Do Kids Need Special Feature to Pray? Armageddon: Ronald Lindsay Patrick Buchanan Are We Living Mark Twain in the Last Days?
Robert Alley Joseph Barnhart Vern Bullough Randei Helms John Priest Gerald Larue James Robinson
Religion and Science in Future Constitutional Conflicts
Delos B. McKown
Jerry, Pat, Billy, and Oral at the Last Barbecue
SUMMER 1984 F c in ISSN 0272-0701
VOI.. 4, NO. 3
Contents 3 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR SCHOOL PRAYER 5 Editorial: Is Prayer Essential to Morality? Paul Kurtz 6 Why Do Kids Need to Pray? Ronald A. Lindsay 9 The School Prayer Crusade Patrick J. Buchanan 10 In the "Good Old Days" Mark Twain ARTICLES 12 Science vs. Religion in Future Constitutional Conflicts Delos B. McKown 18 God and the Professors Sidney Hook ARMAGEDDON AND BIBLICAL APOCALYPTIC 28 Introduction: Doomsday Prophecies Paul Kurtz 31 Apocalypse Macabre Joseph Edward Barnhart 34 Hal Lindsey's Late Great Armageddon Update Vern L. Bullough 36 The Dangers of Apocalyptic Thinking Randel Helms 39 Dimensions of Apocalyptic Thinking Gerald A. Larne 42 What Is Biblical Apocalyptic? John Priest 47 Jesus as an Apocalypticist James Robinson 50 The Bible as an Engine of American Foreign Policy Robert S. Alley BOOKS 58 Secular Humanism and the Schools Tad S. Clements 59 Harrington's Marx and God Edward Walter 60 Sex and the Bible Robert T. Hall 63 Is the U.S. Humanist Movement in a State of Collapse? John Dart 64 ON THE BARRICADES 66 CLASSIFIED
Editor: Paul Kurtz Associate Editors: Gordon Stein, Lee Nisbet Assistant Editors: Doris Doyle, Andrea Szalanski Art Director: Gregory Lyde Vigrass Contributing Editors: Lionel Abel, author, critic, SUNY at Buffalo; Paul Beattie, president, Fellowship of Religious Humanists; Jo-Ann Boydston, director, Dewey Center; Laurence Briskman, lecturer, Edinburgh University, Scotland; Vern Bullough, historian, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Albert Ellis, director, Institute for Rational Living; Roy P. Fairfield, social scientist, Union Graduate School; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, University of Virginia Medical School; Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading University, England; Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, NYU; Marvin Kohl, philosopher, State University of New York College at Fredonia; Jean Kotkin, executive director, American Ethical Union; Gerald Larue, professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical history, USC; Ernest Nagel, professor emeritus of philosophy, Columbia University; Cable Neuhaus, correspondent; Howard Radest, director, Ethical Culture Schools; Robert Rimmer, author; M. L. Rosenthal, professor of English, New York University; William Ryan, free-lance reporter, novelist; Svetozar Stojanovic, professor of philosophy, University of Belgrade; Thomas Szasz, psychiatrist, Upstate Medical Center, Syracuse; V. M. Tarkunde, Supreme Court Judge, India; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, University of Rochester; Sherwin Wine, founder, Society for Humanistic Judaism Editorial Associates: H. James Birx, James Martin-Diaz, Steven L. Mitchell, Marvin Zimmerman Executive Director of CODESH, Inc.: Jean Millholland Poetry Editor: Sally M. Gall Book Review Editor: Victor Culotta Director of Publicity: Andrea Szalanski Assistant Director: Barry L. Karr Systems Manager: Richard Seymour Typesetting: Paul E. Loynes Staff. Joseph Bellomo, Jackie Livingston, Alfreda Pidgeon
FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published quarterly by the Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (CODESH, Inc.), a nonprofit corporation, 1203 Kensington Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14215. Phone (716) 834-2921. Copyright ©1984 by CODESH, Inc. Second-class postage paid at Buffalo and at additional mailing offices. Subscription rates: $14.00 for one year, $25.00 for two years, $32.00 for three years, $3.50 for single copies. Address subscription orders, changes of address, and advertising to: FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Central Park Station, Buffalo, NY 14215. Manuscripts, letters and editorial inquiries should be addressed to: The Editor, FREE INQUIRY, Box 5. Central Park Station, Buffalo. N.Y. 14215. All manuscripts should be accompanied by two additional copies and a stamped, addressed envelope. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors or publisher.
2 FREE INQUIRY simply bigger denominations. He thus con- tinues to suggest that all enthusiastic minus- cule religions are equally guilty of child neglect or abuse, which surely is not true LETTERS TO THE EDITOR and which Streiker has certainly not shown. And further, he fails to bring out how largely the gaps in the law's shield are holes punched by the Christian Science lobby. Christian Science being larger and longer established is not, 1 take it, for Streiker Church-State Entanglement struck down as unconstitutional should the either a sect or a cult. Christian Science church ever attempt to Second, Streiker quotes with approval the judgment that "there is no constitutional The predominantly Christian Supreme Court enforce it: right to choose to die.... The state's interest has determined that the Pawtucket, Rhode 1. The Fourteenth Amendment to the Island, municipality's official display of the Constitution guarantees equal protection in sustaining life ... is hardly different from nativity scene does not "create excessive under the law to all persons. The Eddy law its interest in the case of suicide"; and com- entanglement between religion and govern- grants a specific privilege to one group never ments "The very foundation of this country ment." Maybe just a little entanglement— enjoyed by any other person or organization. is the recognition that the right to life trans- the display of kings bearing gifts, shepherds, 2. By granting to a religious group cends all others." Certainly the intervention angels, and a manger in which the baby special legal privileges not enjoyed by non- of the state to protect minors from gross Jesus lies with arms spread in apparent religious groups, Congress has violated the parental abuse or neglect can and should be benediction, costs $1,365 of taxpayers' First Amendment prohibition against estab- justified by reference to the right to life money. A little here, a little there, but it is a lishing a religion. claimed in the Declaration of Independence. little like a doctor telling a woman that she 3. The arbitrary and selective extension But to appeal to that right to justify laws is a little bit pregnant. It is a cowardly way of copyright makes it possible for a group criminalizing both adult suicide in general of sneaking mythology into the back door to suppress the publication and critical and in particular the suicide or assisted sui- of government, but proselytizing is the back- examination of certain books of historical cide of voluntary euthanasia is quite another bone of their religion. interest. This is a clear assault on the free- matter. For to construe my right to life as In my lifetime, clergymen have gotten dom of speech, and if upheld, grants the requiring that 1 be forced to stay alive more and more power. They have seen fit government broad new powers to suppress whether or not I so wish is like construing to participate in public debates (from private and censor ideas. the right of free association as warranting pulpit and public podium) regarding blue It cannot be the case that church law- or requiring compulsory membership in laws, censorship, birth control, divorces, yers are unaware of the constitutional prob- whatever associations are in question. race, labor, abortion, movies, TV, gambling, lems with this law. They are undoubtedly sports, entertainment, dress, drugs, sex, hoping that the mere threat of prosecution Antony Flew wars, disarmament, politics—you name it. for copyright infringement will suffice to York University These activities are direct participation in deter all who might wish to publish Eddy's Downsview, Ont., Canada government and sectarian processes; and yet uncensored works. Thus far their scheme these same people of mythology enjoy vast has worked. My understanding is that the individual and property tax-exemptions. uncensored writings of Eddy are so trans- Academic Freedom parently absurd that no educated person at Falwell's College E. M. Thomason could ever take them seriously. This Hayward, Calif. apparently is the motivation for the ques- It would appear that Lynn Ridenhour (FI, tionable extension of copyright. It seems to Winter 1983/84) has ripped the mask of me that some organization in the forefront academic freedom from the face of Liberty Christian Science of the church/state battle ought to challenge Baptist College. 1, unfortunately, must state this very dubious law. that if his account of my chapel appearance The matter of Mary Baker Eddy's unique is any indication of the accuracy of the rest "copyright extensions" came up at a recent Robert Sheaffer of his article, then readers of FREE INQUIRY Committee for the Scientific Investigation San Jose, Calif. should withhold judgment on the issue until of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP) someone less clever and more objective looks conference. As the law now stands, copy- into the matter. rights last a maximum of seventy-five years, Religion and Child Abuse I never told Liberty's students to stay unless your name is Mary Baker Eddy, in out of art museums, not to read books, or which case you have another seventy-five Lowell Streiker ("Ultrafundamentalist Sects stay out of theaters. 1 told them what was years added. This is not only blatantly and Child-Abuse," FI, Spring 1984) goes in such places to prove my point, that unfair, it is a clear violation of the separation wrong in two ways. First, he suggests that modern art, music, literature, and films were of church and state. The Christian Scientists all "sects" and "cults" encourage refusals of presenting morally offensive materials to the have been granted special legal privileges not necessary medical attention for and positive youth of our nation. Would not even Sidney enjoyed by other individuals, or even by mistreatment of children. Yet he never Hook agree? If any readers of FREE INQUIRY other religious groups. While 1 am not a explains on what basis he is distinguishing wish to compare what 1 really told the stu- lawyer, it seems clear to me that there are at these religious groups from the other— dents at Liberty with what Ridenhour said least three solid reasons that the law can be presumably, noncult—older, established, or I told them they can read my book on the
Summer 1984 3 subject, The Legacy of John Lennon: More on Mormonism The Book of Mormon's statements Charming or Harming a Generation. In the about the creation has committed Mormon meantime, if Ridenhour really believes that "Joseph Smith and the Book of Mormon" doctrine to a uniquely creationist position. "pluralism exists in a liberal arts setting," (FI, Winter 1983/84) was an insightful, While fossil evidence supports the view that he hasn't experienced much of academia, scholarly article—a fearless and honest study the birth and death of plants and animals where nonsituation ethics, non-Darwinian of the early history of the Mormon church. has long been characteristic of life on this creationism, and nonhumanist ideas are I don't see how those who espouse faith- planet, the Book of Mormon says that "if knocking at the door and waiting for serious promoting church history can feel comfort- Adam had not transgressed ... he would consideration. able with themselves. have remained in the Garden of Eden. And This was the first article I had read on all things which were created must have David A. Noebel, President Mormonism in years. Because of personal remained in the same state in which they Summit Ministries feelings and conflicts like those raised in were after they were created; and they must Manitou Springs, Colo. this article (Fawn Brodié s No Man Knows have remained forever, and had no end." My History was an eye-opener for me), I The book further says that "if it had been have not been involved in the church since possible for Adam to have partaken of the shortly after my mission. Both George Smith fruit of the tree of life at that time, there Ridenhour replies: and Sterling McMurrin raised some issues would have been no death...." A recent suggesting that one could be committed to president of the church, Joseph Fielding I have listened to a recording of David Noe- Mormonism yet not accept all the dogmas Smith, was so impressed with the clarity of bel's chapel speech, "The Decline of Western or history. In my own case, I might have these and other scriptures that he said, "I Culture," and I fail to find the distinction thrown the baby out with the bath water cannot think that the Lord created death in he is making. Here is what Noebel told the because I could not resolve my conflicts any creature, plant, animal, or even the earth students: "Have you been to an art museum within the framework of the church or on which we dwell, at the time of its crea- recently? Don't go. You haven't missed one Mormon doctrine. tion. Death came through the violation of a thing." Later he tells them, "Hey, friends, Congratulations on a job well done. law, and it passed upon all things by the have you read a book recently? Don't. You judgment of the Almighty, through the haven't missed a thing ... I'm talking about Dave Folland transgression of Adam, he being the lord some textbooks too." Salt Lake City, Utah who had been given dominion over all of My training and expertise is in the field these things." Thus Joseph Fielding Smith, of literature. English teachers are trained to sustained by the membership of the church recognize such literary and communicative Not only did Joseph Smith declare that the as a prophet, seer, and revelator, declared devices as overstatement, understatement, Book of Mormon was "the keystone of our that even plants did not die before Adam's paradox, and satirical pronouncements. Dr. religion," as stated by George D. Smith, fall about 6,000 years ago. Noebel's statements that morning, I assure but he also called it "the most correct of This position is such an important part you, were not construed by either faculty or any book on earth." One hundred and fifty of the Mormon doctrine that, in discussing students as literary tongue-in-cheek state- years later, Mormons continue to regard it recently, Apostle Bruce R. McConkie said, ments bouncing off angel's wings. To be both of these statements as true. The first "The Lord expects us to believe and under- sure, the rhetorical setting was one of pulpit lesson in the "1984 Gospel Doctrine Manual stand the true doctrine of the Creation—the oratory coming forth. The mode of discourse of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- creation of this earth, of man, and of all was definitely perceived by the audience as Day Saints" is entitled "The Book of forms of life. Indeed, as you shall see, an straightforward advice. The prophet had Mormon—The Keystone of Our Religion" understanding of the doctrine of creation is spoken. and the lesson features the "most correct" essential to salvation. Unless and until we Two of my students that morning declaration. gain a true view of the creation of all things sought to obey. They came barging into my Few members of the church know that we cannot hope to gain that fulness of eter- literature class after chapel. "See. I told you the latest (1981) edition of the Book of Mor- nal reward which otherwise would be ours." so," said one. "I knew I didn't need this mon contains almost four thousand changes stuff. [He meant literature.] "I'm going to from the original edition (1830). The vast Glen Wade the mission field." We were reading a short majority of the changes are grammatical, Santa Barbara, Calif. story by Albert Camus. He refused to par- with awkward expressions being eliminated, ticipate. A female student spoke up: "And I but some are substantive. The most recent refuse to read that stuffs" She picked up her alteration is in the wording of a prophecy The Evidence for Jesus Bible as I began lecturing on the short story that previously said Indians would become genre. "white and delightsome." It now reads that Kenneth Knipmeyer (Letters, FI, Spring By the way, what does a book on John they will become "pure and delightsome." 1984) assumes that G. A. Wells has stated Lennon have to do with comparing what Spencer W. Kimball, the church president, in his books that the Gospel Jesus was Noebel actually told the LBC students that had years ago accepted a literal interpreta- fraudulently created by the Gospel writers. day with what he thinks he told them? tion of the original wording. In 1960, he In fact, Professor Wells specifically denies If you wish a copy of the lecture, the said that Indian children living with Mor- that. His argument is that the Gospel Jesus recording is available through Thomas Road mon families had lighter skin than their evolved from the belief that Jews held con- Tape Ministry, Chapel 439 C. Box 1111, brothers and sisters in the hogans on the cerning political and religious leaders during Lynchburg, Va. 24505. Send $7.00. Or send reservations. "These young members of the the last centuries before the common era— an SASE with a blank sixty-minute cassette, Church are changing to whiteness and to and Ill mail you a copy, free of charge. delightsomeness," he said. (Continued on p. 61)
4 FREE INQUIRY mute our criticisms of religious piety so as Editorial not to undermine the common ground that the defenders of religious liberty and free- dom of conscience jointly share. While we can appreciate this strategy and concern, still the presumption that prayer raises moral standards needs to be questioned. There are certain assumptions that have not been suf- ficiently examined in the public debate. Is Prayer Essential First, we question the claim that people who pray (whether in church or school) are any more moral than those who do not. to Morality? There is little empirical evidence that these persons are more sincere, honest, just, trust- worthy, or altruistic than their nonpraying brethren. History is replete with examples of prayerful churchgoers who go off to war cursing the enemy and defending privilege, slavery, and other forms of immorality. The so-called good old days were not as morally wholesome as columnist Patrick Buchanan believes, as Mark Twain points out in the following pages. he long-awaited School Prayer We applaud those who continually Second, there is no evidence that there TAmendment has come and gone in the defend the First Amendment and the is a direct, causal relationship between the Senate. Although a majority of the senators cherished principle of the separation of 1962 Supreme Court decision that banned voted for it, those in favor of open prayer church and state embodied therein. We involuntary prayer in the public schools and lacked eleven votes to muster the two-thirds especially appreciate the efforts of Senator the rise of crime, immorality, and the break- majority necessary to enact it. It is evident Lowell Weicker, who courageously led the down of standards of conduct. On the con- that the prayer issue will not go away, and battle in the Senate for religious liberty. He trary, one can argue that America has made it most certainly will continue to embroil is no stranger to the pages of FREE INQUIRY. significant moral gains in the past twenty- the nation in internal fratricidal conflict. (See "The Bible or the Constitution?" Sum- five years, ever since the Supreme Court Some are predicting an ominous all-out cru- mer 1983.) decision. In this period, the recognition of sade by religionists to attain this end. Now We should applaud those in the main- human rights has been enormously there are efforts to get a Supreme Court line established churches—Protestant, Cath- expanded; segregation has been all but ruling in favor of silent prayer, and a ruling olic, and Jewish—who defend liberty of abandoned; the rights of women, minorities, will be forthcoming. The Supreme Court conscience and the First Amendment and and the handicapped immeasurably ruling in favor of the Pawtucket, Rhode oppose the vocal prayer amendment as a extended; and the right to responsible sexual Island, créche suggests an erosion of support violation of both, though some now seem freedom, voluntary euthanasia, and abortion for the First Amendment. Indeed, there is a disposed to support silent prayer. have been recognized. large section of opinion in America that Generally the argument against the No doubt some will view these develop- mistakenly believes that for the state to be prayer amendment has been made on con- ments as evil, but that only demonstrates neutral in religion—as the Constitution stitutional grounds: In a free pluralistic, that there is a wide diversity of opinion requires—is to impose the religion of secular democratic society, "Congress shall make no about the appropriate standards of good and humanism upon society. law respecting establishment of a religion." bad, right and wrong. Some who insist upon The American republic is not, in our To provide a state-written prayer in the imposing prayer to save the nation from judgment, a Protestant, Christian, or even a schools or a special time set aside for silent "moral decay" also favor authoritarian value Judaic-Christian republic, as Patrick prayer would, in our judgment, violate that structures. We don't approve of all the Buchanan argues below. It has been home principle. Moreover, children are not now developments that have occurred in society, to a large variety of religious and non- being denied voluntary prayer. They can such as the growth of the drug culture, religious points of view—from the deism and engage in prayer anytime they wish during pornography, and violence. In our view, anti-clericalism of the Founding Fathers to the day, and many do before a difficult exam however, although there have been some the humanism, paganism, agnosticism, and or sports contest! setbacks, there has been moral progress on even atheism of today. the whole. In a democratic, pluralistic com- By and large, America has provided a here is another argument against the munity there are bound to be moral framework in which a wide diversity of reli- Tprayer amendment that has not sur- disputes; and what is considered to be moral gious sects can prosper, and it has also left faced in the debate, but it needs to be heard; by one group may not be considered moral ample room for secular points of view to that is, doubts as to whether prayer is essen- by another. flourish. By and large, we have avoided the tial to moral conduct. Third, there is no clear evidence that sectarian hatreds of other nations that have We raise the question fully aware that those who pray are less apt to commit crimes sought to impose one religious doctrine on to do so may alienate liberal religionists or resort to violence than those who do not. the entire society. from secular humanism. Many urge us to Research studies have shown that the lowest
Summer 1984 5 percentage of inmates in prisons are free- needs of others. body of philosophical humanistic wisdom thinkers, atheists, and unbelievers or indi- This means that a good case can be that is central to Western civilization. viduals from such backgrounds, and that made for the need for reflective individuals Socrates argued in Plato's Euthyphro that the highest percentage are from religious who have developed autonomous moral con- justice precedes piety; merely to pray to the backgrounds. sciences. Surely the development of indi- Gods is no guarantee that an act done in Fourth, no doubt those who believe in viduals who are morally responsible and obedience to what the gods dictate is any the efficacy of prayer wish to instill a sense self-reliant should be one of the major aims more moral than one done in the light of a of fear of God's wrath in those who break of moral education. It is thus arguable that reflective examination of the merits of the the moral rules of society. We can appreciate prayer, at least that based on blind obedi- case and in terms of the ethical principles the sociological function of religion in ence or fear, is a positive good. Although that one has developed. The entire philo- engendering and supporting a sense of prayer may have certain psychological func- sophical tradition has supported that focus. obligation and duty to the social order based tions—it may release individuals from anxi- Religious zealots surely do not have an upon fear of divine sanctions or hope of ety in times of adversity and provide a basis exclusive monopoly on moral virtue. They divine approval. Many ethical philosophers for public expression of thanksgiving in have a short supply of ethical wisdom. and psychologists—Lawrence Kohlberg, for times of bounty—it is not the case that America will not decline in morality or example—have shown, however, that an prayer is either a necessary or a sufficient decency if prayer is not enforced among the ethics based upon fear or intimidation is at condition for moral virtue, social justice, or young. Far better to allow the free mind to a lower stage of moral development than the achievement of a life of nobility or discover its own dimension of moral insight one based upon moral growth and the cul- excellence. and truth untrammeled by various forms of tivation of an intelligent awareness of the That is the conclusion surely of a whole doctrinaire religious authority.—P. K. •
among orthodox theologians, of questioning the utility of petitionary prayer. One does Why Do Kids Need to Pray? not have to be an atheist to recognize that there is something counterintuitive about "begging" an omniscient, omnipotent, loving God for help.
he problem with petitionary prayer, in Ta nutshell, is that it is difficult to Ronald A. Lindsay understand why an individual (let us call him Jimmy) would have to ask God to be 66K ids need to pray." That has been on prayer, someone would address a more placed in state X if it were really in Jimmy's the rallying cry of the advocates of fundamental question: Do prayers directed best interest to be placed in state X. A God state-sponsored school prayer. A number of to an omnipotent, omniscient, benevolent who cared for Jimmy would want Jimmy arguments have been advanced to establish deity serve any useful purpose? In this to enjoy the best state of affairs possible, all this "need," but most of these arguments regard, the utility of prayer is similar to a things being considered. This does not mean focus on social ills, such as increased drug number of other religious doctrines that, that Jimmy would never suffer from the use and violent crime, declining academic although they have a significant impact on effects of natural or moral evil. Allowing achievement, etc., that are allegedly attribut- issues of public policy, remain largely Jimmy to be maimed by an earthquake able to the absence of organized school unchallenged. could be good for his character, and allow- prayer. Little attention, if any, has been paid The absence of public discussion on this ing Jimmy to be maimed by Jerry's chain to theological justification for prayer itself. issue is especially unfortunate because it is saw may not only be good for Jimmy's Lamentably, the same can be said of clear that the type of prayer that both advo- character but may also be the unavoidable the arguments that have been made, both cates and opponents of school prayer have result of God's gift of free will to Jerry (and in Congress and in the media, by those who in mind is petitionary prayer. One congress- Jimmy). However, if it were possible for have spoken out against the restoration of man has quipped that there is no need for Jimmy to avoid the earthquake or Jerry's state-sanctioned school prayer. Opponents organized school prayers at the beginning chain saw without harming his character or have suggested that organized school prayer of each day because schoolchildren will impinging upon his or Jerry's free will, an is unwise because prayer is a private and always pray "as long as there are math omnipotent, omniscient, loving God surely personal act with which the state should tests." The "nondenominational" prayers would safeguard Jimmy from the earthquake not interfere and because it is likely to be that have been offered as examples of what and Jerry's misconduct. Indeed, the belief divisive and engender unnecessary discord. the children might be asked to say invariably that God will safeguard them from unneces- These points are well taken, but still one contain a petitionary element, as did the sary evil is precisely the reason why believers would hope that, with all of the discussion prayers that were taken out of the schools ask for deliverance from evil.] twenty years ago. The New York State But why do we have to ask to be Board of Regents' prayer struck down by delivered from evil? Prayers certainly do not Ronald A. Lindsay is an attorney in Wash- the Supreme Court in Engel v. Vitale had serve as a means of informing God of our ington, D.C., and adjunct professor at the children "beg Thy blessings upon us, needs and our wants since He already knows George Mason University School of Law. our parents, our teachers and our Country." what these are. Nor would a loving God The debate on school prayer thus ignores demand that we ask Him for His help as a the fact that there is a long tradition, even way of demonstrating our subservience to
6 FREE INQUIRY Him. An omnipotent, omniscient being who of petitionary prayer. Petitionary prayer is or desires, which is presumably why prayer would expose Jimmy to avoidable pain and at best only a sham, a device designed to is prescribed for accomplishing this goal.' suffering simply because Jimmy did not ask foster an illusion of human dignity. If it were at all possible to be friends for help is not a loving being, but a perverse with God, an argument that God might want and obstinate tyrant. et us distinguish between the terms to refrain from benefiting us without our As indicated, a number of theologians, J benefits and burdens. Someone is asking for these benefits has some initial including Thomas Aquinas, have recognized burdened if he has been deprived of some- plausibility. Having a friend who continually the problem and have attempted to solve it. thing that he, and other similarly situated saw to it that 1 would be provided with However, their attempts to justify the prac- individuals, would have reasonably expected easy pitches and locomotive mountains, tice of petitionary prayer have all been to have. Jimmy is deprived of a sense of without my even asking for them, could, plainly unsatisfactory. Discussing their views security and a few limbs when he is exposed after a while, lead me to become so spoiled in detail would not only be unhelpful but to an earthquake or Jerry's chain saw. and dominated that 1 would be more his unnecessary, since a contemporary and Maiming is not an everyday occurrence for pet or plaything than his friend. vigorous defense of petitionary prayer has Jimmy, nor is it an everyday occurrence for However, the same cannot be said of a recently been offered by Professor Eleonore most people. The vast majority of people friend who helps one avoid unnecessary bur- Stump.2 Stump argues that God will only go through life with four limbs attached to dens. Take Jimmy and the earthquake. place Jimmy in state X if Jimmy asks God their bodies. This being the case, one is Being members of a religious society,5 we to do so because God wants to be Jimmy's burdened by the loss of a limb. would surely understand if God explained friend. Stump points out that friendship is Being benefited, on the other hand, (through some suitable spokesman, of made more difficult when the potential implies that one has received an advantage course) that He allowed the earthquake to friends are persons of unequal status. These that is not entirely expected. Smashing a maim Jimmy because He detected in Jimmy difficulties are necessarily magnified when game-winning grand slam in the bottom of an excessive insouciance that could be cor- the parties in question are an omniscient, the ninth inning is not something Jimmy, rected by the loss of a forearm or two. After omnipotent, perfectly good person and a the ballplayer, believes is likely to happen, all, what are friends for. The maiming had fallible, finite, imperfect person. If God were which is why he makes the sign of the cross to take place for Jimmy's own good. How- to shower Jimmy with unsolicited blessings, and petitions God's help when he steps to ever, it would be impossible to understand He would simply become too overpowering the plate.' Similarly, mountains do not nor- God's action (or inaction) if God stated that and overwhelming to remain Jimmy's friend. mally move themselves to suit one's needs the only reason He did not preserve Jimmy Jimmy would not only become spoiled, he would be reduced to "a shadowy reflection of [God's] personality, a slavish follower TELL '>'OU, LORD, who slowly loses all sense of his own tastes Woolf woo/. and desires and will." Making Jimmy's PRAÇER,TNICJ COUN1'R54 40% lb NM! request for state X a necessary condition of Jimmy's obtaining state X is a way of allow- T KNOW! ing Jimmy to preserve some control over S RECEIVEP La ME BE his life; it is a way of preserving Jimmy's 1NE"RE-ELECT THE JUKE dignity. Only if Jimmy has some dignity PEA4AN" OF 1HÁ1, RON! can he enter into a relationship of friendship with God. In short: BU1'fON YOU 0Nr ME ! God must work through the intermediary of prayer, rather than doing everything on his own initiative, for man's sake. Prayer acts as a kind of buffer between man and God. By safeguarding the weaker member of the relation from the dangers of overwhelming spoiling, it helps to pro- 'tHio i& 146 WAY if ADDS UP LORD! 11A15 WU I' WE r5OUNDS LIKg mote and preserve a close relationship HUMANISM PLUS yECULARISM ND ?MO REr vl!1 MATH between an omniscient, omnipotent, per- ► EQUAIh LOrnmutot6 IN 'CNO0L5. A fectly good person and a fallible, finite, wows, OE imperfect person. vA Stump's argument is creative, and is certainly much more appealing than other arguments that have been offered in defense of the practice of petitionary prayer. None- theless, it ultimately fails to make sense of the practice. 1 will first show that Stump's argument does not make sense of a certain class of petitionary prayers, namely, prayers to be freed from unnecessary burdens. 1 will then show that Stump's argument fails to preserve any significant purpose for any type Sanders, Milwaukee Journal
Summer 1984 7 from the earthquake was that Jimmy never Stump thinks such a reaction by the student cannot be characterized as more intrusive asked for His help and that Jimmy, in fact, would be healthy because, if he submissively than His knowledge of our every thought would have been better off if he had retained accepts "the teacher's [assistance], he [will] and feeling. God's satisfying our desires all of his limbs. Persons do not allow their have taken the first step in the direction of without being asked to do so cannot violate friends to suffer unnecessary burdens simply unhealthy passivity toward his teacher." If our dignity any more than His perfect because they have not been asked to help. the student "and his teacher developed that knowledge of our most intimate thoughts This is true even if the friends have become sort of relationship, he could end by becom- and feelings. estranged. Indeed, it is a mark of a true ing a lackeylike reflection of his teacher." There is nothing wrong with Stump's friend that he rushes to your assistance even Stump concludes that just as the teacher intuition about friendship. Friendship is though, for whatever reason, there may be should offer assistance only if the student enhanced if friends, especially friends of some ill will between you. If love means willingly shares his thoughts and feelings unequal status, do maintain a certain never having to say you're sorry, then with the teacher, so too God, if He wants respectful distance. The problem is that it is friendship means never having to ask for to avoid turning us into lackeylike reflec- not possible to maintain any respectful help. tions of Himself, should only provide us distance from an omniscient being. We can Nor does such assistance threaten to with assistance if we willingly share our no more maintain a respectful distance from make one intolerably passive, even if the thoughts and feelings with Him through God than a prisoner could maintain a assistance comes from an omnipotent friend. prayer. respectful distance from a (benevolent) jailer Remember that we arec not talking about The problem with this account is that who not only monitored the prisoner's every having our every wish granted, nor are we it is only meaningful to speak of someone's activity but also his every thought and contemplating a state of affairs in which no willingly doing something if it is possible feeling. Therefore, God's practice of satis- one would be burdened. We are only for him not to do it. It is possible for the fying our needs and wants (or some of our imagining what it would be like if no one student to willingly share his thoughts and needs and wants) only in response to our had to suffer from any unnecessary burdens. feelings with his teacher because he can request for assistance cannot act as a useful Planning and leading a prosperous, active refrain from sharing his thoughts and "buffer" between us and God. At best, God's life would be enhanced by the knowledge feelings with his teacher. God, however, encouragement of prayer can only be said that one will not have one's plans frustrated knows our thoughts and feelings, whether to assist in fostering an illusion of dignity by unnecessary burdens. The knowledge that we would like Him to or not. Moreover, where none exists. God will see to it that whatever burdens those who believe in Him and pray to Him Stump's argument fails to show that one suffers are there for one's own good know that He knows their thoughts and petitionary prayer serves any significant may remove some anxiety, but it could feelings. Under the circumstances, it is diffi- purpose. hardly be said to make one passive. cult to see what "willingly" sharing one's Stump's argument, therefore, fails to thoughts and feelings means when the per- etitionary prayer, therefore, remains a preserve any meaning for a whole class of son one is sharing with is God. pquestionable practice. What is not petitionary prayers, namely, prayers asking Stump's example of the teacher's questionable, however, is that it is scan- to be spared unnecessary burdens. If when refusal to provide assistance to the student dalous that in a democracy founded two faced with an impending earthquake, or without being first asked for assistance is centuries ago during the Enlightenment— cornered by Jerry and his buzzing chain saw, understandable to us since we sympathize whose citizens are relatively well- Jimmy really trusts in God, his friend, he with and respect a person's desire to keep educated—religious dogmas such as the will not pray, but will simply take whatever some of his problems private. The teacher's utility of prayer are allowed to go largely action seems appropriate, secure in the intrusion violates the student's desire for pri- unchallenged. 1f it were simply a matter of knowledge that God will preserve him from vacy in two ways. The teacher's assistance keeping religious issues sheltered from public unnecessary harm. was unsolicited, and the teacher, in some debate on the grounds that they are too way or another, has found out something divisive, one could, perhaps, understand this o far I have only shown that Stump's about the student that he wanted to keep to phenomenon. But as freethinkers are all too Sargument does not work for petitionary himself. The student's willing revelation of well aware, and as the debate on school prayers in which one asks to be relieved, or his problem saves the teacher from being a prayer illustrates, religious issues are asks that others be relieved, of unnecessary meddler. God's refusal to provide assistance regarded as permissible subjects of discus- burdens. However, Stump's argument ulti- without first having been asked for it, on sion as long as the discussion does not ques- mately fails to make sense of any petitionary the other hand, is not understandable. Those tion the fundamental premises of orthodox prayer. The key to Stump's argument is her who would pray for assistance, ex hrporhesi, religious views. Unfortunately, it is just such assumption that God wants to be and can desire assistance, and, in relation to God, a discussion of fundamental premises that be our friend and that it makes sense to try their thoughts and feelings are not private; is sorely needed. Do kids need to pray? Per- to foster this friendship between God and nor would a desire to keep them private be haps, but first kids need to think. man by using prayer "as a kind of buffer rational. God's unsolicited assistance cannot Thinking about prayer may even lead between man and God." show a lack of respect for a person's privacy us to some unexpected conclusions. In my Stump's best illustration of how this because there is no privacy to respect. God arguments against Stump's theories, I have buffer works is her fiction concerning the knows that the potential petitioner wants implied that, if God did in fact exist, we troubled student. The student's teacher help, the potential petitioner knows that might enjoy less human dignity than we knows that he is in academic trouble and God knows that he wants help, and God would if He did not. In view of the com- would like to help, but he is wary of doing knows that the potential petitioner knows monly held belief that our dignity is depen- so without first being asked because an that God knows that he wants help. Either dent on God's existence, this is a point worth unsolicited offer of assistance is "likely to God's unsolicited assistance cannot properly pursuing. For now, it is enough to note that strike the student as meddling interference." be characterized as meddling, or at least it the recommended posture for prayer sup-
8 FREE INQUIRY ports my suggestion. It is difficult to main- 1966), pp. 112 ff. 0n this view, the most that constitutionality of legislative chaplains. tain one's dignity on one's knees. one can rightfully ask for is the inclination to 3. See the Washington Post, March I, submit to God's will. This is not the attitude 1984, A3, col. 1 (discussing testimony of football adopted by the overwhelming majority of those coaches Tom Landry and Joe Gibbs in support Notes who engage in petitionary prayer. of school prayer). 2. Eleonore Stump, "Petitionary Prayer," 4. Matthew 21:21-22. I. D. Z. Phillips has argued that all American Philosophical Quarterly, vol. 16 (1979), 5. See "Remarks at the Annual Convention authentic petitionary prayer is really equivalent pp. 81-93. Stump's article was cited in Justice of the National Association of Evangelicals," to a plea (or perhaps a statement) that "Thy will Brennan s dissent in Marsh v. Chambers, 103 S. Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc., vol. 19 (1983), pp. be done." See The Concept of Prayer (New York, Ct. 3330, 3350 n.46 (1983), which upheld the 364-70. •
teaches that all consensual sexual relations, inside or outside of marriage, represent varied "life styles" entitled to equal respect. The School Prayer Crusade Where the old church taught sin and dam- nation, the new church preaches happiness and tolerance. Whose creed is this? In his brief and brilliant "What is Secular Humanism?" Jim Hitchcock traces the history, development, Patrick Buchanan, a noted conservative consultation with a democratic people, with- teachings and hierarchs of the new creed. columnist and former speech-writer for out support in precedent or the Constitution, A representative fragment can be found Richard Nixon, recently defended school the Warren Court undertook the systematic in the Humanist Manifesto of 1973 signed prayer and attacked secular humanism. de-Christianization of America, beginning, by such luminaries as Dr. Sidney Hook: Although his views are in sharp contrast with but not stopping, with the public schools. "Traditional dogmatic or authoritarian reli- the editorial viewpoint of this magazine, we The secularization must proceed, the gions that place God, ritual or creed above present them in the interest of free inquiry. Court ruled, to bring society into compliance human need or experience do a disservice with the First Amendment provision that to the human species ... We affirm that the "state must be neutral" between religious moral values derive their source from human Patrick J. Buchanan faiths. Something much more radical, how- experience. Ethics is autonomous and situa- ever, was afoot. tional, needing no theological or ideological hose creed should form the founda- When Bible instruction, school prayer, sanction. In the area of sexuality, we believe Wtion of American law? Whose beliefs Christmas and Easter celebrations were that intolerant attitudes, often cultivated by should serve as blueprint for governance of being expunged from the curricula and orthodox religious and puritanical cultures, American society? Should the United States expelled from the schools, the vacuum was unduly repress sexual conduct." be a Christian or pagan country? not meant to go unfilled. The beliefs, teach- As Dr. Hitchcock demonstrates, Questions no less momentous are at ings, traditions of a Christian faith were not "Humanism is hardly the benign, tolerant issue in the re-engaged conflict over a School simply displaced, they were replaced by force it pretends to be. Indeed, it is highly Prayer Amendment to the Constitution. The those of a new and alien creed. intolerant. It has a keen sense of being time has come to separate the sheep from The evolutionists in public education locked into a continuous philosophical and the goats. did not settle for equal time. They proceeded social struggle with religious belief, in which For eighteen decades, the creed that to run out of the public schools all com- the ultimate stakes are nothing less than the served as foundation for American law was peting theories of creation. Efforts to subject moral foundations of society." Christianity. And a rather stern Protestant Darwin's theory to the same critical scrutiny Precisely. Christianity at that. Abortion was a crime. the evolutionists once turned on biblical Under humanism, such allied sects as Shops were closed on Sunday. Salacious theory are rejected with passion. feminism, environmentalism, egali- novels were censored in good conscience. If Darwin was right about the origin of tarianism, pacifism, and socialism, are per- Pornography was an impermissible outrage species, what is the origin of matter? If Dar- mitted unrestricted access to effect the that could merit its producer a jail term. win was right, where in the fossil record are recruitment and indoctrination of a captive Drugs were outlawed. Prostitution was pro- the "intermediate forms," the missing links? audience of 40 million children in America's hibited. An "experiment, noble in purpose," The ferocity with which evolutionists repulse public schools. Christianity, the enemy, is said Herbert Hoover, was launched to out- such questions suggests the truth. Theirs is not. law the "demon rum" visibly destroying the not some scientifically unassailable truth; it The school prayer crusade, then, is the work habits, families, lives and neighbor- is a system of belief as rooted in faith as the first great counteroffensive of a badly routed hoods of the immigrant population. fundamental belief in the literal veracity of Christian community to recapture their In the public schools, Protestant clergy- Genesis. occupied public schools and reestablish their men doubled as teachers. Catholic bishops When the last posting of the Ten Com- beliefs as the legitimate moral foundation set up parochial schools, a century ago, not mandments had been ripped down, when of American society. Christians have every because the public schools were too irreli- Bible-based moral teaching on sex and the right to do so; indeed, they are under some gious, but because they were too Protestant. family had been dismissed, they were obligation to try. •
America was a Christian country. replaced—in sex education and values clari- Reprinted with the permission of the Tribune A quarter century ago, without prior fication courses—with a catechism that Company Syndicate.
Summer 1984 9 In the "Good Old Days" of Mark Twain
Were people more religious and, therefore, more moral in the "good old days'? The War Prayer Are moral persons rewarded by a happy and successful life on earth? We present two satirical views on these issues by one of America's leading secular humorists, Mark Twain.—Ens.
t was a time of great and exalting excite- Iment. The country was up in arms, the war was on.... In the churches the pastors preached devotion to flag and country, and invoked the God of Battles. . . . Sunday morning came—next day the battalions would leave for the front.... Then came the long prayer.... The burden of its sup- plication was that an ever-merciful and benignant Father of us all would watch over our noble young soldiers, and comfort and encourage them in their patriotic work.... An aged stranger entered and moved with slow and noiseless step up the main aisle.... He ascended to the preacher's side and stood there, waiting.... listen!
O Lord our Father, our young patriots, idols of our hearts, go forth to battle—be Thou near them! With them—in spirit—we also go forth from the sweet peace of our beloved firesides to smite the foe. 0 Lord our God, help us to tear their soldiers to bloody shreds with our shells; help us to cover their smiling fields with the pale forms of their patriot dead; help us to drown the thunder of the guns with the shrieks of their wounded, writhing in pain; help us to lay waste their humble homes with a hurri- cane of fire; help us to wring the hearts of their unoffending widows with unavailing grief; help us to turn them out roofless with their little children to wander unfriended the wastes of their desolated land in rags and hunger and thirst, sports of the sun flames of summer and the icy winds of winter, broken in spirit, worn with travail, imploring Thee for the refuge of the grave and denied it—for our sakes who adore Thee, Lord, blast their hopes, blight their lives, protract their bitter pilgrimage, make heavy their steps, water their way with their tears, stain the white snow with the blood of their wounded feet! We ask it in the spirit of love, of Him Who is the Source of Love. and Who is the ever-faithful refuge and friend of all that are l~C 76,...,.. sore beset and seek His aid with humble and contrite hearts. Amen.
It was believed afterward that the man
From ., ram, nhptºera 5,.,uf,rd £ais, l oxdare C~~Ps r{ghrn,. was a lunatic, because there was no sense in what he said. •
10 FREE INQUIRY The Story of a Bad Little Boy
nce there was a bad little boy whose boys in the books; but it happened otherwise of the peace did not suddenly appear in oname was Jim—though, if you will with this Jim, strangely enough. He ate the their midst and strike an attitude and say notice, you will find that bad little boys are jam, and said it was bully, in his sinful, "Spare this noble boy—there stands the nearly always called James in your Sunday vulgar way; and he put in the tar, and said cowering culprit! 1 was passing the school school books. It was strange, but still it was that was bully also, and he laughed, and door at recess and, unseen myself, 1 saw the true that this one was called Jim. observed "that the old woman would get up theft committed." He didn't have any sick mother and snort" when she found it out; and when And then Jim didn't get whaled, and either—a sick mother who was pious and she did find it out, he denied knowing any- the venerable justice didn't read the cheerful had the consumption, and would be glad to thing about it, and she whipped him school a homily and take George by the lie down in the grave and be at rest but for severely, and he did the crying himself. hand and say such a boy deserves to be the strong love she bore her boy, and the Once he climbed up in Farmer Acorn's exalted, and then tell him to come and make anxiety she felt that the world might be apple tree to steal apples, and the limb didn't his home with him, and sweep out the office, harsh and cold toward him when she was break, and he didn't fall and break his arm, and make fires, and run errands, and chop gone. and get torn by the farmér's great dog, and wood, and study law, and help his wife do Most bad boys in the Sunday books then languish on a sick bed for weeks, and household labors, and have all the balance are named James, and have sick mothers repent and become good. Oh, no; he stole of the time to play, and get forty cents a who teach them to say "Now 1 lay me as many apples as he wanted, and came month, and be happy. down," etc. and sing them to sleep with down all right; and he was all ready for the No; it would have happened in the sweet plaintive voices, and then kiss them dog, too, and knocked him endways with a books, but it didn't happen that way to Jim. good night and kneel down by the bedside brick when he came to tear him. No meddling old clam of a justice dropped and weep. But it was different with this fel- in to make trouble, and so the model boy low. He was named Jim, and there wasn't George got thrashed, and Jim was glad of it anything the matter with his mother, no because, you know, Jim hated moral boys. consumption, nor anything of that kind. She Jim said he was "down on them milksops." was rather stout than otherwise, and she Such was the coarse language of this bad, was not pious, moreover, she was not neglected boy. anxious on Jim's account. She said if he But the strangest thing that ever hap- were to break his neck it wouldn't be much pened to Jim was the time he went boating loss. She always spanked Jim to sleep, and on Sunday, and didn't get drowned, and she never kissed him good night; on the that other time that he got caught out in a contrary, she boxed his ears when she was storm when he was fishing on Sunday and ready to leave him. didn't get struck by lightning.... He stole Once this little boy stole the key of the his father's gun and went hunting on the pantry, and slipped in there and helped him- Sabbath, and didn't shoot three or four of self to some jam, and filled up the vessel Once he stole the teacher's pen-knife. his fingers off.... He ran off and went to with tar, so that his mother would never and, when he was afraid it would be found sea at last, and didn't come back and find know the difference; but all at once a terrible out and he would get whipped, he slipped it himself sad and alone in the world, his loved feeling didn't come over him, and something into George Wilson's cap—poor widow ones sleeping in the quiet churchyard, and didn't seem to whisper to him, "Is it right to Wilson's son, the moral boy, the good little the vine-embowered home of his boyhood disobey my mother? Isn't it sinful to do this? boy of the village, who always obeyed his tumbled down and gone to decay. Ah, no, Where do bad little boys go who gobble up mother, and never told an untruth, and was he came home as drunk as a piper, and got their good kind mother's jam?" And then fond of his lessons, and infatuated with Sun- into the stationhouse the first thing. he didn't kneel down all alone and promise day school. And when the knife dropped And he grew up and married, and never to be wicked any more, and rise up from the cap and poor George hung his raised a large family, and brained them all with a light, happy heart, and go and tell head and blushed, as if in conscious guilt, with an axe one night, and got wealthy by his mother all about it, and beg her forgive- and the grieved teacher charged the theft all manner of cheating and rascality; and ness, and be blessed by her with tears of upon him and was just in the very act of now he is the infernalest wickedest scoundrel pride and thankfulness in her eyes. bringing the switch down on his trembling in his native village, and he is universally No; that is the way with all other bad shoulders, a white-haired improbable justice respected and belongs to the legislature. •
Summer 1984 11 Science vs. Religion in Future Constitutional Conflicts
Delos B. McKown
et me pose three portentous questions and provide a aware of past and present threats to government from religion. recipe as liable, perhaps, to exacerbate the social situa- The religion clauses of the First Amendment took shape tion from which these questions arise as it is likely to accordingly. ameliorate that situation. First, what would it take to aggrieve Although Jefferson and Madison were aware of the sec- religious moderates and liberals as much as conservative and tarian strife that would simmer, if not boil over, in a free extreme rightist believers are aggrieved now? Second, what society, they were content that it would be so, hoping only that would happen to science education in the public schools if it would nullify itself politically.' It never occurred to them religious moderates in substantial numbers, together with some that progress in "science and useful arts" (i.e., technology) liberals, were to unite with religious conservatives and extrem- would, one day, so provoke and dismay religion as to be ists in attacking the source of their mutual grief? Third, would endangered by it.' As deists, they believed the study of nature the courts and the Constitution be able to contain the grief to be the surest way to the creator's mind. Thus, the major ensuing from a major conflict between religious and secular premise of religion, God's existence, seemed inviolable by sci- interests in public education? ence. Moreover, perceiving no danger to science from religion, The Founding Fathers gave us an utterly secular Constitu- our forefathers took no preventive measures. The unforeseen tion, yet one that protects the free exercise of religion more result is that religion is constitutionally favored over science. surely than the free exercise of science. Thomas Jefferson and An insistent question for us now is this: Shall religious James Madison, though they were cool toward much in reli- knowledge, so to speak, be favored over scientific knowledge? gion, were fervent on the behalf of freedom, including the The answer seems to be yes, for the Supreme Court has ruled freedom to be or not to be religious. Cognizant of past and that no branch of government may detract from religion or present threats to religion from government, they were also impede any citizen's belief therein.' Yet, that is precisely what is happening (according to creationists) whenever cosmic, plan- etary, or biological evolution is taught in the public schools. Hence, strife now arises not merely between sect and sect but Delos B. McKown is professor of philosophy at Auburn between sect and science. University in Alabama. He is the author of The Classical Even as our forefathers foresaw no threat of science versus Marxist Critiques of Religion: Marx, Engels, Lenin, Kautsky. religion worth precluding, so multitudes today perceive none either, believing that science and religion, properly understood,
12 FREE INQUIRY do not conflict. No less a scientists than Stephen Jay Gould having us thinking, talking, and writing about such an inanity, has endorsed this mistake." Although he did not show how a to say nothing of having to fight it in school-board sessions, true religion (presumably compatible with science) can be legislative halls, and the courts is a signal achievement. Even extracted from the swarming mass of false religions, one can though Judge Overton's celebrated Arkansas decision was a guess what it would involve—namely, a creator who made the severe blow to the creationists, they clearly have the people on world as it is because of his purpose(s) for it. But, this is no their side.' An Associated Press poll shows that 75 percent "of more than deism. the American people favor teaching the biblical theory of ori- Deism, however, is not a proper paradigm for most exist- gins of life in the public schools."' ing religions. It is too spare, ideal, and rarefied to resemble Recently, a group of self-styled "creationist extremists" very much the garden varieties in which people actually believe. said, "Heliocentricity, or general Copernicanism, is an anti- Biblical notion and is the precursor of Darwinism."' One shud- ders at the thought of a poll to discover how many Americans "Powerful, conservative religious forces are now coun- believe geocentricity ought to be taught whenever heliocentricity terattacking. Foreseeing victory as the country is taught and how many think that the flat earth theory ought allegedly returns to God, some are already talking of to be given "balanced treatment" with the globular hypothesis the post-secular America now emerging." of the planet. Such, however, is our culture, our piety, naiveté, and good-natured (if misguided) sense of fair play, that the The price Gould pays in supplying a religion that does not figure might well exceed 50 percent. Existing polls provide conflict with science is the price of extreme attenuation, of ample reason for believing so.'' draining religion of its blood and guts, as it were. Given such a cultural climate as ours, given that in general Viewed from a religion with guts, a religion whose blood we are a nation of logical illiterates and scientific simpletons is boiling at present, i.e., from the standpoint of American (despite the billions spent on public education), religious fundamentalism, there is no conflict between science and reli- developments as ominous as they are ludicrous can occur. gion either. Of course the price science would have to pay in Nor can we always trust the courts. Concern has already making good on this absurd claim is nothing less than its own been vented over the role of the California court in the Sea- dismemberment. An astronomer recently estimated that if crea- graves creationism decision. This court ordered the state board tionist claims were true, about 50 percent of his introductory of education to "reaffirm its 1972 position already a political course in astronomy would have to be deleted, a disaster compromise that evolution be taught as 'theory,' rather than as approximating that with which creationism threatens biology.' 'dogmatism.' "" As Harvey Siegel has written, Geology would also be gutted, and archaeology and anthro- pology would suffer substantially, as would much, if not most, The court by directing that evolution be taught as theory, not of the study of prehistory. Any aspect of science relying on fact, left a clear impression that alternative theoretical accounts of the origins of life (notably the creationist account) are radiometric dating techniques would be emasculated, and not acceptable alternatives to evolution theory.... The effect of even linguistics would go unscathed.' the decision is to suggest that creationism does deserve to be People often have trouble comprehending that, for many recognized as scientifically legitimate. believers, real religion, if not true religion (whatever that might be), involves some form or another of scriptural literalism. For To this, Robert O'Neil adds, "while inconclusive in a technical multitudes of Christians, belief in the inerrancy of the Bible is, legal sense, the Seagraves case may have ominous import," the religiously, on a par with belief in the existence of God and point being the court's willingness to decide what is and what redemption of Christ. There are, of course, ways in which is not science and how it should be presented. science and religion cannot conflict that involve unrelated func- The decision of a Michigan court also must be added, tions. For example, science does not address itself to saving which ruled that the First Amendment exempts private Chris- souls or to performing rites of passage, and religion does not tian schools "from state supervision of their curriculum and attempt to elucidate electromagnetics or to release the atom's teachers."12 It is widely recognized that public school instruction energy. But, given scriptures that make unsupported pro- in science has been and now is a national disaster. Imagine the nouncements on the nature of the universe, the earth, life, and compounded damage that will result if this decision is upheld, humankind; given people whose religion includes, as a major thus paving the way for teaching mythology as science to a doctrine, belief in scriptural inerrancy; and given constitutional million or more students in fundamentalist schools." Given guarantees for the free exercise of any real, heartfelt religion, these twin calamities, it is not difficult to envision a time when conflict between science and religion is inevitable. Given its the first two years of college-level science courses will have to inevitability, one wonders how intense and extensive the conflict be remedial. The loss of time and resources would be stag- will become. It is important to notice that the conflict is already gering. intense and extensive and that it will almost certainly get worse The booby prize, however, goes to Judge Hand for com- in the foreseeable future. ments reported in the press prior to the Jaffree case of 1982.
e are now embroiled in an argument over whether or Prayer advocates ... took heart in Hand's observation that W not to teach an ancient creation myth as science and on "the religions of atheism, materialism, agnosticism, and com- an equal footing with scientific notions about evolution. Merely munism and socialism have escaped the scrutiny of the courts
Summer 1984 13 Courtesy of the Buffalo and Erie County Public Library If materialism and agnosticism are religions, naturalism is also a religion, especially when it is ardently held. In this magical manner, the foundation of science becomes religious. Here, the process to be featured is that of ideologizing science, of transmuting its philosophical assumptions into reli- gious dogmas. Once done, the pious can trumpet their position as the one true faith while branding every inimical position as false religion. Judge Hand appears to be no stranger to this drift in confused thinking, nor is he necessarily a voice crying in the wilderness, as he has pictured himself.'" There may well be others, many others, similarly situated. Furthermore, given the current cultural climate, still others must be aborning. How, one wonders, would science and science education fare if as many as five justices of the Supreme Court were to view the world as he does? This is no idle question when we consider the possibility of a back-to-the-Bible president packing the Court with Judge Hands, especially if he is given two terms in which to do it. Meanwhile, various kinds of nonjudicial mischief have Supreme Court been occurring. Gallup recently found that about 44 percent of Americans believe that God created man, essentially as he now throughout the years. and make no mistake these are to the is, within the past ten thousand years.'9 Out of this large believers religions; they are ardently adhered to and quanti- minority have come the fundamentalists in general, the self- tatively advanced in the teachings and literature that is designated scientific creationists and Moral Majority, evangeli- presented to the fertile minds of the students in the various cals, and assorted religious rightists. Such people in varying school systems." combinations have (1) tried to pass so-called balanced treatment bills, (2) sought to reinstate prayer in the public schools, (3) This injudicious muddle cries out for analysis. First, gutted science texts, (4) harassed librarians and questioned Thomas Huxley coined the term agnostic to identify skeptics acquisitions, (5) manipulated publishers with economic carrots of theism and atheism. By what sleight of hand would a federal and sticks. (6) tried to root out values clarification (including judge include agnostics among the faithful? Second, even if sex education) from our schools, and (7) sought to rid the faith is involved in affirming the nonexistence of God, such nation of what they take to be the malign influences of secular affirmation does not thereby become religious. As Durkheim humanism. has shown, where there is no division of the world's contents into sacred and secular, there is no religion." Since atheists reject this bifurcation, to call them "religious" is to call the allup also found that 38 percent of Americans believe irreligious religious. This is playing fast and loose with language Gman is the product of evolution but that evolution was and logic and, one would presume, with law. initiated or assisted by God. Those who can still reconcile Third, philosophical materialism is not a religion but sim- Judeo-Christian teleology with evolution are, of course. ply an intellectual position maintaining that the physical rather America's religious moderates and liberals. Are there any rea- than the mental or spiritual is the fundamental stratum of sons why significant numbers of these people might become so reality. Fourth. socialism is a political and economic theory aggrieved as to join forces with the 44 percent described above? upholding collective or governmental ownership and demo- The following litany of horrors (viewed as such from the reli- cratic management of the basic means of production and dis- gious perspective) thunders "Yes!" tribution of goods. Although it is compatible with religious The litany is this: Christianity is scientifically unsupported belief and can be a component in theological systems. it does and probably unsupportable. philosophically suspect at best not itself invoke holy objects or sacred doctrines. And, fifth, and disreputable at worst. and historically fraudulent. Judge Hand, now well known for his decision that the First To say that Christianity is scientifically unsupportable is Amendment allows the various states to establish religion not to say that scientists must be atheists or hostile to religion, within their borders, omits a likely candidate—naturalism— nor that teleology is logically incompatible with every cos- from his curious list of religions.'° As I have written elsewhere. mology. What it says has been well put by Ralph A. Alpher: "Surely if a necessity for a god-concept in the universe ever turns up, that necessity will become evident to the scientist." The physical sciences operate on naturalistic assumptions. They also proceed agnostically in that they question both a priori Scientific investigation as such does not begin with this concept; notions and opinions based on authority. Moreover, they sys- it leads to no such concept and is not ever likely to do so. tematically doubt their hypotheses through rigorous testing Sheer indifference to theology, however, is not the only until one, having survived probing attempts at disconfirmation. characteristic of modern science. At times it is hostile, as the emerges to establish the truth of whatever is at issue.I' Medawars have shown:
14 FREE INQUIRY . . . [T]he physicists were in the main very well disposed must conclude that they are philosophically suspect at best, towards God, the geneticists are not. disreputable at worst. The last and perhaps most distressing part of the litany of It is upon the notion of randomness that geneticists have based modern knowledge is that Christianity is historically fraudu- their case against a benevolent or malevolent deity and against lent. The fraud at issue, of course, is pious fraud nonetheless. 21 there being any overall purpose or design in nature. Morton Smith observes tartly that, whenever "a theologian talks of a `higher truth,' he is usually trying to conceal a lower Sensing the coming dark night for Western religion, Freud falsehood."23 Three examples of pious fraud must suffice here. wrote: First, it can no longer be maintained that the church is founded on the New Testament; rather the church compiled Humanity has in the course of time had to endure from the the New Testament, and out of intensely partisan documents hands of science two great outrages upon its naive self-love. written by churchmen with theological axes to grind.2° More- The first was when it realized that our earth was not the center of the universe.... The second was when biological research over, orthodox Christianity preserved only those documents robbed man of his particular privilege of having been specially that furthered its theological and hierarchical ends, suppressing created, and relegated him to a descent from the animal those it took to be inimical.25 No wonder we know so little of world.22 the historical Jesus! But, then, if we knew him better, we might admire him less. How long can it go unnoticed that Christianity is unsup- Second, much in the Gospels concerning Jesus is suspect. ported (and is probably unsupportable) by the dominant mode Neither history nor biography, they were written that their of modern knowledge? At present the religious right does not recipients might believe in him (John 20:31). Intent on con- see science as its true nemesis but rather as a tiny band of vincing Jews of Jesus' messiahship, the Gospel (and other New secular humanists, satanically inspired of course. Perhaps the Testament) writers wrenched passages and prophecies out of scales will fall from their eyes one day and they will see per- the Jews' own scriptures and made them apply willy-nilly to spicuously. Perhaps some, or even many, liberal Jews and Jesus. This massive misuse of the Old Testament amounts to Christians will join them in perspicuous viewing. What will outright fraud. Taking scriptural license into account plus happen to science and science education then? fabricated birth stories, suspiciously different resurrection tales, When the empirical rug is pulled from under a person, the and many inconsistencies, Albert Schweitzer concluded, "The most likely landing is philosophy—for sophisticates at least. Jesus of Nazareth who came forward publicly as the Messiah, But, nowadays, philosophy is not a welcome place to land. No preached the ethic of the Kingdom of God, who founded the longer the handmaiden of theology, it probes theology's major Kingdom of Heaven on earth, and died to give his work its "26 premise with impunity. Put epigrammatically, the invisible and final consecration, never had any existence... . nonexistent look much alike, so much so that when intending Third, the church has always represented Christianity as to speak of the invisible, the theologian may be speaking of the the religion of and from Jesus, but it is not the religion of Jesus. That religion was Judaism, the religion he shared with "Should a significant number of religious liberals and the original Jerusalem church (Acts 21:17-31).27 Nor is ortho- dox Christianity the religion from Jesus. It is the religion about moderates join conservatives and fundamentalists in Jesus emanating from St. Paul's paranormal experiences, unmi- repudiating our litany, there could be a powerful cur- tigated gall, and desire to dominate the movement (Gal. 1:11, rent toward theocracy." 2:11-16; 2 Cor. 11-12). So different is the contrivance of Paul from Jesus' religion that we can say (paraphrasing Jeremy nonexistent. How shall we know? What referent, if any, does Bentham) that, with respect to Jesus, Paul was at the beginning "God" name univocally? Unless and until theologians show us of his Christianity what Judah was at the end of his.'-" One that they are speaking of more than their own concepts, it is could go on and on, but enough is enough. pointless to continue, even though they go on and on endlessly. To get the point, simply let the litany ring out again: When one is denied logical proofs for the existence of Christianity is scientifically unsupported and probably unsup- God and thus forced to depend upon faith alone, the next portable, at best, disreputable at worst, and historically fraudu- lower landing is so-called religious experience. Since all the lent. Even if this litany is not completely true, even if scientific, religions of the world are validated in at least part by the philosophic, and historical knowledge only tend to confirm it, experiences of their devotees, what is the evidentiary nature of the threat is clear. Given time, enough of recondite research these experiences relative to the truth of a religion in general can percolate to ordinary people to engender alarm, especially or to any of its separable doctrines? We in the West who have when religion is at stake. As a recent article in Newsweek said, lately learned more of Islam can scarcely doubt that this great "Now some neuroscientists are beginning to suspect that every- faith is often supported by vital, if not fanatic, feelings. Yet thing that makes people human is no more than an interaction this faith denies the Trinity, the virgin birth, and the death of of chemicals and electricity inside the labyrinthine folds of the Jesus by crucifixion—doctrines that are powerfully validated brain."29 Thus does the percolation occur. Once it has occurred, by the religious experiences of Christians. Experiences that how can the science teacher in the public schools, for example, validate contradictory doctrines cannot but be suspect. Con- handle a contention like Steven Weinberg's: "The more the cerning theism in general and Christianity in particular, one universe seems comprehensible, the more it also seems point-
Summer 1984 15 less"?"' says Congress 'must promote scientific knowledge even at the This litany will likely become insistent intellectually and expense -of religious sensibilities. pervasive, tending to secularize and humanize our culture if Without waiting for such a guarantee, we should (l) work left to itself. But, powerful, conservative religious forces are to improve and expand science education across the board in now counterattacking. Foreseeing victory as the country the public schools; (2) seek ways, including the possible use of allegedly returns to God, some are already talking of the post- professional sanctions, to help safeguard the integrity of science secular America now emerging." Should a significant number instruction in public schools and to shield science teachers of religious liberals and moderates join conservatives and fund- against uninformed public opinion or other political pressures; amentalists in repudiating our litany, there could be a powerful (3) explore with various scientific organizations the possibility current toward theocracy. If so, could our constitutional frame- of the nonprofit production and publication of science text- work contain the ensuing conflict? Could the degree of church- books for the public schools as an economic weapon against state separation that has traditionally characterized our society unprincipled commercial publishers; (4) attempt to involve sci- survive? entists and their professional organizations, as never before, in The worst-case scenario would probably require the curriculum development and improvement in the public emergence of a Christianized Ayatollah Khomeini and the schools; (5) attempt, formally and informally, through educa- Iranization of America. If our secular footings remain as stable tion, to increase Americans' appreciation of science and to as heretofore, these twin terrors are unlikely; but, since the heighten their awareness of its advantages to the nation and its worst-case scenario is conceivable, it would be shortsighted to citizens; (6) join or support organizations committed to the ignore it. Some scenario less evil than the worst would more separation of church and state; and (7) work through education likely happen. Thus, merely escaping the worst case does not to help wean Americans from their traditional religion, espe- mean that we are not in for some bad times. cially in its fundamentalistic, literalistic, and authoritarian manifestations. he immediate constitutional question is this: Can modern Weaning Americans from their traditional religion will, of T knowledge be taught so as to avoid the resulting secularism course, be most difficult. A recent article in U.S. News & that will almost certainly be perceived as a humanistic attack World Report began as follows: "Sensing a gnawing disillusion- on religion? The Supreme Court seems to think so, for it ruled ment with science and secularism as the driving forces in U.S. that "the State may not establish a `religion of secularism' in society, churches are growing more aggressive in proclaiming the sense of affirmatively opposing or showing hostility to a spirituality that is the root of their very existence," and went religion, thus preferring those who believe in no religion over on to say that there "is a newfound determination by those of those who believe." The schools, however, cannot teach religious faith to `search out the sacred' in a society that has modern science without adopting the rational empiricism that increasingly moved away from its religious underpinnings.' underlies it, nor can they teach scientific method without aiding Thus, while some of us press ahead, welcoming more science and abetting the secularism that follows in its wake. The con- and secularity, others work to reestablish the reign of religion. tents and attitudes of public school curricula that so aggrieve Jacques Monod deserves the final word for the compas- religious rightists have not been caused by a handful of secular sionate acuteness of his diagnosis of current Western culture. humanists but by the general secularism that has followed He wrote: science as surely as have its technological applications. Reli- gious rightists, incapable of recognizing this and casting about Modern societies accepted the treasures and the power that for something else to blame, have seized on what they like to science laid in their laps. But they have not accepted—they call "the godless religion of secular humanism." Even the Court, have scarcely even heard—its profounder message: the defining caught up in this nonsense, writes of a "religion of secularism." of a new and unique source of truth, and the demand for a How absurd! Nevertheless, that is the dilemma in which the thorough revision of ethical premises, for a total break with the animist tradition, the definitive abandonment of the "old public schools are caught, particularly now, as new emphasis is covenant," the necessity of forging a new one. Armed with all being placed on improved science education. the powers, enjoying all the riches they owe to science, our What should be done? First, I have a caveat, then, an societies are still trying to live by and to teach systems of impossible dream. If acted upon, the following suggestions values already blasted at the root by science itself. might have the same kind of effect as last-ditch attempts at No society before ours was ever rent by contradictions so westernizing Iran would have had just before Khomeini s take- agonizing.7q over. In short, these suggestions may only exacerbate the situa- tion or worsen it faster than would otherwise have been the Notes case. The impossible dream is that scientific inquiry and the I. Marvin Myers, The Mind of the Founder: James Madison, rev. ed. acquisition and diffusion of knowledge in general, and in the (Hanover, N.H.: Brandeis University Press, 1981), Preface, pp. xxx, xxxi. public schools in particular, might have constitutional guaran- 2. "[S]cience and useful arts" is found in Article 1, Section 8 of the tees equivalent to those enjoyed by religion. It is very hard, Constitution. 3. Epperson v. Arkansas, 393 U.S. 103-104 (1968), states: "Government however, to foresee an amendment that says Congress shall in our democracy, state and national, must be neutral in matters of religious not subordinate scientific information to religious information theory, doctrine, and practice. It may not be hostile to any religion or to the or prohibit the free dissemination of the former, or one that advocacy of no religion; and it may not aid, foster, or promote one religion
16 FREE INQUIRY or religious theory against another or even against the militant opposite. The First Amendment mandates governmental neutrality between religion and religion, and between religion and nonreligion." See also Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. I, 18 (1947); McCollum v. Board of Education 333 U.S. 203 (1948); Zorach v. Clauson, 343 U.S. 306, 313-314 (1952); An Invitation to Become a Torcaso v. Watkins, 367 U.S. 488, 495 (1961); and Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 422-436 (1962). FREE INQUIRY Associate 4. Stephen Jay Gould, "Creationism: Genesis vs. Geology," Atlantic, September, 1982, p. 14. 5. See Skeptical Inquirer, vol. 7, no. I (Fall, 1982), pp. 5-6. REE INQUIRY and the Council for Demo- 6. Marvin Perry, "Banning a Textbook," New York Times, Sunday, May 31, 1981. Fcratic and Secular Humanism are unique. 7. McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education, January 5, 1981. They provide responsible, critical examination of 8. See Robert M. O'Neil, "Creationism, Curriculum and the Constitu- tion," Academe (March-April, 1982), p. 21. religious claims—many of them ancient, some 9. Skeptical Inquirer, op. cit., p. 7. new—that are seldom, if ever, the subject of pub- 10. In addition to the Associated Press poll cited above in note 8, see lic discussion. These beliefs, however, can and also a Gallup poll on religion released on August 29, 1982, and a Roper poll on religion in America taken for NBC, released in 1981. do have powerful political, moral, and social con- 11. O'Neil, "Creationism," op. cit., p. 22. sequences. Hence, it is important that they be 12. See "A Victory for Christian Schools," in Time, January 10, 1983, p. 66. critically evaluated. That is the primary educa- 13. Time estimates that there are about 600,000 students in independent tional mission of FREE INQUIRY and the Council Christian schools now. (ibid., p. 66). Since reading this article, the author for Democratic and Secular Humanism. has heard estimates of over a million such students, and Jerry Falwell has been reported to have said that a new Christian school goes up every four hours on the average. If we are to succeed in this important work, we 14. This item was carried widely in Alabama papers. My source was the need all the help we can get, and you, our readers, Opelika-Auburn News, September 14, 1982. 15. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (New are our principal source of support. York: A Free Press Paperback, 1968), p. 52. 16. One might have hoped for better from a federal district judge than May we urge you to contribute to the FREE this, but a reading of his decision in Jaffree v. Board of School Com- INQUIRY Development Fund. Its purpose is to missioners of Mobile County does not inspire confidence. 17. See my paper, "Science, Creationism, and the Constitution," a con- extend the influence of FREE INQUIRY and the tribution to the symposium "Validity of 'Ancient Earth' Data," delivered to Council. A minimum annual contribution of $100 the Southeastern Section of the Geological Society of America, meeting at Tallahassee, Florida, March 17, 1983. To be published under the aegis of the or a one-time gift of $1,000 or more will enroll GSA. you as a FREE INQUIRY Associate. 18. Jaffree v. Board of School Commissioners, op. cit. p. 48. 19. From the Gallup poll released on August 29, 1982. Your support is vital. All contributions are tax- 20. Ralph A. Alpher, "Theology of the Big Bang," Religious Humanism, vol. 17, no. 1 (Winter, 1983), p. 12. deductible. May we hear from you? 21. Peter and Jean Medawar, The Life Science (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), p. 17. 22. Cited in Stephen Jay Gould, Ever Since Darwin (New York: W. W. Norton Company, 1977), p. 17. 23. Morton Smith, Jesus the Magician (New York: Harper & Row, 1978), p. 165. I wish to contribute to the FREE INQUIRY 24. See Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels (New York: Random House, Development Fund. 1979). 25. Smith, Jesus the Magician, pp. 1-2. 26. Cited in R. Joseph Hoffman, "Biblical Criticism and Its Discon- Name tents," FREE INQUIRY, vol. 2, no. 4 (Fall, 1982), p. 19. 27. See Samuel G. F. Brandon, Jesus and the Zealots: A Study of the Political Factor in Primitive Christianity (Manchester: University of Man- Address chester Press, 1967), p. 165, n. 4. 28. Jeremy Bentham, The Church of England Catechism Examined (Mount Pleasant, Ramsgate: Thomas Scott, 1868), p. 25. City State Zip 29. Newsweek, February 7, 1983, p. 40. 30. Steven Weinberg, The First Three Minutes (New York: Basic Books, 1977), p. 154. 31. Richard John Neuhaus, "Moral Leadership in Post-Secular Return to: America," Imprimis, vol. 11, no. 7, July, 1982. FREE INQUIRY Development Fund 32. 347 U.S. 225 (1963). P.O. Box 5, Central Park Station 33. See "Religion's New Turn: A Search for the Sacred," U.S. News & World Report, April 4, 1983, p. 35. Buffalo • NY 14215 34. Jacques Monod, Chance and Necessity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971), pp. 170-171. •