (Respondent).

It is very important for chefs today if you want to reach the top, to understand management demands of the kitchen (Respondent).

The chefs pointed out that not all chefs aspired to become Executive Chefs and would avoid that management responsibility by finding other positions in the industry.

Theme 11: Chef’s growth

100 Chefs that did company training courses felt that it gave them an advantage for growth within the kitchen, regardless of what the training was, and at what education level one entered the kitchen.

They felt that it was better than nothing and if that was how one started in the industry, it was still some sort of education, which would help in some way.

Theme 12: Career commitment All the chefs strongly believed that it was up to the chefs themselves to do the training. That they had to have the passion and will and accept the responsibility to drive the training for themselves as nobody was going to force them to be trained or do it.

At the end of the day you yourself are mainly responsible for your own development. You as a chef require that passion and drive to take your career to the next step on a daily basis. The company does have an effect in terms of courses offered - either financial, hygiene or new food styles (Respondent).

They felt that if chefs wanted to grow and progress, they would find the means, as throughout the years, this was how chefs achieved the positions they are currently in.

Theme 13: Career preparedness The chefs stated that whilst progressing through the ranks of the company, they knew the company’s performance expectations of them as this was passed down from management in their development discussions or on-the-job demands.

I do understand the expectations and requirements the company expects from me. We do have development discussions but that is a tick box exercise (Respondent).

They felt that this did not align with the company’s development courses and that the courses they went on were just a company tick box exercise which were not relevant to what management’s demands.

Theme 14: Career knowledge and growth The chefs believed that their development impacted significantly on job promotions and that the combination of education, experience and company courses helped them develop to get these promotions within the company.

Having courses, they can attend will motivate them and get them to a confident level where they can perform at a level for promotion as there are many chefs stuck on levels that they cannot progress from (Respondent).

101 They felt that this was the downfall of many chefs that did not take advantage of overall learning, which resulted in them being stuck at their current levels, not progressing up the culinary ladder, thereby creating a bottleneck of chefs on the same level within the industry.

Theme 15: Professional development They all strongly believed that ultimately the chef him/herself is the main person responsible for their own development and promotion.

I am ultimately responsible for my career development. Without the willingness to be trained and the right attitude to training, whatever anyone does on my behalf is of no effect. I am the driver of my career - no one else (Respondent).

This is due to the inherently unstructured culinary industry to which chefs have become accustomed—that chefs need to invest hard work, blood, sweat and tears to reach the top.

Theme 16: Culinary experience versus education The chefs found that company expectations in the different star ratings of hotels varied greatly and that the higher the star rating of the hotel, the greater the administrative function for the chef was.

I believe that producing and maintaining a 5-star standard as a chef is a lot more strenuous task than running a 3-star kitchen. The financial planning and implementing that a 5-star unit requires is way more (Respondent).

This also refers to the administrative functions within the hotel kitchens over which the chef has control.

With finances he expects me to always be a step ahead in controlling expenses and salary burden, have menus re-costed whenever prices increase, ensure all items are correctly priced in micros, have a daily revenue against purchases sheet done daily to ensure you know at any given time at what cost your department is operating at. He also wants staff to be happy and be treated fairly as he believes their performance will only improve (Respondent).

The Executive Chef is in a position of great demand but also in need of an exceptional set of skills.

Theme 17: Company demands With all the above-mentioned requirements for the Executive Chef, the company demands a very competent and highly skilled Executive Chef. This is illustrated in part in Figure 4.5 below, which is part of the job description when advertising this position in the workplace.

102 • Effectively manage the kitchen’s finance and administration including budgets, financial analysis, management systems and reporting.

• Access and interpret Human Resource policies and legislative requirements for efficient implementation.

• Maintain the health, hygiene and professional appearance of the kitchen and all who work in it.

• Develop and implement policies, procedures, strategies and controls for the kitchen’s purchasing, deliveries and stock.

• Implement action plans ensuring the optimal functioning of all food production so that guests’ expectations are exceeded.

• Facilitate effective interdepartmental co-operation.

• Work as part of a team or individually to deliver high-quality standards.

• If you have these qualifications, join our team:(1) Matric (NQF 4); (2) a diploma in hotel management or a qualified chef diploma from City and Guilds or from a similar accredited institute of hospitality studies; (3) advanced hospitality management studies; (4) at least 13-16 years’ experience in the hospitality industry as a chef and 3- 4 years in an Executive Sous Chef position/role.

Figure 4.5: Extract from the Group’s generic job description for Executive Chefs

4.6.1 Conclusion The demands for a more highly skilled chef are evident. It is apparent that company training does help in developing the chefs’ skills and preparing them to meet the numerous challenges they will face while moving through the workplace environment to develop further skills

Although company training is effective for certain levels within the kitchen environment, it is insufficient at the more senior levels where there is a demand for competent chefs with improved skills to cope with the company’s requirements. This is shown in the advertised requirements for an Executive Chef in the company (Figure 4.5 above).

4.7 MENTORING AND LEADERSHIP (THE EXECUTIVE CHEF)

Figure 4.6 below illustrates the criteria that will influence the chef’s professional development to reach his or her goal of becoming an Executive Chef. The learning journey through

103 education, working environment and company training will all influence an intern chef’s professional development, albeit good or bad. In turn, the next generation of chefs coming through the system will be subjected to the same process because this is what the intern chef underwent. The common leadership style in the kitchens is the one used by survey participants and who mentored them (Haddaji et al., 2018:268).

The journey is unpacked in the themes below.

Figure 4.6: Mentoring and leadership process

Source: Researcher’s own construct

The chef, who has undergone the practical learning in Category 1, the different levels of education discussed in Category 2, and the working environment navigated in Category 3, is now at the end of the learning journey. The Executive Chef now becomes a vital part of the learning cycle of all other future chefs, a vital determinant in how future chefs’ learning paths are influenced by the Executive Chef’s mentoring and leadership.

Chefs are expected to follow the Executive Chef’s directive and accept the hot temper, demonstrate their ability to lead others, show a strong personality, be a loudmouth and demand respect (Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2017:16)

Theme 1: Career development The Executive Chefs pointed out that through their developmental years under many different Executive Chefs in the industry, there was an old traditional way of leadership which bordered on dictatorship, with a lot of chefs favouring the authoritarian angle of leadership—rule by fear and iron fist—“their way or the highway”.

It bordered on dictatorship most of the time with a limited number of democratic leaderships in the chefs I worked with. A lot of chefs favour the authoritarian angle with questionable intent (Respondent).

104 The chefs recognised that developing through this management style gave them a reason to question the effectiveness of this leadership. Being subjected to it and experiencing it first-hand transformed their management styles.

Theme 2: Chef’s growth The current Executive Chefs who developed through this era question the value of this extremely authoritarian management style. They were subjected to it throughout their careers and recognised its limitations in the modern working environment. They tried to find reasons why this management style was still widespread in the workplace today.

I think a lot of chefs these days rule in fear, demand respect and are not quite sure why they feel this is the best management style. I think chefs these days, especially senior management, do not want to do the work that’s required anymore. Once they have reached the summit, they then get this notion that now everyone must respect them and demand respect without giving any to their staff (Respondent).

All respondents agreed that good mentors were key to their development although some chefs still wielded old management styles. Without management courses to distinguish the progressive from the old, some chefs still displayed an authoritarian leadership style.

Theme 3: Mentoring Some chefs mentioned that they were lucky to have had managers who were good influences on them and helped them develop a good management style but pointed out that not all chefs were so lucky.

I was fortunate enough that most of my managers that I ever worked with had a management style where they treated you as a person and not as some asset that they have obtained. I will truly be grateful for all my [the] mentors that have taught me the right way in managing staff (Respondent).

This they believed influenced their management style, in turn being a more effective manager to their own teams.

Theme 4: Kitchen management All the chefs indicated that even though they were subjected to an autocratic management style in their learning and developing years, their management styles of today have changed.

Chefs tend to be generally straightforward and straight down the line. The chef is the boss and it’s his way only and no other. Very autocratic (Respondent).

They recognised that this was not the correct leadership style to manage kitchens of today. Even though they were subjected to a totally different style, they have transformed their leadership

105 style to be more inspiring, team-driven, coaching and democratic as through their experience, they felt that they did not enjoy the leadership styles to which they were subjected.

Transformational leadership and transactional leadership. Our upcoming generation is lacking the skills which are required in the kitchen and for them to be developed they need a person with a drive and will to be able to inspire, encourage and motivate them. Transactional leadership is needed (Respondent).

The interviewed chefs believed that they have to be the change-makers in their teams.

Theme 5: Leadership Through a more democratic approach, the Executive Chefs realised the impact of their mentoring and leadership style on the younger chefs’ development entering or growing within the industry.

It was hard not to be like your mentors but over time you had to change to become more responsible and respect the people you work with. Become a teacher, not a dictator (Respondent).

The Executive Chefs of today have a lot of influence on the entire professional development cycle of chefs.

Democratic leader and at times a coach (gave) the situation and abilities of each staff member within my brigade. By involving your team in giving ideas before making a decision, we can foster higher employee engagement and workplace satisfaction (Respondent).

The Executive Chefs feel that their mentoring and leadership style influences the whole development cycle of young chefs entering the industry, from the beginning of their education to the practical learning in the kitchen environment, to the access of company training, over which the Executive or Executive Sous Chefs have control.

The Executive Chefs have influence over the education levels of the school leavers entering the culinary industry as they are the gatekeepers to employing the potential chefs. They have control over the informal learning environment they create in their kitchens. Learning is mandatory for all levels of chefs to grow. This work-based learning environment relies a lot on leadership, innovative culture and motivation, all of which are influenced by the relationship between the chefs and senior chefs.

The Executive and Executive Sous Chefs have control over the formal learning environment, which are represented as company learning, obtained from company courses. The Executive and Executive Sous Chefs determine who attends these training courses.

106 4.7.1 Conclusion In the professional development of chefs, one can see how instrumental the Executive Chef now becomes to the learning and development of other chefs, from their education, to their working environment and to the company training. This is what the Executive Chef controls. This learning all now depends on the Executive Chefs’ own development experience and attitude to leading and developing the team to create future chefs.

The third objective of the whole study was to analyse company management procedures, policies, strategies and opinions currently used by the Human Resource Department, the Company Training Department and professional bodies for the professional development of Executive Chefs. An analysis hereof is presented below.

4.8 HUMAN RESOURCE, COMPANY TRAINING AND INDUSTRY PROFESSIONAL BODY OUTCOME

Figure 4.7 below illustrates the complex criteria that emerged from the interviews with the company Human Resources Department, Company Training Department and the industry professional body, in relation to their perceptions of the Executive and Executive Sous Chef’s professional development.

The criteria are explained in the themes presented below, how all these criteria (which were derived from the interviews) influence their department and which affect the Executive Chef’s growth and development.

107

Figure 4.7: Human resource, company training and professional body influence on a chef’s professional development

Source: Researcher’s own construct

Theme 1: Importance The respondents for the human resource component of this study, that is Company Training and the professional body SACA, recognised the importance of the Executive Chef’s position in the Group (SACA, 2017a:online), as reflected by the statement, “Very important and crucial in our current working environment.”

They further agreed that within this position the Executive Chef is an important decision-maker in generating business for the Group, which is seen as an essential skill set. Fine (1996:90) refers to the head chef or Executive Chef as the CEO and the team members as the directors in the business (the kitchen), along with his or her ability to adapt to the ever-changing business environment by relying on managerial leadership to solve these challenges. Aktaş and Özdemir (2001:87) and Şener (2001:102) believe that management is probably the most important building block of the hotel industry.

The exec chef is a key team leader, often having the most employees in the hotel in this department. The exec chef’s leadership is vital to grow and develop the kitchen team and for them to achieve success. F&B (food and beverage) is an important revenue stream and the exec chef is vital in managing the offering to the guest and ensuring profit margins are me (Respondent).

The chef’s duties have changed over the years (Pizam, 2016:116). Today, the chef’s primary role is to lead the team and contribute to the overall success of the Group.

108 Theme 2: Development Although the respondents agreed on the importance of the Executive Chef position, they also expressed the view that not all chefs entering the field have the skill and knowledge sets to become an Executive Chef.

No! Not any chef can become an Executive Chef! It requires leadership ability, skills, knowledge and competence as well as administrative ability, that is, to manage stock, people, quality and purchases whilst still requiring high level cooking skills, creativity and innovation. It is difficult to find these key skills as a combination (Respondent).

Human Resources and Company Training acknowledge that not any chef can become an Executive Chef as the skills are specific. They have to have knowledge and skills in a variety of business disciplines such as marketing, financial management, accounting, legal aspects, operations management and human resources management. Their jobs have become so complex that they can no longer be trained on the job in an apprenticeship model (Pizam, 2016:117).

Theme 3: Progression Human resources and company training are saying in addition to a specialised skill set, another potential barrier related specifically to the chefs themselves, such as aspects of career progression that the chef could not always control.

It is all up to the individual chef’s capabilities and willingness to learn and be developed (Respondent).

The inhibiting factors include their limited education, inability to apply a business mindset, past experience, job complacency, career satisfaction, lack of interest, lack of drive and purpose, fear of failure, pressure and inability to handle stress, along with a negative attitude toward personal development (Birdir & Canakci, 2014:211; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:113; Haddaji, 2018:41). Human resources and company training indicate that these are some of the contributing factors why not all chefs can become Executive Chefs.

Theme 4: Skills This shows how important professional development is for a chef to become an Executive Chef in the company as education and on-the-job training becomes crucial.

Personal development is a key driver to development of Executive Chefs. The responsibility lies with both the chef and the company to embrace this development (Respondent).

From the company’s point of view, it shows how important it is to have well trained and educated chefs providing a stronger focus on structured training within the company.

109 There is an added benefit to Company Training. There is an increase in financial performance, ability to train and retain talent, an alignment at top management. There is an increase in efficiency in execution of company strategies and decision-making (Respondent).

The respondents all agreed that upskilling of chefs has become vital to have better-skilled and educated chefs that understand the ever-changing business environment in which they now find themselves.

Yes, there is. He needs increased employee focus and productivity. Increased efficiencies maintain and improve customer satisfaction and retention, adapt to technological and industrial changes, talent retention, be the trainer and the coach (Respondent).

There needs to be a combined effort with all stakeholders to better develop chefs to be able to be competent in their changing working environment (Cheng, 2012:159; Cossio, 2016:online; Traud, 2017:24).

Theme 5: Responsibility All the interviewed stakeholders agree on the importance of a chef’s development, although there are mixed views on who is responsible for this. The chefs believe that their development is their own responsibility but point out that the company departments and the professional bodies hold the overall responsibility for this.

The company’s training department, or the governmental bodies that are custodians for the chef’s education. Unfortunately, they are entrenched in traditions, rather than evolve to current skill set required for the Executive Chef (Respondent).

The company felt that there was an overall responsibility on all stakeholders for the training of chefs.

Tertiary providers, Learning and Development Department, chef himself and the managers (Respondent).

The Human Resources Department acknowledged that there was a responsibility on all stakeholders for the chef’s training to reach his or her professional peak.

The chef himself, the GM, with the assistance of the training department (Respondent).

Overall, there is consensus that multiple departments and groups are responsible for the chef’s professional development, which accords with the literature (Evetts, 2006:515; Hu, 2010b:582; Roosipõld, 2011:275).

Theme 6: Training The Group’s Training Department stated that they do offer training courses for chefs within the company, which they believe will benefit the chef’s development.

110 Chefs have access to the overall training offering by the company, especially in management and leadership courses offered by the company, and then additional specialised training is offered in special circumstances (Respondent).

They recognised that it is up to the chef’s own initiative to do the training. This point is in contrast to the chefs’ own views, that they are largely too busy for such training.

Theme 7: Company policy Human Resources and Company Training acknowledge that there is no training structure or policy in place to guide or control a chef’s development within the company.

The chefs often do not attend the management and leadership skills available at each layer throughout their career; by the time they are exec Sous Chefs their leadership and administrative skills are behind the required skill for their level (Respondent).

Thus, the chef has no development structure or guide within the company to follow to gauge his or her level of development.

Theme 8: Promotion However, the company did point out that when an Executive Chef position did become available within the various hotels, the chefs did not have the professional aptitude to take on these Executive Chef positions.

Chefs do not develop their leadership ability and when senior positions are available, they do not have the required leadership and administrative skill level to take on these positions (Respondent).

The overall response from the company is that the responsibility for the chefs’ professional development is not only their responsibility or that of the chef but industry as well.

The responsibility for training chefs is the tertiary providers, Learning and Development department, chefs for themselves and the managers (Respondent).

The consensus of the Company Training and Human Resources departments and the chefs’ professional body is that a chef’s professional development is very important and does not rest only on the chef but on the industry as a whole.

Theme 9: Company training The chefs’ professional body, on the other hand, suggested that the company training is not focused on managerial training per se but rather in creating cooks rather than Executive Chefs and how this needs to change.

The training for chefs is not focused on preparing chefs to understand the managerial side of the business. Training must be focused on financial and procurement processes and how to deal with business uncertainty. Chefs as entrepreneurs need to understand the dynamics of margins, the context of risk and its impact and the future of the business’ sustainability. Unfortunately, it still

111 focuses on primary skills rather than secondary managerial skills needed in the workplace (Respondent).

The company’s Human Resources Department pointed out that not all chefs have the ability to become managers, which the role of Executive Chef demands at that level.

Not all “chefs” have the necessary skills to lead a team or have a business-focussed mind. They are unable to create new experiences or to contribute to the overall success of the hotel (Respondent).

However, all agree that more initiatives are needed across the board in all stages of a chef’s development to create competent Executive Chefs.

We need to step up the training to be on par with other disciplines. Progression can only be possible if the stakeholders themselves are the drivers and custodians of that training. Experts in the culinary domain must design and implement this training. Therefore, benefit will then be realised (Respondent).

This needs to start with the correct identification of the potential developmental ability of the chef. This is where the importance of the job description and chef’s CV comes in.

Theme 10: Job description The Human Resources Department, Company Training Department and industry body all agree that there is a job description in place for Executive Chefs.

Yes, there is a concise descriptive document available to chefs on recruitment (Respondent).

However, the Human Resources Department did acknowledge that the Executive Chef’s job description has not been updated.

Not yet but they are being relooked (Respondent).

They are in the process of being relooked. The Company Training Department was not sure if this was happening.

Theme 11: Current hiring practices The current job description used by the Group to advertise an Executive Chef vacancy is a generic job description for all their Executive Chef vacancies, regardless of what star rating the hotel is. This is not in line with current duties that the company demands from Executive Chefs.

No, the companies are still requesting skills that the Executive Chefs are not competent in (Respondent).

Overall, the chefs’ skills are not in line with what the company demands from today’s Executive Chefs. This is where the CV becomes a crucial tool to gauge the competency of the Executive Chef.

112 Theme 12: The value of the CV The Human Resources Department, Company Training Department and industry body all outlined the value of the information given on a CV. It identifies the characteristics and behaviour of the applicant, if they are who the company needs. It enables the company to hire the right person for the job, with proper credentials to meet the levels of expectation and objectives of the business and it eliminates the potential risk posed by the applicant to the business.

Level of education is key, so is what was studied. What the CV says about on-going self- education; its relevance to business demands; the era that we live in; experience and maturity. Another key indicator to good hiring practices is the alignment of the character of the Executive Chef to the company’s culture, ability to adapt to change and willingness to be guided (Respondent).

The right decision could be made using sound judgement and through the verification of those details, regardless of what references say. It also reveals the applicant’s trainability, adaptability to change and thought leadership capabilities.

Experience, knowledge, establishments worked in, gaps in employment, “job hopping”, qualifications (Respondent).

They all agree that the CV is a vital tool in helping industry as a whole to obtain the information needed to make the correct initial decision on a potential Executive Chef and to formulate his or her development needs.

4.8.1 Conclusion As Figure 4.7 suggests, the Executive Chef’s growth to reach his or her professional peak is dependent on many factors, as stated by the company’s structure and professional industry opinion group. From the industry’s professional body to the various company departments, all have different elements that are responsible for the chef’s development, including the chef’s own responsibility.

113 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter Four presented the findings of the quantitative data collected from the 150 Executive and Executive Sous Chefs’ CVs and the findings of the qualitative data obtained from the interviews with 11 Executive and Executive Sous Chefs from the Group in the Gauteng region, as well as the interviews with the Group’s Human Resource manager and Training manager.

The CV data were collected to provide an overall picture of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs that are presently working in the 4- and 5-star properties of hotel groups in South Africa and to give comprehensive, empirical data on the profile of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs.

The interviewed chefs were selected from the CV data collection exercise, using the NQF levels to identify those with NQF Levels 4, 5 and 6 and were kept to the same hotel group within Gauteng. Gender and race were also considered to provide a more comprehensive picture of the Executive and Executive Sous Chefs’ profiles.

Interviews with the Group’s Human Resource manager and Group Training manager were conducted to get a better understanding of the challenges faced by Executive and Executive Sous Chefs in the working environment.

Based on the data, the findings and analysis of the data shown in Chapter Four, and in relation to the objectives stated in Chapter One, the following sections analyse the findings, how the study objectives were met, and give recommendations for further research on Executive and Executive Sous Chefs within South Africa.

The limitations, recommendations for future research and the conclusion to the overall study is provided in this final chapter.

5.2 CONCLUSIONS BASED ON THE STUDY OBJECTIVES

The study sought to investigate the different tracks of professional development of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs currently employed within the Group in South Africa, with a specific focus on 4- and 5-star hotels. The specific objectives were to:

• Biographically profile the professional development of Executive and Executive sous chefs in 4- and 5-star South African hotels.

• Examine the perceptions of key stakeholders on professional development.

114 • Propose a framework of recommendations that could be useful in policy formulation or planning and practical application in the context of professional development in hotels.

5.2.1 Summary of respondents’ profiles The first part of the data collected was derived from the CVs of current Executive and Executive Sous Chefs in 4- and 5-star hotels in South Africa.

The interviewees were key stakeholders in the Group from which the 11 Executive and Executive Sous Chefs were selected. Also included in this group were the Group’s Human Resource manager, the Group’s Training manager as well as an external representative from the Company Training and Industry Professional Body, all of whom work within the 4- and 5- star hotel environment.

5.2.2 Conclusions based on the first study objective The study met the first objective of the research. CVs were obtained through recruitment agents and verified using LinkedIn to match physical to electronic data and to verify the authenticity of the information from two different sources. The aim was to biographically profile the professional development of Executive and Executive Sous Chefs in 4- and 5-star South African hotels, similar to the study of Allen and Mac Con Iomaire (2016:109).

Of the collected and verified data, 86% of the chefs had worked in 4-star hotels and 84% had also worked in 5-star hotels within their culinary careers. This is relevant to the increased working demands made on chefs working in 4- and 5-star hotels (Birdir & Canakci, (2014:207).

The data revealed that the sample of 126 Executive Chefs and 22 Executive Sous Chefs had an average of 20 years’ experience, which aligns with the findings of Kang et al. (2010:174) and Zopiatis (2010:461). Furthermore, 55.4% of the South African chefs had international experience.

The data further showed that it is a predominantly male-dominated industry, with females making up only 10%. This corroborates the findings of Birdir and Canakci (2014:208) and Haddaji et al. (2018:270).

The findings were similar to those of Allen and Mac Con Iomaire (2016:108), that the average age of the South African male Executive and Executive Sous Chefs was 40 years and for females the average age was 37 years. The data also showed that the culinary industry in South Africa is dominated by white males holding Executive Chef positions in South African hotels, followed distantly by Indian, Black, Coloured and Asian chefs. This is corroborated by the findings of Tangri and Southall (2008:699).

115 Although 140 of the Executive and Executive Sous Chefs had a Grade 12 qualification and managed to go on and do a one or two year certificate or diploma in culinary studies, the findings show that the majority of chefs held a NQF Level 4 and 5, and that only 14 of the Executive and Executive Sous Chefs had NQF Level 6, which is equivalent to a diploma, while nobody had a degree. This is corroborated by the findings of Parker and Walters (2008:70).

The survey revealed that the Executive and Executive Sous Chefs had worked in a variety of culinary establishments throughout their careers, which they believed gave them more experience and knowledge, while the majority had worked in hotels and restaurants. The data further showed that the chefs moved establishments to fast-track their career path, gaining knowledge, experience and stature. However, once they had achieved the position of Executive Chef, chefs move laterally from one executive position to another. This is corroborated by the findings of Rahmawati et al. (2015:65).

It was also evident that all the chefs began at the bottom of the culinary ladder, starting as an apprentice or Commis Chef. They all had to progress through the sub-chef ranks of Commis Chef, Demi Chef, Chef de Partie, Sous Chef and Chef de Cuisine—each level carrying increased responsibility, leadership and ultimately, reaching the status of Executive or Executive Sous Chef. This is corroborated by the findings of Gonzales (2019:7).

5.2.3 Conclusions based on the second study objective It was suggested by Executive Chefs that the hotel culinary environment of today has a higher demand for better-educated chefs once they progress into higher management ranks within the kitchens (Pizam, 2016:116).

Varsity education contributed to my success but basic cooking methods and basic hygiene methods is what was learned in the beginning days (Respondent).

This sentiment is echoed by chefs were fortunate to have had opportunity to study at university and who noted that they had a skill set which better prepared them to adapt to the new managerial demands in the culinary arena.

My studying at varsity and the company training, training and experience has enhanced me a lot towards my career development (Respondent).

However, chefs that did not have this opportunity would have to learn through years of practical experience, drawing from the knowledge of many different managers with whom they would work with. Under good or bad mentors, these chefs will, through trial and error, create a management style that will allow them to cope with new culinary demands at a managerial level (Mac Con Iomaire, 2008:46; Haddaji et al., 2018:269).

116 To think out of the box and explore every learning opportunity provided for me. Not to be afraid to be a mentor to upcoming chefs. Having the mind-set of understanding that being a chef is not only about cooking but running the business too. Being able to work under pressure and meet deadlines (Respondent).

This shows that there is a demand for more highly skilled chefs and with the numerous challenges facing chefs as they move through the workplace environment to develop their skills further, company training plays an integral part in developing a chef’s skill set—in management, as well as in carrying out the job. This is corroborated by Ko (2012:1006). .

My studying at varsity and the company training, training and experience has enhanced me a lot towards my career development (Respondent).

To better explain the complexities involved in workplace learning for chefs, the second objective was broken down into four categories, namely Workplace learning, Workplace skills, Career education, and Mentoring and leadership. Each category spoke to the various challenges that chefs face in progressing through the various ranks within the kitchen environment, to educational requirements, to the need for training from the company’s side and finally in ensuring that the right mentors are in place. These ensure that chefs receive the right training that will allow them to develop into well-rounded chef with the right attitude and skill set to become an Executive Chef.

Once the position of Executive Chef has been achieved, the incumbent becomes a vital link in the process, now becoming the mentor and leader of the next generation of chefs and, depending on professional development, will become the promoter of progression or the obstacle in the barriers that other chefs will encounter (Kram, 1988:659; Lai, 2010:444).

With all of the above in place, the professional development of Executive Chefs within South Africa is well within the reach of today’s chef.

In the second objective, the perceptions of key stakeholders, namely, the company’s Human Resources Department, the company’s Training Department, as well as various professional bodies, all acknowledged and recognised the importance of the Executives Chef’s position in the Group. They further agreed that the demands and availability of the position, along with ensuring that the placement of the correct candidate for the job, had changed over time. In addition, they agreed that not all chefs could become an Executive Chef because specific skills are required.

Chefs aspiring to the position of Executive Chef have to have knowledge and skills in a variety of business disciplines such as accounting, financial management, operations management, marketing, legal aspects and human resources management, as well as being able to adapt to

117 the ever-changing business environment by relying on managerial leadership skills to solve challenges (Pizam, 2016:116).

All stakeholders, as well as several authors, agree that in many cases the following factors contribute to a complex development process for both Executive and Executive Sous Chefs: limited education, training and experience, an inability to apply a business mindset dependent on past experiences, job complacency, career satisfaction, lack of interest, lack of drive and purpose, fear of failure, pressure and the inability to handle stress (Birdir & Canakci, 2014:208; Allen & Mac Con Iomaire, 2016:112; Haddaji, 2018:21).

Due to the high demand for Executive Chefs in an ever-growing culinary market, unqualified and inexperienced chefs are placed in the position of Executive Chef by hospitality companies that need to fill these positions. They are attracted by high salaries and the lure of the executive position. Demands from the hospitality company are placed on these chefs but they cannot meet them due to their lack of skills, knowledge and experience, which results in a high attrition rate.

There was a mixed reaction to the question of who is responsible for the chef’s professional development but the company’s Human Resources Department, the Training department and the professional bodies acknowledged that it was the responsibility of all sectors.

The company acknowledged that there were many different company training courses available to chefs but that it fell to the Executive Chef to select who attended the training. However, company accepted that certain vital training was not available to help the Executive Chefs’ professional development.

The Human Resource Department and Training Department acknowledged that there was no training structure or policy in place to guide or control the chef’s development within the company. However, they did recognise that when Executive Chef positions became available within the different hotels, the chefs generally did not have the professional profile to take on these positions. As a result, these hotels struggle to fill vacant positions with the correct candidate.

The Human Resources Department, Group Training and industry body all agree that there is a job description in place for Executive sous chefs and Executive chefs. The current job description of the Group, which it uses to advertise these vacancies, uses a generic job description for all their Executive sous chefs and Executive Chef vacancies, regardless of what star rating the hotel is. The result is that the chefs’ skills may not meet the company’s demands from today’s top Executive sous chefs and Executive Chefs.

118 It has been recognised that the CV is a vital tool in helping industry as a whole to get the necessary information to make the correct initial decision on a potential Executive Chef. However, the Human Resource Department and the Company Training Department still believe in experience over a period of time and feel that the type and rating of hotels are important factors when considering a chef’s development needs (as pointed out by Cañibano & Bozeman, 2009:86).

The Executive Chef’s growth to reach his or her professional peak is dependent on many criteria within the company’s structure and professional industry opinion group. From the industry’s professional body to the various company departments, all have different elements that are vital for the chef’s professional development, including the chef’s own initiative.

A progressive structure is proposed in Figure 5.1 below, from entrants into basic education, to their ultimate continued professional development, ranging from short courses to credit-bearing certificates, diplomas and degrees, giving entry to the workplace. Once in the workplace, it illustrates the combined effort from all stakeholders and their responsibility, including that of the chef, for the professional development of Executive Chefs.

119 Figure 5.1: Adapted conceptualisation of career pathway to provide a clear structure for continued professional development

Source: Jooste (2007:233)

5.2.4 Conclusions based on the third study objective The third and final objective of the study was to illustrate a framework of understanding of the professional development process of Executive Chefs.

Hadges (2016:1) believes the root cause of the inability to provide the knowledge and experience necessary to become an Executive Chef is that educational institutions do not have actual businesses to train their students to become Executive Chefs. Unlike a general degree, the Executive Chef is a specialised function requiring a combination of company training, academic education, and real-world experience.

The proposed framework in Figure 5.2 below shows the continuous process of the professional developmental stages of chefs, along with the different interactions that need to take place to reach the level of Executive Chef.

Figure 5.2: Proposed framework for professional development of executive chefs

Source: Researcher’s own construct

5.2.4.1 Access Figure 2.3 in Chapter Two illustrates the kitchen brigade structure that was developed by Escoffier in the 1900s and which is still in existence today (Escoffier, 1987:52). Chefs that enter the culinary profession access this brigade structure, whichever qualification they may have 120 obtained prior to this, regardless of whether it is a certificate, diploma or degree. Kraak (2009:380) believes, however, that formal qualifications give chefs a headstart over their untrained peers. However, they all start at the bottom of the kitchen brigade structure (Gonzalez, 2019:6).

I was straight out of chef school and was thrown directly into the deep end at the bottom, and just had to learn how to swim. That’s where the value of on-the-job training and the structure of a kitchen is beneficial to the lower ranks. My Chef de Partie showed me all the techniques and skills needed to be successful at the restaurant, the shortcuts that your chef school might not have taught you (Respondent).

5.2.4.2 Stages In Figure 5.2 above, the proposed framework for the professional development of Executive Chefs, Stages 1 to 5 represent the different levels and kitchen positions of the kitchen brigade structure through which the chef would need to navigate. In Objective One it was found that each position (stage) had an average time that each chef had to work in before being promoted into the next position. Comis and Demi Chefs had an average 4.6 years, Chefs de Partie an average of 2.7 years, Sous Chefs an average of 3.5 years and Executive Sous Chefs or Chefs de Cuisine an average of 4.1 years, regardless of what education they had. In this time, experience is gained through knowledge and skill, learning from others as well as through the organisation but most of all, through peers and managers for the ostensible purpose of being ultimately promoted to the position of Executive Chef (Roosipõld, 2011:275).

5.2.4.3 Progression The chefs that entered the profession with better qualifications, for example an NQF Level 6, as illustrated in Figure 5.2 (even though they still have to work through the stages), will progress more quickly as they will be able to connect theory with practice and develop professionally. However, this is provided that the company identifies these individuals and structures company training initiatives around their identified development needs, resulting in a cheaper and more quickly developed Executive Chef. Balkaran and Giampiccoli (2013:210) point out that various skills, including high-end skills, are still required, making training and education at all levels of the kitchen brigade a necessity.

Starting in varsity first and then working in different kitchens and learning different skills has always been an upper hand for me as I have been able to connect theoretical and practical knowledge from different cuisine positions which helped me progress quicker (Respondent).

The NQF Level 4 and 5 trained chefs will still progress through the system as shown in Objective One but will take longer, as they will need further training and interventions by the company to progress their development to the level of Executive Chef. As Birdir and Canakci

121 (2014:211) emphasise, there is a need to pay attention to training and education gaps of kitchen personnel in hotel kitchens.

5.2.4.4 Mentoring It was also identified and shown in Figure 5.2 that mentoring, rather than delegation as illustrated in Figure 2.3, was an essential tool in the development of the kitchen brigade. Developing company mentoring training for the chef brigade will advance the ability of all kitchen personnel to be able to become mentors within their levels downwards, passing on experience, skills and knowledge, changing the old Escoffier model of ‘delegation of instruction without question’, into upliftment and development of chefs’ professional development.

As a sous chef, I learnt a lot from various Executive Chefs who served as my mentors. I learnt about food quality, the business side of the kitchen–food stock control, ordering from suppliers and networking to get the best pricing, and about teamwork. One of my mentors taught me about understanding a team and getting them to work to their best ability, as well as to teach team members to understand the business and take ownership of it. They also taught me about the hierarchy in the kitchen, roles of different kitchen staff and ways in which to improve my own performance to advance my career while still working as a part of and inspiring a team (Respondent).

Hadges (2016:1) believes that reaching the position of Executive Chef happens by chance through the individual having gained the required experience, knowledge and skill as a result of the process illustrated above, as well as the company looking for such an individual at the same time.

5.2.4.5 Leadership The Executive Chef’s leadership style will determine the workplace behaviour and the running and management of the kitchen brigade. In turn, this will reflect how training, skills and knowledge is accepted and implemented into the kitchen environment (Kim & Brymer, 2011:1020; Yen & Teng, 2013:401). Haddaji (2018:20) believes that leadership is an important part of mentoring and will influence its effectiveness in the workplace. Companies should also consider leadership training or interventions for the Executive Chefs to instil a mentoring culture within the kitchen brigade structure.

A positive attitude, willingness to learn and the most important thing for me, is my ability to ask for assistance. Taking constructive criticism is key in this leadership role. The skill that assisted me to reach my career goal was leadership management (Respondent).

5.2.4.6 Transformation and development The current reflection of the results found in Objective One, the data showed a predominantly white Executive Chef role, with literature showing that there is a significant change in transformation, where 74% of hospitality employees are black but are in junior management 122 positions (Balkaran & Giampiccoli, 2013:209). Maumbe and van Wyk (2011:366) report that African employees tend not to have high end skills. “Achieving this tourism-led development is hampered by the critical shortage of skills which are central to the development of local communities and the country” (Maumbe & van Wyk, 2011:363).

Identification and development of future chefs entering the profession will become critical for companies within the proposed framework of the professional development of future Executive Chefs. The framework will help guide and identify potential “developmental chefs” that require skills training and a continued developmental process within the kitchen brigade to help the transformation within the company and industry, as well as to try to alleviate the current critical skills shortage.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

As shown in the literature and research data, the chef’s profession is forever changing and evolving, with the formal learning sector trying to keep pace by increasing its educational offerings, from certificates all the way to degrees. This is together with industry trying to create accreditations to legitimise qualified and unqualified chefs, linking them to the formal learning sector and companies needing to take development responsibility to upskill chefs to professionally develop the Executive Chefs needed today.

As Hadges (2016:1) points out:

Unlike a general degree, the Executive Chef is a specialised function requiring a combination of vocational training, academic education, Company Training and real-world experience that the industry will recognise as such.

It is recommended that the Group identify and categorise all their current chefs according to their NQF levels. By so doing, according to their educational qualifications stated on their CVs, the Group’s Human Resources Department and Training Department could identify the qualifications that the chefs have obtained prior to entering the culinary industry and classify them according to their general level of education. In this way, the Group could identify the training requirements of each group of upcoming Executive Chefs. The higher the NQF level, the less training, time and cost should be required, making those chefs the first priority for development. In this way, the Group has the potential of retaining and motivating the next generation of potential Executive Chefs.

The Group needs to be aware that they are ill-prepared if they run generic courses for the whole company, as opposed to targeted, departmental courses to upskill the next generation of Executive Chefs. Company Training and Development should develop courses to be chef-

123 specific, with a training timetable or employee training passport, that states certain training that needs to be completed at certain positions within the kitchen hierarchy before being able to be promoted to the next position.

New developments have changed the roles of Executive Chefs, to becoming professional managers who oversee large kitchen brigades. Executive Chefs are now on a quest to find a balance between two worlds—their function of being a manager on the one hand and their professional job of cooking on the other (Pizam, 2016:117). Executive Chefs now have a mixed occupational identity—that of manager and professional which might motivate them to acquire an academic education or partake in relevant company courses to better prepare them for that executive position (Traud, 2017:14).

The company needs to design relevant mentoring and leadership courses that will capture all the different levels found within the kitchen brigade. This would replace the old kitchen brigade system that relied on delegation as the method of instruction rather than mentoring and learning. The function of a mentor in nurturing culinary talent within the existing workforce of Executive Chefs within the company could become an effective tool in developing a future pool of Executive Chefs, with the purpose of eliminating the authoritarian style of management, which literature has shown to be an ineffective tool (Pratten, 2003b:242). Successful mentoring does take time and effort, requiring the right training and mentorship, which needs long term vision and commitment but, in turn, makes the industry more professional (Mac Con Iomaire, 2008:48).

It is important to note that in South Africa there is a large segment of chefs that are stuck in positions with little potential for progression due to the historic educational imbalances to which they were subjected. This has in effect created a glass ceiling for them. Instilling a strong mentoring culture within South African kitchens could help with company interventions to break this glass ceiling for such chefs.

5.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

One of the limitations of the study is that it was restricted to Johannesburg-based hotels. Although the hospitality industry is large and widespread nationally and internationally, the pragmatic decision was made to use only hotels that formed part of one group.

With regard to data collection, there are a few limitations that are likely to occur. These include the interview process not going as planned or the interviewee showing lack of interest when sharing information. These are common to all qualitative studies but were not deemed significant in this study. 124 5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS

This study attempted to highlight and give some insight into the educational status and professional development challenges faced by the Executive Chefs in South Africa, within a hotel group in South Africa. A shortage and concomitant lack of retention of skilled Executive Chefs in the hospitality sector is dominant in much of the world and South Africa is not immune to this trend, as the industry changes and demands Executive Chefs with improved skills.

A chef typically begins his or her career in the industry as a cook but could end up being a responsible manager. Due to the demand from industry for better educated and skilled Executive Chefs, there is a responsibility from educational institutions to hospitality companies to upskill the Executive Chefs to cope with these new requirements. This study aimed to help inform educators, employers and industry bodies that there needs to be a new educational and training structure for the development of future Executive Chefs from the onset of tertiary education, to more relevant courses from companies or external training sources throughout the chefs’ careers to upskill them continuously, and in so doing, developing a more competent and knowledgeable Executive Chef.

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145 APPENDIX A: ETHICAL CLEARANCE TO CONDUCT RESEARCH.

146 APPENDIX B: REQUEST TO COMPLETE THE RESEARCH SURVEY

SCHOOL OF TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY (STH)

COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS

To whom it may concern

Letter of request to participate in study

Mr Gerard Adriaan Vingerling is a registered student studying towards a Master’s degree in Tourism and Hospitality Management at the University of Johannesburg. As part of the degree requirement, Mr Vingerling is currently undertaking research on The Professional Development of Executive Chefs in a South African Hotel Group in the Gauteng province, under my supervision. This study is conducted with a view to providing recommendations, where necessary, for policies and procedures that would inform the hotel industry in South Africa. The research project was granted ethical clearance by the University Ethics Committee (ethical clearance code 2019STH016). The purpose of this interview is to explore your perception of Executive and Executive Sous Chef’s professional development. Your assistance in participating in the study through Participating in the interviews is highly valued. The participation will be treated as anonymous, and the data will be used for report writing only. Please feel free to opt out at any given stage of the interview, should you feel uncomfortable about answering the questions asked. Your identity and personal information will remain confidential at all times. Should you wish to verify the authenticity of this project, please contact me using the email/phone numbers provided. Thanks

Prof. Tembi Tichaawa Associate Professor:School of Tourism and Hospitality Office Number 11 Phone +27(0)11 559 1597 Fax +27 83 342 9490 Email [email protected] STH Admin Building, Bunting Road Campus, Auckland Park

147 APPENDIX C: DATA COLLECTION GUIDE: EXECUTIVE AND EXECUTIVE SOUS CHEFS - CURRICULUM VITAE

SCHOOL OF TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY (STH) COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS DATE COLLECTION GUIDE FOR EXECUTIVE CHEFS AND EXECUTIVE SOUS CHEFS FROM CURRICULUM VITAE The collection of the curriculum vita form part of the data collection process, as required for the completion of the study, as a requirement for a Master’s Degree in Tourism and Hospitality at the School of Tourism and Hospitality at the University of Johannesburg. The study is aimed at The Professional Development of Executive Chefs in a South African hotel Group in the Gauteng Province. The information provided will remain strictly confidential and your personal details will remain anonymous and remain anonymous. The data will be used for academic purposes only. The collection of the curriculum vitae forms part of the data collection process in the study to understand the Executives and Executive Sous Chefs’ employment and educational history. The following information will be retrieved from the curriculum vitae of the Executive and Executive Sous Chefs. Name Age Gender Race Current position - Executive Chef - Executive Sous Chef Matric or Grade Passed - Grade 10 - Grade 11 - Grade 12 Type of qualification

Years of study

Year obtained

148 Type of Certificate - Non/Apprentice - Certificate - Diploma - Degree Educational level - NQF 4 - NQF 5 - NQF 6 - NQF 7

Name of Institution Qualification obtained

Number of hotels worked

Grade of hotel worked - 3-star - 4-star - 5-star

Types of establishments worked - Lodge or guest house, country club - Corporate catering worked - Cruise liners - Multiple food outlet complex - Restaurant worked

Total years of experience

International experience obtained

Years of international experience

Registered Professional body

Years of experience in the following positions - Commis Chef/apprenticeship - Demi chef - Chef de Partie - Sous Chef - Executive Sous Chef, Head Chef or Chef de Cuisine - Executive chef - Complex or group Executive Chef

149 APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW GUIDE: EXECUTIVE CHEFS/EXECUTIVE SOUS CHEFS

SCHOOL OF TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY (STH) COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR EXECUTIVE CHEFS AND EXECUTIVE SOUS CHEFS The interview forms part of the data collection process, as required for the completion of the study, as a requirement for a Master’s Degree in Tourism and Hospitality at the School of Tourism and Hospitality at the University of Johannesburg. The study is aimed at The Professional Development of Executive Chefs in a South African Hotel Group in the Gauteng province. You are kindly requested to participate in the study. The information provided will be strictly confidential, and your personal details will remain strictly protected. The data will be used for academic purposes only. Semi-structured interview guide used for the one-on-one interviews in the study to understand the Executives and Executive Sous Chefs’ perception on the professional development of Executive Chefs. DATE: TIME: LOCATION: The survey consists of six categories: Workplace learning, Workplace Skills, Barriers to progression, Mentoring and leadership, Career Education and Professional Development.

1. Workplace learning 1.1 What were your expectations when you chose to dedicate yourself to a professional kitchen? 1.2 How and where did you learn to cook in preparation for employment in the professional culinary kitchen? a) Describe the environment and culture where you learned to cook. b) What did you need to learn to enter the field? c) How did you learn what you needed to know to enter the culinary field? d) Describe how you and those who gave you the skills you needed to reach your culinary goals interacted with each other.

1.3 Talk about your experiences of cooking in the professional culinary kitchen. a) Who set expectations of performance in the kitchen? b) How did you know what was expected in terms of skills?

150 1.4 Did you feel Company Training, education or experience benefited your career advancement in the kitchen brigade to reach the position of Executive Sous or Executive Chef? a) Who do you think is responsible for your career development? b) Does Company Training policy benefit your career development? c) Who do you feel is responsible in the industry for you to have achieved the position of Executive Sous or Executive Chef and why?

2. Workplace skills 2.1 What is the knowledge, skills and attitudes that facilitated your promotion to Executive Sous or Executive Chef?

2.2 Do you think that the previously mentioned skills could be learned in the kitchen workplace?

2.3 How would you describe the professional kitchen work environment?

2.4 If you did an apprenticeship, who and what influenced it?

2.5 Based on your experience, what are the learning strategies found in the professional kitchens.

2.6 Explain from your experience your exposure to the following learning methods found in a professional kitchen?

a) Learn from and with others b) Participation in competitions c) Trial and error d) Company learning courses e) Internet, social media

2.7 What are the knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to advance to an Executive Sous or Executive Chef position and why? a) Financial management b) Competitiveness c) To give clear instructions d) To be authoritarian e) To be communicative f) To look for public recognition

2.8 How did your work environment contribute to your professional development? a) To take diverse responsibilities b) To take more initiative c) To have more confidence d) To find other means not available in the working environment.

2.9 Are you satisfied with your working environment and the quality of the apprenticeship/learning you received? a) Satisfaction from your work environment in general b) Workplace learning process

151 3. Barriers to progression 3.1 Describe how prepared you were for your first job in the culinary profession?

3.2 How many times have you been promoted throughout your career? a) What do you believe has led to your promotion/s (work ethic, education, company development, work experience)?

3.3 Does your current job provide you with the necessary skills needed to advance you to your next desired position? And what do you believe is your next desired position?

3.4 Do you believe that there is a higher skills demand for Executive Chefs as you progress through the star rating of hotels and why?

3.5 From the following options, would you please select the barriers that you faced and that impacted your development and why? a) Family conciliation b) Work environment c) Lack of progression d) Lack of communication e) Lack of education

3.6 How did you overcome them? a) What did you sacrifice for your professional career? b) Family oriented life c) Entertaining activities d) Traveling e) Friends f) Any other

Why?

4. Mentoring and leadership 4.1 Who set the training in the kitchen? a) What were the spoken and unspoken expectations of training? b) How did you know what was expected of you concerning training in the Kitchen? c) How where the expectations of training relayed to chefs, including all levels in the kitchen? d) Was there an established set of training structures that the chef could follow and did this benefit you in terms of progression and access to knowledge? e) How did they not benefit you? f) What happened if you did not “follow” a particular expectation, skills, cultural learning behaviour within the kitchen environment?

4.2 What is the common leadership style of chefs in the different hotels you have worked in?

4.3 Explain your leadership style and how it was influenced?

4.4 What has your work based learning up until present?

4.5 Do you find it relevant and does it have the potential to grow your career?

5. Professional development

152 5.1 What part did your education contribute to or take away from the realities you faced in the professional kitchen?

5.2 Describe your job history from your first job (position) in the culinary industry to your position as Executive Chef. a) What motivated you to want to climb the culinary ladder? b) How did you navigate from starting as a Commis Chef to begin climbing the culinary ladder? c) What did you experience as the challenges you faced whilst climbing the culinary ladder. How did you become aware and deal with the challenges? d) What do you believe contributed to your successes in climbing the culinary ladder. e) How did your experiences or education lead to your successes?

5.3 How did your engagement in the workplace help structure your career trajectory?

5.4 Given how you perceived being a chef, now that you have reached the level of Executive Sous Chef or Executive Chef, what does the professional culinary world mean to you now, specifically the title, Executive Sous Chef or Executive Chef?

5.5 How does this play out in how you navigate the workplace now as opposed to when you first started your career?

5.6 Who do you believe is responsible for your professional development? a) What does this understanding mean for your future?

5.7 Is your General Manager aware of your career goals?

5.8 Does your current manager show interest in your career development?

5.9 Do you understand what your manager’s expectations and requirements are for you to be promoted to a higher position?

5.10 Do you understand the company’s expectations and requirements for you to be promoted to a higher position?

5.11 What are your future aspirations?

5.12 Describe the level of satisfaction with your personal career and development

6. Career education 6.1 How did life experiences lead you to your present career? a) How did you organise your life to include a career in the culinary industry? b) What expectations did you have concerning life as a chef? c) Why did you choose the “training/educational” path that you did to realise your goal of becoming a chef? d) How and what education did you believe was important for a start in the culinary profession?

6.2 In your opinion, how many years of experience do you think you should have before you become an Executive Chef in a 4 and 5-star hotel? a) Is it gauged on experience or education or both?

153 b) Do you think tertiary education would have given you a quicker advancement to the position of Executive Chef? c) Do you believe a better education is needed for a chef’s development than what is present today?

6.3 Do you believe there is a need for specific and relevant made courses that would help chefs progress from sous chef to Executive Chef levels in 4- and 5-star hotels?

154 APPENDIX E: INTERVIEW GUIDE - MANAGERS/INDUSTRY PROFESSIONAL BODIES

SCHOOL OF TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY (STH) COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR COMPANY TRAINING MANAGER, HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER AND INDUSTRY PROFESSIONAL BODY

The interview forms part of the data collection process, as required for the completion of the study, as a requirement for a Master’s Degree in Tourism and Hospitality at the School of Tourism and Hospitality at the University of Johannesburg. The study is aimed at The Professional Development of Executive Chefs in a South African Hotel Group in the Gauteng province. You are kindly requested to participate in the study. The information provided will be strictly confidential, and your personal details will remain strictly protected. The data will be used for academic purposes only. Semi-structured interview guide used for the one-on-one interviews in the study to understand the Company Training Manager, Human resource Manager and Industry professional bodies on The Professional Development of Executive Chefs. DATE: TIME: LOCATION: 1. How important has the position of Executive Chef become for the hotel group? 2. From your perspective. Why do you believe so? 3. Can any chef in the hotel group become an Executive Chef? 4. Do you believe that professional development is essential for a chef to become an Executive Chef in the company? 5. From the companies training point of view how important is it to have well trained and educated Executive Chefs? 6. Has in recent times, the demand for a better skilled Executive Chef emerged for the hotel group? 7. Why do you believe a better skilled Executive Chef is now needed for the hotel group? 8. Is the company experiencing a shortage of skilled Executive Chefs? 8. a) Why?

155 9. Does the companied training programme help fill the skills need for chefs to reach the level of Executive Chef? 10. Who is responsible to set the training for the chefs? 11. How important is the training of chefs, to the hotel group? 12. How is the training developed in the company, to what training is required for the chefs? 13. How are the expectations of training relayed to chefs, including all levels in the kitchen? 14. Is there an established set of training structures within the company that the chefs need to follow? 15. Will this benefit them in terms of progression and access? 16. Did you feel Company Training benefits the advancement of chefs to reach the position of Executive Chef? 17. Who do you think is ultimately responsible for the chef’s career development? 18. Does the company training policy benefit the chef’s career development? 19. Is there a documented Job description requirement for hiring Executive Chefs within the hotel company? 20. Has the Job descriptions requirements change as the need for better educated and skilled Executive Chefs emerge? 21. How important is the information given on a curriculum vita to the company, for a potential Executive Chef applicant? 22. What do you believe is the most important part of the curriculum vita concerning the hiring of an Executive Chef? 23. Does the information given about the experience or the education level of an Executive Chef on his or her CV hold more importance to the company? 24. Do you think that there is a higher skills demand of an Executive Chefs in the different star ratings of hotels within the company? 25. Who do you believe is responsible for the chef’s professional development, the chef him/herself, company training, the work environment or human resource policy ?

156 APPENDIX F: TURNITIN DIGITAL RECEIPT

157 APPENDIX G: TURNITIN SIMILARITY INDEX

158 APPENDIX H: AFFIDAVIT

159 APPENDIX I: GRAMMARIAN CERTIFICATE

22 Krag Street Napier 7270 Overberg Western Cape

31 March 2020

LANGUAGE AND TECHNICAL EDIT

______

Professional Development of Executive Hotel Chefs in South Africa

Supervisor: D Hewson Co-supervisor: C.H. Mabaso

This is to confirm I, Cheryl Thomson, performed the language and technical edit of the above- titled Master’s dissertation of GERARD VINGERLING, student number 809433976 at the UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG, in preparation for submission of this dissertation for assessment.

Yours faithfully

CHERYL M. THOMSON

Email: [email protected]

Cell: 0826859545

160