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Nanotechnology Engineering – a Review Ramaiyan Dhanapal. / Journal of Science / Vol 2 / Issue 1 / 2012 / 13-25. e ISSN 2277 - 3290 Print ISSN 2277 - 3282 Journal of science ENGINEERING www.journalofscience.net NANOTECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING – A REVIEW Ramaiyan Dhanapal * 1Department of Pharmaceutics, Kakatiya Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (KIPS), Pembarthi (V), Hasanparthy (M), Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, India-506 371. ABSTRACT There is much debate on the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in medicine, electronics, biomaterials and energy production. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as any new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. Keywords: Nanotechnology, Nanomedicine, Nanoelectronics, Nanobiomaterials. INTRODUCTION Nanotechnology is the study of manipulating potential effects on global economics, as well as matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally, speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These nanotechnology deals with developing materials, devices, concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups or other structures possessing at least one dimension sized and governments on whether special regulation of from 1 to 100 nanometres. Quantum mechanical effects nanotechnology is warranted. are important at this quantum-realm scale. Although nanotechnology is a relatively recent Nanotechnology is very diverse, ranging from development in scientific research, the development of its extensions of conventional device physics to completely central concepts happened over a longer period of time. new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, The emergence of nanotechnology in the 1980s was from developing new materials with dimensions on the caused by the convergence of experimental advances such nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale. as the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in Nanotechnology entails the application of fields of 1981 and the discovery of fullerenes in 1985, with the science as diverse as surface science, organic chemistry, elucidation and popularization of a conceptual framework molecular biology, semiconductor physics, for the goals of nanotechnology beginning with the 1986 microfabrication, etc. publication of the book Engines of Creation. There is much debate on the future implications The scanning tunneling microscope, an of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able to create instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level, was many new materials and devices with a vast range of developed in 1981 by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at applications, such as in medicine, electronics, IBM Zurich Research Laboratory, for which they received biomaterials and energy production. On the other hand, the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986. Fullerenes were nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as any discovered in 1985 by Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, and new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and Robert Curl, who together won the 1996 Nobel Prize in environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their Chemistry. Corresponding Author:- Ramaiyan Dhanapal Email:- [email protected] 13 Ramaiyan Dhanapal. / Journal of Science / Vol 2 / Issue 1 / 2012 / 13-25. Around the same time, K. Eric Drexler to 100 nm following the definition used by the National developed and popularized the concept of nanotechnology Nanotechnology Initiative in the US. The lower limit is and founded the field of molecular nanotechnology. In set by the size of atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms, 1979, Drexler encountered Richard Feynman's 1959 talk which are approximately a quarter of a nm diameter) "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom". The term since nanotechnology must build its devices from atoms "nanotechnology", originally coined by Norio Taniguchi and molecules. The upper limit is more or less arbitrary in 1974, was unknowingly appropriated by Drexler in his but is around the size that phenomena not observed in 1986 book Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of larger structures start to become apparent and can be Nanotechnology, which proposed the idea of a nanoscale made use of in the nano device. These new phenomena "assembler" which would be able to build a copy of itself make nanotechnology distinct from devices which are and of other items of arbitrary complexity. He also first merely miniaturised versions of an equivalent published the term "grey goo" to describe what might macroscopic device; such devices are on a larger scale happen if a hypothetical self-replicating molecular and come under the description of microtechnology. nanotechnology went out of control. Drexler's vision of nanotechnology is often called "Molecular To put that scale in another context, the Nanotechnology" (MNT) or "molecular manufacturing," comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as and Drexler at one point proposed the term "zettatech" that of a marble to the size of the earth. Or another way of which never became popular. putting it: a nanometer is the amount an average man's beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to In the early 2000s, the field was subject to his face. growing public awareness and controversy, with prominent debates about both its potential implications, Two main approaches are used in exemplified by the Royal Society's report on nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach, materials nanotechnology, as well as the feasibility of the and devices are built from molecular components which applications envisioned by advocates of molecular assemble themselves chemically by principles of nanotechnology, which culminated in the public debate molecular recognition. In the "top-down" approach, nano- between Eric Drexler and Richard Smalley in 2001 and objects are constructed from larger entities without 2003. Governments moved to promote and fund research atomic-level control. into nanotechnology with programs such as the National Nanotechnology Initiative. Areas of physics such as nanoelectronics, nanomechanics, nanophotonics and nanoionics have The early 2000s also saw the beginnings of evolved during the last few decades to provide a basic commercial applications of nanotechnology, although scientific foundation of nanotechnology [4]. these were limited to bulk applications of nanomaterials, such as the Silver Nano platform for using silver Larger to smaller: a materials perspective nanoparticles as an antibacterial agent, nanoparticle-based A number of physical phenomena become transparent sunscreens, and carbon nanotubes for stain- pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These resistant textiles [1-3]. include statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the “quantum size effect” Fundamental concepts where the electronic properties of solids are altered with Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional great reductions in particle size. This effect does not come systems at the molecular scale. This covers both current into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. work and concepts that are more advanced. In its original However, quantum effects become dominant when the sense, nanotechnology refers to the projected ability to nanometer size range is reached, typically at distances of construct items from the bottom up, using techniques and 100 nanometers or less, the so called quantum realm. tools being developed today to make complete, high Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical, performance products. electrical, optical, etc.) properties change when compared to macroscopic systems. One example is the increase in One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10−9, of surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-carbon bond and catalytic properties of materials. Diffusion and lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a reactions at nanoscale, nanostructures materials and molecule, are in the range 0.12–0.15 nm, and a DNA nanodevices with fast ion transport are generally referred double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other to nanoionics. Mechanical properties of nanosystems are hand, the smallest cellular life-forms, the bacteria of the of interest in the nanomechanics research. The catalytic genus Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length. By activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their convention, nanotechnology is taken as the scale range 1 interaction with biomaterials. 14 Ramaiyan Dhanapal. / Journal of Science / Vol 2 / Issue 1 / 2012 / 13-25. Materials reduced to the nanoscale can show molecular scale. Molecular nanotechnology is especially different properties compared to what they exhibit on a associated with the molecular assembler, a machine that macroscale, enabling unique applications. For instance, can produce a desired structure or device atom-by-atom opaque substances become transparent (copper); stable using the principles of mechanosynthesis. Manufacturing materials turn combustible (aluminum); insoluble in the context of productive nanosystems is not related to, materials become soluble (gold). A material such as gold, and should be clearly distinguished from, the which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a conventional technologies used to manufacture potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales.
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