Relationship Between Celebrity Endorsements and Consumer Purchase Intentions
Supervised by:
Prof. Dr. Farzand Ali Jan
Professor, COMSATS
Submitted by:
Mr. Adil Adnan
Ph.D. (MARKETING)
IQRA NATIONAL UNIVERSITY PESHAWAR, PAKISTAN Certificate of Approval
This is to certify that the research work presented in this thesis, entitled Relationship Between Celebrity Endorsements and Consumer Purchase Intentions was conducted by Mr. Adil Adnan under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Farzand Ali Jan. No part of this thesis has been submitted anywhere else for any other degree. This thesis is submitted to the Iqra National University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in Field of Management Sciences at the Department of Business Administration.
Student Name: Mr. Adil Adnan Signature:
Examination Committee:
a) External Examiner 1: Name: Dr. Noman Khan Signature: Designation: Assistant Professor Official Address: COMSATS University, Attock
b) External Examiner 2: Name: Dr. Saman Atiq Signature: Designation: Assistant Professor Official Address: University of Wah, Pakistan
c) Internal Examiner 1: Name: Prof. Dr. Abid Usman Signature: Designation: HOD/Professor, Iqra National University Official Address: Iqra National University, Peshawar
Supervisor Name: Prof. Dr. Farzand Ali Jan Signature:
Name of /HOD: Prof. Dr. Abid Usman Signature
Author’s Declaration
I Mr. Adil Adnan hereby state that my PhD thesis titled as Relationship between Celebrity Endorsements and Consumer Purchase Intentions is my own work and has not been submitted previously by me for taking any degree from Iqra National University, Peshawar or anywhere else in the country/world. Moreover at any time if my statement is found to be incorrect the university has the right to withdraw my PhD degree.
______Mr. Adil Adnan Ph.D in Marketing Date: 31st May, 2017
IQRA NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HAYAT ABAD PESHAWAR, PAKISTAN
Plagiarism Undertaking
I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled Relationship between Celebrity Endorsements and Consumer Purchase Intentions is solely my research work with no significant contribution from any other person. Small contribution/help wherever taken has been duly acknowledged and that complete thesis has been written by me. I understand the zero tolerance policy of the HEC and Iqra National University towards plagiarism. Therefore I as an author of the above titled thesis declare that no portion of my thesis has been plagiarized and any material used as reference is properly referred /cited. I undertake that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the above titled thesis even after award of PhD degree, the University reserves the rights to withdraw/ revoke my PhD degree and that HEC and the University has the right to publish my name on the HEC/University website on which names of students are placed who submitted plagiarized thesis.
Student/Author Signature: ______
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the Holy Name of Almighty Allah, Who is the Most Beneficent and the Most
Merciful. I express my deepest gratitude to the Almighty Allah, Who is the only Lord of all the Worlds; I thank Him for giving me the faith, strength, courage and the understanding to complete this research work. I would also love to present deepest respect honor and appreciation to my loving parents for their unconditional love and support that they always provided me with throughout my life and career. I am also deeply thankful to my respected teacher and research supervisor Professor Doctor
Farzand Ali Jan for his kind support and guidance without which I would not be able to complete this work successfully. I would also like to present heartfelt thanks to my co- supervisor Prof. Dr. Abid Usman and to my respected teacher Prof. Dr. Shah Jahan
Khan for their valuable guidance. Special thanks to all the research respondents who willingly participated in this study and contributed their important part. Last but not the least I am thankful to all my family members especially to my loving sons
Mohammad Azlaan Khan & Mohammad Affan Khan for their innocent and loving contribution in this work. May Allah Almighty bless every one with His kind blessings.
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Abstract
For the 21st Century marketing managers, the globalization has resulted in a fierce battle of the brands at the local and global levels. It has opened new brand investment avenues for the local and global brand advertising managers that are having both the promotional challenges and opportunities. The technological advancements and the rapidly growing mass media and communication systems are constantly providing the marketing managers with the massive opportunities to convey their voice to the targeted groups of customers in a most effective manner. For the same reasons the brand managers are always in search of devising the most effective advertising techniques through which they can easily and most effectively communicate with their target audiences. Celebrity endorsement technique is amongst one of them. Celebrities are the personal and social favorites having deeper influences over the life styles and consumption patterns of the social members. The current study has been conducted to examine the relationship between the super stars endorsements and the consumer purchase intention. As no substantially enough research work has been conducted with reference to the same subject matter and with special reference to the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. The data has been gathered through questionnaires by taking 790 respondents from the urban and sub urban areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan through Simple Random Sampling technique. Male and female consumers both were contacted. Finally, the impacts of various determinants of celebrity endorsement models were checked through simple linear regression analysis with the consumer purchasing intention. As a result, positive relationship was found between the celebrity endorsements and the buying intention of the buyers. The study has described useful academic as well as managerial implications for both the local and global brand advertisers.
Key Words: Battle of the Brands, Celebrity Endorsements, Urban & Sub-Urban Consumers, and Consumer Purchase Intention.
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Table of Contents: Chapter 1st: Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study: ...... 1 1.2 Problem Statement: ...... 8 1.3 Objectives of the study: ...... 9 1.4 Research Questions: ...... 9 1.5 Scope of the Study: ...... 9 1.6 Research Gap Identification: ...... 10 1.7 Justification/Significance of the study: ...... 11 1.8 Theoretical and Practical Implications: ...... 13 1.9 Structural Organization of the Study: ...... 14 Literature Review ...... 15 2.1 Celebrity Endorsements: An Overview ...... 15 2.2 Role of Celebrities as an Inspirational Figure ...... 16 2.3 Advantageous Components of Celebrity Endorsements ...... 26 2.4 The Negative or the Darker Side of Celebrity Endorsements ...... 28 2.5 The Concept of Multiple Celebrity Endorsements ...... 34 2.6 The Various Forms of Consumer’s Buying Behavior ...... 37 2.6.1 Complex Buying Behavior: ...... 37 2.6.2 Dissonance-Decreasing Buying Behavior: ...... 38 2.6.3 Recurring Buying Behavior: ...... 38 2.6.4 Behavior In Search of Variety:...... 39 2.6.5 The Range Seeking Consumer Buying Behavior:...... 39 2.7 Measuring the Celebrity Endorsement Effectiveness: ...... 40 2.8 Models Used for the Explanation of Celebrity Endorsement Effectiveness: ...... 40 2.8.1 The Model of Source Credibility: ...... 40 2.8.2 Model of Physical Attractiveness: ...... 44 2.8.3 The Product Celebrity Match-up Model: ...... 47 2.8.4 The Meaning Transfer Model: ...... 52
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2.9 The Conceptual Framework: ...... 57 2.10 Discussion over the Variables Mentioned in the Conceptual Framework: ...... 59 2.10.1 Independent Variable: The Celebrity Endorsements: ...... 59 2.11 Determinants of Independent Variable: ...... 60 2.11.1Sub Determinants of Source Credibility Model: ...... 60 2.12 Sub Determinants of Physical Attractiveness Model: ...... 62 2.13 Dependent Variable: ...... 64 Chapter 3rd ...... 66 Research Methodology ...... 66 3.1 Population of the study: ...... 66 3.2 Procedure for Collecting Data: ...... 66 3.3 Research Approach: ...... 67 3.4 Type and Nature of Research: ...... 67 3.5 Research Design: ...... 68 3.6 Research Strategy: ...... 69 3.7 Data Collection Sources: ...... 70 3.8 Sample Size and Sampling Technique: ...... 73 3.9 Statistical Techniques Used for the Analysis and Interpretation of the Data: ...... 75 3.10 Issues Related to the Data Quality: ...... 75 Chapter 4th ...... 77 Results and Discussions ...... 77 4.1 Descriptive Statistics ...... 77 4.1.1 Demographic Profile of the Respondents: ...... 77 4.2 Research Question 1: What are the Consumer Perceptions about Celebrity Endorsements & Non-Celebrity Endorsements in relation to their Purchase Intention? ...... 81 4.3 Correspondence Degree between the Selected Variables: ...... 85 4.4 Hypothesis Testing: ...... 86 4.5 Discussion over the Resulting Relationship between Celebrity Endorsement & Consumer Purchase Intention: ...... 98 4.6 The Resulting Relationship between Celebrity Expertise & Consumer Purchase Intention: ...... 99 4.7 Relationship between Celebrity Trustworthiness & Consumer Purchase Intention: ...... 100
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4.8 Relationship between Similarity & Consumer Purchase Intention: ...... 101 4.9 Relationship between Likeability & Consumer Purchase Intention: ...... 102 4.10 Relationship between Familiarity & Consumer Purchase Intention:...... 103 4.11 Relationship between Celebrity-Product Match up & Consumer Purchase Intention: ... 104 4.12 Relationship between Meaning Transfer and Consumer Purchase Intention:...... 105 Chapter 5th ...... 107 Conclusion & Recommendations ...... 107 5.1 Conclusion: ...... 107 5.2 Recommendations: ...... 109 5.3 Limitations of the Study: ...... 115 5.4 Suggestions for the future researchers: ...... 115 5.5 Extent of Contribution by the Current Study………………………………………………………………….115
References: ...... 117 Questionnaire…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………129
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List of Tables:
1. Table 3.1 Results of Pilot Study…………………………………………………………………………72
2. Table 4.1 Age of Respondents…………….………………….…………………………………………77
3. Table 4.2 Gender of Respondents………………………………..….……………………………….78
4. Table 4.3 Profession of the Respondents…………………………………….……………………78
5. Table 4.4 Location of the Respondents……………………………………….…………………….79
6. Table 4.5 Income of the Respondents…………………………………………..………………….80
7. Table 4.6 Effectiveness of Advertising Media……………………………………………………81
8. Table 4.7 Frequency of Watching Celebrity based Advertisements…………………………………………………….………………………………………….82
9. Table 4.8 Celebrity .Vs. Non-Celebrity Advertisement………………………………..………………………………………………………………..83
10. Table 4.9 Influential Type of Celebrity Endorsers………………………………………………84
11. Table 4.10 Correlational Matrix…………………………………………………………………………85
12. Table 4.11 Descriptive Statistics………………………………………………………………………..86
List of Figures:
1. Figure 2.1 The Broader Frame Work developed to Understand Celebrity Endorsements…………………………………………………………………………………………….57
2. Figure 2.2 Conceptual Frame Work developed to study the Celebrity Endorsements…………………………………………………………………………………………….58
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List of Abbreviations:
1. EX= Expertise 2. TW= Trust worthiness 3. SM= Similarity 4. FM= Familiarity 5. LK= Likeability 6. MU= Match Up 7. MT= Meaning Transfer 8. PI= Purchase Intention 9. CE= Celebrity Endorsements 10. MCE= Multiple Celebrity Endorsements 11. CPI= Consumer Purchase Intention 12. KP= Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 13. PKR= Pakistan Rupee
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Chapter 1st Introduction
The first chapter provides a deep insight into the selected area of research. This chapter starts with a background note on the research study followed by the problem statement and the research objectives. The chapter also describes the research questions and scope of the study. At the end, the chapter describes the justification and significance of conducting this research.
1.1 Background of the Study: Celebrities are the individuals having a wide favorable social recognition and are well reputed amongst the social members (Erdogan, 1999). These personalities are famous amongst general public due to their personal achievements or accomplishments in the respective professions or fields. As an example we can mention the various drama and movie stars, singers, sport figures, comedians, entertainers, religious, social, political figures and business persons etc. Talking from the Western point of view, Brad Pitt, David Beckham, Jim Carry, Lady Gaga, Michael Jordan, Vin Diesel and many others can be exemplified as celebrities. In India, celebrities like, Katrina Kaif, Kapil Sharma, Shah Rukh Khan, Salman Khan, Virat Kohli and many others are the number one choices of local and global brand advertisers these days. The role of celebrities being the brand endorsers is really impressive and remarkable in creating positive consumer purchase intention towards the advertised brand (Kumar, 2010). Pakistani celebrities whether related to showbiz or to sports are also very important to be discussed over here. In the same regard the example of famous singer and actor Ali Zafar, Atif Aslam, Fawad Khan, actresses and super models Mehwish Hayat & Mahira Khan, Shahid Khan Afridi, Shan Wasim Akram, and many more can be taken. These famous personalities are effectively endorsing various leading global and local brands in Pakistan (Hassan et al., 2016). Celebrities are amongst the most loved personalities. The role of these local and global celebrities in impacting the consumer purchase and re-purchase intention is very remarkable in the overall promotional process (McCormick, 2016).
Celebrities are one of the great sources to influence the consumer purchase intention in the most desirable way (Priyankara, Weerasiri, Dissanayke & Jindasa, 2017). In today’s modern world of marketing the brand advertisers are trying to find new and most reliable ways of attracting the customer’s attention and to create his/her interest in the endorsed brand. The modern advertising objective is not just to attract customer attention but also to perform the overall advertising function in a most meaningful manner. Modern advertising function is to primarily inform customers about a particular brand. Secondly to persuade them psychologically so that they may start using it or they
1 may keep using it. Third function of promotion is to give them regular advertising and brand promotional reminders on regular basis in order to strengthen the overall brand equity (McCormick, 2016). Through celebrity endorsements the brand managers are trying their level best to create and maintain strong brand personality in the minds and eyes of the target audiences (Kang & Choi, 2016). The promotional technique in which the brand advertisers promote brands through famous personalities refers to as celebrity endorsement (Bafna, Gandhi, & Jain 2016, & Priyankara et al., 2017). The general psyche of marketers behind this phenomenon is that the promotional messages conveyed to the target audiences by these super stars not only provide higher level of brand recognition but it also strengthens the overall brand equity (Han & Yazdanifard, 2015). Celebrity endorsement provides solid base for brand consideration and perhaps creates more audience interest in the endorsed brands as compared to the promotional messages conveyed by non-superstars (Kumar, 2010).
A perfect match should exist in between the endorsed brand and the endorsing personality, whether those celebrities are foreigners or local, male or female (Kamins & Gupta, 1994). Moreover, based on its overall significance the selection of an appropriate celebrity for brand endorsements can lead towards comparatively better advertising and sales results (McGuire, 1985). The use of celebrities in commercials helps the brand advertisers in enhancing the brand recall as well as it positively influences the purchase intention of the customers. Furthermore, it also results in creating and maintaining strong brand loyalties (Mazlan, Dom, Ramli & Chin, 2016). Celebrities are greatly loved and followed by their fans. They provide a great source of inspiration for their followers. Resultantly, celebrity likeability, credibility and their physical charm can produce desirable impacts on consumers buying behavior (Hassan, Ahmad, & Jamil, 2016). Brand managers and advertisers strongly believe that superstars remarkably influence the overall validity of advertising messages. These super stars on the basis of their “personal charisma” not only help them to build and strengthen the memorability of the advertising message but also to create a most favorable and long lasting brand images (Roy & Bagdare, 2015).
Celebrities being the role models for the general public help the brand advertisers to create most desirable influences on the consumers buying behavior (Hovland & Weiss, 1951). Such advertising technique helps them to grab the instant consumer attention towards the advertised brand and helps them to strengthen the brand recall (McCracken, 1989). It has been most commonly noticed that almost in every society the general public has a strong perceived sense of association with celebrities. These famous personalities have a very special place in the heart of their followers. As a
2 matter of fact this is due to a celebrity’s physical charm, personal or professional expertise, or familiarity with the general public (Erdogan, 1999).
Physical elegance, expertise and likeability of a celebrity acts as a “convincing catalyst” in making an ad more appealing and attention grabbing. Moreover, it creates the most desirable impacts on a consumer’s purchase intentions (Khan, Sabri, & Nasir, 2016). It has been observed that celebrity based commercials produce more positive impacts on the consumers buying behavior in comparison to the commercials featuring other endorsing sources. The brand advertisers can grab the instant consumer attention towards their brands and can create a desire in the mind of the customers to buy a brand when celebrities are used as the brand endorsers (Poghosyan, 2015). The 21st century brand managers are widely making use of celebrities as an “endorsing source” for creating and maintaining maximum brand value in the minds and eyes of the customers (Hassan et al., 2016). In order to grab the instant attention of the target audience celebrities play a very vital role when are presented as brand endorsers. Celebrities are really helpful in creating consumer trust in the endorsed brand. These big names provide deep meanings to the endorsed brands (Kumar, 2010). The careful selection of celebrities as brand endorsers is the need of the time as it helps in creating a sense of relatedness amongst celebrity the endorsed brand and the target audience (McCormick, 2016).
Moreover, it has additionally helped the brand advertisers in enhancing the interest of the buyers in celebrity endorsed products and services (Anjum, Dhanda, & Nagra, 2012). Consumers who have more familiarity with the brand endorsing celebrities are most likely to be positively influenced as compared to non-familiar celebrities. Celebrity likeability also positively impacts the consumers purchasing intention (Kang & Choi, 2016). By selecting a promising, convincing and most relevant celebrity as a brand promoter, brand managers can attain an actual competitive advantage in the local and global markets over its competitive brands (Han et al., 2015). Using celebrities in promotional messages can bring both the positive and negative impacts on consumer purchase intentions. Therefore, in order to bring proper alignment the advertisers should carefully select the most appropriate personality for their brand endorsement function (Priyankara et al., 2017). For the effective delivery of the promotional messages the advertisers should take care of the brand endorsing celebrity and brand match or fit. This positively impacts the consumers mind sets (Rengarajan & Sathya, 2014).
Due to their high social image and status the celebrities most of the times endorse multiple brands. These multiple brands are manufactured by various local and global firms. For example Tiger Woods, the famous US golfer endorses a wrist watch brand, a
3 sport shoe brand, a perfume brand and so many other brands at the same time. Legendary Pakistani cricketer Shahid Khan Afridi endorses a shampoo brand, a sport shoe brand, a chewing gum brand and so many other brands at the same time.
No matter celebrities endorse a single brand or multiple, existence of right or perfect match is really important between the endorsing source and the endorsed brand. This helps in creating a positive consumer purchase intention (Bafna et al., 2016). The required chemistry that exists amongst the endorsed brand and the endorsing source helps in strengthening brand position in the market. It has the most desirable influences on the consumer buying behavior (McGuire, 1985, & Kamins & Gupta, 1994). The desirable chemistry or strategic fit between the celebrity endorser and the endorsed brand helps the brand managers to create positive influences on the overall purchase intention of the customers (Ergin, 2014).
Celebrities most of the times due to their higher face value (greater public recognition) and also due to their positive influence on the consumer’s minds can positively impact the consumer buying behavior (Kumar, 2010 & Priyankara et al., 2017). That is why the brand managers all over the world are engaging famous people for advertising a wide range of brands. The use of celebrities as brand endorsers has remarkably increased during the last few decades throughout the world (Anjum et al., 2012). Local and the global brand managers now clearly recognize and accept the influence of superstars in impacting the social lives and buying behavior of the consumers. In order to create positive impacts on consumer purchase intention celebrities as brand endorsers can work comparatively better than using non-celebrity endorsers (Kumar, 2010). As a matter of fact, development in advertising and marketing practices has been remarkably noticed during the last few decades at the local and global levels.
Marketers are successfully shifting their marketing strategies from the traditional marketing practices to the modern marketing school of thoughts (Krishnan, 2011). It is noteworthy that in today’s globalized era the entrepreneurs are formulating creative marketing and advertising techniques to create and maintain a lifetime image in the minds and eyes of the customers. They are trying to find out the most creative methods and techniques of advertising. As a result, various advertising appeals and techniques have been developed. Celebrity endorsement along with psychological appeal, fear appeal, emotional, gender, and humorous appeal are now most commonly practiced. These appeals are not only practiced by the global brand advertisers but also by the local ones (Belch and Belch, 2001). The use of the celebrity endorsers provides a number of advantages to the brand advertisers. It helps them to gain an excessive brand exposure, grab the consumer attention, and finally creates his interest to buy the
4 endorsed brand. Overall, it has positive association with buying behavior (McCracken, 1989). For the effective promotion of their brands, brand managers employ widely recognized, well reputed and famous personalities.
Advertising experts believe that these recognized personalities have a perfect tendency to create more positive influences on consumer’s social lives and hence on their purchasing intention. Celebrities are greatly loved and followed by the social members. Celebrity endorsement is a most important and essential function of today’s modern and globalized world of marketing (Sameen, 2013). In other words, celebrity endorsement has a wider application as an influential marketing or promotional tool these days. It is a perfect recipe to create and strengthen the overall brand equity in the minds of the consumers. Moreover, it also helps the global and local brand managers to stay ahead in the battle of the brands (Bafna et al., 2016). Celebrities are the famous personalities who keep wider public recognition and are enjoying high social fame amongst the social members. They are the highly successful, influential and eminent social members possessing distinctive attributes in the minds of the general public (Silvera & Austad, 2004).
The importance of celebrity endorsements has been widely realized and accepted by the large number of local and global brand managers. This is because of its vital role played in the effective delivery of the promotional messages. The role of the celebrities is really remarkable in attracting the consumer attention and maintaining their interests in the endorsed brands. The brand managers are confident that celebrities provide the great source of inspiring the consumers mind as compared to non-celebrity source (Soderlund, 2003). It is very much evident that celebrity Endorsements has become a billion dollar industry due to its overall effectiveness in positively impacting the consumer purchase intention (Kambitsis, 2002). Moreover, based upon its proven effectiveness brand managers are engaging the world known famous personalities and are spending large amount of advertising budgets on celebrity endorsement settlements every year. These celebrities receive huge amounts (Katyal, 2007).
This fact can be further explained as a celebrity endorser act as an inspirational figure in the advertising messages and therefore play an important role in the overall advertising process. Brand managers are always in search of finding a most convincing endorsement source hence celebrities are really helpful to meet the same promotional objective (Kumar, 2010). These celebrities are most of the times paid in millions. Every year millions of dollars are paid to the celebrities as brand endorsement fee. As an example, in 2010, the famous US Golfer, Tiger Woods refused to endorse a brand by presenting a very interesting excuse that the deal amount was not up to his expectations. Media
5 reports reveal that the offered amount was 75 million US dollar. Moreover, Mr. Woods earned around 110 million dollar through various brand endorsement contracts. Amongst these brands, Nike was the largest contributor who paid 30 million dollar to Tiger Woods. Mr. Woods made 80 million dollar earnings in the same year by endorsing the other brands (Celebriscoop, 2010). According to the most recent media reports, David Beckham received 160 million dollar from Adidas as his brand endorsement fee. Mr. Woods received 100 million dollar from Nike as his brand endorsement fee. Nike paid him 30 million dollar in 2010, while the endorsing fee reached to 100 million dollar in 2017. The famous Basketball player, LeBron James, received 90 million dollar from Nike while their sale reached to 340 million dollar as a result of hiring these two legendary sportsmen. Famous sport shoes brand Reebok hired 50 Cent to endorse their brand and paid him 80 million dollar. Moreover, world famous pop singer, Beyoncé received 50 million dollar from Pepsi as a brand endorsement fee. Jay Z, a famous pop singer received 20 million dollar from Samsung while Catherine Zeta Jones also received 20 million dollar from T-Mobiles. Angelina Julie received 10 million dollar from Louis Vuitton by giving her name to the brand while Brad Pitt received 7 million dollar from Chanel as brand endorsement fee and appearing in a single commercial (Popoptiq, 2017). Keeping the above mentioned case in mind as an example, one can say that celebrity endorsement technique seems to be one of the most effective and demanded tool of advertising in 21st century (McCracken 1989, & Hassan et al., 2016).
Consumers, while making their purchase decisions give more weightage to the celebrities who are well known to them. They also consider the trustworthiness of a celebrity. They also judge the level of similarity between them and the celebrity. Expertise of the endorsing celebrity is also considered by the customers to choose a particular brand (Priyankara et al., 2017). Keeping these facts and figures in mind the marketer has to come up with a right combination of endorsing personality and endorsed brand. If this right combination is planned carefully as a result of the same this strategy can prove itself to be a game changer advertising strategy. This objective can be achieved by selecting a most appropriate celebrity for the effective promotion of the brands. This appropriate match or fit between the celebrity and brand enhances the overall effectiveness of the advertising process (Munnukka, 2016). As a matter of fact the customers of the modern age are exposed to lots of commercials and advertising campaigns at the same time (Thornson, 1990, & Hassan et al., 2014).
Keeping the same bombarding advertising impact on consumer minds the marketing firms should try to design their advertising campaigns in a most creative manner. It should be designed to create the consumer interest in the advertising process and simply to avoid any flaw in the advertising communication process (Bafna et al., 2016).
6 The use of celebrities as brand endorsers can provide a solid base to the marketing firms for creating more interesting advertising materials. It also helps them in creating a long lasting impact on the consumer buying behavior (Erdogan, 1999).
The use of celebrities as brand endorsers has drastically increased over times. In comparison to 1979, 25% increase in the use of celebrities as brand endorsers has been recorded till 2001. This clearly indicates the overall importance of this advertising technique in impacting the consumer mind sets (Erdogan et al., 2001). Moreover like other places celebrity endorsements have expanded in the United States of America as well. It has successfully resulted in bringing higher sales revenue and high market growth opportunities to the American firms (Lane, 1996). With the increased application of using celebrities in advertising the endorsement fee of the super star endorsers has really gone up (McGill, 1989, & Priyankara et al., 2017). In addition to this the expertise of a celebrity his or her match with a brand has a very positive influence on the buying behavior of the consumers. In order to create a long lasting and positive impact on consumer purchase intention the need of the time is to give a real picture to the target audience that the endorsing celebrities are the real users of the brands.
This can really provide a meaningful weightage to the overall endorsement function (Bergkvist, 2015). Celebrity endorser’s perceived trustworthiness in the minds of the audience and his or her match with the brand tend to increase the brand credibility in the eyes of the target audience. It also results in creating a positive and a long lasting purchasing intention towards the endorsed brands (Kang and Choi, 2016). In today’s modern age of globalization the electronic and print media keep the general public bombarded with so many commercials and advertising messages. Media also tends to overload the general public with so many informational and entertainment based programs at the same time. In the same scenario, the use of famous personalities as brand endorsers do not only perform the advertising function effectively but also provides a source of entertainment to the general public. Being their favorites the general public loves to watch them again and again (Choi & Rifon, 2007).
Moreover, it has been noticed that the perceived sense of similarity between the consumer and the endorsing celebrity positively impacts the purchasing intent of the consumers (McGuire, 1985). On the other hand celebrities from the same country of origin have more appealing impacts on the overall buying behavior of the consumers as compared to the foreign celebrities (Roy et al., 2015). Furthermore, perceived congruence between the celebrity and the consumer lead towards the creation of more favorable brand image and strengthens the purchase intention of the target audience (Choi & Rifon, 2007, & Hassan et al., 2016).
7 1.2 Problem Statement: Celebrities are the widely known and well reputed personalities (Priyankara et al., 2017). They tend to inspire the general public through their distinctive life styles, and also through their professional or personal achievements. Celebrities are idealized by their followers (McCracken, 1989). Previously, some of the studies have found a positive relationship between the celebrity endorsement technique and consumer purchase intention (Assael, 1984, Kamins & Gupta, 1994, Usman, 2010, Sertoglu, 2014, & Priyankara et al., 2017). These researches revealed that a well-known personality can better advocate a brand in advertisements as compared to a non-celebrity endorser. These studies believe that presence of a celebrity in commercials is more effectively perceived by the target audience as compared to the common endorsers. They have remarkable impacts on consumers mind sets.
These authors empirically verified a positive sense of association between celebrity endorsements and the buying behavior of the buyers. Moreover, on the other hand some previous studies have found the celebrity endorsement to be the least effective advertising technique in relation to the consumer purchase intention (Cooper, 1984, Mehta, 1994, Tom, 1992, & Katyal, 2007) etc. The brief but comprehensive findings of these studies revealed that for effective advertising function the brand endorser necessarily doesn’t need to be a celebrity (Tripp, 1994, & Solomon, 2002). In addition to this, these studies did not find any remarkable or convincing role of celebrities towards the creation of positive brand purchase intention. Moreover, keeping both the research scenarios in mind we can say that celebrity endorsement is a double edged sword having both the advantages and disadvantages for the advertisers.
After discovering both the brighter and the darker side of the celebrity endorsement the author intends to study the relationship between the celebrity endorsement and the consumer purchase intention. Research curiosity in this subject matter motivated the author to conduct this study upon the urban and sub urban consumers residing in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. The researcher wanted to know that how do consumers residing in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa perceive celebrity endorsement and how does it impact their buying behavior? In other words the author intends to know which case may be recorded in the context of the current study and selected population.
So, the problem statement specifically developed for this study states: to conduct an empirical investigation about the impact of celebrity endorsements and its relationship with consumer’s purchase intentions.
8 1.3 Objectives of the study: Following are the objectives of the current study:
1. To study and uncover the perceptions of consumers about celebrity endorsements. 2. To study the important elements of celebrity endorsement which may additionally impact purchaser’s buying intention through superstar endorsements. 3. To explore the relationship between celebrity endorsement and consumer purchase intentions.
1.4 Research Questions: In order to get better understanding of the research topic and to empirically investigate the problem statement, the below mentioned questions have been developed:
1: What are the consumers’ perceptions and understanding about the celebrity endorsements in comparison to non-celebrity endorsements?
2: Are the determinants of celebrity endorsement affecting the customer purchase intentions to buy a product or hire a service if the brands are endorsed through celebrities?
3: What are the influences of celebrities as brand endorsers on consumer buying intention?
1.5 Scope of the Study: The current study keeps a scope that is confined to the consumer’s perceptions about celebrity endorsements in relation to their intent to purchase. These consumers are from Peshawar city, i.e. the provincial Capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and its surrounding sub urban areas, i.e. Abbottabad, Dera Ismail Khan, Kohat, Mardan, Nowshehra, and Swabi etc. As a matter of fact the consumers living in the above mentioned areas are more educated and well exposed to media as compared to the consumers residing in the rural areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The consumers living in the urban and sub urban areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa also have more advanced lifestyle as compared to the rural consumers. Therefore, the consumers living in these above mentioned areas have more understanding and knowledge about the local and global celebrities from the various fields of interest.
9 1.6 Research Gap Identification: The concept of celebrity endorsement is not a totally new development. As a matter of fact during the last few decades, plenty of research work has already been accomplished on the advertising practices of celebrity endorsements. These researches have been conducted both on international as well as on local levels. This ultimately reflects the overall significance of celebrity endorsement (Bailey, 2007). Various studies conducted by the international and local researchers have explored many new dimensions and problems associated with the celebrity endorsements. For example the wrong or inappropriate match or selection of a celebrity, or using multiple celebrities to enhance the effectiveness of promotional messages etc. It also includes the overall influence of negative social thoughts or publicity regarding the endorsing celebrity on the consumer purchase intention etc. These studies were focused on developed and under developing markets like United States of America, Africa, Turkey, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, India, Australia, England, France, China Iran and Philippine etc. Talking from local perspective, in the recent past, researchers from other parts of the country i.e., Karachi, Lahore and Islamabad have also taken the same area into the considerations for their researches.
However, on the basis of the previous and presently available literature, there is lack of research work which has not been substantially executed in the context of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, province of Pakistan. Like other parts of the country, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in general, and its provincial Capital Peshawar in particular, is also becoming one of the emerging markets over the last two decades. Besides the fact that Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province is one of the prime victims of ongoing war against terrorism, still business volume is carefully expanding in the provincial capital as well as in its surrounding sub-urban areas. Professional marketing research firms are also not working in Peshawar, due to which sometimes there is a gap between the knowledge of consumer buying behavior and firm’s marketing strategies.
Academically, there is another very interesting point to be stated that in Peshawar, the number of students seeking specialization in the field of Marketing is also very much low as compared to the number of students seeking their specializations in the fields of Finance and Human Resource Management etc. Due to the same reasons, marketing based researches are not most commonly performed over here. As the theory suggests, research is the backbone of whole marketing system (Sekaran, 2000), therefore the principle motive for selecting this subject matter is primarily based on the ground reality that up to now no recent most study has been incorporated to explore the relationship between celebrity endorsement and consumer’s purchase intention with respect to the urban and sub urban consumers of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Moreover, theory also suggests that the knowledge of consumer behavior is a must for every brand
10 manager and advertisers (McGuire, 1985), & McCracken, 1989). As a matter of fact the brand managers and brand advertisers can get a great volume of help form this research study regarding the selection of an appropriate celebrity for their brand endorsement function. Moreover, form the academic point of view the findings of the current study can also be helpful in examining or understanding the consumer belief and mind-sets towards celebrity endorsement practices. These facts further validate the need of conducting consumer behavior based studies.
This study provides a meaningful base to the academicians and marketing students to develop deep understanding regarding the phenomena of celebrity endorsement in relation to the consumer purchase intention. It will elaborate the significance of each and every determinant of celebrity endorsement model towards impacting the consumer purchase intention. On the basis of the same they will be able to develop a general understanding about the overall effectiveness of various determinants of celebrity endorsement models.
1.7 Justification/Significance of the study: There is a greater need of exploring the behavioral aspects of consumer purchase decision making process (McCracken 1989, Han et al., 2015 & Munnukka, 2016). A marketing firm must know “why people behave the way they behave”? They should explore the social, psychological and various situational factors that can positively or negatively influence the buying behavior of the consumers. Consumer as an individual has a totally different set of mind as compared to the rest. They might have totally different needs and wants based on their demographic, psychographic or geographic attributes. In other words, individuals have differences in their needs and wants on demographic, psychographic as well as on geographic basis. They have different personalities, perceptions, attitudes, and a different level of learning, which remarkably impact their buying behavior or their brand selection procedures (McCracken, 1989). Consumers belonging to different societies, cultures, social classes and religions have their own distinctive way of life. All these social and psychological factors individually and as a whole have deeper influences on the overall consuming behavior of a person.
A marketer must develop sound understanding about buyer behavior (Erdogan, 1999). Moreover, in every society there is a primary and a secondary reference group. The primary reference group may include the nearest and dearest ones to an individual. It includes the family or the blood relationships, while the secondary reference groups include social relations other than blood relationships. It may include friends, colleagues, professionals, politicians, social workers and most importantly personalities from the world of showbiz or sporting industry. Being social members, the primary as
11 well as the secondary reference groups can also produce negative or positive impacts on the purchase intent of the consumers (McCracken, 1989).
The topic understudy tends to cover and explore the above mentioned behavioral side of the consumer decision making process. As mentioned earlier, secondary reference groups include friends, colleagues and other professionals and non-professional people who are known to us. Besides these groups of people it also includes people from the world of showbiz and sports industry normally known as celebrities. These personalities keep a high level of fame, social acceptance as well as deeper influence over the life styles of the consumers (McGill 1989, & Khan et al., 2106). Like European society, the Asian society in general and Pakistani society in specific has a great respect and level of acceptance for the globally and locally known celebrities. As a matter of fact, these celebrities are from Hollywood, Bollywood or from Pakistani showbiz Industry. Besides that, global and local sport stars are also idealized and followed by the youngsters of our country (Hassan et al., 2014).
All over the world, people most often take celebrities as a role model or in other words as a source of inspiration. Celebrities have a greater impact on the life styles and consumption patterns of the general public (Priyankara et al., 2017). As a most favorite personality, people want to look like them. They do copy their favorites in one way or another. Moreover, they most often copy their life styles or in other words they want to adapt a similarly perceived behavior (Karina, 2008). Keeping the same aspect of consumer’s behavior in mind, the global and local marketers are using top class celebrities from the world of sports and showbiz to create and maintain a life time brand image in the mind and eyes of the customers. Social members have a positive tendency towards them (Soderlund, 2003). Due to the same influencing celebrity endorsement factor, this promotional technique has become a multi-million dollar industry all over the world (Kumar, 2010). Consequently, keeping the above mentioned ground realities in mind, the researcher got the motivation to do research on this important and one of the most emerging advertising techniques.
This study may uncover the real worth of celebrity endorsement technique in relation to the creation of a positive purchase intention. This work tended to explore the perceptions of the general public regarding the celebrity endorsements. It also uncovers the relationship of the same with the purchase intent of the consumers living in the urban and sub urban parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. Though this province is historically famous for its truly traditional norms and conservatism but due to the 21st century’s technological changes the other side of the picture reveals the modern or the globalized life style of its residents. As a matter of fact various
12 multinational brands like KFC, Pizza Hut, Burger King, Mr. Cod, McDonalds, Mobilink, Telenor, Pepsi, Coke, Philips, Toyota, Honda, Samsung and many more are having successful business operations in this part of the world. Not only the international brands but the local businesses also are swiftly making their ways towards creating strong market shares. Here, we can take example of Chief Fast Food Business, as well as of Namak Mandi, the traditional food industry of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Besides food industry, the statement is equally true in case of other sectors like fashion industry, education, construction, consultancies, health sector, agriculture, banking and telecom sector etc. As it is a proven fact that the customer is the focal point of today’s modern world of business, so brand managers or advertisers must come up with “out of the box advertising ideas”. This creative advertising edge can better help them to create and maintain life time brand images in the minds of the customers (Kamins & Gupta, 1994). They must uncover the social and the behavioral aspect of the consumer’s personality, as it has a remarkable impact on his/her purchase intentions (McGuire, 1985).
They must answer how various advertising or marketing techniques can positively or negatively influence consumer’s purchasing intention (Dzisah, 2013). In the form of the current study an effort has been made by the author to uncover the relationship between celebrity endorsement technique and consumer buying behavior. As a matter of fact brand managers can only serve their customers in a perfect way if they really know or understand their needs and wants based on their buying behaviors. This understanding can get them a real competitive advantage in the local and global markets by winning the hearts of the target audiences (Dzisah, 2013). This study is also very important to be conducted as professional marketing research firms are not substantially working in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Due to which, there are huge gaps between marketing planning or marketing strategies and consumer buying behavior.
1.8 Theoretical and Practical Implications: The findings of the current study can be really helpful to various local and global brands currently operating in Peshawar. The study can also provide a meaningful base to the potentially interested entrepreneurs who want to launch their brands in the capital province or in its surrounding sub urban markets. As a matter of fact, brand managers can base their present or future marketing and promotional planning (with reference to celebrity endorsements) on the findings of the same study. Besides this, current study has proposed implications for academia and marketing practitioners as well. On the basis of the results obtained through the current study, researcher is confident enough to provide a meaningful base to the future research projects. Future researchers may use the same findings and information as a secondary source.
13 1.9 Structural Organization of the Study: Chapter 1: The first chapter provides a deep insight into the selected area of research. This chapter starts with a background note on the research study followed by the problem statement and the research objectives. The chapter also describes the research questions and scope of the study. At the end, the chapter describes the justification and significance of conducting this research.
Chapter 2: In this chapter a comprehensive review of the previously done researches on celebrities’ endorsements and its relationship with consumer purchase intention has been done by the author. This will enable the researcher to build better understanding of the topic under study. This chapter includes the definitions and explanation of the relevant terms. Models of celebrity endorsements along with the brighter and darker sides of the celebrity endorsements have been discussed. Celebrity endorsements form the global and local perspectives have been discussed and reviewed. Conceptual framework and hypotheses have been presented as well.
Chapter 3: The chapter describes the efforts that have been made to justify the proposed methodology for this study. It firstly describes the population of the study, procedures for data collection, research approach, and the type and nature of the research study. The chapter also throws light over the research design and the research strategy. It also provides information about the data collection sources and the selected sample size & Sampling technique. At the end it describes the statistical tools and techniques that were used for the analysis of the data.
Chapter 4: Results of the current study are being presented and discussed in this chapter. These results have been empirically obtained and analyzed by various data analyzing methods or techniques. The descriptive and inferential statistics have been used by the author to analyze the gathered data. The chapter at the end offers extensive and detailed discussions over the obtained results.
Chapter 5: The chapter describes the main results of the current research work in the form of conclusion. In the light of the findings, the author has presented frameworks regarding the theoretical and managerial implications. Recommendations have been presented. Last but not the least, limitations and recommendations for the future research work have been proposed.
14 Chapter 2nd Literature Review In this chapter a comprehensive review of the previously done researches on celebrities’ endorsements and its relationship with consumer purchase intention has been done by the author. This will enable the researcher to build better understanding of the topic under study. This chapter includes the definitions and explanation of the relevant terms. Models of celebrity endorsements along with the brighter and darker sides of the celebrity endorsements have been discussed. Celebrity endorsements form the global and local perspectives have been discussed and reviewed. Conceptual framework and hypotheses have been presented as well.
2.1 Celebrity Endorsements: An Overview We are living in the 21st century where there is an extremely dynamic and fierce competitive environment amongst brands. Nowadays every brand manager whether local or global, is ready to invest big amount of budget on brand promotions (Priyankara et al., 2017). As we know, the fundamental goal of promotional efforts is to create brand awareness and to enhance brand consciousness. These promotional messages are eventually designed to communicate facts about product and service to the end users. Celebrity endorsement is a powerful tool that is used to create a positive change in consumer buying behavior and has a strong relationship with the purchase intentions of the buyers (Shehzad, 2015). Celebrities are having the most desirable features and a positive energy to influence the target audience. They on the basis of their enhanced personal and social influence can create stronger brand identity. The same fact was observed and uncovered in Turkish consumers buying behavior. Like other societies, the Turkish society also has a very great respect for celebrities and idealizes them in their social lives. Celebrity based advertisements were highly appreciated by the Turkish buyers. They acknowledge the impact or the influence of famous personalities over their purchasing intentions (Sertoglu, 2014).
A research was conducted in Philippine by Karina in 2008 which explores the consequences of endorser type (celeb and non celeb) and endorser credibility on customers’ attitudes and buy intentions. It additionally explores the moderating impact of culture on the effects of spokesperson type and spokesperson credibility on attitude toward the advertisements. The study suggests that higher the celebrity reputation featured in a commercial, the better are the influences on purchase intentions of purchasers. It means that the most credible celebrities can better help advertisers to create a successful marketing buzz. They can also help the brand advertisers to strengthen the brand personality at any stage of brand life cycle. Study further revealed
15 that advertiser can further enforce his/her brand image if the selected celebrity is more skillful, certified, well reputed and truthful (Karina, 2008).
2.2 Role of Celebrities as an Inspirational Figure Usman, (2010) found that the young consumers have a positive tendency towards celebrity based commercials. Celebrities on the basis of their personal and social attributes can positively impact the life styles and purchasing intent of Pakistani consumers. Most of them sense a perceived psychological attachment with the endorser that resultantly creates a desirable effect on their purchase intention. Moreover, using the famous figures actually gives greater visibility to the product and generates a larger number of clientele .The brand managers have to consider all the applicable factors that can make commercials more appealing and persuading. They should also make sure that they have selected the most appropriate celebrity for the product endorsement function. As a matter of fact the appropriate selection of a celebrity for product endorsement function is really helpful in making product credible inside the minds of consumers before making a purchase decision. Moreover, the study additionally concluded that the male celebrities are more influential than female celebrities in creating a desirable impact on the purchase intent of the consumers.
Similarly, (Bhavana, 2011, & Mohammad, & Zoubi, 2011) in their researches described the impact of perceived credibility, and physical attraction of a celebrity as more influencing determinants of celebrity endorsement process. Moreover, these studies believe that there should be a logical congruence between the endorsed brand and the endorsing source. These are amongst the most important determinants of celebrity endorsement model. These studies further stated that the above mentioned attributes of a celebrity can also act as a benchmark before selecting a right celebrity for the brand endorsement function. This careful selection is very essential in order to achieve the objective of successful brand endorsements. Consumers always pay high level attention to these factors of celebrity endorsement process when they are exposed to various brand promotions. These studies concluded that the celebrity endorsement technique has deeper long lasting and meaningful impacts on the consumer purchase and repurchase intention. Another study was reviewed by the author that was done in Ghana in 2013 by Dzisah and Ocloo. This research was aimed at investigating the phenomena of celebrity endorsement in marketing as part of marketing promotions. Resultantly, a positive relationship was found by the researchers between celebrity endorsement and consumer buying behavior towards making a purchase decision.
The central theme of this study was to understand the elements or determinants of celebrity endorsement which affects consumers purchase or re-purchase intention. One
16 hundred forty-eight respondents from the fields of management, internal customers and outside clients were surveyed by the researchers. Consequently, the study found a high degree of validity and reliability of using celebrities as brand endorsers in advertisements. Furthermore, the study revealed that organization should base their celebrity selection criteria on the credibility of superstars. Moreover, the brand managers should also consider the physical attractiveness of the endorsing celebrity as it creates a very long lasting and deep mental influences on the minds of the customers. Finally, the paper verified that there is a positive relationship between the celebrity endorsement technique and consumer buying behavior. This study gives the idea that businesses must make a careful selection of celebrities who can create a perfect match with the endorsed brand. It also infers that the selected celebrity should have that required charisma which can create a positive influence on consumer buying intentions.
The study revealed the fact that celebrities can really create a positive consumer mind set and strengthens the consumer buying and rebuying intention towards the endorsed brand (Bergkvist, 2016). Another research study was conducted in England by (Dwivedi, 2015). The study explored that celebrity endorsement is one of the most powerful advertising tools. Study states that nowadays celebrity endorsements have been commonly applied by various advertising agencies to promote local and global products and services. Celebrity endorsement technique has helped the brand advertisers to create a positive word of mouth and strong brand image amongst the social members. Its importance has been acknowledged. A strong relationship was found between the use of celebrities as the brand endorsers and in the creation of strong brand equity.
Moreover, another research was initiated to investigate the influence of celebrities as brand endorsers on consumer purchase intention. Resultantly the facts revealed were that celebrity endorsement is one of the most reliable advertising techniques that can create the most desirable impacts on consumer purchase intention (Dzisah, 2013). The author reviewed another study that was conducted in Islamabad which is the Capital city of Pakistan. This research was conducted in 2015 by Zafar and Rafique. Moreover, the stated authors were considering the physical attractiveness of the endorsing source, celebrity credibility and congruence with the endorsed brand in relation to the purchase intention of the buyers. Study explored a positive relationship between the various determinants of the celebrity endorsement models and consumer purchase intention.
This study also verified the overall significance of celebrity endorsement in relation to the purchase intent of the consumers. Researchers were of the view that celebrities can extend greater help towards creation of a favorable consumer response. They were of the view that the celebrity endorsers can better advocate a brand than a non-celebrity
17 endorser (Zafar and Rafique, 2015). Another Turkish research conducted by Ergin in 2014 revealed that there are celebrity’s gender based variations in creating different types of customers beliefs and attitudes towards the advertised brand. Moreover, a comparison of married and unmarried celebrities over the consumer purchase intention was also tested along with the influence of multiple celebrity endorsers on consumer buying behavior. A sample of 385 young consumers was taken by the researcher for the empirical testing of the subject matter. A questionnaire having 17 questions was floated amongst the selected sample size and some ads were also shown to the respondents. Resultantly, different responses were recorded as a result of using multiple celebrity endorsements and making use of married and unmarried celebrities to create a desirable consumer purchase intention (Ergin, 2014).
Another Pakistani research study was reviewed by the author that was performed by Khan et al., in January 2016. The findings of this study stated that celebrity endorsement is one of the most useful advertising techniques of the 21st century. It provides a greater opportunity to the brand advertisers to make a proper and careful use of a celebrity’s social fame while engaging them as brand endorser. Celebrities are helpful in creating the desirable brand awareness and are capable of attracting the instant consumer attention towards their endorsed brands. In addition to this the social goodwill and recognition of celebrities can give a decent image to the endorsed brands.
This marketing technique can also provide brand advertisers with a competitive edge over their competitors (Khan et al., 2016). Like the European brand advertisers, celebrity endorsements are most commonly used by Pakistani and Indian brand managers too. This is all because of the celebrities “influential instinct” over the consumer minds. As a matter of fact they are very much liked and appreciated by their followers. It’s a common advertising belief across the border that celebrities can better help the brand advertisers to create a favorable and long lasting brand image in the minds of the general public. Therefore, it results in the creation of a positive purchase intention. A study was incorporated to empirically test the influences of Pakistani and Indian celebrity endorsers over the Pakistani consumers purchase intention. Researchers took a sample of 150 respondents for empirical testing. Research objective was to explore the diversity among Indian and Pakistani celebrity endorsements.
In other words the researchers were eager to investigate impacts of Pakistani and Indian celebrity endorsements on the buying behavior of Pakistani consumers. Resultantly the findings of the study revealed that there were no significant differences between the brand endorsements impacts of Pakistani and Indian celebrities on consumers purchase intention. Findings of the study can also be interpreted in this way that as compared to
18 Pakistani celebrities, Indian celebrities do not have a deeper or stronger influence on Pakistani consumer purchase intention. In fact they are perceived in the same way, as Pakistani celebrities are perceived by Pakistani buyers. Moreover, the study revealed that whether choosing an Indian or a Pakistani celebrity is not a game turning point in advertising. The study further states that both types of celebrities can play an equally important role in order to create a desirable response in the consumer’s minds.
However, the careful selection of the endorsing source is the biggest need of the time (Khan et al., 2016). (Saeed, 2014) performed another study to examine the effects of celebrity & non-celebrity based commercials on consumers buying behavior. A sample of 200 respondents was chosen by the researchers. Survey technique was applied for this study and data was collected through questionnaires. Findings revealed that celebrity based advertisements have a totally different impact on the consumer buying intention as compared to non-celebrity based advertisements. Respondents were of a view that they give more respect and attention to celebrities whereas less importance and attention is given to non-celebrity endorsements. The study further advocates the strength and effectiveness of using celebrities in advertising messages.
Finally the study revealed that the celebrities are the better source of endorsing a local or a global brand successfully (Saeed, 2014). Celebrity Endorsement is one of the emerging trends in the modern world of advertising. This technique can really help the brand promoters to create and maintain a successful brand image and simply to create a successful promotional buzz. Celebrities are greater effective than the ordinary endorsers (Ahmad, Vishnu, & Amin, 2014). The credibility factor of celebrity endorsement has been examined in this study. Study revealed that credibility of superstar endorser has a powerful impact on consumers buying intention. In other words we can say that the most credible celebrity can really give a new life to a newly launched product or service. Moreover, celebrities can help the brand advertisers to create and maintain the brand leadership in the home and host markets.
In this study, the fame of the celebrity and its impact on the buying behavior of the consumers was tested by the researchers. The research objective was to investigate that whether the fame of these superstars in relation to the endorsed brands matters to consumers or not. Results of the study revealed that in superstar endorsement process credibility of the endorsing star matters to the purchasers in shaping or reshaping their purchase intention. Researchers were also of the view that fame of the superstar creates more favorable brand images in the minds of the consumers. This study finally suggests that the advertising agents should make a careful analysis before selecting a right kind of celebrity to create a more favorable brand image.
19 According to this study, more credible and more famous personalities can really make advertising messages more fruitful and rewarding. Endorsement process can get more effectiveness if the right celebrity endorses the right brand. It will produce positive influences on consumer buying intent (Ahmad et al., 2014). According to (Hassan et al., 2016), the concept of celebrity endorsement has gain remarkable attention of brand managers and target audiences during the last few decades. The use of celebrities as brand endorsers has drastically increased over times. On the basis of its perceived importance the local and global brand advertisers are spending millions on celebrity endorsements every year.
Technically, marketers are looking to identify the effects of super star endorsement on organizations’ seasoned stability and advertising objectives. This study was conducted while considering various showbiz personalities, and famous sportsmen. Authors were interested to know how they influence the purchase intention of the buyers. Celebrity physical attractiveness and ability to create an effective word of mouth amongst teenagers of Karachi were tested. 252 respondents were surveyed. Result showed that physical attraction of the celebrity and the ability of the celebrity to create a positive word of mouth both keep positive impacts on consumer purchase intention. According to this study more credible celebs can better help the brand managers to create more powerful brand equity and a positive word of mouth amongst the social members (Hassan et al., 2014).
Though celebrity endorsement is not a new concept of advertising but most surprisingly in Lithuania, the celebrity endorsement practice is quite new. It has drawn the attention of Lithuanian brand advertisers to successfully create stronger brand images and a positive word of mouth in society. During the last few years the trend of using celebrities as brand endorsers has drastically changed in Lithuania. A research was performed to examine the influence of super star endorsers on consumer buying intention. The study was executed on Lithuanian mineral water brands that were endorsed by the leading Lithuanian showbiz and sporting celebrities. The impacts of various determinants of the celebrity endorsement models were tested on the Lithuanian consumer purchase intention. Consequently, the researcher concluded that the existence of a perfect match amongst the endorsed brand and the endorsing celebrity can really produce positive impacts on consumer buying intent.
In other words we can say that for the effective results of endorsement process, celebrity personality should have a perfect match or resemblance with brand personality. However, study’s findings also revealed that the overall brand persona turns to have the maximum impact on the consumer purchase intention. It can also be
20 interpreted in this way that greater the purchasers find themselves similar to the endorsing celebrity, the greater they're inclined to buy that brand. As they will perceive a perfect match between them, the endorsed brand and the endorsing source (Jankovic, 2014). Celebrities are the privileged social members who enjoy favorable public recognition and are idealized by the general public on the basis of their personal or professional attributes and achievements. These privileged social members have special attributes like physical attractiveness, expertise, and trust worthiness (McCracken, 1989, & Silvera & Austad, 2004). This definition can be further explained as the celebrities are highly famous and well reputed individuals belonging to the various fields of specialization. These famous figures enjoy wider public recognition.
For example, they can be actors, game figures, or even other type of serious or comic entertainers. They are always known for their accomplishments and achievements in their respective areas, fields or professions (Friedman and Friedman, 1979). (McCracken, 1989) said that celebrities are the famous figures from the world of showbiz, sports, politics, business, religion and even personalities from the armed forces. Keeping this interpretation of the term celebrity we can say that Dr. Zakir Nayak and Molana Tariq Jamil are the two most respected and loved religious celebrities of the Muslim world. Junaid Jamshed was first a showbiz celebrity but now he’s recognized as a religious celebrity. General (R) Raheel Sharif is the military celebrity of Pakistan. Imran Khan firstly was a sport and now a political celebrity of Pakistan. Malik Riaz and Mian Mansha are the two leading Pakistani business celebrities. However, the use of showbiz and sporting celebrities is much in practice in advertising both at local and global levels (Hassan et al., 2016). In this modern age of advertising celebrities are playing a very vital role in promoting various products and services. They are most often used by the advertisers to create positive or stronger brand equity through their high face values.
According to Kamins (1989), celebrity can be a man or woman who's widely recognized and who carries high volume of social recognition amongst social members. Moreover, (Stafford, 2002) in his research study defined the term celebrity as celebrities are the well-known individuals amongst the social members who make use of his/her public recognition in order to propose a product or a service to the general public. Moreover, another researcher named as (Kaikati, 1987) argued that the well reputed personalities from the fields of showbiz and sporting are most of the times engaged by the brand managers in order to associate their brands with their high level of social acceptance amongst the social members. Celebrities have an extra ordinary impact on the minds and lifestyles of the general public. It’s a good idea to make a proper use of them in the advertising process. That’s why they have been extensively used as brand endorsers these days and it will drastically increase in future as well. Study further revealed that
21 celebrity based commercials are more influential than non-celebrity based commercials (Kaikati, 1987). Celebrities can better create the desirable attitudinal and emotional reactions in the minds of the consumers regarding the advertised brands. They can extend a great volume of help to create strong brand recall and brand equity (Kanungo and Pang, 1973, Atkins & Block, 1983, & Petty & Cacioppo, 1983). In comparison to the general public, celebrities are famous and more socially visible figures. They are well reputed and widely recognized by the social members. In addition to this celebrities due to their high social influence on the minds and lifestyles of the general public are most commonly used by the advertisers as a guide in order to create a positive influence on consumer buying behavior (Telis, 1998).
Celebrities are the most widely and powerful publically known figures. They can be more effective if they have the power or charisma of credibility to attract consumer interest towards the advertised brand (Miciak and Shanklin, 1994). As a matter of fact the celebrities are the widely known people who can create more favorable public awareness about a brand and simply can better sell a brand (Wilson, 1997). Moreover, celebrity can better advocate a brand to a target audience. They can better create strong brand equity and can positively affect the purchase decision of the target audience in relation to the endorsed brands (Ohanian, 1991, and Miciak & Shanklin, 1994). Celebrity endorsement has become one of the most important practices of the today’s modern world of marketing (McCracken, 1989). It can be very simply verified by an individual himself by watching the television commercials or print media ads. The leading local and global celebrities have given their names to the various brands for their effective endorsement functions. This clearly shows the overall effectiveness of this advertising technique. It really helps the brand advertisers to make the advertising messages more persuasive and mind appealing.
This technique has a vast capacity to grab the instant consumer attention towards the advertised brand. It also helps the brand advertisers to make the commercial messages more memorable and credible. The physical attractiveness and trust worthiness of the endorsing celebrities put the brand advertisers in a very strong position to create the most desirable impacts on the consumer minds (Spellman, 1981). Previously done studies have found a positive impact of celebrity endorsements on consumers buying behavior. These studies believe that celebrities possess extra ordinary attributes than the common endorsers.
On the basis of their personality’s influence they can better shape or reshape the consumption patterns (Friedman & Friedman, 1979, & McGuire, 1985). Using celebrity endorsement technique, the brand managers can easily create a sense of affiliation
22 between the endorsed brand and the target audience. Celebrities can do as very easily as they are a source of inspiration for their followers. They have a very special place in the hearts of their lovers (Assael, 1984, & McCracken, 1989). The increasing demand of celebrities as brand endorsers isn't a truly recent most development in the field of marketing and advertising (Kaikati, 1987). Moreover, this amazing advertising technique has a totally outstanding and remarkable history (Dukcevich, 2004). Here we can take the example of Queen Victoria when she was associated with Cadbury Cocoa (Sherman, 1985). McCracken (1989) similarly analyzed and conceptualized endorsement method and described the various roles of a celebrity that he/she plays in the overall endorsement process.
According to him, superstar endorser plays different roles in the endorsement process. Firstly, he/she play the role of a professional, being associated with a certain field of interest. Secondly, the role of a spokesperson being hired as a brand endorser and thirdly the role of an aspirational figure (opinion leader) is being a role model or a likeable personality to endorse a brand. Similarly, we can classify endorsements into 4 types. First endorsement method is express type of endorsement. Here the endorsing source expressively shows that he or she endorses the brand. Second is the implicit type of endorsement. Third endorsement type is the vital endorsement. Here the endorsing source emphasizes the target audience that they must use the endorsed brand. Fourth endorsement method is co-presentational endorsement method. It occurs when the endorsing source just act upon a predetermined script and might have no personal affiliation with the endorsed brand. Marketers and brand advertisers should understand that celebrities are amongst the most privileged group of social members.
They can very effectively play the role of a social opinion leader in order to create the most desirable impacts on consumer buying behavior. They're known as “the extra ordinary endorsers” on the basis of their symbolic aspirational reference group associations. They are well reputed and well known to the general public (Assael, 1984 & Hassan et al., 2016). Moreover, these super stars have the extra ordinary power and capability to shape and reshape the consumer lifestyle and their overall buying behavior as their personal favorites (Wilkes and Valencia, 1989). According to another study celebrities on the basis of their personal charisma can better shape, reshape and refine the lifestyles of the individuals. Moreover, they are in a commanding position to shape or reshape the consumer buying behavior (Biswas et al., 2009).
By having celebrities in commercials as brand endorsers can produce consumer affiliation with the endorsing super stars. As a matter of fact consumers generally believe that celebrities are the personal and social favorites having dynamic
23 personalities with appealing and persuading attributes. They treat them as their role models (Assael, 1984, McCormick, 2016, & Priyankara et al., 2107). These studies believe that celebrities from the field of showbiz and sporting in particular provide a great help to impact the consumer purchase intent in the most desirable way. These big names include successful people from movies, television and stage performers, famous entertainers and other big names from the world of sports. These personalities are well respected and appreciated by people (Schiff man & Kanuk, 2004). It can be further explained as social members have a positive tendency to affiliate themselves with a person or item that provides more strength to his/her self-image or self-identity. Moreover, it also creates and strengthens the feelings of connectedness to a group of individuals or persons. Celebrities are one of the social groups that can create a sense of relatedness with the general public and simply can influence their lifestyles and consumer decision making procedures (Anjum et al., 2012, & Han et al., 2015).
The energetic influence and social power of the celebrities can be measured by keeping their ability to impact the social members mind sets and lifestyles. They are extensively capable to do so besides the fact that the social members are not physically socially or personally closer to them (Choi & Rifon, 2007). According to the presented model of McCracken (1989) known as meaning transfer model, celebrities are a source of creating symbolic attachments with their endorsed brands. As a result their followers have a positive tendency to be a part of same symbolic affiliation. They on the basis of their personality strength can successfully create and show their association with the brand as they are the active users of the endorsed brand (Escalas and Bettman, 2005).
The general public deeply accepts the endorsement efforts of similarly perceived celebrities as compared to the dissimilarly perceived ones. Similarly perceived celebrities are the greater source of inspiring the consumer mind in a positive way as compared to the dissimilar sources. As an example if a consumer thinks of him as a stylish and energetic athlete he may think of David Beckham and can idealize him. His tendency towards the endorsed brands of Mr. Beckham can get more positive as the consumer idealizes him and found himself similar to him. In such a case he may adapt a similar lifestyle or consumption behavior like Mr. Beckham. Similarly he might have a positive buying attitude towards brands endorsed by his favorite personality.
The attachment or the same sense of relatedness between buyer and Mr. Beckham can make him buy an Adidas or Police brand as well as his other endorsed brands. This simply creates positive influences on consumer minds (Schiff man and Kanuk, 2004). Research study reveals that the super star endorsers are more persuading and mind appealing in grabbing the instant consumer attention towards the advertised brand
24 better than non-super star endorsers. Those other types of endorsers may include the organizational representatives and the common people presenting a real life situation (Seno & Lukas, 2007). To arrive at a most desirable position the marketing organizations must select the most successful celebrities belonging to their respective fields of interests. Moreover, to add more taste to the endorsement recipe they must have the compatibility factor with the selected target audience and the advertised product as well (Tom, 1992). As compared to a non-celebrity source, celebrity endorsement as a promotional technique can produce more desirable and long lasting impacts on the consumer purchasing intention (Atkins & Block, 1983, Ohanian, 1991, & Kumar, 2010). In addition to this, (Agrawal and Kamakura, 1995, & Seno & Lukas, 2007) conducted various researches in order to know the economic benefits that the brand managers can derive through celebrity endorsement deals at the anticipated profitability of a firm.
Interestingly the results of both the studies emphasized and stressed upon the overall effectiveness of celebrity endorsement technique. It has become more essential for corporations to design such advertising strategies which offer aggressive differential advantages to its products and services. It helps in creating the most desirable impacts on consumer buying behavior and makes the overall advertising process more meaningful and persuasive. That is most possibly the reason why the local and global celebrity endorsement volume is increasing year by year (Erdogan, 1999). Nowadays organizations are spending big amount of advertising budget to advocate their brands thru famous personalities. The celebrity endorsers possess highly dynamic personalities having the most appealing and positive attributes (Atkins and Block, 1983). Moreover, the brand managers must try their level best to create perfect sense of alignment between the most desirable features of a celebrity and the endorsed brand.
Many researchers concluded in their studies that a celebrity based commercial gives consumers a better degree of attraction and creates their interest in the endorsed brand. It also results in better memorability in comparison to the other commercials without celebrities. Celebrity endorsement is one of the most influential advertising techniques in order to influence the consumer minds positively (Cooper, 1984, & Dean and Biswas, 2001).
Celebrities on the basis of their enhanced social influence can create a most effective influence on consumer buying behavior (Farrell et al., 2000, & Erdogan, 2001). The role of the celebrities in the effective brand endorsement process is very remarkable in creating positive purchase responses in the minds of the customers (Erdogan, 2001), (Kumar, 2010, & Han et al., 2015). Common people as brand endorsers in comparison to the celebrities are the least effective brand endorsers in order to create a desirable
25 response in consumer buying behavior. This is because of the high social influence of celebrities on the general public (Cooper, 1984, Erdogan, 2001, & Priyankara et al., 2017).
2.3 Advantageous Components of Celebrity Endorsements This section of the literature will explore the advantageous side of the celebrity endorsement practices. Increase in competition between the brands has been recorded with a purpose to attract greater consumer attention toward the endorsed brands. It has simply and very clearly advocated the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement. As a result, marketers are strategically prepared to use celebrities in advertisements in order to create a favorable brand image. Moreover, recently the developments in technology and media have facilitated the brand advertisers to convey their promotional messages to the target audience in a very easy way. The development of DTH technology as well as the developments in local and global satellite based networks has created vast opportunities for the brand managers to successfully launch their brands in the markets. The increasing use of electronic and print media has created a large volume of facilitation for the brand managers to communicate their advertising messages to their target audiences (Croft et al., 1996).
Keeping the enhancing influence of celebrities on consumer social lives it’s now a general belief that the endorsements of the brands through renowned super star helps in better communication of advertising messages. It helps the brand advertisers to grab the instant attention of the consumers and simply create a positive purchase intention (Kulkarni & Gaulakar, 2005). Celebrities on the basis of their high influence on social members are a great source of creating positive impacts on the consumer buying behavior (Priyankara et al., 2017). In order to gain a great volume of instant consumer attention towards the endorsed items and services brand managers make a sensible use of celebrity endorsement strategy.
As a matter of fact, celebrities on the basis of their higher face values can better help advertisers to grab the instant consumer attention and by making the overall promotional messages more persuading and informative. They also help the brand advertisers to strengthen the brand recall by associating themselves with the endorsed brands (Sherman, 1985). Moreover, while hiring celebrities for the brand endorsement functions brand managers must select appropriate celebrities as their brand endorsers. As a matter of fact it can also help the brand advertisers in enhancing both the brand and corporate images in the mind of the target audiences. So it means that beyond building and maintaining favorable brand image celebrities can also most importantly help the brand managers in restoring or building the organizational images. Celebrities
26 not only help the brand managers to maintain the endorsed brand’s market leadership in the home markets, but can also help the brand managers to launch the brand successfully in the overseas markets as well (Erdogan, 1999). Hiring an appropriate celebrity for the brand endorsement function can additionally help the brand managers to avoid any undesirable issues that can arise due to the multi-cultural complications. The classical example here can be taken of Pepsi Co International India.
They increased their market share percentage in India while endorsing their brands thru various famous personalities from the world of showbiz and sports. As a marketing strategy, Pepsi hired famous Bollywood actors like Shah Rukh Khan, Ranbir Kapoor, and Karina Kapoor. Moreover, they also engaged the legendary cricketer MS Dhoni and other famous sporting figures in order to cash their face value and simply to create a favorable brand image. This celebrity endorsement strategy helped Pepsi Co India to create strong brand equity (Kumar, 2010). In Pakistan, Pepsi Co applied the same marketing strategy by taking Shahid Khan Afridi & Misbah-ul-Haq, the two legendary sport stars of Pakistani Cricket industry. The ads were liked by the target audiences as they love both the above mentioned cricketing super stars.
Celebrities provide a great base for creating strong brand equities and a positive purchase intention (Hassan et al., 2014). It has been experienced by various brand managers that the celebrity endorsers provide a great volume of help to create strong market shares in the local and global markets. This technique of endorsing brands through celebrities also helps the brand advertisers to standout and takes greater consumer notice. Moreover, the same practice can help advertisers to make a clear distinction between the unique features of their brands in the mind of the consumers as compared to the rest (Bowman, 2002). It is believed that the advertisements based on a celebrity proposing a particular product or service can make a sturdy impact towards gaining instant customer attention.
It is further believed that it helps in building his/her interest in the advertising process. Moreover, it also helps the brand managers to make the advertised brand memorable and simply creating a desire in the mind of the customer to buy the advertised brand.
This is surely the ultimate desire and objective of every local and global brand advertiser. The most remarkable feature of a celebrity as a brand endorser is to make the advertisement appealing and more memorable inside the thoughts of the customers. This works as a convincing catalyst and persuade customers to buy the endorsed brands in a situation where even they do not have any immediate need of buying the endorsed brands. Researchers believe that the transmitted brand information is easily retrieved when the consumers make brand purchasing decision
27 (Schultz & Barnes, 1995). Moreover, we can say that the overall effectiveness of celebrity endorsements in the light of the above mentioned arguments lead towards a conclusion that celebrity endorsement seems to have positive influences on the buying behavior of the consumers (Erdogan, 2001, & McCormick, 2016).
However, a careful selection of the most appropriate celebrity can help the brand advertisers to create the most favorable impacts on consumer purchase intention (Priyankara et al., 2017). As most of the times, they have been found to be very effective in impacting the consumer purchase intention. Celebrities influence the consumer buying behavior in the most desirable way and up to the anticipated results and expectations (Kumar, 2010).
2.4 The Negative or the Darker Side of Celebrity Endorsements This section of the literature presents the other side of the picture i.e. the darker side of the celebrity endorsements. This implies that celebrities sometimes may not work as one of the effective most brand endorsers. Researches show that besides having numerous benefits, there are different potential risks associated with the use of celebrities as brand endorsers. In other words, besides having certain advantages celebrity endorsement sometimes can develop negative brand images and may not help the brand advertisers to build and maintain strong brand equities (Katyal, 2007). Studies suggest that sometimes the negative data and publicity about the brand endorsing celebrity is a major and most serious type of potential risk that is attached with celebrity endorsement technique. Such uncontrollable situation can cause very serious problems for the brand advertisers. The negative publicity about the endorsing celebrity can create a negative word of mouth amongst social members and can negatively impact their buying behavior in relation to the celebrity endorsed brands (Kumar, 2010).
Moreover, such serious issues can also include a celebrity’s unexpected performance decline in his/her respective field or profession. This situation is also beyond the direct and indirect control of the brand advertisers and managers. Studies show that the negative publicity about a celebrity can adversely affect the purchaser buying intention.
This can also fully damage the personal and social image of the endorsing source (Klebba and Unger, 1982, & Kumar, 2010). Moreover, some other grounds may also include the continuous failure in the professional performance of a celebrity which results in a constant decline in his/her popularity graph. This decline in the popularity graph of a celebrity may also results in the termination of the brand endorsement contracts. Moreover, sometimes the involvement of a celebrity in some illegal and unethical practices can also bear very negative impacts on his/her popularity as well as on the health of the endorsed brands. Celebrities are the ideals of the general public
28 and they do not expect any socially, legally, or ethically undesirable behavior from their favorites. If it happens, it adversely impacts a celebrity’s social image as well as the image of his/her endorsed brands. Sometimes, celebrities can lose their credibility in the eyes of the audience by over brand endorsing or by frequently changing the brand loyalties (brand endorsement contracts) (Cooper 1984, & Kaikati, 1987). For example, In Pakistan various celebrities have changed their brand endorsing loyalties over times.
As an example, Wasim Akram was initially endorsing Mobilink Jazz but currently he is endorsing its rival brand U-Fone. Shehzad Roy was firstly endorsing Telenor but now he’s endorsing U-Fone. Ali Zafar, the pop singer was firstly endorsing Telenor but now he’s endorsing Mobilink as a co-endorser with the Indian actress Nargis Fakhri. In recent times, many local and global brand managers have faced substantially undesirable results over their endorsing celebrity‘s misdeeds or due to their involvement in unethical or illegal practices. For example, PepsiCo has adversely suffered due to the misdeeds of their brand ambassadors. These big names were Mike Tyson, Madonna, and Michael Jackson. Their involvement in unethical and illegal practices not only created a really bad name for them but also for their endorsed brands (Katyal 2007). Moreover, firms have confronted serious types of embarrassments while their brand endorsing celebrities were deeply noticed to be involved in different legal and ethical controversies (Erdogan, 1999). As an example recently the Indian actor Salman Khan faced a lot of social criticism being accused in the “hit and run case”.
The actor faced a legal trial and there were rumors that he can get arrested on the basis of the same legal charges against him. He’s also facing another trail of hunting the black bucks in India though it was legally banned over there. Third trial faced by the same actor is being accused in the illegal possession of arms. The actor is also known for his rude behavior too, especially with the female actresses. This negative behavior of the celebrity negatively impacts his social fame and the popularity graph of his endorsed brands (Kumar, 2010).
Another example from the Pakistani perspective can be taken of the famous super model Ayan Ali. The model is one of the top class female models of our country. Her involvement in money laundering activities badly damaged her social image as well as the image of her endorsed brands. As a reaction the brand advertisers immediately terminated all the brand endorsing contracts with her as it can earn a very bad name for the endorsed brands and the endorsing firm (Express Tribune, February 23, 2017). Most of the times, audience fails to recognize a brand as it gets overshadowed because of the too much glamorous exposure of the endorsing celebrity. It seems like the endorsing source is more important than the endorsed brand. In other words too much and
29 unnecessary importance is posed on celebrity’s personality and very less on the endorsed brand features. It results in minimizing the overall effectiveness of the promotional messages. It is one of the advertising blunders that should be avoided while endorsing brands through celebrities.
Such type of impact is known as overshadowing impact or the vampire impact and here the celebrity or the brand advertiser both fail to endorse the brands more effectively (Rossiter and Fercy, 1987). Similar results have been recorded by Cooper (1984) who states that for the effective promotion of the products and services the endorser don’t really needs to be a celebrity. It further states that more glamorous exposure of the celebrity causes overshadowing problem or normally termed as vampire impact (Till, 1996). It results in lack of readability and memorability for the consumers. Here both the celebrity and the advertiser simply fail to create a favorable brand image (Evans, 1998). Research shows that this issue mainly arises due to greater focus over the superstar’s glamour or personality and less attention being given to the advertised brand (Erdogan, 1999). Moreover, the same overexposure problem acts as hurdle in promoting the endorsed brand effectively. As a matter of fact this is amongst major problems faced by the local and global brand managers. It’s due to the fact that almost every brand manager wants to hire them due to their high face values.
Study reveals that at the end of the day it creates too much confusion in the minds of the customers. Customers most of the times, do not effectively remember the association of a celebrity with a specific product, service or organization due to the same overshadowing issues (Tripp, 1994). There is another serious charge over the use of celebrity in advertisements. Most of the consumers think that the endorsing celebrities are not the actual users of the brand and they have no personal affiliation with the endorsed brands. They just endorse it for the sake of making money. Here the example of Indian celebrity Shah Rukh khan can be taken. As a matter of fact, the actor is endorsing a large number of unique brands from hair oil to cars.
The number is almost more than 30 brands (Solomon et al., 2002). Here the role of a celebrity to the general public is not more than a “hired gun”. Here the general public may think that the endorsing celebrity is endorsing the brand simply for the purpose of making more earnings. It reflects an understanding that he/she does not have any real life affiliations with his/her endorsed brands. This badly impacts the purchase intention of the buyers (Kumar, 2010). When a celebrity associates his name with diverse brand category it also has much less effects on the consumers buying intention. As a result, it also decreases the overall effectiveness of the delivered advertising messages. This is all because of poor compatibility or alignment between brand and celebrity and also due to
30 the overshadowing factor (Mowen & Brown, 1981). Though it does not creates disappointment in consumer mind (Graham, 1989) however creates awareness in the mind of the customers that these famous figures are endorsing the brands as they receive a large amount of the endorsing fee and they have no personal affiliations with the endorsed brand (Cooper, 1984, & Roy et al., 2015).
In other words one can say that they may not even be the actual users of the endorsed brands. Moreover, many researchers have further explored that the negative publicity or thoughts about the endorsing celebrity not only impact consumer perceptions about him/her but the perception about the endorsed brand as well. It creates an overall negative impression in the minds of the audience about the product endorsed as well as about the endorsing personality (Klebba & Unger, 1982, and Till & Shimp, 1995). Besides this the experts believe that there are few other unique problems being faced in recent times by the brand advertisers. First one of them is known as the celebrity trap. It refers to a situation where the celebrities become “a must” for the brand advertisers to promote their brand through celebrities. It also refers to the problematic situation where the brand advertisers cannot make a clear distinction between the role of a celebrity and position of the endorsed brand. For the brand managers sometimes it becomes very difficult to create a careful and meaningful distinction between the both.
Second issue being faced by the brand advertisers in the celebrity endorsements is the weak credibility of the endorsing source. This situation arises when celebrities are endorsing too much brands at the same time and sometimes even they change their brand endorsement contracts or brand endorsement loyalties. This can put a very big question mark over the celebrity’s credibility. As a matter of fact, it is because of the reason that consumers have now more awareness about the reality that super stars are endorsing brands only with the purpose to earn more brand endorsing money. Moreover, it adversely impacts the celebrity image as well the image of the endorsed brands.
That’s why both the celebrity as well as the brand advertiser should take extra attention of this fact. Because it can put a big question mark over the credibility of both the endorsed brand and the endorsing source. This is the most undesirable situation for both the endorsed brand and the endorsing celebrity (Patel, 2009). Sometimes a confusing situation arises due to the wrong and unplanned use of famous personalities in advertising communications. This muddling or confused situation arises due to the involvement of these famous faces in the endorsement of several brands produced by different firms at the same time. Such a situation drastically increases the consumer’s confusion and he simply fails to associate a famous face with a particular brand of a
31 particular firm. Moreover, sometimes different celebrities use to endorse competing products of different manufacturers. These celebrities endorsing the competitive brands at the same time put the consumer frame of mind in a confusing situation. As a result, it leads customers towards making a comparison between these endorsing personalities that whether which celebrity is greater. Like in India Pepsi is endorsed by the leading Indian super star Shah Rukh Khan and Coca Cola by the Mr. Perfectionist of Bollywood, Amir Khan. On the other hand, Salman Khan is the brand endorser of Thumbs up cold drink brand. All these actors are the three big names of Indian film industry. They are most commonly known as “3 Khans of Bollywood”.
Now, being exposed to the endorsed brands of three big names a consumer can get totally confused to decide which brand is to be purchased. Consumers can compare and idealize them and simply can associate more weightage to a brand based upon the celebrity image or ranking which they might have in their minds (Kumar, 2010). In Pakistan Pepsi is endorsed by the legendary cricketer Shahid Khan Afridi and actor Fawad Khan while Sprite by Ali Zafar and Indian actor Siddharth Malhotra as co-celebrity endorser. Coke is endorsed by Fahad Mustafa and Mahira Khan. Like the above mentioned Indian consumer’s situation, Pakistani consumers can also face the same confusing situation as a result of brand endorsements by these big Pakistani celebrities.
Due to the constant falling down in their professional performances celebrity endorsers are becoming a liability to the brand that they advocate in the local and global markets (Till & Shimp, 1998). As a result of this the anticipated or the projected profit targets of the firms are becoming harder to achieve. This is besides the fact that the brands are being endorsed by these big names (Agrawal & Kamakura, 1995). Consequently, few researchers have termed celebrities as “promotional puppets”. They are of a view that these famous personalities are solely controlled by the brand advertisers and by the advertising script. According to them, celebrities are fake and paid endorsers.
They think that celebrities are untruthful because they just endorse too many brands for the sake of earning more dollars. They are also of a view that these endorsing personalities have nothing to do in reality with their endorsed brands (Temperley & Tangen, 2006). It means that the celebrity endorsements though have many advantages for the brand managers and brand advertisers still it has a darker side as well. Moreover there were no significant differences between the celebrity based and non-celebrity based advertisements in impacting the consumer buying behavior.
The various determinants of the celebrity endorsement models were found least effective in impacting the consumer purchase intention better than a non-celebrity source (Mehta, 1994). Another study by Tom, (1992) concluded that the non-celebrity
32 sources are more powerful promotional sources as compared to the celebrity sources. According to these researchers, celebrity endorsers all the time cannot prove themselves to be the most effective brand endorsers as compared to the non-celebrity sources. The brand managers must be very careful about this fact. The study revealed that most of the times consumers think that the endorsing celebrity has no personal affiliations with the endorsed brands. They simply perceive the non-celebrity sources as more credible brand endorsing source. In other words the created endorsers were found to be more effective over the celebrity endorsers. Sometimes celebrities give their names to so many brands at the same time. It creates a sense of confusion in the minds of the consumers to associate a particular celebrity with a particular brand (Erdogan, 1999).
Furthermore, sometimes celebrity endorsers do not prove to be the most effective endorsers in creating positive purchase intention as compared to the non-celebrity endorsers. In other words we can say that the celebrity endorsements sometimes do not bring the expected and desirable results on the overall consumer buying behavior. Results of the study revealed that celebrities do not have same type of influential impact all the time on all types of the consumers. That’s why the brand managers should always remain careful before selecting an appropriate endorsing source for the effective brand endorsement function (Misra & Beatty, 1990). ).
The same fact can be interpreted in other words that sometimes celebrities do not help to meet the brand advertising and promotional objectives. Such doubts sometimes put a question mark on the overall credibility and effectiveness of this brand endorsement technique. Brand managers should always take a calculated amount of risk while selecting an appropriate celebrity for the brand endorsement purposes. They should select those celebrities who can bring the most desirable results on the overall consumer buying behavior.
Most of the marketing experts call the celebrity endorsement technique as a “double edged sword”. This implies that celebrity endorsements can bring both the positive and negative impacts on consumer buying behavior (Miciak & Shanklin, 1994). Sometimes using the celebrity endorsement technique for the global brands and in a multi-cultural environment can create many issues. These major issues include the cultural 'roadblocks' time, and space barrier, language barrier, cultural misfit and many other problems that can damage the overall advertising function (Hofstede, 1984 & Mooij, 1994).
33 2.5 The Concept of Multiple Celebrity Endorsements The concept of using two or more than two celebrities as brand endorsers refers to as “Multiple Celebrity Endorsements”. Moreover a research study by Hsu & McDonald, (2002) described the phenomena of multiple celebrity endorsement as using two or more than two celebrities in a brand promotional campaign. Similarly, this phenomenon of multiple celebrity endorsement can be categorized below specific elements based on how celebrities are featured in advertisements. They further explained those advertising situations or scenarios where advertisers can make use of multiple celebrity endorsements in order to create positive impacts on the consumer purchase intention. According to them first advertising situation is to use two or more than two celebrities collectively in commercials in order to successfully advocate a product or a service. On the other hand the second situation is to make use of celebrities that regularly appear in a planned series of television and radio commercials in order to endorse a particular service or product. Here one should know that using more than one celebrity in an advertising campaign isn't always a new phenomenon for the brand managers in the local or global advertising industry.
Most of the big brand names like Nike, Adidas, Pepsi, Coke, Nestle, Samsung, Nokia, Honda, KFC and many others are following the same method of advertising as a promotional tool. Here we can quote the example of Milk Mustache brand’s marketing campaign which surprisingly featured more than one hundred globally famous celebrities to promote milk consumption. The brand advertiser’s objectives were to create maximum consumer awareness regarding using safe and healthy packed milk (Hsu & McDonald, 2002).
Another example can be quoted from India, as India is one the globally emerging economy and one of the biggest consumer markets that has got a lot of respect for their local and global celebrities. Due to the same reason, brand advertisers are promoting their brands through various famous figures from the world of showbiz or either from the cricketing world (Kumar, 2010). For example, In Pakistan, Pepsi has been endorsed by the famous Pakistani cricketers Shahid Khan Afridi, Misbah ul Haq, Wasim Akram, and Shoaib Malik. In India Pepsi hired the legendary Indian cricketers and Bollywood stars like Sachin Tendulkar, Shah Rukh Khan, Amitabh Bachchan, MS Dhoni, Shahid Kapoor, Karina Kapoor, Ranbir Kapoor, Deepika Padukone etc. These are the most famous personalities from Bollywood and Indian cricket industry (Khatri, 2006). Moreover, Hsu and McDonald, 2002 further stated that more than one superstar endorsement marketing technique has got more advantages for the brand advertisers. In addition to this the multiple celebrity endorsement technique assists the advertisers to construct a sense of consensus in the mind of the target audiences. It also helps in
34 minimizing or discouraging the target audience boredom that can be noticed after seeing one face all the times in commercials.
The third and last advantage is that at the same time it can appeal to more than one target audience that may belong to different societies, nationalities, genders or sects. (Erdogan, 1999) in his research suggested that it's far useful for the brand managers to use multiple celebrities for the effective endorsement of a particular brand. The research believes that this technique can help the brand managers to reach out most effectively to its whole target audience and can convey the advertising messages in a more persuasive manner. Besides this, the researcher was of a view that using more than one celebrity wrongly might create a sense of confusion in the minds of the consumers. This situation can adversely affect the brand identity as well as the endorsed brand image in the minds of the viewers.
Moreover, they were of a view that the local and global brand advertisers and brand managers should make a well planned and a careful use of multiple celebrity endorsement technique. This careful use of appropriate celebrities can help them to avoid any undesirable customer confusion that can occur as a result of wrong use of multiple celebrity endorsement technique (Erdogan & Baker, 1999). As an instance the leading cosmetic brand L‘Oreal brand managers use to endorse their products through those famous celebrities whose personal or physical attributes are more matching with the endorsed brands. According to the company officials the same practice has produced very meaningful impact on their consumers buying attitude (Redenbach, 2005). The most serious issues for the brand advertisers are that nowadays buyers are extra conscious, well-educated and highly knowledgeable regarding the marketing practices of using celebrities in brand endorsements.
On the basis of the same knowledge they understand that the brand endorsing celebrities have been engaged in the promotional process because of their social influence over the minds of the consumers.
Moreover, they are endorsing these brands only to make higher endorsement fee and in reality they do not have a real or sincere type of attachment with the product. Such thinking and knowledge can lead towards a negative consumer buying behavior (Belch & Belch, 2001). Endorsing multiple brands of multiple firms impacts the celebrity‘s trustworthiness, understanding and likeability. This happens because the celebrity instead of focusing on one brand endorses multiple brands which sooner or later lacks uniqueness and trustworthiness (Redenbach, 2005). There may be additionally a possibility that the use of so many unique celebrities may overshadow the brand image and can simply cause Vampire impact. Vampire impact arises when the target audience
35 possibly and most effectively just recall the brand endorsing celebrities however not the endorsed product or service. This is like the promotional dollars spent by the brand advertisers all going in vain and not bearing the desirable impacts on the consumers purchase intention (Hsu & McDonald, 2002).
As a matter of fact, in today’s advanced and most competitive business environment the customers are regularly exposed to many exclusive brands promotional messages. These brands are marketed through various most effective and exclusive promotional techniques. Studies revealed that consumer buying behavior is a critical and complex phenomenon for marketers to understand. Every consumer has a different set of mind as a unique human being. They have different needs and extraordinary desires. A study by (Lancaster et al., 2011) stated that delivering maximum customer satisfaction is the most important goal of the 21st century marketing system. A marketer has to uncover the real needs and wants of the customers and has to perform his product planning and development practices accordingly. The same will enable him to deliver maximum level of satisfaction to the target audience. This will also provide a competitive edge over the rest of the operators. As a conclusion we can say that marketers must have a right knowledge of consumer shopping behavior in order to stay competitive in the local and global markets. This can benefit the firm both in short and long run.
On the other hand (Perner, 2008) explained that buying behavior as a study of people, companies, or agencies and the tactics they use to choose, compare, use, and dispose off products, offerings, reviews, or thoughts to satisfy their needs and wants. The study of consumer behavior also includes the effects that these approaches have on the consumers and society. Moreover, Perner (2008) suggests that the knowledge of purchaser buying behavior facilitates advertisers in developing their marketing strategies. Marketers make use of consumer psychology and they try to know as how: a) they assume sense, differentiate, and pick out between distinctive producers or products. b) How the consumers get influenced by their surroundings or society (e.g., culture, religion, circle of relatives, signs and symptoms, media, social class and family etc.) c) The ultimate behavior of purchasers at the same time as how do they make shopping or buying decisions d) How client motivation, perceptions and choice strategies differ among products that depends upon their level of significance) How marketers can adapt and enhance the effectiveness of their marketing campaigns and techniques to attain maximum customer base and to do their marketing function more efficiently. Moreover, it isn't always easy to become fully aware of consumers needs and wants and to fulfill them most effectively and better than the competitors. It is also very critical to recognize that as to why purchaser desires that? The answer to this question will offer marketers a higher know-how of consumer behavior.
36 This knowledge both in the short and long run helps them in fulfilling consumer desires efficaciously. This also helps them in increasing client loyalty towards their products and services (Zeithami, 1985). Moreover, Assael (1981) stated that there are four forms of consumer buying behaviors that may affect the acquisition, selection, or decision making process of a customer. This is totally based on the extent of consumer product involvement, interest in a product, the situation and differences among the products available. These four forms of consumer buying behavior are discussed below in detail:
2.6 The Various Forms of Consumer’s Buying Behavior
2.6.1 Complex Buying Behavior: It refers to the buying behavior where the purchaser is pretty involved inside the product buying decision. In this type of consumer buying behavior the high level product involvement occurs. This high level of product involvement can also be due to the expensive and expressive nature of the products and services. It means that these kinds of merchandise aren't purchased most frequently or regularly by the consumers. Moreover, buyers tend to observe extensive differences among the brands available before making a buying decision. They need more time to compare the price and quality of the items to be purchased. For instance when a consumer buys a luxury sedan, his level of interest is always very high due to the high price factor of the car. It is also due to the low purchase frequency of the purchased product.
Researchers are of a view that normally customers decides very carefully about such type of buying decisions. They make a proper purchase analysis before buying a product or hiring a particular service. They are much interested to know about the product features and capabilities before buying them. In other words we can say that they have a very keen interest in knowing the overall brand features and performance (Scott, 2007). Besides this, customers also tend to enjoy cognitive dissonance at the same time. Cognitive dissonance refers to the state of mind where the consumers are having inconsistency in their thoughts, myths or belief due to a recorded change in his or her behavior. Cognitive dissonance arises here due to making buying decisions about complicated nature of products and services. Consumers, if make a poor purchase decision they have to face an economic loss. Moreover, the poor knowledge of product understanding will result in high level of performance uncertainty. Technically, from the advertising angle the brand managers need to ensure that they are going to use the most effective product differentiation strategies to differentiate their endorsed product from different competitive offerings. Last but not the least; brand managers should also try their level best to educate the target customers regarding the type use and features
37 of the endorsed product. This can really bring the most desirable impacts on consumer buying behavior (Assael, 1981, & Mazlan et al., 2016).
2.6.2 Dissonance-Decreasing Buying Behavior: The second type of the consumer buying behavior is known as dissonance decreasing buying behavior. This behavior is recorded in a buying situation where the purchaser is actively noticed to be concerned about the product to be purchased and resultantly observes minor differences between the considered or available options. The perceived level of product differences is not that much high. After using a brand, normally the customers tend to acquire the desirable information regarding the purchased brands that can further assure and strongly validate his or her brand purchase decision. By way of following this behavior the customer try his level best to lessen the losses or dissonance concerned to the purchase situation. These sorts of consumer buying behavior entails status quo of consider perception and mind-set in the direction of a brand. However the customers may additionally face the psychological loss and social loss as well as the time loss most likely while buying the required items.
Consequently, this type of behavior arises because of the differences between actual brand performance and perceived brand performance. As an example if a consumer buys a mobile phone brand with an expected battery performance of 12 hours but after using it he observes it to be just 9 hours it will definitely create a sense of psychological unrest (McCormick, 2016).
2.6.3 Recurring Buying Behavior: This is the third type of consumer buying behavior. It occurs when a customer buys the products on everyday basis over a time period. In this type of the consumer buying behavior the customer generally has got a low level of involvement in the product being purchased. This type of consumer buying behavior is recorded most of the times when consumers tend to buy the convenience products. Convenience products are that type of consumer products which are purchased by consumers on everyday basis.
This type of consumer products has got low price, but a high purchase frequency. Here, we can take example of bread, butter, salt, sugar, fruits vegetables and many other generally or domestically used items. As a matter of fact, customers may or may not have a strong brand loyalty while portraying this type of the buying behavior. It has been noticed that customers don‘t neither undergo the system of notion, mind-set and buy selection nor look for deep information about the purchased products. They also do not need to make more detailed product comparisons. They usually take less time and utilize less energy to purchase such type of brands. Consequently they have less interest and may be weaker brand loyalties in this type of the consumer buying behavior.
38 However, it's far interesting to know that marketers are continuously trying to find out new ways to create more customer interest in this product category too.
Their aim is to create the consumer interest in their products and to take it up from low involvement product brackets to higher consumer involvement product frames. For the same reason, marketers are trying to do the unique positioning of their brands. They are trying their level best to associate their brands with health and hygiene, environmental and physical safety and with many other mind appealing factors. With the introduction of the same technique, some of the marketers have successfully created their audience interest in their products/product lines and services as well as in their corporations. As an instance many brand managers are concerned in developing low volume of calories, sugar, the cholesterol unfastened oil, iodized salt and much other such type of brands. Moreover, they are also trying to promote them through the most effective advertising and promotional media (Scott, 2007)
2.6.4 Behavior In Search of Variety: Normally this type of consumer buying behavior is originated in a situation where the customers are not highly satisfied with their earlier product purchasing decisions. This type of buying behavior may occur if the post purchase feelings do not match with the pre-purchase expectations of the buyer. It also means that the product has simply failed to deliver the desirable level of customer expectations. Such type of consumer behavior can also be recorded due to the excessive use of a product over times, or out of the consumer boredom. Consumers with this type of buying behavior are very much demanding, updated, adventurous and highly dynamic. Moreover, such customers demand a product with the most updated or sophisticated features. On this shopping behavior, generally the purchaser–product involvement is low however there can be variations as well.
Such types of customers most frequently change their affiliations with brands, not because of the dissatisfaction factor, but most importantly due to consumer boredom (Scott, 2007).
2.6.5 The Range Seeking Consumer Buying Behavior: Normally it is known as one of the key determinant factors about brand switching process in consumer product class (Scott, 2007). Customers with such type of behavior keep a variety of choices in their priority list. They most likely will switch to the next best possible option as they see it. Such types of customers are also called as mercenaries or opportunists. They are just waiting for the next best possible option and they will switch to it as they get a chance to do so. Range seeking behavior refers to that type of consumer buying behavior where the customers are in a continuous search of better
39 quality products (Assael, 1981). They can also base their search on advance features of a product or even on a low price factor. Moreover, they can also make product switching if they perceive the next option to be more scientifically or technologically safe to use. In other words switching can also occur due to the less perceived hazards associated with a product or service (Scott, 2007).
2.7 Measuring the Celebrity Endorsement Effectiveness: Celebrity endorsement effectiveness can be evaluated with the help of below mentioned models:
2.8 Models Used for the Explanation of Celebrity Endorsement Effectiveness:
2.8.1 The Model of Source Credibility: This model was developed by the Hovland & Weiss, in 1951. The Source credibility model is comprised of two determinants i.e. the perceived trustworthiness and level of expertise held by the endorser. This model suggests that for the overall effectiveness of an advertising message source should be a trust worthy and an expert person of his or her field (Hovland et al., 1953, & Dholakia & Leavitt, 1978). In order to make it simple we can say that expertise of a celebrity refers to his or her possessed level of knowledge, skill, or experience. Moreover, expertise refers to the point where normally a communicator is generally perceived to be a source of providing reliable and credible information on the basis of a communicator’s skill experience or knowledge in a particular area (Hovland et al., 1951). More expert endorsers have more positive impact on the buying behavior of the target audience (Ohanian, 1990).
Most of the times consumers are more inclined towards the advertising messages that are conveyed through more expert and skillful endorsers. As a matter of fact, these endorsers can better influence the purchase intention of the target audiences due to their perceived level of expertise in a particular field of interest. For example various celebrities might have different types of expertise in the different fields of interests i.e. sports, arts, or fashion designing etc. (Ohanian, 1990, & Belch & Belch, 1994). Moreover, superstars advocating a particular brand and having substantial personal or professional expertise are in a better position to create more strong word of mouth amongst social members. They can also help the brand advertisers to create a desire in the mind of the customers to start using or keep using a particular brand (Holmes & Strutton, 2008). Celebrity’s credibility refers to the perceived level of a celebrity’s personal professional and social integrity, honesty and the volume of believability that general public has got about him or her (Erdogan, 2001).
40 It is a common observation that customer has normally a consideration that celebrities are truthful source of communication. They consider them credible and hence they follow what these celebrities say or do (Goldsmith et al., 2000). In our social lives we give more importance to the point of views of those who have a high level of perceived credibility in our minds. They can more easily persuade us on the basis of the trust that we have in them (Erdogan, 1999). The perceived level of trust is built upon the achievements or the ascribed position of an individual (celebrity) in his or her field or profession. It is also due to their high place in their follower’s hearts and minds. Level of credibility is further enhanced if the endorsing personality remains a highly consistent performer in his/her field of interest over times. It can further increase the overall effectiveness of the endorsement process if a celebrity’s personality or profession also perfectly matches with the endorsed brand personality as well.
Trustworthiness or credibility of the endorser refers to his or her perceived level of knowledge, experience, or skills that has a meaningful place in the mind of the target audience. The perceived sense of celebrity trustworthiness results in the creation of positive purchase intention and is also powerful enough to impact consumers social behavior as well (Belch & Belch, 1994, & Priyankara et al., 2017). A celebrity can have a high level of perceived credibility if they are well known to the target audiences. Moreover, they are considered believable on the basis of their higher expertise in the areas of their operations. Consumers do think about a celebrity’s honesty and integrity when they personally or contractually associate themselves with a particular brand (Hung et al., 2011). Brand endorsement through super stars is not the only way to create a favorable response in the mind of the customers to buy a product.
However, it is considered as one of the valuable sources of information by the target audience based on the good will of the endorsing personalities. More credible celebrities tend to reduce the perceived levels of risks associated with the purchase and use of a brand (Erdogan, 1999). One of the dimensions that may increase the credibility of a celebrity is the level of social acceptance that they might have in a particular society. Higher the level of social acceptance, higher will be a celebrity’s credibility amongst social members. In other words a social or an ethnic match can also create or enhance a celebrity’s credibility in the minds of the consumers (McCormick, 2016). Ethnic match can result in more popularity of a celebrity because degree of confidence is normally much higher on those who are “like us” and it can be less on endorsers from any other ethnic group or society. In this case, the target audience considers them more credible because they are similar to their beliefs, lifestyle, or thinking (Desphande & Stayman, 1994). For example, In case of Indian and Pakistani superstar endorsement practices a big range of similarities exist even in some cases the identical faith (Shah
41 Rukh Khan, Salman Khan, Fawad Khan and Shahid Afridi) but on the other hand, differences of beliefs are also observed (Katrina Kaif and Mehwish Hayat, MS Dhoni & Wasim Akram). It means that the impact of other attributes of celebrities whether Indian or Pakistan are almost same on Pakistani consumers.
However it has been noticed that the degree of attachment with local celebrities is somehow higher than that of Indians celebrities. This may be because of the really existing similarities in beliefs of both the endorsing source and target audiences (Hassan et al., 2014). The model of Source credibility was initially developed by Hovland and his research fellows in 1951. According to these researchers Source credibility model normally refers to an endorser or communicator‘s desirable characteristics that can have a meaningful and most desirable impact on the receiver‘s recognition of advertising messages (Ohanian, 1990). Technically speaking, this model was developed totally on the basis of the research in the domain of social psychology by the said researchers (Hovland et al., 1953). This suggested model of celebrity endorsement shows the results that the overall effectiveness of an advertising message mainly relies on the consumer perceived level of know-how and the level of trustworthiness of celebrity endorser (Hovland et al., 1953, Dholakia and Stemthai, 1977, & Ohanian, 1991).
Moreover (Kelman, 1961) found that the advertising messages become more meaningful and effective if they are delivered through famous faces. He was of a view that these famous personalities have the required charisma or potential to influence the buying behavior of the audience in a most desirable way. They possess deeper influences on the decision making process of consumers.
It will most commonly happen if the endorser and the audience share same set of perceived values (social, religious or personal) and the endorser is well known to the audience as well (Erdogan, 1999). Moreover, (Ohanian, 1990) in his research study explained credibility and celebrity trustworthiness as the level of trust or confidence in someone, the perceived level of acceptance of the speaker as well as of the message. Studies show that credibility or trustworthiness of an endorser is totally perceptual and it mainly relies upon on the mindset of the target audience. It also can refer to the perceived level of personal social or professional integrity of the endorsing source.
For the meaningful promotion of their brands normally the marketers take the advantage of the above mentioned desirable set of values. They are always in search of those famous faces that are enjoying a maximum level of perceived honesty. They are having a sincere attitude, are plausible and dependable among their fans and general public (Shimp, 1999). Some researchers are of a view that in a buying situation where
42 the overall perceived level of celebrity trustworthiness is high, as a result of this feeling it is most likely to have more positive impacts on the overall purchase intent of the customers. They are also of a view that less credible personalities will be in a weaker position to create more positive influence on the purchase intent of the customers. Another factor that can cause a positive change or influence on purchase intent of the customers is the knowledge or the level of expertise of the endorsing celebrities. Expertise or the knowledge of the celebrity can be described as the consumer based thinking or perceived capacity of brand endorsers to provide or make the logical and appropriate arguments in the favor of the endorsed brands.
This capability of a celebrity can produce a desire in the mind of the customers towards buying a particular product or hiring a service (Miller & Baseheart, 1969). On the other hand some authors recommend that it is not mandatory or essentially must for a brand endorser to belong to showbiz or to be any other professional. However his personality’s influence in advertising is totally dependent on the audience perceptions that how do they perceive him or her (Hovland et al., 1953, Ohanian, 1991 & Tom, 1992). Moreover, a study by Ohanian (1990) suggested that the consumer perceived expertise of celebrity endorser is more important and effective than his or her physical charm or attractiveness. The perceived level of trustworthiness of celebrities works a lot in influencing the consumer purchase intentions positively. He further stated that the more expert or knowledgeable celebrities are discovered to be more influential and persuasive than non-expert and less knowledgeable celebrities (Aaker and Myers, 1987).
Furthermore, the possessed level of expertise and trustworthiness of celebrities can positively impact the consumer brand selection procedures (Ohanian, 1991). Moreover, (Speck et al., 1988) observed that the endorsing celebrities with comparatively higher expertise charge higher brand endorsement fee than non-professional or less expert celebrities (Erdogan, 1999). The brand managers willfully pay them higher amounts of money in order to cash their high face values. Consequently, the findings within the source credibility research are ambiguous. It describes the expertise and trustworthiness of the endorsing source as two determinants of celebrity endorsement process and does not describe the other dimensions of celebrity endorsement technique. It also does not clearly explain that amongst these two determinants which one is more important. Besides this criticism studies have proved to have a considerable and direct impact of celebrity expertise and trustworthiness on attitudes and behavioral intentions related to the purchase of a product or service. It may also assist marketers in selecting the right brand endorsers for the effective brand endorsement function. Findings revealed that consumers positively perceive the expertise and trustworthiness
43 of endorsing celebrities in relation to their purchase intention towards the endorsed brands (Erdogan, 1999).
2.8.2 Model of Physical Attractiveness: A thing of beauty is a joy forever (John Keats).Beautiful people do not need any recommendation certificate (Aristotle).
This model has been developed and proposed by (McGuire, 1985). Beauty is a very desirable feature of a person. Bodily beauty is an informational and inspirational cue which entails effects that can produce positive, convincing, and long lasting impacts on others. Consequently, for the effective brand endorsement function the recommendation for using more physically elegant celebrities is much higher than using less physically elegant endorsers (Patzer, 1985). Normally, the famous figures whether the sports stars or showbiz related personalities have got exceptional social appraisal and acceptability locally as well as globally. It’s a very effective source to grab and seize the attention of target market both in print and electronic media.
A study reveals that the physical elegance of the endorser has high quality impact on consumer buying behavior as compared to less physically attractive endorsers (Ohanian, 1991). Physical elegance of the celebrity produces more considerable and long lasting impacts on consumer buying behavior because of their high social acceptance and fame (Kahle and Homer, 1985). Moreover, celebrities having more physical elegance are widely used by the brand advertisers to promote brands that enhance a man or woman’s physical attractiveness or looks.
For example, physically attractive models are most commonly used by the local and global brand advertisers of facial creams, shampoos, soaps, clothes, foot wears, hair shades and deodorants etc. Moreover the physical elegance or attraction of the brand endorser really works here to create and maintain a lifetime image in the minds and eyes of the customers. If the actual or perceived physical attractiveness of the celebrity perfectly matches with the endorsed beauty stuff or other consumer goods, it also helps to create an appropriate match between celebrity and endorsed brand. Hence, this right combination between selected celebrity and endorsed brand can positively impact the overall consumer purchase intention (Kamins, 1990). Moreover, physical elegance of an endorsing personality is really effective to grab the instant attention of the target audience. It also helps the brand advertisers to act as a device that can help them to shape, modify or even change the overall mind-set of the target audience.
This resultantly ends in creating positive impacts on consumer buying intention (Menon et al., 2001). A celebrity’s physical attraction is a powerful source to influence the
44 audience with the help of his or her attractive physical looks and glamorous style. It also helps the brand advertisers in creating a remarkable influence on purchase intention of the buyers. As European and Indian female celebrities are most of the times used in a more exposed manner to promote fashion items like beauty creams, deodorants, and garments etc. These beautiful models normally wear skirts and miniskirts to look more appealing and eye catching. These tactics really help the local and the global brand advertiser to grab the attention of the target audience towards the endorsed brand in a most effective and interesting manner. Thus creates a positive desire in the minds of the customers towards the endorsed brands (Kumar, 2010).
Pakistani society is culturally somehow different as compared to the European and Indian societies. However, staying with in the social limits the Pakistani male and female celebrities are also very much style and fashion conscious. They are known for their classy and trendy images. These famous personalities anyhow have to keep themselves within the social limits in order to avoid any controversy. For example, Mehwish Hayat, Urwa Hussain, Mawra Hussain, Ayeza Khan, Maya Ali and Mahira Khan are the leading super models of Pakistani showbiz industry. Nowadays they are the number one choice of every brand advertiser in Pakistan due to their increasing fame and professional success. These models are promoting various fashion items as well as other consumer products from garments to cereals. They have a very huge fan base not only in Pakistan but also in the neighboring countries like India but they do follow their social and cultural values that are more compatible with Pakistani culture.
Resultantly these famous personalities have positively shown their significance in the overall brand endorsement function (Hassan et al., 2014). Generally speaking, physical attractiveness is always a desirable feature of a person. People having the physical charm are always appreciated in every society. In advertising, one of the advertiser objectives is to grab the instant attention of the audience that is important to watch and understand a particular ad. That’s why advertisers make use of those celebrities having more physical charm and attractiveness. Celebrities always keep themselves physically fit in order to keep their distinctive position in their respective field of interests.
A study conducted by Patzer (1985) found that bodily elegance is an informational and inspirational dimension of the celebrity personality that entails consequences which can be expressive or noticeable; appealing persuasive and not easy to be ignored. He further advocated the usage of such appealing celebrity endorsers than other types of endorsers. According to the above mentioned study, consumer likes to enhance his or her physical attractiveness or beauty. Moreover they always react positively to the brand endorser who looks like him/her, or is having more physical charm (Erdogan,
45 1999). Sometimes the target audience generally tends to suppose that physically appealing personalities are tons smarter than the others and it is more pleasant experience to watch them in advertisements. These findings are totally based on the studies in the areas of social psychology (McCracken, 1989). It basically concentrates on 4 key regions related to the personality of the celebrity. It includes familiarity which refers to the knowingness of the consumers with the celebrity endorser. It also refers to the extent of fondness, care and affection for the endorsing personality.
Celebrities that are well known to the general public or to the target audience can better grab their attention as well as are in a better position to endorse a brand successfully. The second component entails similarity which refers to the perceived resemblance between the endorsing personality and the respondent or audience. Psychologists believe that people are generally more attracted towards those who are most likely perceived to be like them. The third component is likeability which refers to the affection or the sense of attachment with the endorser that is primarily based on his/her physical look or with the celebrity behavior. Likeability can also be based upon the intellectual talent or on the lifestyle of the endorsing personality.
These are the various component of physical attractiveness model. It states that the brand endorsing personalities with more desirable physical features or beauty can better create more consumer interest in the endorsed brands (Kumar, 2010), (Khan et al., 2016). It suggests that the effectiveness of an advertising message mainly relies upon celebrity familiarity with the audience. It also has a relationship with his or her likability, similarity, and physical attraction towards the message receiver (Ohanian, 1990). Moreover, the local and the global marketer tend to choose one of the best celebrity brand endorsers on the basis of their physical or personal splendor. This is done by them in order to cash their social fame and personality attributes i.e. superstar popularity and physical attraction, their familiarity similarity as well as their likeability (Singer, 1983). Especially the print media commercials really enhance and display the logical and appealing importance of bodily beauty. According to different studies many researchers most of the times have observed the fact that physically attractive brand endorsers are comparatively more effective than physically unattractive brand endorsers. Physically desirable sources can better do the consumer persuasion, changing ideals or modifying life style patterns. They can produce meaningful impacts on consumer minds (Baker and Churchill, 1977, Petty & Cacioppo, 1980, & Debevec and Keman, 1984). Moreover, the advertising experts believe that the physically attractive celebrities can better influence the consumer purchase intentions than less physically attractive endorsers (Friedman et al., 1976, & Chaiken, 1979).
46 Another study by (Cohen et al., 1972) implemented the said model in the process of advertising and marketing activities. They found that bodily beauty decides the effectiveness of persuasive conversation through a procedure referred to as identity. It is most likely to occur in situations where the message receiver receives and acknowledges the transmitted information sent through an inspirational and physically, personally, or socially attractive source (Erdogan, 1999). In addition to this, various studies have been performed in the past in order to know the impact of gender interaction between celebrity and respondent. Studies suggested that a celebrity has an extra impact of persuasion on opposite gender’s consumer purchase intention (Debevec & Kernan, 1984).
These researchers were of a view that beautiful and most attractive female models creates extra consumer interest in the endorsed brand and strengthen the purchase intention better than their male counterparts (models or endorsers). Their perceived personality influence is much higher than male celebrity endorsers. On the other hand, Caballero et al., 1989) are of a different view. They investigated the impact of same and opposite genders on each other’s purchase intentions. Consequently, they found the same gender endorsers to be more effective rather than the opposite gender.
That means men were found to be more influencing than females to impact the buying intention of the male consumers and vice versa. Similar results were recorded by another study performed by Petroshius and Crocker (1989). They discovered that celebrity gender has no significant influences on consumer‘s attitudes toward classified ads or on their consumer purchase intentions. The overall research conclusion regarding gender based celebrity endorsement practices were not very much clearly described. Hence they do not provide solid ground of differentiation to the advertising managers (Erdogan, 1999). The above mentioned studies show results in the belief that attractive celebrity brand endorsers may strongly create more positive consumer mindset towards the advertised brand. As a matter of fact these celebrities may not essentially result in the creation of desirable consumer buying behavior, cognitive attitudes and purchase aim. While some of the above mentioned studies revealed the other side of the picture. Means these studies are helpful in confirming positive influences of the various determinants of celebrity endorsement techniques over the consumer purchase intention.
2.8.3 The Product Celebrity Match-up Model: This model has been proposed by (Kamins & Gupta, 1994). Generally speaking the marketer job is to create a perfect match between the consumer’s needs and wants and the products or services that he offers to them. In advertising, a perfect match is
47 required amongst the celebrity endorser and their endorsed brands for the effective most communication of promotional messages. This perfect match between the celebrity endorsers and their endorsed brands is as important as other dimensions of celebrity endorsement in order to enhance the overall effectiveness of the promotional messages (Kamins, 1990, Kotler, 1997). A true and a strong affiliation or match between the brand endorsing celebrity and the endorsed brands will powerfully generate a very strong word of mouth. Moreover it will also act as evidence that the endorser is a real user of the brand. This also shows that the commercial is not just a paid content, but it shows a real association between the endorsing source and the endorsed brand.
If this real affiliation or match is missing, or if target audience does not perceive a perfect match between the celebrity and the endorsed brand, a firm must understand that they are just wasting their time and money (Kamins & Gupta, 1994). Such situation is very dangerous and something unwanted as well, that an advertiser would never like it to happen. It has been observed that the celebrities possessing more logical congruence with the endorsed brands can better communicate and transfer the advertising message to the target audience as compared to those celebrities who have less or no logical congruence with the endorsed brands (Jagre et al., 2001). For example, the famous footballer Messi and the legendary sportsman Michael Jordan possess more logical congruence with the promotion of sports stuff like sports shoes and less congruence with electronics or cosmetic stuff. Lady Gaga can be a best option to promote fashion related stuff as she has got a classy & a fashionable image in the minds of the general public.
As a matter of fact she cannot be the most appropriate option to endorse automobiles. World famous formula one racer, Michael Schumacher can be a right choice to endorse sports cars, instead of endorsing home furniture. Local example can be of the legendary Pakistani cricketer Shahid Khan Afridi who is endorsing a variety of brands from chewing gum brand to sports shoes. The consumers here can perceive more logical congruence between him and sports stuff and very less or even no congruence between him and other personal care stuff including shampoo, or mobile phones (Hassan et al., 2014). Fortini & Campbell (1992) found that humans normally consume those brands which have some association with famous or known personalities, e.g. colleagues, relatives, friends and family members or even the celebrities. On the other hand, Misra and Beatty (1990) revealed that product selection procedure of a consumer is impacted by the social members especially by the super stars that are credible and having more congruence with the endorsed brand.
48 Furthermore, they stated that the physical elegance of a celebrity can also provide a competitive edge to the advertiser in order to produce meaningful impacts on the consumer buying behavior. The most appropriate congruence between the celebrity and the advertised brand most effectively strengthens the purchase intention of the consumers. It also helps the brand advertisers to enhance the overall effectiveness of the promotional messages (Roy, 2006). Celebrities having more congruence with the advertised brand supported by their physical elegance are in a better position to create a most effective impact on the purchase intention of the customers (Ohanian, 1991).
Before making a mind to purchase the endorsed brand most of the times consumers want to see the logical congruence between the celebrities and the endorsed brands. They think it’s one of the important considerations in today’s modern world of fashion and technology (Kamins and Gupta, 1994). Celebrities if have a desirable congruence with the brand they can give an impactful meaning to the overall brand equity as well as can produce desirable impacts on the buying behavior of the consumers. Celebrities on the basis of their personal charisma can create a desire in the minds of the target audience to start using or keep using a particular brand. Male and female celebrities in Pakistan are widely used by the brand advertisers due to their high level of social acceptance in the local market.
All the dimensions of celebrity endorsement are most commonly used by the local brand advertisers’ i.e. emotional match up, physical elegance match up, Credibility etc. The same approach is also widely used by the Indian brand advertisers due to its overall effectiveness (Hassan et al., 2014).
In a research study by Jalees & Rehman, (2014) an attempt was made to study the purchasers’ perceptions of similarity, familiarity, and notion in the direction of idealized models (celebrities) shown in print and electronic media advertisements. Consequently, they came to know that these dimensions of celebrity endorsement positively impact the buying intentions of the consumers. The study revealed a positive relationship between the perceived similarity and consumer purchase intentions. Likeability of a celebrity also resulted in the creation of a positive buying behavior. Moreover no relationship was recorded by the researchers between the perception about idealized version and consumer buying intention (Jalees & Rehman, 2014).
According to Watkins, celebrities are a needless chance or option, except they may be very logically associated with brands (Watkins, 1989). Moreover the presented model suggested that most basically the effectiveness of an advertising message mainly relies on the consumer perceived 'match' or even a ‘perfect match’ between the celebrity brand endorser and his or her endorsed brands (Till & Busler, 1998). This model further
49 suggests that the celebrity personality and his or her image must have a real strategic fit with the endorsed brand personality. If this match or perfect match is there between both the celebrity and the brand it will simply bring more effectiveness to the overall promotional campaign and to the consumer buying behavior as well (Kamins, 1990). The strategic fit among the product and celebrity relies upon sharing of similar features between the endorsed brand features and the image of the endorsing celebrity (Misra & Beatty, 1990). For example a globally famous athlete appearing in the ad of a sport shoe or other sporting stuff can really bring more meaningfulness and charm to the advertising efforts of its brand manager.
So it means that the brand endorsements through highly appreciated celebrities having more logically perceived compatibility with the endorsed brand can better lead to effective promotional results as compared to the brand endorsement practices through common sources or less appreciated celebrities (Kamins and Gupta, 1994), & (Hassan et al., 2014). If there is the same perfect match between the endorsed product and the endorsing personality, it does not only bring advertising effectiveness but also increases the super star believability and elegance in the minds of the target customers (Kamins & Gupta, 1994). Moreover Ohanian (1991) concluded the same findings and suggested that it's very important to choose appropriate celebrities who can better resemble with the endorsed brand. Moreover these endorsers are highly expert and skillful in their respective areas of specializations. A study conducted by Bailey, 2007 stated that the brand managers who can effectively create a sense of relatedness between the endorsed product and endorsing celebrity image, (celebrity personality or his area of specialization) will bring most fruitful results not only to the advertised brands but also to the endorsing celebrity. Due to the development of digital technology, nowadays consumers are well aware and knowledgeable. Advertisers can’t just create their interest by using beautiful or mind appealing models. Consumers today also count on the existence of compatibility between the recommended brand and the endorsing super star. In other words, while making a purchase decision customers make a comparison between the perceived image of the endorsed brand and the personality of the endorsing celebrity (Ohanian 1991, Anjum et al., 2012 & Priyankara et al., 2017). Before buying a brand consumers most of the times tend to find the congruence among the recommended brand and the celebrity. At times when they fail to find the same required congruence between the endorsing source and the endorsed brand (based on their own perceptions) it ultimately conveys a negative meaning to them. This negatively impacts their buying mind sets.
That perceived negative meaning is that the celebrity has not a real life association with the endorsed brand. It also conveys a meaning that this is totally a fake advertising
50 association shown between the endorsing celebrity and his endorsed brands. As a result of this feeling they think that celebrity here is just a paid character nothing else having no logical connection with his endorsed brands (Erdogan, 1999). Moreover, as per the above mentioned arguments we can conclude the fact that the existence of appropriate congruence amongst the celebrity and endorsed brand is needed in order to have powerful and meaningful promotional outputs. On the other hand if the brand endorsing stars and the endorsed brand have no common attributes to share or possess it will directly create an unwanted and unfavorable impact called as Vampire effect. As a matter of fact the endorsing superstar in such a situation over shadows image of the endorsed brand. As a result of this overshadowing impact the target viewers only recognize and remember the brand endorsing celebrity not the endorsed brand (Evans, 1988). This model further indicates that beautifully appealing models especially female super stars are greater influential at the endorsement of beauty or fashion related brands. These brands include cosmetics, jewelry, garments, and foot wears etc.
As the young ladies are more style and fashion conscious and they also idealize the famous and most successful female celebrities. So it is a very good advertising idea to use them in the endorsement of the fashion related items and services (Kamins, 1990). As an example, famous Indian actress and former Miss World Aishwarya Rai Bachhan, former Miss Universe Sushmita Sen and the beautiful actress Kajol are the brand endorsers of L’Oreal cosmetic brands. On the other hand the legendary and globally famous Indian cricketer Sachin Tendulkar is successfully endorsing Adidas and MRF sports merchandise in India.
Moreover, many authors such as (Friedman and Friedman, 1978, and Atkins & Block, 1983) argued in their researches that the use of superstars is much influential in those product purchases where there is the involvement of excessive social and psychological practices. Another study performed by Packard (1957) revealed that endorsing brands through the celebrity endorsers is much important for the promotion of luxurious products like expensive diamond rings; fancy furniture and house hold items, expensive cars, and high class services like hoteling, travelling, etc. As celebrities are perceived to be the VIPs and they make use of luxurious items so it’s a good idea to promote such type of brands through these famous persons. As their personality already has a perceived match in the mind of the customers with the endorsed brand. Besides this, (Callcoat & Phillips, 1996) suggested totally different results. They advocated the use of celebrity endorsement to be more effective for the promotion of generally used and less expensive products and services normally referred to as fast moving consumer goods (FMCGs). These authors are of the view that celebrities can play a very vital role in the
51 effective promotional function of low priced items that can be termed as convenience products. These products normally have a low price, but a higher purchase frequency.
Unlike luxurious items, consumer level of involvement is also low in this type of product category. These products are most commonly used by the majority of the customers on very frequent basis. After conducting a critical review of the abovementioned studies, we can draw conclusion that there should be a logical, physical, social, technological, personal or even a professional association amongst the celebrity endorser’s personality and their endorsed brand. The same real or valid connection between the both will create a meaningful and a long lasting impact on consumer purchase intention. It will also help the brand managers to enhance the celebrity image as well as the brand image in the minds of the target audience. Consequently, this strategic fit will also bring more effectiveness to the advertising efforts and will have a positive influence on consumer purchase intention both in the short and long runs.
2.8.4 The Meaning Transfer Model: This model was proposed by McCracken in 1989. Certain objections were posed over the effectiveness of the previously discussed source models. According to the critics, the source model does not include achievement dimension of the celebrity endorsement technique. Moreover, DeSarbo and Harshman (1985) objected the source model by stating that the sub determinants of the celebrity credibility model, physical attraction or the model of product matchup do not provide a strong or a logical base for the suitable celebrity endorser selection. They have raised three objections over the suitability or validity of the source model. These objections are discussed below:
Objection 1: The presented models do not effectively provide logical measures to carefully manage the issues related to the multidimensionality of endorsing source and its impacts on consumer buying intention.
Objection 2: Second point of criticism is that proposed models do not clearly explain the interactions between a celebrity and his or her recommended product.
Objection 3: Third objection being raised is that proposed models provide a very poor quantified empirical basis for purposed dimensions of celebrity endorsement.
After the above mentioned criticism, McCracken 1989 proposed another model that is called as ‘meaning transfer model’. Moreover the central idea behind proposing this model is to ensure that celebrities possess particular sets of meanings which might be necessary to be associated and transferred to the products being advocated by them. This model further states that the overall significance and effectiveness of celebrity endorser mainly relies upon his/her ability to convey the logical impact or meaning to
52 the brand endorsement process (McCracken, 1989). As compared to the non-celebrity sources, celebrities can associate and transfer more effective and extraordinary meanings to the endorsed brands. Celebrities normally have differences in races, marital status, magnificence, gender, age, profession or area of specialization in addition to personality and lifestyle types. Hence, marketers should go for the selection of the most appropriate celebrity that can make a proper connection with the endorsed brand and can meaningfully transfer the desirable attributes to the target audience (McCracken 1989). For example Messi the world known foot baller is endorsing various sports stuff, Katrina Kaif Indian actress is endorsing so many glamorous brands these days as she is famous for her glamorous lifestyle.
Tiger Woods and Roger Federer are known for their luxurious way of life that’s why they are endorsing so many luxurious brands etc. Those endorsed brands include expensive watches etc. As a matter of fact celebrity’s fans idealize them. They want to look like them as celebrities are a source of motivation and inspiration at the same time to them. That’s why marketers should properly understand this phenomenon that which celebrities are more effectively followed or idealized by the general public. Based on the same thinking they should make a careful selection of the most appropriate celebrity endorser (Fowles, 1996). Meaning transfer process can be better initiated and transferred through celebrity endorsement (McCracken, 1989). Purchasing decisions of the consumers are influenced by their social factors like family, reference groups or by culture.
There is also the influence of sub culture on the buying behavior of the consumers. Now, the marketers should properly understand and take care of all the social, psychological and situational factors that can both positively or negatively influence the purchase behavior of the consumers (McCracken, 1989). This proposed model illustrates a three stage based technique. In first stage, the marketer has to identify the cultural meanings intended or proposed for the product and makes a decision what he/she basically wants the product to say or communicate. After that, the advertiser needs to analyze that how can one give voice to these meanings through the careful selection of the most appropriate celebrity. Advertisers must keep in mind that which meaning is associated with a brand endorsing celebrity’s social image. Moreover, in the 2nd level, marketer has to see which particular set of meaning is really getting transferred between the endorser and the endorsed product in the real and most logical manner (Tom, 1992). This manner is fully based on the expressive properties of the celebrity endorser. After the successful transfer of meaning to the product, now the next task is to transfer it most effectively to the target audience.
53 Finally the third level starts which is referred to as intake manner. Here the marketers need to examine that how the ultimate user receives, interprets or match that meaning with his self-image. Means how the celebrity image and the brand image get diffused into his mind and how he receives the meanings of both the brand and celebrity image in relation to his own image. The final level of the model deals with the overall significance of the customer in the endorsement procedure (McCracken, 1989). The model of Meaning transfer was first just perceived as a theoretical concept however its practicality to actual existence turned into reality when Lang Meyer and Walker (1991 (a) and 1991(b) proved it in their researches. In (1991, (a) they used a reaction elicitation model with a super star endorser endorsing the gymnasium or fitness centers while in (1991, (b) they used celebrity endorsers for the promotion of bathroom towels, electronics, and blue denims etc. The results discovered that when celebrities were mixed with products, those perceived variations affected consumer’s perceived meaning of the products as well. So, Lang Meyer and Walker's findings empirically supported the model proposed by McCracken (1989).
The study supported the model by elaborating that celebrities basically exemplify and convey diverse meanings and these meanings are then associated directly with the endorsed brands (Erdogan, 1999). As a matter of fact the super stars are very commonly known for their effective endorsement efforts. As they occupy a very distinctive and special place in the hearts of their followers (Assael, 1984, & Kumar, 2010). Therefore, celebrities are idealized and idolized by their followers (Katyal, 2007) and are most often treated as heroes and social opinion leader (Biswas et al., 2009).
That’s why marketers should very carefully use celebrities to effectively endorse their brands through them. Advertising and marketing conversation represented within the stated model play the role of a mediator. This is required to switch the endorsing celebrity-product message in order to persuade customers and to influence their buying behavior in the most desirable way. Though, the celebrity endorsement is not an entirely new marketing or promotional technique. It has become a common practice of the today’s modern world of marketing. It has got both its advantages and disadvantages. As discussed earlier various authors have attempted to discover the impact of celebrity endorsements on consumer buying behavior. Also efforts have been made to point out the negative impacts of celebrity endorsement practice.
Some are of a view that the effectiveness of endorsement through the superstars declines through over endorsement contracts. Consequently it produces a terrible relationship with purchase intention of the buyers (Tripp, 1994). Moreover, the Involvement of a celebrity in a scandal or in any illegal or unethical practice can also
54 create very harmful or detrimental impacts on buying behavior (White et al., 2009). Celebrity endorsement has giant influence on buying intention of target audience. Splendor of superstar, their congruency, and believability these types of elements have fine impacts on the purchase intent of the customers. When comparing the Indian and Pakistani celebrities we see that if one celebrity is considered to be physically appealing than the other is taken into consideration to be more believable and so forth. Sometimes celebrities share the same type of the attributes while sometimes they share totally different attributes.
Consequently marketers have to go for a right kind of combination that can produce a proper sense of relatedness and alignment between them and their endorsed brands. Growing emergence of Indian celebrities has not only been cashed by the Indian advertisers but also by the Pakistani brand managers. As an example Arjun Kapoor, Priyanka Chopra, Karina Kapoor and Imran Hashmi the Indian celebrities are endorsing a Pakistani cellular brand in Pakistan. At the same time Pakistani celebrities also are seen inside the ads of comparable brands. Indian Celebrities are equally respected in Pakistan and vice versa, that’s why marketers across the border make use of these famous personalities. A customer’s attitude and evaluation criterion constitutes purchaser buy purpose, and it is an important factor to understand purchaser behavior (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, Kumar, 2010, & Hassan et al., 2014). Purchase aim can measure the opportunity of a customer to shop for a product, or to hire a service.
Study shows that stronger the purchase purpose better is the customer’s willingness to buy it (Dodds, et al., 1991 & Schiff man & Kanuk, 2000). Moreover, the concept of purchase intention suggests that the consumers follow distinctive psychological factors or choices when they are about to make a purchase decision. The external environmental factors also play an important role over here to accumulate information, examine options, and finally make a buy decision (Zeithaml, 1988), (Dodds et al., 1991, Schiff man & Kanuk, 2000). Moreover, Chi et al., (2009) in their research study proposed that advertising and marketing endorser’s reputation, his or her expertise, and elegance can strengthen purchasers’ determination towards a product or service. It can fasten his response in a quick time and can lead towards creation of purchase intention. (Holbrook and Stephens, 1988 & Laroche, et al., 1996) also were of the same idea that marketing endorser’s fame and the face value can alternate customer preferences; attitude and can promote buying aim in the desirable direction. Advertising endorser can make use of electronic or print media advertising to implement a product’s exposure rate that influences the consumer’s mind-set and know-how to elevate the purchase intention (Miciak & Shanklin, 1994).
55 Studies strongly believe that the celebrity endorsers can carefully give a nice image to a recommended product and simply can desirably impact customer buying intention. Furthermore, purchaser perceptions about a brand and purchase aim might be higher when purchasers have a greater level of involvement in the brand and familiarity (Kamins & Marks, 1991, & Laroche, et al., 1996). Moreover, Wang (2006) conducted a study by taking the endorsed brand image as his independent variable, while the brand category as moderating variable and the buying behavior as dependent variable. Study concluded that better the brand image is, better will be the acquisition goal of the buyer. On the other hand Fournier (1998) suggested that if the endorsed brand provides such brand features that best fulfill the consumers need, the target audience will most likely produce strong mental relatedness and an unbreakable relationship with the brand. It will further strengthen the future buying behavior of the consumers.
Moreover, consumer purchase intention is based on purchaser perception, values acquisition, and it's far important key to understand consumer purchase intention. Monroe and Krishnan (1985) explored that perceived value and perceived image both affects purchase purpose. They also concluded that greater perceived cost and perceived satisfaction leads toward the stronger purchase intention. Zeithaml, (1988) also recommended that the better perceived value leads towards the better buying behavior. Due to the involvement of celebrities advertising has become more influencing and convincing. It has become an important consideration in modern-day aggressive advertising environment. It results in the creation of fame both for products as well as for the celebrities. A study was conducted to know the effectiveness of local and foreign celebrities on the purchase intention of the buyers. Study considered Pakistani and Indian celebrities with their personal, professional physical or social attributes that are used for his or her endorsement effects on buying intention. A sample of three hundred consumers was taken to analyze the influences of local or foreign celebrities on the purchase intention of Pakistani consumers. These celebrities are endorsing various competitive brands in the same or different product category.
Consequences confirmed that endorsement through local and Indian celebrities has similar and not much significant impact on buying behavior of Pakistani consumers. Study revealed that celebs whether local or foreign do not make a remarkable difference in influencing the buying behavior of the consumers. However, brand image and brand loyalty are the important elements that can remarkably influence the buying intention of the buyers. It also brings positive results on consumer perceptions about the brand (Hassan et al., 2016).
56 2.9 The Conceptual Framework: On the basis of above mentioned literature, author has proposed the following conceptual framework:
Figure 2.1: The Broader Framework Developed to Understand the Celebrity Endorsements: Buying Behavior: Cognitive Process - Celebrity Based Perceptions - Celebrity Endorsement based Perceptions - Impacts Consumer Behavior Towards Advertising and Endorsed Brands & finally Consumer Purchase Model of Source Intention Credibility - Celebrity Expertise - Trustworthiness
Model of Physical Endorsing Attractiveness Promotional - Similarity Endorsed Target Source i.e. Messages - Likeability Items Audience Celebrity - Familiarity
Model of Product Celebrity Match Up
Model of Meaning
Transfer
57 Figure 2.2 Concpetual Framework Developed to study the Celebrity Endorsements:
Model of Model of
Source Physical
Credibility Attractiveness Model of Product Match Model of Meaning Up Transfer
Celebrity Celebrity Familiarity H4 H5 Expertise Trustworthiness Similarity Likeability
H2a H2b H3a H3b H3c
Consumers Celebrity Consumer Buying Endorsement Perceptions and H1 Intention their Attitude
1. Independent Variable: Celebrity Endorsements 2. Determinants of Independent Variable: Source Credibility Model (Expertise and trustworthiness). Physical attractiveness Model (Similarity, Likeability, & familiarity). Product Match-Up and Meaning Transfer Model 3. Dependent variable: Purchase Intention
58 2.10 Discussion over the Variables Mentioned in the Conceptual Framework:
2.10.1 Independent Variable: The Celebrity Endorsements: Celebrity is a person who is well reputed and well known to the general public. These personalities are famous amongst the social members and are given more importance as compared to the rest (McCracken, 1989, & Khan et al., 2016). Friedman and Friedman, (1979) stated that celebrity endorser is an advertising character who's well known to the general public for his or her personal or professional success in the respective fields others than that of the endorsed brands. While the celebrity endorsement refers to the advertising technique where a brand is being endorsed by the famous personalities know as celebrities. These famous personalities have a deeper influence over the social lives and minds of the general public due to their higher level of social recognition and personal accomplishments (Friedman & Friedman, 1979, Chi et al., 2009, & Dzisah et. al 2013).
Local and the global marketers are now most widely and commonly using the celebrity endorsement as a promotional technique due to its overall significance (Poghosyan, 2015). Nowadays celebrities from showbiz or sporting world can be easily seen in commercials as they have an influential stance towards creation of a positive word of mouth amongst the social members (Hassan et.al 2014). Celebrity endorsement can be similarly understand and explored with the help of several determinants. These determinants describes the overall effectiveness of a celebrity as a brand endorser and describe that how effective he or she can be in order to impact the purchase intention of the customers. The author has taken the determinants of the celebrity endorsement that has been prescribed by (Amos et al., 2008, and Kumar, 2010).
Furthermore, the source credibility model and the source physical attractiveness model shall be used as a basic factor for choosing the determinants of celebrity endorsement process (Erdogan, 1999). Consequently, the selected determinants in the light of above mentioned literature are: Celebrity credibility, having the sub determinants named as expertise, and trustworthiness of a celebrity. Physical attractiveness having the sub determinants titled as similarity, familiarity and likability. Last but not the least, the celebrity-product match up or congruence model and the meaning transfer model has been used.
H1: Celebrity endorsement has a positive relationship with the consumer purchase intention.
59 2.11 Determinants of Independent Variable: 1. Source Credibility Model: It simply refers to the volume to which the receiver of the advertising message perceives the endorsing source as having applicable understanding, knowledge and abilities in relation to their purchase intention. Consumers have a high level of liking and appreciation for these famous personalities. Consumers normally have a high level of trust in these famous personalities. The target audience believes that these endorsers give unbiased and reliable information regarding brands as compared to other non-famous personalities (Belch & Belch, 1994, & Krishnan, 2011).
2.11.1Sub Determinants of Source Credibility Model: A. Expertise: It is the first most critical component of credibility model (Hovland et al., 1953 & Goldsmith et al., 2000). In addition to this the perceived credibility of a super star is defined as the overall effectiveness of an endorsing source that creates and increases the acceptation and understanding of the promotional messages (Erdogan, 1999 & Kumar, 2010). Previous literature shows that the perceived credibility of the endorsing celebrity is amongst one of the most important attributes of the celebrity endorsement technique in advertising (Bailey, 2007, & Anjum et al., 2012). Credibility or trustworthiness of the endorser is very crucial for the creation of a positive word of mouth especially when target audience have a bad mind-set towards a brand. These famous figures can really do effective argumentation to build or regain the lost brand image. More credible endorsers can better create and maintain a brand image (Belch & Belch, 2001, & Bafna et al., 2016). Expertise possessed by a celebrity is being defined as the volume or the limit up to where the celebrity endorser is perceived to be a valid source of reliable information and recommendations (Erdogan, 1999, & Kumar, 2010). The perceived level of expertise depends upon the technical know-how, or skills of the endorsers (Ohanian, 1990, & McCormick 2016).
It has been recorded that more expert celebrity endorser can better portray a brand image as compared to less expert endorsers and positively impact the purchase intent of the target audience (Woodside & Davenport, 1974, Ohanian, 1991, Aaker, 1997 & Kumar, 2010). The brand endorsing celebrities possessing high level of expertise in a particular field e.g. fashion industry or sports etc. can create better brand persona as compared to non-professional endorsers (Speck et al., 1988, & Katyal, 2007). The level of expertise that a celebrity possesses will decide its promotional effectiveness. Consequently, the greater volume of perceived expertise the endorsing celebrities have, greater will be its impact on the consumer purchase intent. The perceived level of celebrity trustworthiness keeps a positive influence on the consumer buying intention. The information of a celebrity will not be modified with the aid of negative publicity or negative social thoughts but it will adversely impact the celebrity believability or
60 celebrity credibility in the minds of the target audience (Amos, Holmes & Strutton, 2008, & Kumar, 2010).
H2a: Expertise of the celebrity positively influences the consumer purchase intention
B. Trustworthiness: Trustworthiness of the endorsing celebrity normally refers to the perceived level of the endorsing source’s integrity, honesty and his or her believability in the minds of the followers. For effective brand endorsement a celebrity should be a trustworthy person (Erdogan et al., 2001) & (Hassan et al., 2014). For the meaningful endorsement of brands, marketing managers are continuously attempting to engage well reputed celebrities, who are extensively visible on media and are considered as trustful, reliable, honest, and believable (Shimp, 1997, & Amit Kumar, 2010).
Trustworthiness is the maximum important issue with regard to the source credibility. According to Friedman, (1978), likeability of an endorser is the most essential attribute of trust. An advertiser can create a best combination between the likeability and trustworthiness of a celebrity because of the fact that when consumers like someone they ultimately develop a level of trust in them (Friedman, Santeramo & Traina, 1979, & Priyankara et al., 2017). Summing up, the trustworthiness of an endorser is of major significance and it has got powerful impacts on the purchase intention of the customers. The trustworthy endorsers can better endorse a brand as compared to the less credible endorsers. A better brand image can be developed if consumers perceive the celebrity to be more trust worthy and expert (Kumar, 2010).
The negative publicity about a celebrity somehow, cannot just impact the celebrity’s credibility but can also lower down the perceived brand image in the minds of the customers. It can also adversely impact the profit margins (Shimp, 1995 & Katyal, 2007).
H2b: Trustworthiness of the super stars has a relationship with the purchase intention of the customers
2. Model of Physical Elegance: Physical beauty is a source of attraction and motivation. Here one must understand that the physical elegance does not only include the physical beauty of an endorser but it also includes his high level of skills, his or her strong character in the minds of the customers as well as the talents and achievements of the endorsers (Erdogan, 1999). Celebrities are having more physical attraction and splendor because of their high performances in their respective fields. They have got a high level of social recognition on the basis of their achievements and physical charm (Cohen & Golden, 1972 & Rengarajan et al., 2014). Celebrities having physical elegance and a proper match up with the endorsed brand can better advocate a brand as compared to the endorsers who are not having physical charm and are also not having a required
61 level of congruence with the endorsed brand. For example, Roger Federer has a high volume of physical charm being an outstanding athletic performer.
Moreover, Mr. Federer has a high volume of congruence as well for the endorsement of sports stuff on the basis of same high athletic performance (Anjum et al., 2012). Even the less attractive but more congruent endorsers can also do better brand endorsement though they are not too much attractive but they have a high extent of congruence with an endorsed brand. E.g. the famous Pakistani food and household items expert Zubaida Apa is an old lady (not having physical elegance), but consumers perceive a very high level of congruence with her for the endorsement of food stuff and other household items. When a required level of congruence does exist between the celebrity and the endorsed brand, physical attraction becomes less essential and therefore the brand advertiser may pick out a much less attractive but more congruent superstar (Jagre, 2001, & Roy, 2006).
2.12 Sub Determinants of Physical Attractiveness Model: A. Similarity: It refers to the perceived level of commonalities between the celebrity endorser and the target audience exposed to the promotional communications (McGuire, 1985 & McCormick, 2016). It’s a common fact that normally people have an attractive tendency towards others who are “like them” and a repulsive one towards dissimilar people. Hence, if a customer finds the endorsing personality to be similar to him or herself, there is a greater chance of successful brand endorsement. This similar association can be on the basis of belonging to the same gender, age, profession, nationality, society or even religion etc. Perceived similarity between the celebrity endorser and the brand can bring extra impactful cohesiveness in the promotional efforts (Erdogan, 1999, & Mazlan et al., 2016).
On the basis of the same fact, marketers select celebrities who are having more logical similarities with the target audience so that to bring a strategic fit or harmony in the advertising message (Shimp, 1995, & Bergkvist, 2015). The perceived similarity between the endorser and the target audience results in the creation of a social bond. It does not only increase the attachment of social members with the celebrity but also with the brand endorsed by him or her. Celebrities are well known personalities so consumers can better identify them in a commercial as compared to unknown or common people. The perceived level of similarity between endorser and the target audience also result in better brand recall (Dzisah 2013, & Kang et al., 2016).
H3a: Similarity among the celebrity endorser and customers positively impacts the purchase intention of the buyers.
62 B. Likeability: likeability refers to the perceived level of affection that the target audience holds for a particular celebrity. This likeability for the endorser is being developed as a result of his or her physical elegance and behavior. When the target audience develop liking for a particular celebrity, it automatically creates affection with the brands endorsed by him or her. Consequently, marketers engage these famous personalities to promote their brands in order to cash out their public fame (McGuire, 1985, Belch & Belch, 2001 & Kumar, 2010).
For example, in Pakistan the leading celebrities from showbiz and sporting world are widely liked by the general public. They have a large number of locally and globally endorsed brands on their credit. These celebrities include Shahid Khan Afridi, Wasim Akram, Atif Aslam, Fawad Khan, Mehwish Hayat, Ayesha Khan and Mahira Khan etc. Marketers are keeping a vigilant eye over the popularity graph of these celebrities and are constantly engaging them in their promotional campaigns as their brand endorsers. Millions of dollars are annually paid to them as a remuneration of the brand endorsement efforts (Hassan et al., 2016).
H3b: Celebrity likeability positively affects the consumer’s purchase intention
C. Familiarity: It refers to the intended information amongst the general public that the endorsing celebrities possess through social publicity (Erdogan, 1999, & Kumar, 2010). The marketers must know the level to which the general public or the target audiences possess familiarity with the endorsing celebrity. As a matter of fact greater the level of familiarity of a celebrity, greater will be the influence on the purchase intention of the customers. Some celebrities are more liked as compared to the rest, depending upon the similarity and familiarity with the target audience. These celebrities are well exposed to the general public as compared to the rest. This better exposure to the target audience has remarkable impact on the buying behavior of the target audiences (Zajonc, 1968, & Poghosyan, 2015).
The effects of familiarity on mind-set of the consumers will increase if the endorsing celebrities appear most frequently in advertising messages. Moreover, it can decrease if the endorsing celebrities do not most frequently appear in advertising messages. In other words if the advertising messages are most frequently broadcasted it can positively increase the familiarity of the endorsing celebrity. Moreover, it can negatively decrease if the celebrity featured commercials are not most frequently broadcasted on the advertising media (Bornstein, 1989).
H3c: Celebrity familiarity positively influences the acquisition goal of the purchaser
63 3. The Model of Product Celebrity Matchup: A required level of alignment or perfect match between the endorsing celebrity and the endorsed brand is much required for bringing extra effectiveness in the advertising message (Cooper 1984, Khan et al., 2016, & Bafna et al., 2016). This required level of congruence between the celebrity and the endorsed brand results in better brand recall as well as creates a positive impact on the purchase intent of the customers (Kumar, 2010 & Bergkvist et al., 2015). Consequently, congruence between both the entities increase the celebrity and brand believability in the mind of the customers as compared to the situation where the required level of congruence is missing between the super star and the recommended brand (Han et al., 2015).
H4: The appropriate congruence between celebrity and the endorsed brand positively influences the consumer purchase intention.
4. Meaning Transfer Model: This model of celebrity endorsements has been presented by McCracken in 1989. According to him the endorsing source must possess some unique personal or professional features or meaning set that can help the brand advertisers to promote their brands through them in a most desirable manner. Different celebrities have different sets of unique meaning and features that can help the brand advertisers to associate and transfer the same to the endorsed brands and finally to the brand users. This can positively impact the consumer perceptions about the endorsed brand and the endorsing source. Therefore, it can also produce the most desirable impacts on the consumer purchase intention as well (McCracken, 1989, Erdogan, 1999, & Priyankara et al., 2017).
H5: Celebrities providing or transferring meaning to the brands positively influences the purchase intention of the customers
2.13 Dependent Variable: A. Consumer Purchase Intentions:
On the basis of the above mentioned literature, the author intended to take consumer purchase intention as dependent variable for the current study. Consumer purchase intention refers to a cognitive procedure that a consumer has to pass through while purchasing a product or hiring a service for present or for a future time period (McGuire, 1985). Several factors are responsible behind the shaping and reshaping of consumer purchase intention. It primarily includes the social factors, the psychological factors as well as the situational factors. The social factors include the religion, culture, family, social classes and reference groups etc. Reference group is of two types, the primary
64 reference group includes the blood relationships while the secondary reference group includes the social relationships other than blood ones.
Celebrities come under the secondary reference group. The second influencing factor is termed as psychological factors, which include the motivation, perception, personality type of the consumer, attitudes of the consumers, and consumer level of learning, etc. Last but not the least, the situational factors refers to the situation in which a consumer finds himself. It includes the moods and motives of the consumers, terms and conditions of purchase, the surroundings as well as the time of purchase. These factors shape and reshape the consumer buying behavior (McGuire, 1985). The role of celebrities in advertising is of a very great importance in influencing the consumer purchase intentions (Krishnan 2011, Han et. al 2015, & McCormick, 2016). The desirable attributes of the superstar’s personality creates a positive mindset of consumers to start using or keep using a particular brand (Amos, Holmes and Strutton, 2008).
The positive perceptions of the target audience about the celebrity lead toward the creation of a positive mindset and it ultimately impacts their purchase intention (Khan et al., 2016). Involvement of a celebrity in advertising messages not only helps in garbing the instant attention of the target audiences but it also helps the advertisers to strengthen their brand equity (Goldsmith et al., 2000, & Pringle and Benet, 2005).
Celebrities have a positive impact on the mindset of the consumers on the basis of their popularity and achievements. Therefore for the most desirable results marketers should make a careful use of these famous personalities while endorsing their brands through them (Singer, 1983, & Mazlan et al., 2016).
65 Chapter 3rd
Research Methodology The chapter describes the efforts that have been made to justify the proposed methodology for this study. It firstly describes the population of the study, procedures for data collection, research approach, and the type and nature of the research study. The chapter also throws light over the research design and the research strategy. It also provides information about the data collection sources and the selected sample size & Sampling technique. At the end it describes the statistical tools and techniques that were used for the analysis of the data.
3.1 Population of the study: For every research study, the determination of a right set of respondents is very much crucial in order to draw scientifically valid results (Sekaran, 2000). Population taken by the author for this research contains consumers residing in the provincial capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and its surrounding sub urban areas including Abbottabad, Dera Ismail Khan, Kohat, Mardan, Nowshehra, and district Swabi etc. The idea behind selecting the urban and surrounding sub urban areas of the province was because of the comparatively higher literacy rate of its respondents as compared to the literacy rate of the rural consumers. The consumers living in these areas are also better exposed to various informational or advertising media like print and electronic media, so they have a greater knowledge about various celebrities and their respective areas of operations. Consumers living in these areas, in comparison to the rural consumers have a better access and understanding of social media as well which is also becoming an important and emerging source of advertising these days. Amongst the selected members of population, the respondents were of 16 to 45 years of age.
It’s a general observation that consumers in this age group are more active buyers as compared to under 16 and above 45 years buyers (McGuire, 1985). The level of brand consciousness and celebrities’ awareness is also higher in this age bracket. Consumers in this age group are more inclined towards more usage of personally or domestically used items. It may include consumer goods like personal care products, (cosmetics, electronics etc.) as well as domestically used items like food stuff; kitchen accessories, furniture and other home used stuff. Furthermore, study will incorporate students, business people, housewives and professionals as population. Consumers belonging to both the genders are considered as population for the current study.
3.2 Procedure for Collecting Data: Researcher made personal visits to the various educational institutions the business and non-business based organizations located in the Provincial Capital Peshawar as well as to above mentioned sub urban areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. A formal permission was
66 attained from the concerned authorities to coordinate with the respondents studying or working in the respective organizations. However, author was not in a position to make a direct contact with the housewives, due to the cultural constraints prevailing in this part of the world. Therefore, an indirect contact was made with them through their male family members and data was gathered from them in this planned manner. Questionnaires were personally floated and administered. The problems that were faced by the respondents while filling the questionnaires were personally resolved and facilitated by the author in order to get the meaningful inputs from the respondents. Some of the questionnaires were floated through Google forms while some were personally handed over to the respondents. Data collection from the above mentioned respondents took 4 months as the population of the study was widely located and not easily accessible. As this is a self-funded research project, so all the transportation and other general expenses were beard by the researcher himself.
3.3 Research Approach: This research study is based on a deductive approach. According to Lee and Lings, 2008 deductive approach enables the researcher to draw valid conclusions on the basis of statistical analysis. It also helps in enhancing the capacity of the researcher to generalize the facts and figures and to answer the research questions in a more unbiased manner. Therefore, with the application of deductive approach, the author was able to conduct a scientific investigation regarding the relationship between the celebrity endorsement technique and consumer purchase intention with respect to consumers residing in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
3.4 Type and Nature of Research: Qualitative research basically is referred to as exploratory study. It has a wider application in the field of research where the researchers want to know the opinions, and the reasons for adopting a particular behavior (Wyse, 2011). A qualitative type of study basically emphasizes on subjective interpretation of a given situation (Sekaran, 2000, & Bryman, 2001). The qualitative nature of research studies also help in enabling the researcher to get a deep insight into a particular research problem by getting the required data in a scientific manner (Sekaran, 2000, & Smith et al., 2009). Structured and semi structured techniques are most often used by the researchers who are interested in collecting the qualitative type of data. The techniques that are most commonly used by the researchers under this type of research are the focus group discussions, the group or individual based interview etc.
Miles & Huber man, 1994 supported the same fact by mentioning that the qualitative studies help in providing a deeper know-how, information and insight into a particular
67 phenomenon. Moreover, the qualitative type of research studies is more appropriate for a relatively smaller sample size (Wyse, 2011). On the other hand, the quantitative type of research studies includes the quantification of the problem by collecting the data in numerical form and is further analyzed through various statistical tools and techniques (Wyse, 2011). Under this method, the identified or the selected variables are quantified which helps to understand the differences or similarities between the opinions and behaviors of the selected samples. This type of research study also helps in generalizing scientifically valid results when the selected sample size is relatively large (Gordon and Lang maid, 1988). In comparison to the qualitative type of research, the quantitative researches are better structured. Techniques used under this method are the surveys that can either be an online one or a paper survey. Longitudinal studies, online interviews, or face to face interviews techniques are also used under this type of research study (Wyse, 2011). In the light of the above mentioned arguments, the nature of the current study demands the author to adapt a quantitative type of research study. It will help the author to better answer the drawn research questions.
3.5 Research Design: Research design requires the researcher to select and integrate the various components of the research in an organized and meaningful manner. It helps the researcher to ensure that the research problem is going to be addressed correctly. This basically serves as a blueprint that describes the procedure for data collection, data measurement and data analysis (De Vaus, 2001). The main purpose of clarifying the research design is to ensure that the research problem has been effectively and logically addressed without any ambiguity (Robson, 2002, & Saunders et. al 2009). There may be considerable variations in describing the lengths and the complexities of a research design that is why a good research design must have some desirable attributes. These attributes are discussed below: These attributes must include:
1. Clear identification and justification of a research problem.
2. Appropriate and substantial review of the past or presently available literature.
3. A clear specification of the hypotheses or research questions.
4. For the effective testing of the proposed hypotheses, what type of the research data is required to be obtained?
5. Finally, it must describe the relevant statistical methods and techniques for the scientifically valid interpretation and analysis of the data (De Vaus, 2001, Ghauri et al., 2002, & Saunders et al., 2009).
68 In the light of the above mentioned studies, the author has tried to justify the research design on the basis of the research questions that are consistent with the overall research philosophy.
3.6 Research Strategy: Survey approach is a popular and most commonly used research strategy in marketing based studies. Survey approach can either be performed online or on paper. On the basis of survey approach researchers are able to do strategic formulations in order to better develop various business models. Marketing researchers are also capable of developing better understanding of consumer behavior with the application of survey approach. Marketing researchers can make better use of survey approach to understand and analyze the behavior of the masses and simply can put their marketing activities on the right track (Wyse, 2012). It is usually related to the deductive approach and helps in understanding or answering who, what, where, why, when etc. This approach enables a researcher to collect data from the larger sample sizes in less time as well as in fewer budgets (Saunders et al., 2009). The reason behind the overall significance of the survey approach is:
1. Respondents provide more dependable and accurate information as they are not clearly visible to the general public and are already assured that their opinions will have a complete confidentiality.
2. Survey method provides a high degree of flexibility. Surveys can be performed online, e.g., sending emails to the respondents, or through telephone, (landline or mobile phones), or by making use of Facebook or Twitter. The flexibility aspect of the survey approach is also extended towards making a mixed use of all these available survey methods, e.g. a researcher can make an online contact with the respondents from the remote areas and can make a direct or face to face contact with the local respondents.
3. Survey approach is very much extensive in its nature as it enables the researcher to gather the information from a large set of the respondents in less time. This advantage of a survey approach can be hardly seen or availed in other forms of research tools.
4. Relatively lesser costs are being incurred by the researchers adapting the survey approach.
5. Most significantly, the information gathered from the respondents through a questionnaire can be easily standardized and generalized (Wyse, 2012).
Moreover, this research approach is usually perceived as authoritative among the respondents and is relatively smooth to provide a better explanation of their behaviors
69 (Saunders et al., 2009, & Wyse, 2012). Consequently, for the meaningful interpretation and analysis of the identified research problem, the author intends to gather the data from the identified population through an established questionnaire within the form of a survey. The questionnaire selected for this study has been designed by Kumar, 2010. In order to further validate the same, the pilot testing was then performed for the current study.
3.7 Data Collection Sources: A. Primary Data Source:
Structured questionnaire method has been followed by the researcher as a primary data tool. A questionnaire basically includes predetermined and sequentially asked questions in order to gather information from the identified groups of respondents (Sekaran, 2000). It is very important for a researcher to design questions in a logical order in a questionnaire. One question should not get repeated as it creates confusion in the mind of the respondents and decreases the overall effectiveness of a questionnaire. Questionnaire must have a logical order or compatibility with the overall research objective. Researcher should avoid asking unnecessary and irrelevant questions. A researcher should also avoid biasness while designing the wording of a question to avoid any sort of undesirable situation. Moreover, questionnaire helps researcher to gather large set of information from larger population in comparatively lesser time (Sekaran, 2000). In the light of the above mentioned discussion the author intends to use questionnaires as a primary data tool.
B. Questionnaire Design:
As mentioned earlier, the author has taken a questionnaire developed by Amit Kumar in 2010. Formal permission was attained through electronic mail. Certain appropriate changes were made in the adapted questionnaire by the author of the current study. The selected questionnaire has been divided in to four parts. First part contains the demographic data of the respondents i.e. age, gender, location and the profession of the respondents. Part two of the questionnaire investigates the perceptions and ideas of consumers about celebrity endorsement practices used by the brand advertisers. Third part of the questionnaire deals with the study and evaluation of superstar characteristics and its relationship with the purchase intention of the buyers. Last but not the least the final part of the questionnaire deal with the general effects of celebrity endorsements on consumer buying intention. Coherence is a most desirable feature of a questionnaire that should be present amongst the asked questions in a questionnaire. This removes the difficulties and confusions that can arise in the minds of the
70 respondents while filling a questionnaire and can help the researcher to grab meaningful information from the minds of respondents (Sekaran, 2000).
Keeping this in mind the adapted questionnaire has been re-designed and scientifically tested. Moreover, in order to make the used terminologies more understandable for the respondents, brief but comprehensive definitions or explanations have been given in the questionnaire. Five degrees Likert scale has been used by the author in the questionnaire. Likert scale was developed by Dr. Rensis Likert in 1965. This scale is basically a type of psychometrically response based scale that is most often used by the researchers in questionnaires. The basic aim of Likert scale is to study the respondent’s preferences about a given situation or statement or to know the level of agreement or disagreement with a given situation (Victor L. 2007).
Likert scale based questions are highly effective. They help the researchers to understand the preferences and degrees of agreement or disagreement of respondents with a given situation (Robson, 1993). Likert scale is easily and most simply constructed scale. It is considered to be one of the most reliable scales widely used by the researchers. Respondents can easily and simply record their responses against the asked questions in less time (Victor L. 2007).
C. Pilot Testing:
It refers to the procedure of pretesting questionnaires while taking a small group of research respondents so that to avoid any possible ambiguity and issues in the wordings and overall flow of questionnaires. Furthermore, it also helps in calculating the reliability, the validity and sensitivity related issues of the constructed questionnaire (Wyse, 2012).
For the same reason a sample of 71 respondents was taken by the researcher in order to conduct the pilot study for the current research. These 71 respondents were randomly chosen. The SPSS software was used to know the reliability, and the validity of the questionnaire. Results are mentioned below:
D. Results of Pilot Testing:
A pilot study was conducted by the researcher in order to establish the reliability of the questionnaire. All the selected variables and their Cronbach’s alpha values have been reported collectively in a single table given below:
71 Table 3.1 Results of Pilot Test
Variables No of items Cronbach’s alpha
Independent Celebrity Endorsements 8 0.864 Variable Determinants of Independent Expertise 3 0.64 Variable Trustworthiness 3 0.791 Similarity 3 0.721 Likeability 3 0.812 Familiarity 3 0.821 Product celebrity match 3 0.732 up Meaning Transfer 3 0.781 Dependent Purchase Intention 3 0.801 Variable Source: Current Study
Cronbach’s Alpha provides a measure to determine the reliability or consistency that may exist between the test items. It helps researchers to determine the consistency that is supposed to be present in the test items. In other words, it helps in measuring the strength of consistency that may exist between the test items. According to Chelsea Goforth, (2015) Alpha coefficient lesser than .05 are normally unacceptable. As it can be seen in the table 3.1 the derived values of Cronbach’s Alpha against every variable fulfills the minimum requirement and allows researcher to use the adapted scale.
E. Secondary Data Sources: Secondary data usually refers to the already existing data in the form of previously done researches and in book form (Sekaran, 2000). Secondary data basically refers to the information that is already available and gathered by the previous researchers in the present or in the past time period (Bryman, 2004). Quantitative researchers require secondary data so that to thoroughly and scientifically understand the area under study. It has got application in qualitative studies as well. Secondary data basically broadens the spectrum of thinking and understanding of a researcher (Sekaran, 2000), & (Bryman, 2004). Secondary data is more flexible and is most likely seen as very much cost effective and an easy way to develop understanding regarding a particular area of interest. Besides the positive aspects, secondary data has got certain limitations as well.
Sometimes the secondary information is not available in a substantial volume which does not provide a solid base towards understanding an identified research area or
72 problem understudy. This motivates researcher to go for the application of some primary research tools then (Bryman, 2004). Secondary data is also of a very great importance in order to develop thorough and deep understanding about a subject matter. It helps the researchers to develop the theoretical understanding and know how regarding a topic under study (Sekaran, 2000). With the help of secondary data researcher gets the direction to develop research problem, objectives, research questions as well as hypotheses (Saunders et al., 2009). Secondary data either exist in the form of published research papers, newspapers, and different types of reports as well as in the form of library books. Digitally available books are also one of the secondary data sources. For the current study, the author thoroughly reviewed different research papers written by the various researchers in different times and in different places. The reviewed research papers cover a time period of 66 years i.e. from 1951 to 2017. All the past and presently made developments in the area of celebrity endorsements have been carefully observed and reviewed by the author.
These researches were done in the different parts of the world including United States of America, France, England, New Zealand, China, Germany, India, Sri Lanka, Iran, Malaysia, Africa, and Philippine etc. Studies performed by the Pakistani researchers were also reviewed by the author as they were of a great help to develop the unbiased thinking about the topic under study. Secondary data must be reviewed with an objective to develop unbiased thinking regarding the topic under study (Sekaran, 2000).
Moreover, for the current study the author also reviewed the relevant newspaper and magazines materials as well (Aurora, Herald, Dawn, Popoptiq, Times of India, and Indian Express etc). These newspapers and magazines were published in Europe, India as well as in Pakistan. The referencing section at the end of the report can be seen for further details. References have been quoted according to the prescribed format of American Psychological Association (APA Format).
3.8 Sample Size and Sampling Technique: Sample is basically a particular subset of a given population. It is used for the representation of the population as a whole. It is very difficult and sometimes impossible for a researcher to interact with every individual from a larger set of populations. That’s why researchers have to select a substantial number of respondents to draw the required and scientifically valid results (Sekaran, 2000). Carefully selected Sample has got a very meaningful impact on the overall findings of a research study.
Selecting an inappropriate sample size from an identified area of interest can lower down the overall scientific effectiveness of a research study. That’s why a researcher should take a very good care of selecting an appropriate sample size (Sekaran, 2000). So
73 keeping the same idea in mind, the author took a sample size comprising of 800 male and female respondents. Out of this, 790 respondents responded positively. This sample size has been scientifically selected under the sample size determination technique prescribed by the (Ronald E. Walpole, 1982) as per the following calculations:
N = Population Size e = Level of Precision
According to the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics following are the urban and sub urban population figures of the selected urban and sub urban areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
1. Urban Population of Provincial Capital of KP= 2019118 2. Sub Urban Population of the Selected Districts= 5799280
The Sample size for the urban population is calculated as follows:
The Sample size for the sub urban population is calculated as follows:
The respondents of the current study belong to the provincial capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar as well as to the sub urban parts of the province. Those sub urban areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa includes Abbott Abad, Dera Ismail Khan, Kohat, Mardan, Nowshehra and Swabi etc.
Sampling technique for this study is Simple Random Sampling which is considered to be one of the most basic types of sampling techniques. Underneath Simple Random Sampling every respondent from the selected population keeps an equal chance for getting selected as they are randomly picked amongst the large set of identified population. It enables the researcher to gather information from the identified groups of respondents in less time with a certain level of ease and also in a swift manner (Sekaran, 2000).
74 3.9 Statistical Techniques Used for the Analysis and Interpretation of the Data: Researchers have to make an appropriate use of Descriptive as well as Inferential Statistics for the scientific analysis of the data. With the application of descriptive analysis a researcher is able to make a summary of the data, or to study the current patterns or behavioral trends with the help of pie charts, graphs or by calculating the mean etc. Inferential Statistics enable a researcher to conclude inferences about an identified set of population by drawing an appropriate number of samples out of that. With the application of Inferential Statistics the researcher is able to draw the valid results on the basis of various Statistical tests and techniques (Graham Hole, 2000).
Correlation refers to that type of Inferential Statistical technique which enables the researchers to investigate any possible association between two continuous or quantitative variables. Pearson Correlation Coefficient is denoted by r. It is used by the researchers to measure the possible strength or power of relationship between two variables (Sekaran, 2000). Moreover analysis of variance is widely used by the researchers to make the comparisons between the means of various sets of observations. In order to test the null hypothesis an f test is being used. It is also called as one sided analysis of variance. T test is considered when we have to make a comparison of two sets of observation. In a situation where we have more than two sets of observations we have to use f test.
That is in fact a further extension of t test. There is another extension of one way ANOVA called as MANOVA. MANOVA is used in a research situation where we have more than one dependent variable (Wyse, 2011). On the other hand regression Analysis is also widely used by the researchers these days. Simple Linear Regression Analysis helps the researcher to see or study the impact of a single independent variable on the given or selected dependent variable. On the other hand, researchers also make use of Multiple Regression Analysis to study or evaluate the value of dependent variable while taking two or more than two independent variables. Hence, the distinction between Simple and Multiple Regression Analysis is all based on the number of independent or explanatory variables taken (Graham Hole, 2000). In the light of the same the nature of the current research study demands the author to use frequency descriptive analysis, Pearson Correlation Analysis, and Regression Analysis for the scientific analysis and meaningful interpretation of the data.
3.10 Issues Related to the Data Quality: A number of issues exist related to the quality of data. Saunders et al., 2009 revealed that researchers must take care of the various issues related to the quality of the
75 research data. They further argued that researchers can examine these various issues related to the data quality by knowing their reliability, validity as well as the generalizability. They must be properly checked in the overall research design in order to avoid any type of quality related issues to the data. The extent to which the data collection techniques may produce consistent research findings is referred to as “reliability” (Saunders et al., 2009). As the current study was based on the consumers belonging to the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa that’s why the author made sure to collect the data from actual residents of Peshawar and residents from its surrounding sub urban areas. These consumers are well exposed to the media and they have greater know how regarding celebrities from the various fields of interest. This greatly helped the researcher to draw the unbiased results.
Moreover, in order to be more unbiased and calculated a pilot study was conducted by the author to know the reliability of the adapted questionnaire. On the other hand validity refers to the extent where the research findings show how much accuracy they have with the real life situation. It deals with measuring accuracy in the data collection and analysis techniques to avoid any type of biasness (Saunders et al., 2009). Before conducting the final study, the author conducted pilot testing in order to retain the empirical validity of the research findings.
Generalizability is the third thing to be considered. It refers to the external validity of the research findings. In other words it shows us the extent to which we can generalize the research findings (Saunders et al., 2009). There is an association between the selected sample and the research findings. As a matter of fact it is somehow impossible to contact every member form a specified population sometimes. Still, researchers should take a handsome number of respondents as a sample population based on some appropriate formula. In other words we can say that greater the size of a sample population, greater will be the extent of generalizability. The author has tried to ask the relevant and most appropriate questions from the respondents in order to better answer the research questions and to increase the generalizability of the current research findings.
76 Chapter 4th Results and Discussions Results of the current study are being presented and discussed in this chapter. These results have been empirically obtained and analyzed by various data analyzing methods or techniques. The descriptive and inferential statistics have been used by the author to analyze the gathered data. The chapter at the end offers extensive and detailed discussions over the obtained results.
4.1 Descriptive Statistics
4.1.1 Demographic Profile of the Respondents:
Table 4.1 Age Details of the Respondent
Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
16 to 18 years 53 6.7 6.7 6.7
18-30 480 60.8 60.8 67.5
30 and above 257 32.5 32.5 100.0
Total 790 100.0 100.0
Interpretation: The above mentioned table shows that amongst the selected group of respondents the 7% of them belonged to the 16 years of age group. 61% was comprised of 18 to 30 years of age group while 33% belonged to 30 and above 30 years of age. The table also indicates that the majority of the respondents were belonging to the age group of 18 to 30 years followed by the age group of 30 and above. While teenagers were only 7% of the whole sample population.
77
Table 4.2 Gender Details of the Respondents
Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Male 506 64.1 64.1 64.1
Female 284 35.9 35.9 100.0
Total 790 100.0 100.0
Interpretation: The above mentioned table reveals that 65% of the respondents were males while 35% respondents reported their gender as female. As a matter of fact the participation of females in the various fields of life in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is still very low as compared to the Punjab and Sindh province of Pakistan. The same fact is very much apparent and evident over here that the female respondents were only comprised of 35% of the whole sample population.
Table 4.3 Profession of the Respondents
Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Student 328 41.5 41.5 41.5
Professional/Business 283 35.8 35.8 77.3
Unemployed 119 15.1 15.1 92.4
Others(Please specify) 60 7.6 7.6 100.0
Total 790 100.0 100.0
78
Interpretation: The table indicates that out of the total group of respondents, 7% were students, while 35% of the respondents belonged to the business sector. Moreover, 15% respondents reported to be unemployed while 7% belonged to the other category representing housewives. This is very much evident that the number of professional respondents was higher as compared to the unemployed and student respondents.
Table 4.4 Location Details of the respondents
Valid Cumulative Frequency Percent Percent Percent Urban 534 67.6 67.6 67.6 Sub Urban 256 32.4 32.4 100.0 Total 790 100.0 100.0
79
Interpretation: As per table, 67% respondents were belonging to the urban areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa while 32% respondents belonged to the sub urban areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The number of urban consumers was higher as compared to the number of sub urban consumers.
Table 4.5 Income / Pocket Money Of the Respondents
Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
5000 to 10,000 377 47.7 47.7 47.7
Above 10,000 413 52.3 52.3 100.0
Total 790 100.0 100.0
80 Interpretation: The table and the pie chart indicates that 47% respondents reported their income or pocket money in between 5000 to 10000 PKR while 52% reported their income in the above 10000 PKR category. As the sample population was comprised of students, professionals, unemployed and housewives that’s why majority of the consumers reported their income or pocket money in the bracket of 5000 to 10000 PKR.
4.2 Research Question 1: What are the Consumer Perceptions about Celebrity Endorsements & Non-Celebrity Endorsements in relation to their Purchase Intention?
The first research question has been analyzed through descriptive statistics as it reveals the perceptions of the consumers about the celebrity endorsements. The other two research questions have been analyzed through inferential statistics.
Table 4.6 Effectiveness of Various Advertising Media
Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
TV advertisement 496 62.8 62.8 62.8
Magazines 49 6.2 6.2 69.0
Internet 221 28.0 28.0 97.0
Radio 1 .1 .1 97.1
Newspaper 23 2.9 2.9 100.0
Total 790 100.0 100.0
81 Interpretation: The results show that television is the most viewed medium conveying the celebrity based commercials to the selected groups of customers. Internet holds the second position in this regard by having the 28% votes and explaining the importance of internet in conveying the celebrity based commercials. Magazines hold the 7% while the newspapers hold the 3% share in conveying the celebrity endorsements to the target audiences. Radio is the least effective medium rated by the respondents of the current study. Only 1% share has been assigned to radio in conveying the celebrity based commercials to the selected target audience. As a matter of fact, television provides the audience with both the audio and video facilities that’s why it has the major percentage share in conveying the celebrity endorsements. While radio only provides audience with the audio facility and also is having less audience base that’s why it has got the lowest percentage share in delivering the celebrity based advertising messages. Table 4.7 Frequency of Watching Celebrity based Advertisements
Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Often 578 73.2 73.2 73.2
Occasionally 130 16.5 16.5 89.6
Rarely 59 7.5 7.5 97.1
Never 23 2.9 2.9 100.0
Total 790 100.0 100.0
82 Interpretation: According to the results 73 % respondents stated that they are most often exposed to the celebrity based commercials through different media. 16% reported that occasionally they noticed celebrities while they were being exposed to the advertising media. 7% reported that they rarely watch or see celebrities on different advertising media while only 3% said that they never see any celebrity in advertising messages. This shows the overall effectiveness of celebrity endorsements that only 3% consumers believe that they do not notice the presence of celebrities on different types of advertising media.
Table 4.8 Celebrity .Vs. Non-celebrity ads Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent Celebrity endorsed advertisements 668 84.6 84.6 84.6
Non-celebrity advertisements 122 15.4 15.4 100.0 Total 790 100.0 100.0
Interpretation: According to the above mentioned table 84% of the total respondents believed that celebrities based commercials are more influential than the non-celebrity based advertising messages. On the other hand only 15% think that non-celebrity based commercials are more influential than the celebrity based commercials. This provides a clear understanding about the overall effectiveness of celebrity endorsement technique. 84% of the sample population thinks that celebrity endorsements are more convincing in their nature as compared to the non-celebrity based sources. It also verifies that the consumers of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have positive perceptions about the celebrity endorsement technique. They think that they positively perceive the presence of
83 celebrities in various advertising messages and it has a positive association with their purchase intention.
Table 4.9 Influential type of Celebrity Endorsers
Cumulative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Actors or Actresses from 478 60.5 60.5 60.5 movies
Sports stars including cricketers 229 29.0 29.0 89.5
Politicians 39 4.9 4.9 94.4
Business persons 43 5.4 5.4 99.9
Others(Please specify) 1 .1 .1 100.0
Total 790 100.0 100.0
Interpretation: Majority of the respondents of the current study believe that showbiz stars are the most promising and convincing brand endorsers. 60% share has been assigned to the showbiz celebrities as effective most brand endorsers while 29% share has been assigned to the sporting celebrities. 4% share has been assigned to politicians and 6% to the corporate celebrities. 1% share has been assigned to the other types of celebrities that may be the religious or other types of celebrities. The results very clearly indicate the strategic strength of movie and drama stars in impacting the purchase intention of consumers. They are most commonly followed and idealized by the
84 majority of the consumers. They have deeper influences on their lifestyles as well as on their consumer buying behavior. The local and the global sports stars are also liked and loved by the consumers of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and their role is also important towards the creation of a positive purchase intention. 4.3 Correspondence Degree between the Selected Variables: This topic is intended to investigate and evaluate the existing degrees of correspondence between the selected variables. For the same purpose the researchers used to calculate the correlation so that to measure the existing relationships of the selected independent variable or it’s attributes with the dependent variable. The below mentioned table describes the degree of correlation amongst the selected attributes of celebrity endorsement models with the selected dependent variable that is the consumer purchase intention.
Table 4.10 The Correlational Matrix:
PI EX TW SM FM LK MU MT Purchase intention 1.000 Expertise .257** 1.000 Trustworthiness .384** .546** 1.000 Similarity .463** .326** .362** 1.000 Familiarity .489** .423** .521** .574** 1.000 Likeability .389** .468** .412** .536** .629** 1.000 Product match up .289** .482** .381** .462** .364** .532** 1.000 Meaning transfer .234* .268** .389** .288** .342** .301** .389** 1.000
Number of Respondents =790 Note: PI denotes Purchase Intention ** denotes the correlation significance at 0.01 level (1 tailed) *denotes that the correlation significance at 0.05 level (1 tailed).
The above mentioned table shows that all the determinants of celebrity endorsement models positively interact with the dependent variable i.e. the consumer purchasing intention. It therefore proves positive one tailed correspondence between the selected variables. The table indicates that some of the determinants have strong relationship with the purchase intention while some hold the moderately good relationship with the same. The rest have low but still positive relationship with the consumer purchase intention. As per table the familiarity and similarity have the strong relationship with the
85 dependent variable while the likeability and trustworthiness hold moderately good relationship with the same. The expertise, product match-up and meaning transfer have low but still positive relationship with the consumer purchase intention.
It also verifies the acceptance of the research hypotheses. Moreover, the below mentioned descriptive statistics results show the overall responses or opinions of the respondents.
Table 4.11: Descriptive Statistics of Various Attributes
Mean St. deviation N Purchase intention 2.1749 .98210 790 Expertise 2.2162 1.34185 790 Trustworthiness 2.4644 1.42217 790 Similarity 2.5421 1.22138 790 Familiarity 2.5936 1.44328 790 Likeability 2.3979 1.18392 790 Product match up 2.1962 1.24254 790 Meaning transfer 2.4339 1.30422 790
4.4 Hypothesis Testing: This section of the chapter deals with the hypothesis testing and its results. The developed hypotheses in the light of the reviewed literature are individually discussed below: 1. Relationship between Celebrity Endorsement and Consumer Purchase Intention: H1: Celebrity endorsement has a positive relationship with the consumer’s purchase intention.
The first hypothesis has been developed in the light of the studied literature. It has been developed in order to examine the relationship between the celebrity endorsement and consumer purchase intention. The below mentioned tables describe results obtained through the simple linear regression analysis:
Model Summary Change Statistics Adjusted Std. Error of the R Square Sig. F Model R R Square R Square Estimate Change F Change df1 df2 Change .630a .396 .396 .64288 .396 517.323 1 788 .000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Celebrity Endorsement
86
ANOVA Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 213.804 1 213.804 517.323 .000a Residual 325.672 788 .413 Total 539.476 789 a. Predictors: (Constant), Celebrity Endorsement b. Dependent Variable: Consumer Purchase Intention
Results of regression analysis verify a positive relationship between the celebrity endorsement and consumer buying intention. It describes that there is a significant relationship between both the variables. Results show the value of (R = .396) and the adjusted R square = .396. It shows a variance of 39.6%. Considering the value of the variance recorded for the impact of celebrity endorsement on consumer purchase intent, it can be said that 39.6% variation in consumer purchase intent is explained by this variable. 39.6% variation in the consumer purchase intention by the celebrity endorsement shows the overall significance of this advertising strategy. Moreover, it suggests that using celebrities for the brand endorsement purposes is a good idea in order to create a positive impact on the consumer purchase intent. In other words, celebrities can better help the brand advertisers in order to grab the consumer attention and to make them buy the advertised brands.
Coefficients
Standardized Model Unstandardized coefficients T Sig. coefficients B Std. Error Beta (constant) -.023 .088 -.255 .799
CE 1.078 -.047 .630 22.745 .000
a. Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention
Regression model shows substantial strength with (F=517.32), β coefficient = 0.630) and a highly significant p value. As the regression analysis shows a positive relationship between both the variables, we therefore accept H1 which means that celebrity based advertisements have a positive impact on the consumer purchase intention. It means
87 that celebrities do have an important place in the minds and hearts of their followers in impacting their purchase intention.
2. Relationship between Celebrity Expertise and Consumer Purchase Intention.
H2 a: Expertise of the celebrity positively influences the consumer purchase intent.
Second hypothesis describes the first determinant of the Source Credibility Model i.e., expertise of a celebrity. This model has been developed by Hovland & Weiss, in 1951. This hypothesis was developed in order to examine the impact of celebrity’s expertise on the purchase intention of the consumer buyers. For the empirical testing of the hypothesis Simple linear regression is used.
Model Summary
Std. Error of Change Statistics Adjusted R the R Square Sig. F Model R R Square Square Estimate Change F Change df1 df2 Change
.444a .197 .196 .74127 .197 193.783 1 788 .000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Expertise
ANOVA Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 106.481 1 106.481 193.783 .000a Residual 432.995 788 .549 Total 539.476 789 a. Predictors: (Constant), Expertise b. Dependent Variable: Consumer Purchase Intention Consequently, a positive relationship has been found between the celebrity expertise and consumer purchase intentions. Technically speaking, (R=.197), with only 19.6% variance has been recorded. This explains that 19.6% of purchase intention variability is explained by the first determinant of the source credibility model i.e., expertise. This also reveals that 80.4% of the variation in purchase intention cannot be explained by expertise alone. It indicates and proves the existence of other determinants of celebrity endorsement which can influence the purchase intention of the buyers. The results obtained through the regression analysis show substantial association between the variables.
88 It has a reported value of F=193.7 and also a highly significant p-value leading towards the rejection of the null hypothesis.
Coefficients Standardized Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta T Sig. (Constant) 1.243 .055 22.450 .000 Expertise .331 .024 .444 13.921 .000 a. Dependent Variable: Consumer Purchase Intention
In order to evaluate the relationship between the expertise and purchase intention the following regression equation can be obtained: Ypi=1.243+.331*Xex (Ypi denotes expected score on the consumer purchase intention, while Xex denotes the actual score on Expertise of the endorsing source). Moreover, the results obtained through the regression analysis reveal strong direct relationship between the two variables. It can be further explained as if the brand endorsing source is possessing more expertise in a particular field of interest, he or she can better influence the consumer purchase intention as compared to a less or non-expert endorser. So, on the basis of the above mentioned figures, H2a has been accepted.
3.Relationship Between Celebrity Perceived Trustworthiness & Consumer Purchase Intention H2 b: Trustworthiness of the super stars has a relationship with the purchase intention of the customers.
This hypothesis describes the second determinant of the Source Credibility Model .i.e. trustworthiness. This hypothesis was developed in order to investigate any possible association between the trustworthiness of the endorsing celebrity and consumer purchase intent. The below mentioned table describes the results obtained through simple linear regression.
Model Summary
Std. Error Change Statistics R Adjusted R of the R Square F Sig. F Model R Square Square Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change .497a .247 .246 .71782 .247 258.985 1 788 .000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Trustworthiness
89 ANOVA
Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression 133.446 1 133.446 258.985 .000a
Residual 406.030 788 .515 Total 539.476 789 a. Predictors: (Constant), Trustworthiness b. Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention The above mentioned tables show a positive relationship between trustworthiness and consumer purchase intention. Derived value of (R=.247), only 24.6% variance (Adjusted R2). This implies that 24.6% variability in the consumer purchase intention is influenced by the second determinant of the source credibility model .i.e. trustworthiness of the endorser. Furthermore, these results reveal the existence of a positive relationship between the trustworthiness of the endorser and the consumer purchase intention.
Coefficients Standardized Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta T Sig. (Constant) 1.231 .050 24.696 .000 Trustworthiness .344 .021 .497 16.093 .000 Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention
In order to predict the consumer buying intention on the basis of trustworthiness of the endorsing source, the following regression equation can be obtained: Ypi=1.231=.344*Xtw Ypi denotes the expected score on the purchase intent of the buyers while Xtw shows the actual score on the trustworthiness of the endorsing source. In other words, consumers purchase intention is significantly influenced if consumers have high level of perceived trustworthiness in the endorsing personality. Regression model shows substantial goodness with (F=258.96) and a highly significant p value. On the basis of above mentioned figure H2b has been accepted.
4. Relationship between Similarity & Consumer Purchasing Intention: H3 a: Similarity among the celebrity endorser and customers positively impacts the purchase intention of the buyers.
This hypothesis deals with the first determinant of Source Attractiveness Model. The Source attractiveness model has been developed by McGuire in 1985. This hypothesis was developed to check any possible relationship between the similarity among the
90 brand endorser and customers and how this can further influence the consumer purchase intention. Below mentioned tables show the results.
Model Summary
Std. Error Change Statistics R Adjusted R of the R Square F Sig. F Model R Square Square Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change .449a .202 .201 .73932 .202 198.976 1 788 .000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Similarity ANOVA
Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression 108.759 1 108.759 198.976 .000a
Residual 430.717 788 .547 Total 539.476 789 a. Predictors: (Constant), Similarity
a. Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention
The same positive relationship has been found between celebrity similarity and consumer purchase intention. On the basis of above mentioned figures we can infer that there is a strong relationship between the celebrity similarity and consumer purchase intent. Derived value of (R=.449), only 20.1% variance (Adjusted R2). It implies that 20.1% variability in consumer purchase intention can be explained by the first determinant of source attractiveness model .i.e. similarity. It further implies that if consumer perceives more similarity between himself and the endorsing source, it will have more positive influences on his or her purchase intention. This perceived similarity can be on the basis of sharing same religion, social or cultural values. Moreover, this sense of similarity between the endorsing source and consumers can also exist on the basis of other situational, demographic, personal, or psychological factors (McGuire, 1985).
91 Coefficients
Standardized Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta T Sig. (Constant) 1.279 .053 24.360 .000 Similarity .317 .022 .449 14.106 .000 a. Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention
The following regression equation shows the impact of similarity over the purchase intention: Ypi=1.279+.317*Xsm Ypi denotes the predicted score on buying intention, while Xsm represents the actual score on similarity. Like the other above mentioned determinants, the regression model in case of similarity also shows good fit with the derived value of (F=198.97) , and a highly significant p value. As the regression analysis result shows a direct relationship between the two variables therefore we accept H3a.
5. Relationship between Likeability & Consumer Purchase Intention: H3 b: Celebrity likeability positively influences the purchase intention of the purchaser. The next determinant from the source attractiveness model is likeability. Purpose behind the development of this hypothesis is to make empirical investigations regarding the relationship between celebrity likeability and consumer purchase intention. Theory suggests that celebrity endorsers who keep high levels of likeability amongst general public can better influence their purchase intention (Anjum et.al, 2012). The below mentioned tables show the results obtained through simple linear regression analysis.
Model Summary Change Statistics Adjusted R Std. Error of R Square Sig. F Model R R Square Square the Estimate Change F Change df1 df2 Change .542a .294 .293 .69515 .294 328.403 1 788 .000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Likability
92
ANOVA Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 158.693 1 158.693 328.403 .000a Residual 380.783 788 .483 Total 539.476 789 a. Predictors: (Constant), Likability b. Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention Test results reveal stronger relationship between the celebrity likeability and consumer purchase intention. It suggests that the purchase intent of the consumers is greatly influenced by the highly liked celebrity endorsers. It also indicates that target audience gives more importance to the endorsing source which is more liked by them. In other words, it verifies that the likeable source is more influential over the purchase intent of the consumers as compared to less likeable or unlikeable celebrity endorsers. The derived value of (R=.54.2), with a 29.3% variance (Adjusted R2). It reveals that 29.3% variability in consumer purchase intention is being explained or influenced by the second determinant of the source attractiveness model i.e. likeability.
Coefficients Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. (Constant) 1.161 .049 23.855 .000 Likability .411 .023 .542 18.122 .000 a. Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention
Ypi=1.161+.411*Xlk Ypi represents the expected score on purchase intent of the buyers, while Xlk represents the actual score on the likeability of the endorsing source. a. Consequently the regression model shows the derived value of (F=328.40), (β coefficient = .411) and p value is highly significant depicting a strong relationship between the celebrity likeability and consumer purchase intention. Therefore, we accept H3b
6. The Relationship between Familiarity & Consumer Purchase Intention:
H3 c: Celebrity familiarity positively affects the consumer’s purchase intention This hypothesis describes the third and last determinant of the Source Attractiveness model .i.e. Familiarity. Purpose of developing this hypothesis is to
93 check any possible association between the familiarity feature of a celebrity and its impact on consumer purchasing intent. Simple linear regression results are being presented in the below mentioned tables:
Model Summary
Change Statistics R Adjusted R Std. Error of the R Square F Sig. F Model R Square Square Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change .558a .311 .310 .68679 .311 355.733 1 788 .000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Familiarity
ANOVA Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 167.792 1 167.792 355.733 .000a Residual 371.684 788 .472 Total 539.476 789 a. Predictors: (Constant), Familiarity b. Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention
According to the above mentioned results, once again a positive relationship has been recorded between the source familiarity and consumer purchase intention. The derived value of (R=.558), with a 31% variance (Adjusted R2). It implies that 31% variability in consumer purchase intention is explained by the third determinant of source attractiveness model .i.e. familiarity. Moreover, it suggests that the target audience does not always consider the brand endorsement opinions of every celebrity whether known or unknown to them. In other words, consumers give more weightage to the brand endorsing opinions of those celebrities whom they are more familiar with. The sense of familiarity between the endorsing source and the target audience can exist because of so many reasons. Those reasons can be a comparatively better media exposure, more successful careers, and interests of the target audience in a particular field, (sporting or showbiz), (McCormick, 2016).
94
Coefficients Standardized Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta T Sig. (Constant) 1.124 .049 23.040 .000 Familiarity .406 .022 .558 18.861 .000 a. Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention
Ypi=1.124+.406*Xfm
(Ypi represents the expected score on the purchase intention, while Xfm represents the real score on the familiarity of the endorsing source). As shown in the table the value of (F=355.73), β coefficient = .406) and the value of one tailed p < .001. On the basis of the above mentioned figures, we therefore accept H3c.
7. The Relationship between Celebrity-Product Match up & Consumer Purchase Intention H4: The appropriate congruence (match-up) between celebrity and the endorsed brand positively influences the consumer purchase intention. Product Match up model has been presented by Kamins and Gupta in 1994. H4 has been developed in order to examine the matching relationship between the endorsing celebrity and the endorsed brand in relation to the consumer purchasing intention. The below mentioned tables describe results:
Model Summary
Change Statistics Adjusted R Std. Error of R Square Model R R Square Square the Estimate Change F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change .457a .209 .208 .73598 .209 207.943 1 788 .000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Product Match Up.
ANOVA Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 112.637 1 112.637 207.943 .000a Residual 426.839 788 .542 Total 539.476 789 a. Predictors: (Constant), Product match up b. Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention
95 Results obtained through the regression analysis reveal stronger relationship between the existence of a right match amongst the endorsing celebrity and the endorsed brand. It means that for the effective delivery of promotional messages, appropriate congruence should exist between the endorsing personality and the endorsed brand. As theory suggest that required level of congruence between the source and product may exist on the basis of social, demographic, psychological or situational factors (McGuire, 1985). Derived value of (R = .457) with a high adjusted R square = .208). It also implies that 20.8% variation in consumer purchase intention is being influenced and explained by this determinant of celebrity endorsement. In net shell, the regression model shows substantial strength with the derived value of (F=207.94), and a highly significant p value.
Coefficients Standardized Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta T Sig. (Constant) 1.274 .052 24.554 .000 Product Match .356 .025 .457 14.420 .000 Up a. Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention Ypi=1.274+.356*Xmu Ypi represents the expected score on the buying intent of the buyers, while Xmu represents the actual score on product celebrity match-up). On the basis of above mentioned results, we therefore accept H4 which means a positive relationship has been found between the existence of a right match between the celebrity endorser and the product which is being endorsed by him or her. In other words, it can also be stated as if required level of congruence between the celebrity endorser and the advertised product is missing, it may not positively impact the consumer purchase intention that much.
8. The Relationship between Meaning Transfer & Consumer Purchase Intention H5: Celebrities providing or transferring meaning to the brands positively influences the purchase intention of the customers
This is the last hypothesis of the current study. It describes and investigates any possible association between the meaning transfer capabilities of celebrities in relation to the consumer purchase intention. Test results are presented in the below mentioned tables:
96 Model Summary
Change Statistics Adjusted R Std. Error of R Square Model R R Square Square the Estimate Change F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change .496a .246 .245 .71869 .246 256.444 1 788 .000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Meaning Transfer
ANOVA Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 132.458 1 132.458 256.444 .000a Residual 407.018 788 .517 Total 539.476 789 a. Predictors: (Constant), Meaning Transfer b. Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention The results of regression analysis reveal a positive relationship between the meaning transfer capabilities of celebrity endorser in relation to the consumer purchase intent. This fact is very much obvious from the derived values of (R = .496) as well as from the adjusted R square = .245). The results of regression analysis prove that this is also one of the most important determinants of celebrity endorsement in relation to the consumer purchase intent. As it describes that 24.6% variation in the consumer purchase intention is being explained by this important determinant of celebrity endorsement technique.
Coefficients Standardized Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta T Sig. (Constant) 1.201 .052 23.243 .000 Meaning .391 .024 .496 16.014 .000 Transfer Dependent Variable: Purchase Intention.
The regression equation obtained is Ypi=1.201+.391*Xmt
97 Ypi represents the predicted or expected score on the purchase intent, while Xmt shows the actual score on the meaning transfer capabilities of the endorsing source. Moreover, it can be said that for the effective delivery of the advertising message a celebrity endorser must have certain capabilities to provide or transfer appropriate meaning to the advertised brand. This will definitely produce a positive impact on the consumer buying behavior (McCracken, 1989). The regression model for this determinant also shows substantial strength with the value of (F=256.44), and also having a significant p value. We therefore, accept H5 as a positive relationship has been found between both the variables. In other words it means that celebrities having enough capabilities to provide or transfer certain meaning to the advertised brand are in a better position to influence the consumer purchase intention as compared to the rest.
4.5 Discussion over the Resulting Relationship between Celebrity Endorsement & Consumer Purchase Intention: The results extracted from the current study strongly accept the relationship between celebrity endorsement and consumer purchase intention. As celebrities have charismatic influences on the lifestyle and mindsets of the general public therefore, they can better help the brand advertisers to strengthen their brand recall as well as the overall brand equity (Kumar, 2010, & Munnukka, 2016). Majority of the respondents were of a view that they do consider and appreciate the presence of celebrities in brand advertisements. They believe that they idealize these famous personalities from the various fields of interest. Therefore, it is concluded that the purchase intention of the buyers is remarkably influenced by their favorite super stars (McCormick, 2016). Respondents of the current study revealed that they are most commonly exposed to celebrity based commercials. They think that it’s one of the most influential marketing strategies to endorse brands through these famous figures. It also means that as compared to non-celebrity sources, the celebrity endorsement is more influential in order to create positive impact on consumer buying behavior (Priyankara et al., 2017). These celebrities appear almost on every type of media, whether print, electronic or social media. Majority of the respondents believed that television is one of the most important sources of promoting brands. They also give weightage to the celebrity based advertisements on internet, newspaper and magazines.
This somehow, also proves the overall development and significance of the mass media in our country in general, and in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in specific. As the battle of brands is getting fierce both at the global and local levels, that’s why marketers are trying to endorse their brands through competent sources. That is why the celebrities are now most commonly endorsing the global and local brands on different media locally and globally as well (Mazlan et al., 2016). The results of the current study reveal the same
98 fact where majority of the respondents reported that film stars, drama actors and sporting figures have more appealing instinct than non-celebrity endorsers.
As celebrities can better attract and retain the consumer attention towards the advertised brands and thus can positively impact their purchase intention (Roy et al., 2015). About the negative publicity regarding an endorsing celebrity, the respondents were of two views. Majority of the respondents believed that the negative publicity about the endorsing celebrity do affect their buying behavior. While the rest reported that it does not have any significance impact on their buying behavior. Now, the impact of the various determinants of celebrity endorsement on the consumer purchase intent will be discussed individually.
4.6 The Resulting Relationship between Celebrity Expertise & Consumer Purchase Intention: Results obtained through simple linear regression analysis revealed a positive relationship between the celebrity expertise and purchase intention. The results of the current study show that consumers do consider the level of expertise possessed by the endorsing celebrity. The higher the level of celebrity expertise is, the higher will be the consumer purchase intention towards the advertised brand (Hovland & Weiss, 1951). In other words we can say that normally consumers give more importance to the brand endorsing opinions of more expert celebrities as compared to the less perceived experts in their particular area of interest (Kang & Choi, 2016). Regression analysis shows strong sense of relatedness between celebrities expertise and consumer purchase intent R= .197 and the 19.6% overall variability in the consumer purchase intention is being explained by the celebrity expertise. As an example, we can say that a cricketer endorsing a detergent brand, e.g. (Wasim Akram endorsing “Ariel”) and an actor endorsing a sporting stuff (Fawad Khan endorsing “cricket bats”) both will have less influence on the consumer purchase intention. As a matter of fact they both can be perceived as “less experts” or even “non-expert endorsers” for the endorsement of detergent and sporting stuff by the target audiences.
This negative perception of the target audience is generated even besides the fact that both the endorsers are highly famous and successful in their respective areas of specializations. The problem over here is that the brand advertiser has endorsed the “right product” through the “wrong celebrity”. Moreover, Wasim Akram, the legendary Pakistani cricket star can be perceived as “more expert endorser” for the endorsement of cricket stuff as compared to Junaid Khan, who has recently started his cricketing career. Technically speaking, 19.6% is relatively large percentage of variability in consumer purchase intent caused by the first determinant of source credibility model
99 prescribed by Hovland & Weiss, 1951. But, in comparison to the other six determinants of celebrity endorsement, 19.6% variability is comparatively the lowest percentage variation in the consumer purchase intent as per the findings of the current study. It also implies that though expertise has significant influence on the consumer buying behavior but in comparison to the other determinants, it still has lowest percentage variation in the consumer purchase intent. Results of the current study match with previously conducted researches performed by (Hovland & Weiss, 1951, Lane, 1996 & McCormick, 2016) etc.
4.7 Relationship between Celebrity Trustworthiness & Consumer Purchase Intention: The results show a positive relationship between the perceived trustworthiness of celebrities and consumer purchase intention. This means that celebrities who are considered more trustworthy can better influence the purchase intention of the consumers as compared to less trustworthy or un-trustworthy celebrities. It implies that higher the level of the celebrity trustworthiness, higher will be its impact on the consumer buying intention (Bafna et al., 2016). As a matter of fact besides advertising, trust is considered as an important factor in our social relationships as well. It provides the first and last base for building and maintaining the social relationships. Humans are mentally and physically more relaxed with more trustworthy people as compared to the shifty ones. People want to hear them, they want to see them and they do influence our social behaviors. According to the various psychological theories, trust worthy individuals are more influential in shaping or reshaping our social lives and behaviors as compared to those individuals who are perceived as “less trustworthy” or even “untrustworthy” (McGuire, 1985). These social members at the same time are the consumers as well and they are influenced by the social, personal, psychological or situational forces when they decide to buy a product or hire a service.
Consumers do influence each other’s buying behaviors (Khan et al., 2016). Celebrity as a personal or social favorite or even role model can also better influence the buying behavior of the consumers (Hovland & Weiss, 1951). Regression analysis run for the current study show the value of (R=.247) and a variation of 24.6% is explained by the second determinant of the source credibility model. It shows the largest percentage variation in the consumer purchase intention as compared to the other determinants. It means that for the most effective results of the overall promotional effort, trustworthy celebrities should be hired. The findings of the current study interpret the overall significance of this most important determinant of celebrity endorsement technique. Consumers pose more importance on trustworthy celebrities while deciding to buy or keep using a particular brand (Rengarajan et al., 2014). The findings of the current study
100 are similar to the majority of the previously done researches like (Miller & Baseheart, 1969, Kang & Choi, 2016, & Han et al., 2015) etc.
4.8 Relationship between Similarity & Consumer Purchase Intention: Similarity is the first sub determinant of the celebrity endorsement model (Source Attractiveness Model) prescribed by McGuire, 1985. Like the above mentioned determinants of Source Credibility Model, a positive impact of similarity has been found with the purchase intention of the consumers. It means that if the target audience perceives any sense of similarity between them and the endorsing celebrity, more positive impacts on his/her buying intentions are produced regarding the endorsed brand (This perceived sense of similarity between the endorsing source and the target audience can exist on the basis of sharing same demographic, (age, gender, occupation, nationality, religion, culture, & marital status etc.). Consumers can also feel a sense of similarity between them and the endorsing celebrity if they both live in the same geographical region. Moreover, the same sense of similarity can also exist on the basis of personal liking and mental frame of mind (Anjum et al., 2012). The same facts have been described by the regression analysis by showing the value of R=.449 and it also states that 20.1% variability in the consumer purchase intention has been explained by the first determinant of the “Source attractiveness Model” i.e. similarity.
The results reveal that if a sense of commonality with the brand endorser is being perceived by the target audience, it will more positively impact their purchase intention towards the endorsed brands. For example, Pakistani consumers can perceive more similarity with Fawad Khan, being a Muslim and Pakistani celebrity as compared to the Tom Cruise, who is a non-Muslim and American Celebrity. Similarly, young Pakistani female consumers can perceive more sense of similarity with Pakistani super models Mahira Khan and Mehwish Hayat, as compared to Mahnoor Baloch and Atiqa Odho as they were the most successful Pakistani actress of 1990s. In other words, we can say that being older celebrities, they now cannot better influence the young female consumers buying behavior as Mahira Khan and Mehwish Hayat can do.
Simply Shah Rukh Khan though is an Indian Celebrity, but at the same time, being a Muslim the actor can also create a better sense of similarity in the mind of the Pakistani consumers. Furthermore, he can positively impact their purchase intent towards the endorsed brands. Moreover, gender and other demographic factors can also result in the creation of a perceived resemblance between the endorser and the target audience and hence can positively impact their purchasing intention. The results of the current
101 study are consistent with (Sameen et al., 2013, Choi & Rifon, 2012, & Priyankara et al., 2017) etc.
4.9 Relationship between Likeability & Consumer Purchase Intention: The current study has found a positive relationship between celebrity likeability and consumer purchase intention. It means that if the endorsing celebrity is more liked by the target audience, then they are in a better position to create a positive impact on the buying intent of the buyers as compared to the less liked or unlikeable celebrities (Kumar, 2010). Likeability is one of the most important determinants of the source attraction model prescribed by McGuire, 1985. It states that if brands are endorsed by the likeable celebrities, the more are the chances to produce a desire in the minds of the general public to buy the endorsed product or hire a service. As mentioned earlier, in the age of digital revolution and globalization, the number of celebrities is growing day by day. A normal viewer is exposed to a number of celebrity based commercials from the various fields of interests endorsing a variety of brands. All of them may not be perceived in the same manner by the target audiences. Their perceived sense of similarity, familiarity and likeability may differ from each other (Mazlan et al., 2016).
The need of the time is to hire those celebrities who are most liked by the target audience (Erdogan, 1999). Likeable people are the biggest source of attraction and hence are in better position to influence one’s social behavior in general and his buying behavior in specific (Hassan et al., 2016). Regression analysis shows strong sense of relationship between celebrity likeability and consumer buying intention. It shows the value of R = .542 and almost a variation of 29.3% in the overall purchase intent. 29.3% variation is the second largest percentage variation after familiarity as per the results of the current study. It means that likeable celebrities are one of the most influential brand endorsing sources that can produce positive impacts on the purchase intention of the buyers (Belch & Belch, 2001). As an example, famous US star, George Clooney when was endorsing a global car brand in China, due to his personal affiliation with anti-Chinese school of thoughts, failed to endorse the brand successfully in China. As a matter of fact, due to the same personal affiliations of Mr. Clooney, Chinese rejected both the endorsing source and the endorsed brand. Simply, in Pakistan, the Indian celebrities are equally “accepted and respected” that’s why they appear in a number of advertisements promoting the local and global brands on the local media (Hassan et al., 2016). Moreover, Pakistani consumers have a great respect for the famous international cricketers like Chris Gayle, Michael Watson, & Brit Lee. These famous players appear in a number of commercials endorsing the global brands on the local media due to their likeability feature in Pakistani society. The emerging local Pashto singers of Khyber
102 Pakhtunkhwa like Gul Panra, Zeek Afridi, Bakhtiar Khattak and Humayun, etc. are endorsing so many local brands in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in general and in its provincial capital Peshawar in specific. These local Pashto singers have a large local fan base in this part of the country and are successfully promoting local brands on the local media. Current results have been found similar to Kumar, 2010 & Priyankara et al., 2017.
4.10 Relationship between Familiarity & Consumer Purchase Intention: Familiarity is the second determinant of source attractiveness model. The results show that if consumers have a sense of familiarity with the endorsing celebrity, it can result in the creation of positive purchase intent towards the advertised brands. In our social life, more familiar people are always considered as more attractive as compared to less or unfamiliar people. It’s a part of human psyche that they are mentally more relaxed with the familiar people as compared to the less familiar or unfamiliar people (McCormick, 2016). In other words, we can say that more familiar celebrities can better impact the consumer purchase intent as compared to the less familiar or totally unfamiliar celebrities (Priyankara et al., 2017). As a matter of fact, the numbers of celebrities are growing both at the local and global levels. These celebrities are belonging to the various fields of interest like showbiz, sporting, music etc. Some of these celebrities are majorly exposed to the general public by the local and global media while some have a comparatively low media exposure. Low media exposure can occur because of their weak professional performances or also due to the strong media overshadowing impact of stronger celebrities. This can therefore, negatively impact the fame and familiarity levels of weak celebrities as they may remain unnoticed by the masses (McGuire, 1985) & (Krishnan, 2011). Some celebrities may not look attractive to some consumers while they appear in commercials as consumers have no or low familiarity with these endorsing sources. They might not positively impact their buying behavior (McCormick, 2016). It can sometimes happen even the endorsing celebrities are highly successful and majorly exposed to the general public. Simply they may fail to create a positive influence on the consumer purchase intention towards their endorsed brands (Han et al., 2015).
For example, Wasim Akram and Shahid Khan Afridi, the legendary Pakistani Cricketers are the all-time favorite celebrities of Pakistani cricketing audience. These both celebrities are currently endorsing a major variety of local and global brands in Pakistan. In comparison to them Javed Miandad remained the past super star performer of the Pakistani cricketing industry and Yasir Shah is the recent star performer. They both have less media exposure and as a result the general public has low levels of familiarity with them. Resultantly they both may not influence the consumer buying behavior the way Wasim Akram and Shahid Khan Afridi are influencing the same. The target audience
103 when having more familiarity with the endorsing celebrity can feel more positive impacts on their purchasing intentions as a result of the same feeling. Celebrity’s familiarity positively impacts the consumer buying behavior (Rengarajan, 2014).
Moreover, Omer Sharif and Bushra Ansari, the all-time favorite super star comedians and the two big names of Pakistani theater and television industry are maximally known to the local audience as compared to Jim Carry, (US comedian), Kapil Sharma and Sunil Grover, the leading Indian comedians. Another example could be of the famous foot baller Messi. Maximum people in Pakistan do not love to play or watch football as Cricket is the most played and most viewed sports in Pakistan.
Messi, though is known to the world, may not be known to the majority of people in our country due to their lack of interest in Football. Hence, Messi, Michael Schumacher, Ronaldinho, Roger Federer, Maria Sherapova and Tiger Woods are comparatively less known to the majority of the people living in Pakistan especially in the rural areas. In rural areas the local celebrities whether belonging to the world of sports or to showbiz have comparatively more media exposure which results in higher familiarity with the celebrities. Regression analysis shows enough strength between celebrity familiarity and purchase intent of the buyers R=.558 and it shows that 31% variation in the consumer buying intent is explained by familiarity. As per results of the current study, 31% variation in the consumer purchase intent being explained by familiarity is the biggest percentage variation explained by any other determinant of celebrity endorsement model used for this study. The current results are consistent with (McGuire, 1985, Anjum et al., 2012 & Mazlan et al., 2016).
4.11 Relationship between Celebrity-Product Match up & Consumer Purchase Intention: Kamins and Gupta, 1994 presented this model for measuring the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement practices. According to them, for the overall effectiveness of promotional efforts, a perceived congruence or fit should exist between the celebrity endorser and the endorsed brand. They further argued that the same required consumer perceived congruence between the endorser and the product attributes will resultantly produce more positive influences on the overall consumer purchase intention. Regression analysis shows substantial strength between this determinant and consumer purchase intention. As per results, the derived value of R= .457 and it states that 20.8% variation in the consumer purchase intention is being influenced by this determinant. Again, 20.8% variation reveals the overall importance of this determinant in influencing the purchase intent of the consumers. It implies that consumers give more
104 importance to the endorsing opinions of those celebrities who possess a logical congruence with the endorsed brand (Hassan et al., 2014).
For example, Salman Khan, the famous Indian Film star is currently endorsing a variety of brands from detergents to soda water brands on Indian media. Salman Khan though is 50 years old celebrity but is still famous for his energetic and athletic performances. Now, keeping the same thing in mind, he can be a right choice to promote energy drinks, and fitness stuff. The actor is unmarried and his marriage is always a hot topic on Indian showbiz media and in general public as well. While on the other hand he is endorsing a local detergent brand on Indian media depicting himself as a husband and romancing with his so called wife. Logically speaking, the Indian consumers can feel no real life congruence between the endorsing celebrity and the endorsed brand and hence it can make them think that it is nothing but just a paid content. Moreover on the basis of same, the consumers can think that the endorsing celebrity has no personal or real life association with the endorsed brand. Consumers when find lack of perceived fit or congruence between the endorsing celebrity and the product attributes it can weaken their purchase intention and vice versa (Kamins & Gupta, 1994).
As they think that there is no real affiliation of the endorsing source with the endorsed brand (Bafna et al., 2016). As an another example from the Pakistani society, Shahid Khan Afridi, being the brand endorser of a sport shoe brand can better influence the consumer purchase intent as compared to Humayun Saeed who is a successful movie star. Simply, Ismail Shahid an old local comedy actor can be a poor choice to endorse a local fitness gymnasium and sports cars in Peshawar. Various hair transplant services in Peshawar use the most congruent celebrities like Rana Naveed (famous cricketer), Janas Khan and Gulzar Alam (Pashto Singers), Qavi Khan (the legendary actor) to endorse their hair transplant services. These celebrities in real life went through hair transplant surgery that is why consumers can perceive more strategic fit between them and their endorsed service. The brands when endorsed by the more congruent celebrities that are having required congruence with the endorsed brand, can positively impact the buyer’s purchase intent (Lane, 1996, Erdogan, 1999, & Khan et al., 2016). 4.12 Relationship between Meaning Transfer and Consumer Purchase Intention: Meaning transfer Model was developed by McCracken, 1989. This model states that in order to produce positive impacts on the consumer purchase intention the endorsing celebrity must be capable of providing and transferring the most appropriate meaning to their endorsed brands. The more is their capability to do so, the more positive will be the generated impact on the consumer purchase intention (Erdogan, 1999). The same facts have been authenticated by the results of the current study as well. The results of the current study show a positive relationship between the meaning transfer and consumer purchase intention. The results show the value of R= .496 , and it also states that 24.6% variation in the consumer purchase intent is explained by meaning transfer.
105 24.6% variation accounts a larger percentage variation caused by this determinant of the celebrity endorsement model.
In other words we can say that consumers do consider the power of the celebrities while endorsing the brands. A celebrity’s personality should have the required set of meaning that can be further transferred to the endorsed brand (Fowles, 1996). This capability of a celebrity will positively impact the consumer buying behavior (McCracken, 1989). Moreover, the target audiences do consider the fact that whether the endorsing sources are capable of providing and transferring appropriate meaning to the endorsed brands or not (Kumar, 2010). Different celebrities carry different meanings that should be properly analyzed and match by the brand managers while selecting the most appropriate celebrity for their brands. In other words, we can say that different celebrities have different set of lifestyles, personalities, social statuses, age and genders etc. For example, Tiger Woods and Roger Federer are famous for their luxuries life styles and that’s why both the stars are endorsing two of the most expensive wrist watch brands in Europe. Anwar Maqsood, the legendary writer, poet and actor is famous for his artistic taste that’s why he can be a good choice to endorse the traditional garment brands instead of English suiting. Maya Ali and Nadia Hussain, the leading Pakistani models are famous for their glamorous looks. Endorsing fashion brands through them can be a good idea as they do have the capability to assign and transfer meaning to this brand category. Saif Ali Khan and his actress sister Soha Ali Khan, these two Indian actors belong to the royal Nawab family of India.
Brand managers can wisely choose them as brand endorsers as they can better assign meaning to the endorsement of the luxuries brands like expensive jewelry and luxuries home used furniture etc. Michael Schumacher and Vin Diesel are famous for their risk taking and adventurous nature. Keeping the same fact in mind, they both can provide a solid base towards the successful endorsement of sports cars and bikes. The current results are consistent with the previously done researches by (McCracken, 1989, Kumar, 2010, & Priyanka et al., 2017).
106 Chapter 5th Conclusion & Recommendations The chapter describes the main results of the current research work in the form of conclusion. In the light of the findings, the author has presented frameworks regarding the theoretical and managerial implications. Recommendations have been presented. Last but not the least, limitations and recommendations for the future research work have been proposed.
5.1 Conclusion: The battle of brands is getting fierce day by day both at the local and global levels. Besides concentrating on the traditional marketing strategies and tactics, marketers nowadays are trying to find new ways for the effective marketing their brands. These marketing strategies and tactics are aimed at impacting the overall consumer buying behavior in the most desirable manner. This also helps the brand advertisers to strengthen their brand recall as well the overall brand equity. Endorsing the brands through celebrities though is not a most recent development in the world of advertising, but its global significance has remarkable increased during the last few decades. Like other parts of the world, the use of celebrities in adverting has also remarkably increased in Pakistan due to its overall significance. A large number of international and local celebrities can be seen on Pakistani media endorsing a large variety of global and local brands. Celebrities are providing a meaningful base towards creation and maintenance of a favorable brand image in the minds and eyes of the customers (Hassan et al., 2016). Nowadays the global marketers consider celebrity endorsement as one the most important marketing tool. They have accepted the important role that celebrities can play in order to grab the consumer attention and finally to make them buy the endorsed brand (McCracken, 1989).
Celebrity endorsement now has become a multi-billion dollar industry in the world due to its important role in the effective promotion of the brands (Kumar, 2010). Current study was initiated while keeping the same charismatic feature of celebrities in impacting the consumer buying behaviors. It was initiated to explore the impacts of celebrity endorsement on purchase intent of consumers living in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. Results of the current study support the past results drawn by various researchers in the various parts of the world. Current study has explored a positive relationship between the various determinants of celebrity endorsement models and consumer purchase intention. Results revealed that celebrity endorsement is perceived as one the most influential advertising tool across all the age groups and amongst both the genders.
107 Especially, the young people and the teenagers have a particular tendency towards this special type of advertising tool. It means that brand recall and the overall brand equity can be effectively strengthened if an appropriate celebrity endorses a brand (Kumar, 2010). In order to meet the objectives of the current study and to uncover the strategic importance of celebrity endorsement as an effective advertising tool, three models of celebrity endorsement were used for this study. These models are named as Source Credibility Model (Hovland & Weiss, 1951), Source Attractiveness Model (McGuire, 1985), Product Match up Model (Kamins & Gupta, 1994) & Meaning Transfer Model (McCracken, 1989). These models have sub determinants and the impact of every determinant was tested on the consumer purchase intention. A positive association between the various determinants of the celebrity endorsement and consumer purchase intent was recorded. Some determinants were having extremely significant impact on the consumer purchase intent while the rest were having comparatively lower impact on the consumer purchasing intention.
As a matter of fact, familiarity was having the most significant impact on consumer purchase intention showing 31% variation in consumer purchase intention. The second most significant determinant was celebrity likeability showing 29.3% variation in the consumer purchase intention. Meaning transfer and trustworthiness were ranked as third most significant determinants impacting the consumer purchase intention. Both the determinants showed a variation of 24.6% in the overall consumer purchase intent. Celebrity product match up was recorded as the fourth important determinant of celebrity endorsement showing a 20.8% variation in the consumer purchase intention. Perceived similarity between the endorsing source and the target audience is also essential that’s why similarity stood as the fifth important determinant having a positive impact on the consumer purchase intention.
Similarity shows a 20.1% variation in the consumer purchase intention. As a matter of fact, celebrity product match up and similarity cause almost the same impact on the consumer purchase intention as there is a very low difference in their variation percentages in affecting the overall consumer purchase intention. Expertise was ranked as “comparatively least important” determinant as compared to the rest of the determinants. The recorded variation in the purchase intention for the celebrity expertise is 19.6% which is the lowest recorded figure. It means that majority of the consumers do not pose too much importance on celebrity’s expertise while they are exposed to their endorsed brands. In other words, expertise does not impact the consumer purchase intention remarkably in comparison to the other determinants of the celebrity endorsement models.
108 In comparison to the previous studies the results of the current study are matching with a large number of previously conducted researches like (Kumar, 2010, Mazlan et al., 2016, & McCormick, 2016). However, determinants of the celebrity endorsement models have been differently ranked by the different researchers in different times according to their importance, as per their test results. The logical reason behind this fact is that different consumers in the different parts of the world have differences of opinions, choices and perceptions. Moreover, they differently perceive the various determinants of celebrity endorsement in relation to their purchase intention. So, it means that there is no universal rule of thumb under which we can universally or scientifically rank these determinants according to their importance.
Their importance is all based on consumer’s perceptions and consumer perceptions vary from person to person and society to society (McGuire, 1985). That is why Pakistani consumers also perceive celebrity endorsement models differently than other consumers living in the other parts of the world. That is because of the differences in “thinking and doing” of the various social members. Consequently, the current study validates the overall effectiveness of celebrities as brand endorsers in relation to the consumer purchase intention. It also states that brand advertisers should always be very careful while selecting an appropriate celebrity as their brand endorser. Moreover, this right choice of the celebrity endorsers can make the big difference both in the short and long run in creating positive impacts on consumer minds and life styles.
5.2 Recommendations: In the light of the findings of the current study the researcher would like to give the below mentioned recommendations to the global brand managers in general and the local brand managers in specific:
1. The brand and advertising managers should keep a proper check over the building and falling images of various celebrities whether from showbiz or from the world of sports. As a matter of fact, rise and decline in their professional performance can directly influence their social image and brand endorsements as well. For example, Yuvraj Singh, the legendary Indian cricketer was endorsing a number of brands after winning the cricket World Cup 2011. He was nominated as the “Man of the Series” and after this, he had a lot of brand endorsement offers. Unfortunately, cancer disease caught him in 2012 due to which his professional performance was adversely affected and he had to take a break. This also negatively impacted his brand endorsement deals as he went out of the public scene. After a time period of three years he made a comeback on the International Cancer day by rejoining the Indian cricket team after getting
109 the successful medical treatments. This time again he came back into the media lime light with so many brand endorsement offers (Times of India, Feb 6, 2012). This is how celebrities lose and gain their popularity graphs. The need of the time is to keep a constant eye over the falling and rising image of the celebrities (McCracken, 1989). The other example could be of Pakistani celebrity “Chai Wala” (Arshad khan). The term “Chai Wala” means the tea seller. This gentleman belongs to the Mardan city of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. This smart young man was a poor tea seller but he became an overnight celebrity after getting his pictures viral on the social media by a lady reporter. As a result, he was offered with a number of brand endorsement deals and finally he got modeling and acting offers too. He accepted those offers but after some time due to living in the traditional Pathan society and due to his family pressure, he decided to quit the world of showbiz. He saw an overnight rise, and then an intentional fall. Media reports revealed that now he’s no more accepting any endorsement deal and has started his own business (Express Tribune, Dec 27, 2016). Another example can be of famous Indian comedian Kapil Sharma. He is the top most ranked Indian comic celebrity. His comedy show is not only famous in India but is equally liked in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan and other countries. His show contains various co-super stars like Sunil Grover (playing the role of Guthi) and Ali Asghar (playing the role of dadi). Kapil Sharma due to his arrogant behavior with his co-stars is continuously losing his social and professional image. As a result of same inappropriate behavior with his co-stars, Sunil Grover and other co-stars have decided to quit the show. Moreover, the channel management has asked Kapil Sharma to settle the said matter with in a month. The channel management believes that the same program cannot be successfully broadcasted without the involvement of Sunil Grover and Ali Asghar because of their important roles. Both these celebrities are the important characters and the channel has even offered them to launch another show by eliminating the super star Kapil Sharma. Media reports reveal that Mr. Sharma due to his inappropriate behavior is facing a lot of other personal and legal issues at the moment as well. He most recently criticized the Indian Prime Minister on social media for his poor state governance too. He also rudely behaved with the local authorities about some local cleanliness issues. All these unwanted actions and inappropriate social behavior has caused a downfall in his social and professional image.
110 These downfalls have benefited the other two celebrities and now they are very near to replace him. Kapil Sharma is also losing his brand endorsements demand due to the same reasons (Times of India, March 20, 2017).
2. Second point of recommendation is that before selecting a celebrity, brand managers should make sure that the endorsing celebrity is not involved in any illegal or unethical activities. Their past or present time involvement in any illegal activity or unethical activity can bring a real bad name to their endorsed brands as well. For example, the Pakistani super model Ayaan Ali is one the most leading models having so many brand endorsement contracts on her credit. The model’s social and professional image was adversely affected when she was arrested in illegal money transferring act. All of the sudden, the brand managers had to change their brand endorsers as the model was sent to jail and her trail was initiated in the court of law. The case proceedings are still in process however the recent development is that the model name has been eliminated from the exit control list (Express Tribune, February 23, 2017). In past, the Indian Actor Sanjay Dutt and Salman Khan also faced different legal cases as they were found guilty in the court of law. This really damaged their social and professional images in the minds of the social members. Moreover, the famous US golfer and World champion, Tiger Woods social image was negatively impacted as a result of family disputes appeared on the media and legal trials being faced by him depicting his negative image in the overall situations. It also negatively impacted his brand endorsement deals and so many brands decided not to use Mr. Woods for future brand endorsement projects. They believed that they can lose their brand image due to the falling image of Mr. Woods (Aurora, February 28, 2017).
3. Most of the times consumers believe that celebrities practically or personally never use the brands endorsed by them. They think that the endorsing celebrities have no personal or real life affiliations with their endorsed brands. It also makes them feel that these stars are acting upon a predetermined script and this is nothing but just a paid content. The ultimate impact of this feeling on the consumer purchase intention is very undesirable. Solution to this problem is that the Pakistani brand managers should contractually bound the celebrities to use the endorsed brands personally and publically. This will really create a strong word of mouth amongst the social members and would positively impact their purchase intent. Moreover, strict legal actions should be taken if any celebrity violates the terms and conditions of the brand endorsement deal. For example, the world famous Pakistani athlete Amir Khan has recently signed an energy
111 drink brand endorsement deal. In the ad he is running in the streets of Lahore with eye catching graphics and mind appealing camera work. All of us know that energy drinks contain a high volume of unhealthy ingredients that a World Champion and a professional athlete like Amir Khan would never love to consume. As a matter of fact, these fatal ingredients adversely impact athlete’s physical fitness. As professional athletes have to clear different types of medical tests and presence of any undesirable ingredient in their body creates highly undesirable results (Aurora, February 28, 2017).
4. The trend of changing the brand endorsement loyalty is also very common In Pakistan. This is because of the absence of strict advertising and promotional rules and regulations. The brand managers should consider the ethical most celebrities that can keep up the brand endorsement loyalty for a longer time even for a lifetime, if possible and desirable. As a matter of fact, it adversely impacts the consumer buying behavior. Because, at one time they see their favorite celebrity endorsing a particular brand but after some time they see him or her endorsing the other competitive brand (Roy et al., 2015). For example, Wasim Akram the legendary cricketer was first endorsing Jazz (a telecom firm), but now he’s endorsing Ufone. Pakistani pop stars Ali Zafar and Shehzad Roy also have changed their brand endorsement loyalties for the same brand category in the recent past. Besides leaving everything on law, celebrities should also realize that the general public idealizes them as their personal favorites and they do consider their brand endorsing opinions. So they also should take care of their moral responsibilities and they should not misguide them just for the sake of receiving higher endorsement money.
5. The brand managers should conduct public opinion based surveys before selecting an appropriate celebrity for their brand endorsements. This can help them to determine the consumer perceived level of celebrity expertise, trustworthiness, familiarity, likeability and their perceived similarity. This can also help the brand managers to test the effectiveness of product match up hypothesis and the meaning transfer model. This can be done by taking small or moderately large sample sizes of consumers. The findings can enable them to get valuable ideas regarding the selection of an appropriate celebrity. In the age of digital technology, contacting consumers or the general public is not a difficult task to do. If an appropriate celebrity is being selected based upon the opinions of the general public or the target audiences, the chances of the brand
112 endorsement success can be quite higher. As this is going to be a complete consumer choice based selection of an appropriate celebrity.
6. Like other parts of the world, Pakistani government should also take the matter seriously and should make required changes in the advertising rules and regulations. The need of the time is to formulate the required and strict standard operating procedures for the brand promotion and celebrity endorsement practices. The concerned officials should make the local advertising SOPs in line with the global advertising standard operating procedures. This can really provide a solid legal ground to regulate and control the promotional activities in general and using celebrities in commercials in specific.
7. Brand advertisers should not only focus to find a single quality to be higher in a considered celebrity. They should also consider the other attributes of celebrity endorsement as a priority too. They should try their level best to find such a celebrity who most possibly possess maximum of these attributes altogether in a most desirable way. The best possible combination of all these attributes will act as a “convincing catalyst” and will further strengthen the psychological influence of the endorsing source over the consumer minds. That is why the marketers believe that ability of celebrities to influence the consumer behavior is unquestionable. Being their favorites, consumers find them very close to their hearts. Interestingly, it is regardless of the fact that these “favorites” are personally and socially far located from the general public (Choi & Rifon, 2007).
8. In Pakistan though multiple celebrity endorsement is in practice but not that much as compared to India and other parts of the world. Multiple celebrity endorsement is the endorsement technique where multiple celebrities endorse a particular brand at the same time (Hsu & McDonald, 2002). For the effective promotion of the brands, it is far better to use multiple celebrities instead of relying on one. Some brand managers believe that it simply strengthens “the charismatic influence of these super stars on consumers mind” in relation to the endorsed brand (Erdogan, 1999). Sometimes celebrities appear in different commercials while sometime they are shown together in a particular brand advertisement. The use of multiple celebrities not only strengthens the overall brand equity but also helps in avoiding consumer boredom. As they may possibly experience boredom while watching a single face again and again on their television screens. The biggest advantage of this brand endorsing practice is that one of the endorsing celebrities might have the desirable celebrity endorsement
113 features that the other might not have. Using them altogether is like “adding more taste to the endorsement recipe” (McCracken, 1989). For example, in the recent Pakistani Lux soap ad, viewers can see the “Cracking chemistry” between the beautiful Pakistani female model Mahira Khan and the charming Pakistani male model Fawad Khan. The requirement of the ad was to have a beautiful lady romancing with a charming gentleman covering his eyes and attracting him towards her as the fragrance helped the guy to detect her. These two celebrities are amongst the “ruling faces” of modeling and acting fields these days not only in Pakistan but also in India. The brand advertisers very wisely selected the above mentioned Pakistani male and female celebrity and the ad was a success (Indian Express, April 13, 2016). Simply Sprite made use of Pakistani young celebrity Ali Zafar and Indian new comer Siddharth Malhotra as co-endorsers showing the traditional food streets of Lahore for the effective promotion of the brand in both the countries. Last but not the least, Pakistani brand advertisers in specific, should make a very careful selection of multiple celebrities for brand endorsements having the required endorsement features. This can prove itself as a game changer brand endorsement strategy.
9. Sometimes the brand advertisers give more focus on the endorsing source rather than the endorsed brand. This advertising blunder is known as overshadowing impact or the vampire impact. Most of the times it has been noticed in the various brand advertisements that the celebrity is given more importance while the brand features are not properly presented to the target audiences. This technically happens when the celebrity’s personality is over emphasized in the advertising process rather than emphasizing on the brand personality (McGuire, 1985). Too much glamorous presentation of a celebrity directly overshadows the brand personality in the overall advertising process. It looks like that the endorsing source seems to be very important to the brand advertiser rather than the endorsed brand. While the advertising objective is to sell the brand not the celebrity. It is in fact selling your brand effectively through celebrities but over emphasis on their personality can damage the brand personality in the overall advertising process. The author would like the brand advertisers to notice this really important promotional blunder that can happen unintentionally but would damage the whole advertising process.
114 5.3 Limitations of the Study: The current study acknowledges certain limitations that were faced by the researcher while performing this study. This study was conducted in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. The respondents were between the ages 0f 16 to 45. The senior citizens were also not contacted who might have a totally different set of perceptions regarding the celebrity endorsements in relation to their buying intentions. Therefore, the findings of the current study may not be fully applicable on Under 18 and on the senior citizens buying intentions in relation to the celebrity endorsements. Moreover, due to the lack of financial resources, human resources, and also due to the lack of time, the researcher was not able to take a more diversified and larger sample size that could be comprised of rural consumers as well.
5.4 Suggestions for the future researchers: The author would like to guide the future researchers by showing certain directions for the future research projects. Though a larger sample size was considered for the current study, still the future researchers can take comparatively larger sample sizes in order to determine the impact of celebrity endorsement on the consumer buying behavior. This would enable them to make more authentic and empirical analysis of the subject matter under discussion. Future studies can also play their role in order to determine the impact of the celebrity endorsement on the buying behavior of the senior citizens. Future studies can also consider the rural buyers from the various parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in specific and other rural parts of the country in general or as per their research objectives. Investigating the impact of the local and international celebrities on the consumer buying behavior can be a next suggestion for the future researchers. Last but not the least, future studies can also focus on investigating the impact of negative publicity about a celebrity on the consumer purchase intentions.
5.5 Extent of Contribution by the Current Study to Understand Celebrity Endorsements & Its Impact on Consumer Purchase Intention:
This final section of the research thesis presents the brief but comprehensive contribution of the current study in relation to the celebrity endorsements and its impact on consumer purchase intention. . The overall research objective of the current study was to uncover the consumer perceptions about the celebrity endorsements in relation to their purchase intention. According to the previously conducted studies the celebrity endorsement strategy is just like a “double edged sword”. Some studies have found negative relationship between celebrity endorsements and consumer purchase intention such as Klebba & Unger, 1982, Cooper, 1984, Kaikati, 1987 & Katyal, 2007. The
115 findings of these studies strongly believe that for the effective endorsements of the brands the endorsing source does not necessarily needs to be a “celebrity”. Moreover, on the other hand many global and local researchers have found the celebrity endorsements to be the one of most effective brand promotional & advertising strategies. These studies have been conducted by Hovland & Weiss, 1951, McGuire, 1985, McCracken, 1989, Kamins & Gupta, 1994, Anjum, 2012, & by Khan et al., 2016. The current study has revealed the positive relationship between the celebrity endorsements and consumer purchase intention. It strongly validates the positive role of celebrities as one of the most promising and convincing brand endorsers. The findings of the current study help to understand the consumer perceptions about the celebrity endorsements and its overall effectiveness in relation to their purchase intention. The consumers living in the urban and sub urban parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Islamic Republic of Pakistan positively perceive the role of celebrities as brand endorsers. It reveals that people living in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has a great deal of respect for the local and global celebrities when these celebrities are used as brand endorsers. Four models of celebrity endorsements were used for the current study by the researcher to uncover the strategic weightage and importance of celebrity endorsement phenomenon. The study has contributed a greater volume of knowledge to understand the consumer perceptions regarding the celebrity endorsements and its various determinants such as expertise, trust worthiness, similarity, likeability familiarity, product-celebrity match up and the ability of celebrities to transfer “real meanings” to the overall brand endorsement function. The current study has thoroughly explained and discussed the above mentioned determinants of the celebrity endorsement models in relation to the consumer purchasing intention. The research gap that was identified in the chapter first of this study has been properly filled through this study. The findings of the current study have useful academic implications for marketing and advertising students and faculty members. It also provides a strong base for the marketing and advertising professionals of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in specific and to the marketing and advertising professionals of other parts of Pakistan in general to understand the consumer perceptions about celebrity endorsements. Based on the same knowledge these local brand managers and advertisers can wisely choose a right celebrity to endorse a right product at the right time, right place and by using a right promotional media.
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128 Questionnaire
Dear Respondent
I‘m PhD student and currently conducting research on the topic “Relationship between Celebrity Endorsements and Consumer Purchase Intention” You are requested to fill questionnaire which will not take much of your valuable time. This study is being conducted only for the academic purpose. It is to assure that the provided information will not be used for any other purpose. Your kind response will be highly appreciated.
1. What is your age? a. Less than 18 years b. 18-30 c. 30 and above 2. What is your gender? a. Male b. Female 3. What is your profession? a. Student b. Professional/Business c. Unemployed d. Others (Please Specify) 4. Which part of country do you live? a. Urban b. Sub-Urban 5. What is your monthly Income/ Pocket Money? a. 5000 to 10000 b. Above 10000 Consumer Perception and Celebrity Endorsements 6. Which of the following medium do you think is more likely to convey celebrity endorsed advertisements? a. TV advertisements b. Magazines
129 c. Internet d. Radio e. Newspapers 7. How frequently do you come across advertisements using celebrity endorsements? a. Often b. Occasionally c. Rarely d. Never 8. What attracts you more: celebrity endorsed advertisements or non-celebrity advertisements? a. Celebrity endorsed advertisements b. Non-celebrity advertisements 9. What type of celebrities do you think is more influential as endorsers? a. Actors or Actresses from movies b. Sport stars including cricketers c. Business persons d. Others (Please specify) 10. Does the presence of celebrities in the advertisements help you recognize and recall product more promptly? a. Strongly Agree b. agree c. Not sure d. disagree e. strongly Disagree 11. Do you think celebrities really use the product endorsed by them in real life? a. Strongly Agree b. agree c. Not sure d. disagree e. Strongly Disagree 12. How do you perceive celebrity endorsements? a. Very effective
130 b. Effective c. Somewhat effective d. Not at all effective 13. How influential do you think is celebrity endorsements? a. Very influential b. Influential c. Somewhat influential d. Not at all influential Celebrity Attributes and Purchase Intention 14. As a consumer, do you consider ―Expertise of the celebrity as an attribute that can influence your purchase decision? (Expertise refers to the level of knowledge, experience and expertise a celebrity has in particular field) a. Strongly Agree b. agree c. Not sure d. disagree e. Strongly Disagree 15. As a consumer, do you consider ―Trustworthiness of the celebrity as an attribute that can influence your purchase decision? (Trustworthiness refers to the honesty and believability of the celebrity) a. Strongly Agree b. agree c. Not sure d. disagree e. Strongly Disagree 16. As a consumer, do you think the sense of ―Similarity between you and the celebrity endorser can influence your purchase decision for a certain product or service? (Similarity refers to the sense of similarity a consumer feels with a celebrity) a. Strongly Agree b. agree c. Not sure d. disagree e. Strongly Disagree
131 17. As a consumer, do you consider the ―Familiarity of the celebrity as an attribute that can influence your purchase decision for a certain product or service? a. Strongly Agree b. agree c. Not sure d. disagree e. Strongly Disagree 18. As a consumer, do you consider the ―Likeability of the celebrity as an attribute that can influence your purchase decision for a certain product or service? (Likeability refers to the level of celebrity‘s fame in the public opinion and how popular the celebrity is) a. Strongly Agree b. agree c. Not sure d. disagree e. Strongly Disagree 19. As a consumer, do you think the ―Match between the celebrity and the product can an important attribute in influence your purchase decision for a certain product or service? (Fit/Match refers to the level how well the fit between the celebrity and the product is) a. Strongly Agree b. agree c. Not sure d. disagree e. Strongly Disagree 20. Do you think celebrities can provide or transfer meaning to the product and influence your purchase intentions based on celebrity‘s age, gender and lifestyle? (Meaning Transfer refers to the meaning a celebrity brings or transfers to a certain product with the help of their personality and lifestyle) a. Strongly Agree b. agree c. Not sure d. disagree e. Strongly Disagree
132 21. Please rate these factors according to their importance and effectiveness in order to influence your purchase decision. (1 being the lowest and 5 being the highest) a. Expertise 1 2 3 4 5 b. Trustworthiness 1 2 3 4 5 c. Similarity 1 2 3 4 5 d. Likeability 1 2 3 4 5 e. Familiarity 1 2 3 4 5 f. Product-celebrity match 1 2 3 4 5 g. Meaning transfer 1 2 3 4 5 22. Which of the below given factors influence you the most to buy a product or service endorsed by a celebrity? a. Expertise of the celebrity in the given field/ product endorsed. b. Trustworthiness of the celebrity c. Similarity between the celebrity endorser and yourself. d. Likeability of the celebrity e. Familiarity of the celebrity f. Match between the Product and the celebrity g. Meaning that a celebrity can transfer to products thru their personality or lifestyle Celebrity Endorsements and Purchase Intention 23. Do you feel that ―Negative Publicity about a celebrity endorser can influence your purchase decision? (For example Salman Khan is facing trial in 3 cases for killing black bucks and illegal possession of arms.) a. Yes b. No c. Sometimes d. Can‘t say 24. I‘m likely to purchase products or services that have been endorsed by celebrities. a. Strongly Agree b. agree c. Not sure d. disagree e. Strongly Disagree
133 25. I do purchase products and services endorsed by celebrities. a. Strongly Agree b. agree c. Not sure d. disagree e. Strongly Disagree 26. In overall, I‘m happy with purchasing products or services advertised by celebrities. a. Strongly Agree b. agree c. Not sure d. disagree e. Strongly Disagree
134