Do Kids Need Special Feature to Pray? : Ronald Lindsay Patrick Buchanan Are We Living Mark Twain in the Last Days?

Robert Alley Joseph Barnhart Vern Bullough Randei Helms John Priest Gerald Larue James Robinson

Religion and Science in Future Constitutional Conflicts

Delos B. McKown

Jerry, Pat, Billy, and Oral at the Last Barbecue

SUMMER 1984 F c in ISSN 0272-0701

VOI.. 4, NO. 3

Contents 3 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR SCHOOL 5 Editorial: Is Prayer Essential to Morality? 6 Why Do Kids Need to Pray? Ronald A. Lindsay 9 The School Prayer Crusade Patrick J. Buchanan 10 In the "Good Old Days" Mark Twain ARTICLES 12 Science vs. in Future Constitutional Conflicts Delos B. McKown 18 and the Professors Sidney Hook ARMAGEDDON AND BIBLICAL APOCALYPTIC 28 Introduction: Doomsday Prophecies Paul Kurtz 31 Apocalypse Macabre Joseph Edward Barnhart 34 Hal Lindsey's Late Great Armageddon Update Vern L. Bullough 36 The Dangers of Apocalyptic Thinking Randel Helms 39 Dimensions of Apocalyptic Thinking Gerald A. Larne 42 What Is Biblical Apocalyptic? John Priest 47 as an Apocalypticist James Robinson 50 The Bible as an Engine of American Foreign Policy Robert S. Alley BOOKS 58 Secular and the Schools Tad S. Clements 59 Harrington's Marx and God Edward Walter 60 Sex and the Bible Robert T. Hall 63 Is the U.S. Humanist Movement in a State of Collapse? John Dart 64 ON THE BARRICADES 66 CLASSIFIED

Editor: Paul Kurtz Associate Editors: Gordon Stein, Lee Nisbet Assistant Editors: Doris Doyle, Andrea Szalanski Art Director: Gregory Lyde Vigrass Contributing Editors: Lionel Abel, author, critic, SUNY at Buffalo; Paul Beattie, president, Fellowship of Religious Humanists; Jo-Ann Boydston, director, Dewey Center; Laurence Briskman, lecturer, Edinburgh University, Scotland; Vern Bullough, historian, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Albert Ellis, director, Institute for Rational Living; Roy P. Fairfield, social scientist, Union Graduate School; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, University of Virginia Medical School; Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading University, England; Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, NYU; Marvin Kohl, philosopher, State University of New York College at Fredonia; Jean Kotkin, executive director, American Ethical Union; Gerald Larue, professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical history, USC; Ernest Nagel, professor emeritus of philosophy, Columbia University; Cable Neuhaus, correspondent; Howard Radest, director, Ethical Culture Schools; Robert Rimmer, author; M. L. Rosenthal, professor of English, New York University; William Ryan, free-lance reporter, novelist; Svetozar Stojanovic, professor of philosophy, University of Belgrade; Thomas Szasz, psychiatrist, Upstate Medical Center, Syracuse; V. M. Tarkunde, Supreme Court Judge, India; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, University of Rochester; Sherwin Wine, founder, Society for Humanistic Judaism Editorial Associates: H. James Birx, James Martin-Diaz, Steven L. Mitchell, Marvin Zimmerman Executive Director of CODESH, Inc.: Jean Millholland Poetry Editor: Sally M. Gall Book Review Editor: Victor Culotta Director of Publicity: Andrea Szalanski Assistant Director: Barry L. Karr Systems Manager: Richard Seymour Typesetting: Paul E. Loynes Staff. Joseph Bellomo, Jackie Livingston, Alfreda Pidgeon

FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published quarterly by the Council for Democratic and (CODESH, Inc.), a nonprofit corporation, 1203 Kensington Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14215. Phone (716) 834-2921. Copyright ©1984 by CODESH, Inc. Second-class postage paid at Buffalo and at additional mailing offices. Subscription rates: $14.00 for one year, $25.00 for two years, $32.00 for three years, $3.50 for single copies. Address subscription orders, changes of address, and advertising to: FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Central Park Station, Buffalo, NY 14215. Manuscripts, letters and editorial inquiries should be addressed to: The Editor, FREE INQUIRY, Box 5. Central Park Station, Buffalo. N.Y. 14215. All manuscripts should be accompanied by two additional copies and a stamped, addressed envelope. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors or publisher.

2 FREE INQUIRY simply bigger denominations. He thus con- tinues to suggest that all enthusiastic minus- cule are equally guilty of child neglect or abuse, which surely is not true LETTERS TO THE EDITOR and which Streiker has certainly not shown. And further, he fails to bring out how largely the gaps in the law's shield are holes punched by the Christian Science lobby. Christian Science being larger and longer established is not, 1 take it, for Streiker Church-State Entanglement struck down as unconstitutional should the either a sect or a cult. Christian Science church ever attempt to Second, Streiker quotes with approval the judgment that "there is no constitutional The predominantly Christian Supreme Court enforce it: right to choose to die.... The state's interest has determined that the Pawtucket, Rhode 1. The Fourteenth Amendment to the Island, municipality's official display of the Constitution guarantees equal protection in sustaining life ... is hardly different from nativity scene does not "create excessive under the law to all persons. The Eddy law its interest in the case of suicide"; and com- entanglement between religion and govern- grants a specific privilege to one group never ments "The very foundation of this country ment." Maybe just a little entanglement— enjoyed by any other person or organization. is the recognition that the right to life trans- the display of kings bearing gifts, shepherds, 2. By granting to a religious group cends all others." Certainly the intervention angels, and a manger in which the baby special legal privileges not enjoyed by non- of the state to protect minors from gross Jesus lies with arms spread in apparent religious groups, Congress has violated the parental abuse or neglect can and should be benediction, costs $1,365 of taxpayers' First Amendment prohibition against estab- justified by reference to the right to life money. A little here, a little there, but it is a lishing a religion. claimed in the Declaration of Independence. little like a doctor telling a woman that she 3. The arbitrary and selective extension But to appeal to that right to justify laws is a little bit pregnant. It is a cowardly way of copyright makes it possible for a group criminalizing both adult suicide in general of sneaking mythology into the back door to suppress the publication and critical and in particular the suicide or assisted sui- of government, but proselytizing is the back- examination of certain books of historical cide of voluntary euthanasia is quite another bone of their religion. interest. This is a clear assault on the free- matter. For to construe my right to life as In my lifetime, clergymen have gotten dom of speech, and if upheld, grants the requiring that 1 be forced to stay alive more and more power. They have seen fit government broad new powers to suppress whether or not I so wish is like construing to participate in public debates (from private and censor ideas. the right of free association as warranting pulpit and public podium) regarding blue It cannot be the case that church law- or requiring compulsory membership in laws, censorship, birth control, divorces, yers are unaware of the constitutional prob- whatever associations are in question. race, labor, abortion, movies, TV, gambling, lems with this law. They are undoubtedly sports, entertainment, dress, drugs, sex, hoping that the mere threat of prosecution Antony Flew wars, disarmament, politics—you name it. for copyright infringement will suffice to York University These activities are direct participation in deter all who might wish to publish Eddy's Downsview, Ont., Canada government and sectarian processes; and yet uncensored works. Thus far their scheme these same people of mythology enjoy vast has worked. My understanding is that the individual and property tax-exemptions. uncensored writings of Eddy are so trans- Academic Freedom parently absurd that no educated person at Falwell's College E. M. Thomason could ever take them seriously. This Hayward, Calif. apparently is the motivation for the ques- It would appear that Lynn Ridenhour (FI, tionable extension of copyright. It seems to Winter 1983/84) has ripped the mask of me that some organization in the forefront academic freedom from the face of Liberty Christian Science of the church/state battle ought to challenge Baptist College. 1, unfortunately, must state this very dubious law. that if his account of my chapel appearance The matter of Mary Baker Eddy's unique is any indication of the accuracy of the rest "copyright extensions" came up at a recent Robert Sheaffer of his article, then readers of FREE INQUIRY Committee for the Scientific Investigation San Jose, Calif. should withhold judgment on the issue until of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP) someone less clever and more objective looks conference. As the law now stands, copy- into the matter. rights last a maximum of seventy-five years, Religion and Child Abuse I never told Liberty's students to stay unless your name is Mary Baker Eddy, in out of art museums, not to read books, or which case you have another seventy-five Lowell Streiker ("Ultrafundamentalist Sects stay out of theaters. 1 told them what was years added. This is not only blatantly and Child-Abuse," FI, Spring 1984) goes in such places to prove my point, that unfair, it is a clear violation of the separation wrong in two ways. First, he suggests that modern art, music, literature, and films were of church and state. The Christian Scientists all "sects" and "cults" encourage refusals of presenting morally offensive materials to the have been granted special legal privileges not necessary medical attention for and positive youth of our nation. Would not even Sidney enjoyed by other individuals, or even by mistreatment of children. Yet he never Hook agree? If any readers of FREE INQUIRY other religious groups. While 1 am not a explains on what basis he is distinguishing wish to compare what 1 really told the stu- lawyer, it seems clear to me that there are at these religious groups from the other— dents at Liberty with what Ridenhour said least three solid reasons that the law can be presumably, noncult—older, established, or I told them they can read my book on the

Summer 1984 3 subject, The Legacy of John Lennon: More on Mormonism The Book of Mormon's statements Charming or Harming a Generation. In the about the creation has committed Mormon meantime, if Ridenhour really believes that "Joseph Smith and the Book of Mormon" doctrine to a uniquely creationist position. "pluralism exists in a liberal arts setting," (FI, Winter 1983/84) was an insightful, While fossil evidence supports the view that he hasn't experienced much of academia, scholarly article—a fearless and honest study the birth and death of plants and animals where nonsituation ethics, non-Darwinian of the early history of the Mormon church. has long been characteristic of life on this , and nonhumanist ideas are I don't see how those who espouse - planet, the Book of Mormon says that "if knocking at the door and waiting for serious promoting church history can feel comfort- Adam had not transgressed ... he would consideration. able with themselves. have remained in the Garden of Eden. And This was the first article I had read on all things which were created must have David A. Noebel, President Mormonism in years. Because of personal remained in the same state in which they Summit Ministries feelings and conflicts like those raised in were after they were created; and they must Manitou Springs, Colo. this article (Fawn Brodié s No Man Knows have remained forever, and had no end." My History was an eye-opener for me), I The book further says that "if it had been have not been involved in the church since possible for Adam to have partaken of the shortly after my mission. Both George Smith fruit of the tree of life at that time, there Ridenhour replies: and Sterling McMurrin raised some issues would have been no death...." A recent suggesting that one could be committed to president of the church, Joseph Fielding I have listened to a recording of David Noe- Mormonism yet not accept all the dogmas Smith, was so impressed with the clarity of bel's chapel speech, "The Decline of Western or history. In my own case, I might have these and other scriptures that he said, "I Culture," and I fail to find the distinction thrown the baby out with the bath water cannot think that the Lord created death in he is making. Here is what Noebel told the because I could not resolve my conflicts any creature, plant, animal, or even the earth students: "Have you been to an art museum within the framework of the church or on which we dwell, at the time of its crea- recently? Don't go. You haven't missed one Mormon doctrine. tion. Death came through the violation of a thing." Later he tells them, "Hey, friends, Congratulations on a job well done. law, and it passed upon all things by the have you read a book recently? Don't. You judgment of the Almighty, through the haven't missed a thing ... I'm talking about Dave Folland transgression of Adam, he being the lord some textbooks too." Salt Lake City, Utah who had been given dominion over all of My training and expertise is in the field these things." Thus Joseph Fielding Smith, of literature. English teachers are trained to sustained by the membership of the church recognize such literary and communicative Not only did Joseph Smith declare that the as a prophet, seer, and revelator, declared devices as overstatement, understatement, Book of Mormon was "the keystone of our that even plants did not die before Adam's paradox, and satirical pronouncements. Dr. religion," as stated by George D. Smith, fall about 6,000 years ago. Noebel's statements that morning, I assure but he also called it "the most correct of This position is such an important part you, were not construed by either faculty or any book on earth." One hundred and fifty of the Mormon doctrine that, in discussing students as literary tongue-in-cheek state- years later, Mormons continue to regard it recently, Apostle Bruce R. McConkie said, ments bouncing off angel's wings. To be both of these statements as true. The first "The Lord expects us to believe and under- sure, the rhetorical setting was one of pulpit lesson in the "1984 Gospel Doctrine Manual stand the true doctrine of the Creation—the oratory coming forth. The mode of discourse of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- creation of this earth, of man, and of all was definitely perceived by the audience as Day Saints" is entitled "The Book of forms of life. Indeed, as you shall see, an straightforward advice. The prophet had Mormon—The Keystone of Our Religion" understanding of the doctrine of creation is spoken. and the lesson features the "most correct" essential to salvation. Unless and until we Two of my students that morning declaration. gain a true view of the creation of all things sought to obey. They came barging into my Few members of the church know that we cannot hope to gain that fulness of eter- literature class after chapel. "See. I told you the latest (1981) edition of the Book of Mor- nal reward which otherwise would be ours." so," said one. "I knew I didn't need this mon contains almost four thousand changes stuff. [He meant literature.] "I'm going to from the original edition (1830). The vast Glen Wade the mission field." We were reading a short majority of the changes are grammatical, Santa Barbara, Calif. story by . He refused to par- with awkward expressions being eliminated, ticipate. A female student spoke up: "And I but some are substantive. The most recent refuse to read that stuffs" She picked up her alteration is in the wording of a prophecy The Evidence for Jesus Bible as I began lecturing on the short story that previously said Indians would become genre. "white and delightsome." It now reads that Kenneth Knipmeyer (Letters, FI, Spring By the way, what does a book on John they will become "pure and delightsome." 1984) assumes that G. A. Wells has stated Lennon have to do with comparing what Spencer W. Kimball, the church president, in his books that the Gospel Jesus was Noebel actually told the LBC students that had years ago accepted a literal interpreta- fraudulently created by the Gospel writers. day with what he thinks he told them? tion of the original wording. In 1960, he In fact, Professor Wells specifically denies If you wish a copy of the lecture, the said that Indian children living with Mor- that. His argument is that the Gospel Jesus recording is available through Thomas Road mon families had lighter skin than their evolved from the belief that Jews held con- Tape Ministry, Chapel 439 C. Box 1111, brothers and sisters in the hogans on the cerning political and religious leaders during Lynchburg, Va. 24505. Send $7.00. Or send reservations. "These young members of the the last centuries before the common era— an SASE with a blank sixty-minute cassette, Church are changing to whiteness and to and Ill mail you a copy, free of charge. delightsomeness," he said. (Continued on p. 61)

4 FREE INQUIRY mute our criticisms of religious piety so as Editorial not to undermine the common ground that the defenders of religious liberty and free- dom of conscience jointly share. While we can appreciate this strategy and concern, still the presumption that prayer raises moral standards needs to be questioned. There are certain assumptions that have not been suf- ficiently examined in the public debate. Is Prayer Essential First, we question the claim that people who pray (whether in church or school) are any more moral than those who do not. to Morality? There is little empirical evidence that these persons are more sincere, honest, just, trust- worthy, or altruistic than their nonpraying brethren. History is replete with examples of prayerful churchgoers who go off to war cursing the enemy and defending privilege, slavery, and other forms of immorality. The so-called good old days were not as morally wholesome as columnist Patrick Buchanan believes, as Mark Twain points out in the following pages. he long-awaited School Prayer We applaud those who continually Second, there is no evidence that there TAmendment has come and gone in the defend the First Amendment and the is a direct, causal relationship between the Senate. Although a majority of the senators cherished principle of the separation of 1962 Supreme Court decision that banned voted for it, those in favor of open prayer church and state embodied therein. We involuntary prayer in the public schools and lacked eleven votes to muster the two-thirds especially appreciate the efforts of Senator the rise of crime, immorality, and the break- majority necessary to enact it. It is evident Lowell Weicker, who courageously led the down of standards of conduct. On the con- that the prayer issue will not go away, and battle in the Senate for religious liberty. He trary, one can argue that America has made it most certainly will continue to embroil is no stranger to the pages of FREE INQUIRY. significant moral gains in the past twenty- the nation in internal fratricidal conflict. (See "The Bible or the Constitution?" Sum- five years, ever since the Supreme Court Some are predicting an ominous all-out cru- mer 1983.) decision. In this period, the recognition of sade by religionists to attain this end. Now We should applaud those in the main- human rights has been enormously there are efforts to get a Supreme Court line established churches—Protestant, Cath- expanded; segregation has been all but ruling in favor of silent prayer, and a ruling olic, and Jewish—who defend liberty of abandoned; the rights of women, minorities, will be forthcoming. The Supreme Court conscience and the First Amendment and and the handicapped immeasurably ruling in favor of the Pawtucket, Rhode oppose the vocal prayer amendment as a extended; and the right to responsible sexual Island, créche suggests an erosion of support violation of both, though some now seem freedom, voluntary euthanasia, and abortion for the First Amendment. Indeed, there is a disposed to support silent prayer. have been recognized. large section of opinion in America that Generally the argument against the No doubt some will view these develop- mistakenly believes that for the state to be prayer amendment has been made on con- ments as evil, but that only demonstrates neutral in religion—as the Constitution stitutional grounds: In a free pluralistic, that there is a wide diversity of opinion requires—is to impose the religion of secular democratic society, "Congress shall make no about the appropriate standards of good and humanism upon society. law respecting establishment of a religion." bad, right and wrong. Some who insist upon The American republic is not, in our To provide a state-written prayer in the imposing prayer to save the nation from judgment, a Protestant, Christian, or even a schools or a special time set aside for silent "moral decay" also favor authoritarian value Judaic-Christian republic, as Patrick prayer would, in our judgment, violate that structures. We don't approve of all the Buchanan argues below. It has been home principle. Moreover, children are not now developments that have occurred in society, to a large variety of religious and non- being denied voluntary prayer. They can such as the growth of the drug culture, religious points of view—from the and engage in prayer anytime they wish during pornography, and violence. In our view, anti-clericalism of the Founding Fathers to the day, and many do before a difficult exam however, although there have been some the humanism, paganism, , and or sports contest! setbacks, there has been moral progress on even of today. the whole. In a democratic, pluralistic com- By and large, America has provided a here is another argument against the munity there are bound to be moral framework in which a wide diversity of reli- Tprayer amendment that has not sur- disputes; and what is considered to be moral gious sects can prosper, and it has also left faced in the debate, but it needs to be heard; by one group may not be considered moral ample room for secular points of view to that is, doubts as to whether prayer is essen- by another. flourish. By and large, we have avoided the tial to moral conduct. Third, there is no clear evidence that sectarian hatreds of other nations that have We raise the question fully aware that those who pray are less apt to commit crimes sought to impose one religious doctrine on to do so may alienate liberal religionists or resort to violence than those who do not. the entire society. from secular humanism. Many urge us to Research studies have shown that the lowest

Summer 1984 5 percentage of inmates in prisons are free- needs of others. body of philosophical humanistic wisdom thinkers, atheists, and unbelievers or indi- This means that a good case can be that is central to Western civilization. viduals from such backgrounds, and that made for the need for reflective individuals Socrates argued in Plato's Euthyphro that the highest percentage are from religious who have developed autonomous moral con- justice precedes piety; merely to pray to the backgrounds. sciences. Surely the development of indi- is no guarantee that an act done in Fourth, no doubt those who believe in viduals who are morally responsible and obedience to what the gods dictate is any the efficacy of prayer wish to instill a sense self-reliant should be one of the major aims more moral than one done in the light of a of fear of God's wrath in those who break of moral education. It is thus arguable that reflective examination of the merits of the the moral rules of society. We can appreciate prayer, at least that based on blind obedi- case and in terms of the ethical principles the sociological function of religion in ence or fear, is a positive good. Although that one has developed. The entire philo- engendering and supporting a sense of prayer may have certain psychological func- sophical tradition has supported that focus. obligation and duty to the social order based tions—it may release individuals from anxi- Religious zealots surely do not have an upon fear of divine sanctions or hope of ety in times of adversity and provide a basis exclusive monopoly on moral virtue. They divine approval. Many ethical philosophers for public expression of thanksgiving in have a short supply of ethical wisdom. and psychologists—Lawrence Kohlberg, for times of bounty—it is not the case that America will not decline in morality or example—have shown, however, that an prayer is either a necessary or a sufficient decency if prayer is not enforced among the ethics based upon fear or intimidation is at condition for moral virtue, social justice, or young. Far better to allow the free mind to a lower stage of moral development than the achievement of a life of nobility or discover its own dimension of moral insight one based upon moral growth and the cul- excellence. and truth untrammeled by various forms of tivation of an intelligent awareness of the That is the conclusion surely of a whole doctrinaire religious authority.—P. K. •

among orthodox theologians, of questioning the utility of petitionary prayer. One does Why Do Kids Need to Pray? not have to be an atheist to recognize that there is something counterintuitive about "begging" an omniscient, omnipotent, loving God for help.

he problem with petitionary prayer, in Ta nutshell, is that it is difficult to Ronald A. Lindsay understand why an individual (let us call him Jimmy) would have to ask God to be 66K ids need to pray." That has been on prayer, someone would address a more placed in state X if it were really in Jimmy's the rallying cry of the advocates of fundamental question: Do directed best interest to be placed in state X. A God state-sponsored school prayer. A number of to an omnipotent, omniscient, benevolent who cared for Jimmy would want Jimmy arguments have been advanced to establish deity serve any useful purpose? In this to enjoy the best state of affairs possible, all this "need," but most of these arguments regard, the utility of prayer is similar to a things being considered. This does not mean focus on social ills, such as increased drug number of other religious doctrines that, that Jimmy would never suffer from the use and violent crime, declining academic although they have a significant impact on effects of natural or moral evil. Allowing achievement, etc., that are allegedly attribut- issues of public policy, remain largely Jimmy to be maimed by an earthquake able to the absence of organized school unchallenged. could be good for his character, and allow- prayer. Little attention, if any, has been paid The absence of public discussion on this ing Jimmy to be maimed by Jerry's chain to theological justification for prayer itself. issue is especially unfortunate because it is saw may not only be good for Jimmy's Lamentably, the same can be said of clear that the type of prayer that both advo- character but may also be the unavoidable the arguments that have been made, both cates and opponents of school prayer have result of God's gift of free will to Jerry (and in Congress and in the media, by those who in mind is petitionary prayer. One congress- Jimmy). However, if it were possible for have spoken out against the restoration of man has quipped that there is no need for Jimmy to avoid the earthquake or Jerry's state-sanctioned school prayer. Opponents organized school prayers at the beginning chain saw without harming his character or have suggested that organized school prayer of each day because schoolchildren will impinging upon his or Jerry's free will, an is unwise because prayer is a private and always pray "as long as there are math omnipotent, omniscient, loving God surely personal act with which the state should tests." The "nondenominational" prayers would safeguard Jimmy from the earthquake not interfere and because it is likely to be that have been offered as examples of what and Jerry's misconduct. Indeed, the belief divisive and engender unnecessary discord. the children might be asked to say invariably that God will safeguard them from unneces- These points are well taken, but still one contain a petitionary element, as did the sary evil is precisely the reason why believers would hope that, with all of the discussion prayers that were taken out of the schools ask for deliverance from evil.] twenty years ago. The New York State But why do we have to ask to be Board of Regents' prayer struck down by delivered from evil? Prayers certainly do not Ronald A. Lindsay is an attorney in Wash- the Supreme Court in Engel v. Vitale had serve as a means of informing God of our ington, D.C., and adjunct professor at the children "beg Thy blessings upon us, needs and our wants since He already knows George Mason University School of Law. our parents, our teachers and our Country." what these are. Nor would a loving God The debate on school prayer thus ignores demand that we ask Him for His help as a the fact that there is a long tradition, even way of demonstrating our subservience to

6 FREE INQUIRY Him. An omnipotent, omniscient being who of petitionary prayer. Petitionary prayer is or desires, which is presumably why prayer would expose Jimmy to avoidable pain and at best only a sham, a device designed to is prescribed for accomplishing this goal.' suffering simply because Jimmy did not ask foster an illusion of human dignity. If it were at all possible to be friends for help is not a loving being, but a perverse with God, an argument that God might want and obstinate tyrant. et us distinguish between the terms to refrain from benefiting us without our As indicated, a number of theologians, J benefits and burdens. Someone is asking for these benefits has some initial including , have recognized burdened if he has been deprived of some- plausibility. Having a friend who continually the problem and have attempted to solve it. thing that he, and other similarly situated saw to it that 1 would be provided with However, their attempts to justify the prac- individuals, would have reasonably expected easy pitches and locomotive mountains, tice of petitionary prayer have all been to have. Jimmy is deprived of a sense of without my even asking for them, could, plainly unsatisfactory. Discussing their views security and a few limbs when he is exposed after a while, lead me to become so spoiled in detail would not only be unhelpful but to an earthquake or Jerry's chain saw. and dominated that 1 would be more his unnecessary, since a contemporary and Maiming is not an everyday occurrence for pet or plaything than his friend. vigorous defense of petitionary prayer has Jimmy, nor is it an everyday occurrence for However, the same cannot be said of a recently been offered by Professor Eleonore most people. The vast majority of people friend who helps one avoid unnecessary bur- Stump.2 Stump argues that God will only go through life with four limbs attached to dens. Take Jimmy and the earthquake. place Jimmy in state X if Jimmy asks God their bodies. This being the case, one is Being members of a religious society,5 we to do so because God wants to be Jimmy's burdened by the loss of a limb. would surely understand if God explained friend. Stump points out that friendship is Being benefited, on the other hand, (through some suitable spokesman, of made more difficult when the potential implies that one has received an advantage course) that He allowed the earthquake to friends are persons of unequal status. These that is not entirely expected. Smashing a maim Jimmy because He detected in Jimmy difficulties are necessarily magnified when game-winning grand slam in the bottom of an excessive insouciance that could be cor- the parties in question are an omniscient, the ninth inning is not something Jimmy, rected by the loss of a forearm or two. After omnipotent, perfectly good person and a the ballplayer, believes is likely to happen, all, what are friends for. The maiming had fallible, finite, imperfect person. If God were which is why he makes the sign of the cross to take place for Jimmy's own good. How- to shower Jimmy with unsolicited blessings, and petitions God's help when he steps to ever, it would be impossible to understand He would simply become too overpowering the plate.' Similarly, mountains do not nor- God's action (or inaction) if God stated that and overwhelming to remain Jimmy's friend. mally move themselves to suit one's needs the only reason He did not preserve Jimmy Jimmy would not only become spoiled, he would be reduced to "a shadowy reflection of [God's] personality, a slavish follower TELL '>'OU, LORD, who slowly loses all sense of his own tastes Woolf woo/. and desires and will." Making Jimmy's PRAÇER,TNICJ COUN1'R54 40% lb NM! request for state X a necessary condition of Jimmy's obtaining state X is a way of allow- T KNOW! ing Jimmy to preserve some control over S RECEIVEP La ME BE his life; it is a way of preserving Jimmy's 1NE"RE-ELECT THE JUKE dignity. Only if Jimmy has some dignity PEA4AN" OF 1HÁ1, RON! can he enter into a relationship of friendship with God. In short: BU1'fON YOU 0Nr ME ! God must work through the intermediary of prayer, rather than doing everything on his own initiative, for man's sake. Prayer acts as a kind of buffer between man and God. By safeguarding the weaker member of the relation from the dangers of overwhelming spoiling, it helps to pro- 'tHio i& 146 WAY if ADDS UP LORD! 11A15 WU I' WE r5OUNDS LIKg mote and preserve a close relationship HUMANISM PLUS yECULARISM ND ?MO REr vl!1 MATH between an omniscient, omnipotent, per- ► EQUAIh LOrnmutot6 IN 'CNO0L5. A fectly good person and a fallible, finite, wows, OE imperfect person. vA Stump's argument is creative, and is certainly much more appealing than other arguments that have been offered in defense of the practice of petitionary prayer. None- theless, it ultimately fails to make sense of the practice. 1 will first show that Stump's argument does not make sense of a certain class of petitionary prayers, namely, prayers to be freed from unnecessary burdens. 1 will then show that Stump's argument fails to preserve any significant purpose for any type Sanders, Milwaukee Journal

Summer 1984 7 from the earthquake was that Jimmy never Stump thinks such a reaction by the student cannot be characterized as more intrusive asked for His help and that Jimmy, in fact, would be healthy because, if he submissively than His knowledge of our every thought would have been better off if he had retained accepts "the teacher's [assistance], he [will] and feeling. God's satisfying our desires all of his limbs. Persons do not allow their have taken the first step in the direction of without being asked to do so cannot violate friends to suffer unnecessary burdens simply unhealthy passivity toward his teacher." If our dignity any more than His perfect because they have not been asked to help. the student "and his teacher developed that knowledge of our most intimate thoughts This is true even if the friends have become sort of relationship, he could end by becom- and feelings. estranged. Indeed, it is a mark of a true ing a lackeylike reflection of his teacher." There is nothing wrong with Stump's friend that he rushes to your assistance even Stump concludes that just as the teacher intuition about friendship. Friendship is though, for whatever reason, there may be should offer assistance only if the student enhanced if friends, especially friends of some ill will between you. If love means willingly shares his thoughts and feelings unequal status, do maintain a certain never having to say you're sorry, then with the teacher, so too God, if He wants respectful distance. The problem is that it is friendship means never having to ask for to avoid turning us into lackeylike reflec- not possible to maintain any respectful help. tions of Himself, should only provide us distance from an omniscient being. We can Nor does such assistance threaten to with assistance if we willingly share our no more maintain a respectful distance from make one intolerably passive, even if the thoughts and feelings with Him through God than a prisoner could maintain a assistance comes from an omnipotent friend. prayer. respectful distance from a (benevolent) jailer Remember that we arec not talking about The problem with this account is that who not only monitored the prisoner's every having our every wish granted, nor are we it is only meaningful to speak of someone's activity but also his every thought and contemplating a state of affairs in which no willingly doing something if it is possible feeling. Therefore, God's practice of satis- one would be burdened. We are only for him not to do it. It is possible for the fying our needs and wants (or some of our imagining what it would be like if no one student to willingly share his thoughts and needs and wants) only in response to our had to suffer from any unnecessary burdens. feelings with his teacher because he can request for assistance cannot act as a useful Planning and leading a prosperous, active refrain from sharing his thoughts and "buffer" between us and God. At best, God's life would be enhanced by the knowledge feelings with his teacher. God, however, encouragement of prayer can only be said that one will not have one's plans frustrated knows our thoughts and feelings, whether to assist in fostering an illusion of dignity by unnecessary burdens. The knowledge that we would like Him to or not. Moreover, where none exists. God will see to it that whatever burdens those who believe in Him and pray to Him Stump's argument fails to show that one suffers are there for one's own good know that He knows their thoughts and petitionary prayer serves any significant may remove some anxiety, but it could feelings. Under the circumstances, it is diffi- purpose. hardly be said to make one passive. cult to see what "willingly" sharing one's Stump's argument, therefore, fails to thoughts and feelings means when the per- etitionary prayer, therefore, remains a preserve any meaning for a whole class of son one is sharing with is God. pquestionable practice. What is not petitionary prayers, namely, prayers asking Stump's example of the teacher's questionable, however, is that it is scan- to be spared unnecessary burdens. If when refusal to provide assistance to the student dalous that in a democracy founded two faced with an impending earthquake, or without being first asked for assistance is centuries ago during the Enlightenment— cornered by Jerry and his buzzing chain saw, understandable to us since we sympathize whose citizens are relatively well- Jimmy really trusts in God, his friend, he with and respect a person's desire to keep educated—religious dogmas such as the will not pray, but will simply take whatever some of his problems private. The teacher's utility of prayer are allowed to go largely action seems appropriate, secure in the intrusion violates the student's desire for pri- unchallenged. 1f it were simply a matter of knowledge that God will preserve him from vacy in two ways. The teacher's assistance keeping religious issues sheltered from public unnecessary harm. was unsolicited, and the teacher, in some debate on the grounds that they are too way or another, has found out something divisive, one could, perhaps, understand this o far I have only shown that Stump's about the student that he wanted to keep to phenomenon. But as freethinkers are all too Sargument does not work for petitionary himself. The student's willing revelation of well aware, and as the debate on school prayers in which one asks to be relieved, or his problem saves the teacher from being a prayer illustrates, religious issues are asks that others be relieved, of unnecessary meddler. God's refusal to provide assistance regarded as permissible subjects of discus- burdens. However, Stump's argument ulti- without first having been asked for it, on sion as long as the discussion does not ques- mately fails to make sense of any petitionary the other hand, is not understandable. Those tion the fundamental premises of orthodox prayer. The key to Stump's argument is her who would pray for assistance, ex hrporhesi, religious views. Unfortunately, it is just such assumption that God wants to be and can desire assistance, and, in relation to God, a discussion of fundamental premises that be our friend and that it makes sense to try their thoughts and feelings are not private; is sorely needed. Do kids need to pray? Per- to foster this friendship between God and nor would a desire to keep them private be haps, but first kids need to think. man by using prayer "as a kind of buffer rational. God's unsolicited assistance cannot Thinking about prayer may even lead between man and God." show a lack of respect for a person's privacy us to some unexpected conclusions. In my Stump's best illustration of how this because there is no privacy to respect. God arguments against Stump's theories, I have buffer works is her fiction concerning the knows that the potential petitioner wants implied that, if God did in fact exist, we troubled student. The student's teacher help, the potential petitioner knows that might enjoy less human dignity than we knows that he is in academic trouble and God knows that he wants help, and God would if He did not. In view of the com- would like to help, but he is wary of doing knows that the potential petitioner knows monly held belief that our dignity is depen- so without first being asked because an that God knows that he wants help. Either dent on God's existence, this is a point worth unsolicited offer of assistance is "likely to God's unsolicited assistance cannot properly pursuing. For now, it is enough to note that strike the student as meddling interference." be characterized as meddling, or at least it the recommended posture for prayer sup-

8 FREE INQUIRY ports my suggestion. It is difficult to main- 1966), pp. 112 ff. 0n this view, the most that constitutionality of legislative chaplains. tain one's dignity on one's knees. one can rightfully ask for is the inclination to 3. See , March I, submit to God's will. This is not the attitude 1984, A3, col. 1 (discussing testimony of football adopted by the overwhelming majority of those coaches Tom Landry and Joe Gibbs in support Notes who engage in petitionary prayer. of school prayer). 2. Eleonore Stump, "Petitionary Prayer," 4. Matthew 21:21-22. I. D. Z. Phillips has argued that all American Philosophical Quarterly, vol. 16 (1979), 5. See "Remarks at the Annual Convention authentic petitionary prayer is really equivalent pp. 81-93. Stump's article was cited in Justice of the National Association of Evangelicals," to a plea (or perhaps a statement) that "Thy will Brennan s dissent in Marsh v. Chambers, 103 S. Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc., vol. 19 (1983), pp. be done." See The Concept of Prayer (New York, Ct. 3330, 3350 n.46 (1983), which upheld the 364-70. •

teaches that all consensual sexual relations, inside or outside of marriage, represent varied "life styles" entitled to equal respect. The School Prayer Crusade Where the old church taught sin and dam- nation, the new church preaches happiness and tolerance. Whose creed is this? In his brief and brilliant "What is Secular Humanism?" Jim Hitchcock traces the history, development, Patrick Buchanan, a noted conservative consultation with a democratic people, with- teachings and hierarchs of the new creed. columnist and former speech-writer for out support in precedent or the Constitution, A representative fragment can be found Richard Nixon, recently defended school the Warren Court undertook the systematic in Manifesto of 1973 signed prayer and attacked secular humanism. de-Christianization of America, beginning, by such luminaries as Dr. Sidney Hook: Although his views are in sharp contrast with but not stopping, with the public schools. "Traditional dogmatic or authoritarian reli- the editorial viewpoint of this magazine, we The secularization must proceed, the gions that place God, ritual or creed above present them in the interest of free inquiry. Court ruled, to bring society into compliance human need or experience do a disservice with the First Amendment provision that to the human species ... We affirm that the "state must be neutral" between religious moral values derive their source from human Patrick J. Buchanan . Something much more radical, how- experience. Ethics is autonomous and situa- ever, was afoot. tional, needing no theological or ideological hose creed should form the founda- When Bible instruction, school prayer, sanction. In the area of sexuality, we believe Wtion of American law? Whose beliefs Christmas and Easter celebrations were that intolerant attitudes, often cultivated by should serve as blueprint for governance of being expunged from the curricula and orthodox religious and puritanical cultures, American society? Should the United States expelled from the schools, the vacuum was unduly repress sexual conduct." be a Christian or pagan country? not meant to go unfilled. The beliefs, teach- As Dr. Hitchcock demonstrates, Questions no less momentous are at ings, traditions of a Christian faith were not "Humanism is hardly the benign, tolerant issue in the re-engaged conflict over a School simply displaced, they were replaced by force it pretends to be. Indeed, it is highly Prayer Amendment to the Constitution. The those of a new and alien creed. intolerant. It has a keen sense of being time has come to separate the sheep from The evolutionists in public education locked into a continuous philosophical and the goats. did not settle for equal time. They proceeded social struggle with religious belief, in which For eighteen decades, the creed that to run out of the public schools all com- the ultimate stakes are nothing less than the served as foundation for American law was peting theories of creation. Efforts to subject moral foundations of society." Christianity. And a rather stern Protestant Darwin's theory to the same critical scrutiny Precisely. Christianity at that. Abortion was a crime. the evolutionists once turned on biblical Under humanism, such allied sects as Shops were closed on Sunday. Salacious theory are rejected with passion. feminism, environmentalism, egali- novels were censored in good conscience. If Darwin was right about the origin of tarianism, , and socialism, are per- Pornography was an impermissible outrage species, what is the origin of matter? If Dar- mitted unrestricted access to effect the that could merit its producer a jail term. win was right, where in the fossil record are recruitment and indoctrination of a captive Drugs were outlawed. Prostitution was pro- the "intermediate forms," the missing links? audience of 40 million children in America's hibited. An "experiment, noble in purpose," The ferocity with which evolutionists repulse public schools. Christianity, the enemy, is said Herbert Hoover, was launched to out- such questions suggests the truth. Theirs is not. law the "demon rum" visibly destroying the not some scientifically unassailable truth; it The school prayer crusade, then, is the work habits, families, lives and neighbor- is a system of belief as rooted in faith as the first great counteroffensive of a badly routed hoods of the immigrant population. fundamental belief in the literal veracity of Christian community to recapture their In the public schools, Protestant clergy- Genesis. occupied public schools and reestablish their men doubled as teachers. Catholic bishops When the last posting of the Ten Com- beliefs as the legitimate moral foundation set up parochial schools, a century ago, not mandments had been ripped down, when of American society. Christians have every because the public schools were too irreli- Bible-based moral teaching on sex and the right to do so; indeed, they are under some gious, but because they were too Protestant. family had been dismissed, they were obligation to try. •

America was a Christian country. replaced—in sex education and values clari- Reprinted with the permission of the Tribune A quarter century ago, without prior fication courses—with a catechism that Company Syndicate.

Summer 1984 9 In the "Good Old Days" of Mark Twain

Were people more religious and, therefore, more moral in the "good old days'? The War Prayer Are moral persons rewarded by a happy and successful life on earth? We present two satirical views on these issues by one of America's leading secular humorists, Mark Twain.—Ens.

t was a time of great and exalting excite- Iment. The country was up in arms, the war was on.... In the churches the pastors preached devotion to flag and country, and invoked the God of Battles. . . . Sunday morning came—next day the battalions would leave for the front.... Then came the long prayer.... The burden of its sup- plication was that an ever-merciful and benignant Father of us all would watch over our noble young soldiers, and comfort and encourage them in their patriotic work.... An aged stranger entered and moved with slow and noiseless step up the main aisle.... He ascended to the preacher's side and stood there, waiting.... listen!

O Lord our Father, our young patriots, idols of our hearts, go forth to battle—be Thou near them! With them—in —we also go forth from the sweet peace of our beloved firesides to smite the foe. 0 Lord our God, help us to tear their soldiers to bloody shreds with our shells; help us to cover their smiling fields with the pale forms of their patriot dead; help us to drown the thunder of the guns with the shrieks of their wounded, writhing in pain; help us to lay waste their humble homes with a hurri- cane of fire; help us to wring the hearts of their unoffending widows with unavailing grief; help us to turn them out roofless with their little children to wander unfriended the wastes of their desolated land in rags and hunger and thirst, sports of the sun flames of summer and the icy winds of winter, broken in spirit, worn with travail, imploring Thee for the refuge of the grave and denied it—for our sakes who adore Thee, Lord, blast their hopes, blight their lives, protract their bitter pilgrimage, make heavy their steps, water their way with their tears, stain the white snow with the blood of their wounded feet! We ask it in the spirit of love, of Him Who is the Source of Love. and Who is the ever-faithful refuge and friend of all that are l~C 76,...,.. sore beset and seek His aid with humble and contrite hearts. Amen.

It was believed afterward that the man

From ., ram, nhptºera 5,.,uf,rd £ais, l oxdare C~~Ps r{ghrn,. was a lunatic, because there was no sense in what he said. •

10 FREE INQUIRY The Story of a Bad Little Boy

nce there was a bad little boy whose boys in the books; but it happened otherwise of the peace did not suddenly appear in oname was Jim—though, if you will with this Jim, strangely enough. He ate the their midst and strike an attitude and say notice, you will find that bad little boys are jam, and said it was bully, in his sinful, "Spare this noble boy—there stands the nearly always called James in your Sunday vulgar way; and he put in the tar, and said cowering culprit! 1 was passing the school school books. It was strange, but still it was that was bully also, and he laughed, and door at recess and, unseen myself, 1 saw the true that this one was called Jim. observed "that the old woman would get up theft committed." He didn't have any sick mother and snort" when she found it out; and when And then Jim didn't get whaled, and either—a sick mother who was pious and she did find it out, he denied knowing any- the venerable justice didn't read the cheerful had the consumption, and would be glad to thing about it, and she whipped him school a homily and take George by the lie down in the grave and be at rest but for severely, and he did the crying himself. hand and say such a boy deserves to be the strong love she bore her boy, and the Once he climbed up in Farmer Acorn's exalted, and then tell him to come and make anxiety she felt that the world might be apple tree to steal apples, and the limb didn't his home with him, and sweep out the office, harsh and cold toward him when she was break, and he didn't fall and break his arm, and make fires, and run errands, and chop gone. and get torn by the farmér's great dog, and wood, and study law, and help his wife do Most bad boys in the Sunday books then languish on a sick bed for weeks, and household labors, and have all the balance are named James, and have sick mothers repent and become good. Oh, no; he stole of the time to play, and get forty cents a who teach them to say "Now 1 lay me as many apples as he wanted, and came month, and be happy. down," etc. and sing them to sleep with down all right; and he was all ready for the No; it would have happened in the sweet plaintive voices, and then kiss them dog, too, and knocked him endways with a books, but it didn't happen that way to Jim. good night and kneel down by the bedside brick when he came to tear him. No meddling old clam of a justice dropped and weep. But it was different with this fel- in to make trouble, and so the model boy low. He was named Jim, and there wasn't George got thrashed, and Jim was glad of it anything the matter with his mother, no because, you know, Jim hated moral boys. consumption, nor anything of that kind. She Jim said he was "down on them milksops." was rather stout than otherwise, and she Such was the coarse language of this bad, was not pious, moreover, she was not neglected boy. anxious on Jim's account. She said if he But the strangest thing that ever hap- were to break his neck it wouldn't be much pened to Jim was the time he went boating loss. She always spanked Jim to sleep, and on Sunday, and didn't get drowned, and she never kissed him good night; on the that other time that he got caught out in a contrary, she boxed his ears when she was storm when he was fishing on Sunday and ready to leave him. didn't get struck by lightning.... He stole Once this little boy stole the key of the his father's gun and went hunting on the pantry, and slipped in there and helped him- Sabbath, and didn't shoot three or four of self to some jam, and filled up the vessel Once he stole the teacher's pen-knife. his fingers off.... He ran off and went to with tar, so that his mother would never and, when he was afraid it would be found sea at last, and didn't come back and find know the difference; but all at once a terrible out and he would get whipped, he slipped it himself sad and alone in the world, his loved feeling didn't come over him, and something into George Wilson's cap—poor widow ones sleeping in the quiet churchyard, and didn't seem to whisper to him, "Is it right to Wilson's son, the moral boy, the good little the vine-embowered home of his boyhood disobey my mother? Isn't it sinful to do this? boy of the village, who always obeyed his tumbled down and gone to decay. Ah, no, Where do bad little boys go who gobble up mother, and never told an untruth, and was he came home as drunk as a piper, and got their good kind mother's jam?" And then fond of his lessons, and infatuated with Sun- into the stationhouse the first thing. he didn't kneel down all alone and promise day school. And when the knife dropped And he grew up and married, and never to be wicked any more, and rise up from the cap and poor George hung his raised a large family, and brained them all with a light, happy heart, and go and tell head and blushed, as if in conscious guilt, with an axe one night, and got wealthy by his mother all about it, and beg her forgive- and the grieved teacher charged the theft all manner of cheating and rascality; and ness, and be blessed by her with tears of upon him and was just in the very act of now he is the infernalest wickedest scoundrel pride and thankfulness in her eyes. bringing the switch down on his trembling in his native village, and he is universally No; that is the way with all other bad shoulders, a white-haired improbable justice respected and belongs to the legislature. •

Summer 1984 11 Science vs. Religion in Future Constitutional Conflicts

Delos B. McKown

et me pose three portentous questions and provide a aware of past and present threats to government from religion. recipe as liable, perhaps, to exacerbate the social situa- The religion clauses of the First Amendment took shape tion from which these questions arise as it is likely to accordingly. ameliorate that situation. First, what would it take to aggrieve Although Jefferson and Madison were aware of the sec- religious moderates and liberals as much as conservative and tarian strife that would simmer, if not boil over, in a free extreme rightist believers are aggrieved now? Second, what society, they were content that it would be so, hoping only that would happen to science education in the public schools if it would nullify itself politically.' It never occurred to them religious moderates in substantial numbers, together with some that progress in "science and useful arts" (i.e., technology) liberals, were to unite with religious conservatives and extrem- would, one day, so provoke and dismay religion as to be ists in attacking the source of their mutual grief? Third, would endangered by it.' As deists, they believed the study of nature the courts and the Constitution be able to contain the grief to be the surest way to the creator's mind. Thus, the major ensuing from a major conflict between religious and secular premise of religion, God's existence, seemed inviolable by sci- interests in public education? ence. Moreover, perceiving no danger to science from religion, The Founding Fathers gave us an utterly secular Constitu- our forefathers took no preventive measures. The unforeseen tion, yet one that protects the free exercise of religion more result is that religion is constitutionally favored over science. surely than the free exercise of science. Thomas Jefferson and An insistent question for us now is this: Shall religious James Madison, though they were cool toward much in reli- knowledge, so to speak, be favored over scientific knowledge? gion, were fervent on the behalf of freedom, including the The answer seems to be yes, for the Supreme Court has ruled freedom to be or not to be religious. Cognizant of past and that no branch of government may detract from religion or present threats to religion from government, they were also impede any citizen's belief therein.' Yet, that is precisely what is happening (according to creationists) whenever cosmic, plan- etary, or biological evolution is taught in the public schools. Hence, strife now arises not merely between sect and sect but Delos B. McKown is professor of philosophy at Auburn between sect and science. University in Alabama. He is the author of The Classical Even as our forefathers foresaw no threat of science versus Marxist Critiques of Religion: Marx, Engels, Lenin, Kautsky. religion worth precluding, so multitudes today perceive none either, believing that science and religion, properly understood,

12 FREE INQUIRY do not conflict. No less a scientists than Stephen Jay Gould having us thinking, talking, and writing about such an inanity, has endorsed this mistake." Although he did not show how a to say nothing of having to fight it in school-board sessions, true religion (presumably compatible with science) can be legislative halls, and the courts is a signal achievement. Even extracted from the swarming mass of false religions, one can though Judge Overton's celebrated Arkansas decision was a guess what it would involve—namely, a creator who made the severe blow to the creationists, they clearly have the people on world as it is because of his purpose(s) for it. But, this is no their side.' An poll shows that 75 percent "of more than deism. the American people favor teaching the biblical theory of ori- Deism, however, is not a proper paradigm for most exist- gins of life in the public schools."' ing religions. It is too spare, ideal, and rarefied to resemble Recently, a group of self-styled "creationist extremists" very much the garden varieties in which people actually believe. said, "Heliocentricity, or general Copernicanism, is an anti- Biblical notion and is the precursor of Darwinism."' One shud- ders at the thought of a poll to discover how many Americans "Powerful, conservative religious forces are now coun- believe geocentricity ought to be taught whenever heliocentricity terattacking. Foreseeing victory as the country is taught and how many think that the flat earth theory ought allegedly returns to God, some are already talking of to be given "balanced treatment" with the globular hypothesis the post-secular America now emerging." of the planet. Such, however, is our culture, our piety, naiveté, and good-natured (if misguided) sense of fair play, that the The price Gould pays in supplying a religion that does not figure might well exceed 50 percent. Existing polls provide conflict with science is the price of extreme attenuation, of ample reason for believing so.'' draining religion of its blood and guts, as it were. Given such a cultural climate as ours, given that in general Viewed from a religion with guts, a religion whose blood we are a nation of logical illiterates and scientific simpletons is boiling at present, i.e., from the standpoint of American (despite the billions spent on public education), religious , there is no conflict between science and reli- developments as ominous as they are ludicrous can occur. gion either. Of course the price science would have to pay in Nor can we always trust the courts. Concern has already making good on this absurd claim is nothing less than its own been vented over the role of the California court in the Sea- dismemberment. An astronomer recently estimated that if crea- graves creationism decision. This court ordered the state board tionist claims were true, about 50 percent of his introductory of education to "reaffirm its 1972 position already a political course in astronomy would have to be deleted, a disaster compromise that evolution be taught as 'theory,' rather than as approximating that with which creationism threatens biology.' 'dogmatism.' "" As Harvey Siegel has written, Geology would also be gutted, and archaeology and anthro- pology would suffer substantially, as would much, if not most, The court by directing that evolution be taught as theory, not of the study of prehistory. Any aspect of science relying on fact, left a clear impression that alternative theoretical accounts of the origins of life (notably the creationist account) are radiometric dating techniques would be emasculated, and not acceptable alternatives to evolution theory.... The effect of even linguistics would go unscathed.' the decision is to suggest that creationism does deserve to be People often have trouble comprehending that, for many recognized as scientifically legitimate. believers, real religion, if not true religion (whatever that might be), involves some form or another of scriptural literalism. For To this, Robert O'Neil adds, "while inconclusive in a technical multitudes of Christians, belief in the inerrancy of the Bible is, legal sense, the Seagraves case may have ominous import," the religiously, on a par with belief in the and point being the court's willingness to decide what is and what redemption of Christ. There are, of course, ways in which is not science and how it should be presented. science and religion cannot conflict that involve unrelated func- The decision of a Michigan court also must be added, tions. For example, science does not address itself to saving which ruled that the First Amendment exempts private Chris- or to performing rites of passage, and religion does not tian schools "from state supervision of their curriculum and attempt to elucidate electromagnetics or to release the atom's teachers."12 It is widely recognized that public school instruction energy. But, given scriptures that make unsupported pro- in science has been and now is a national disaster. Imagine the nouncements on the nature of the universe, the earth, life, and compounded damage that will result if this decision is upheld, humankind; given people whose religion includes, as a major thus paving the way for teaching mythology as science to a doctrine, belief in scriptural inerrancy; and given constitutional million or more students in fundamentalist schools." Given guarantees for the free exercise of any real, heartfelt religion, these twin calamities, it is not difficult to envision a time when conflict between science and religion is inevitable. Given its the first two years of college-level science courses will have to inevitability, one wonders how intense and extensive the conflict be remedial. The loss of time and resources would be stag- will become. It is important to notice that the conflict is already gering. intense and extensive and that it will almost certainly get worse The booby prize, however, goes to Judge Hand for com- in the foreseeable future. ments reported in the press prior to the Jaffree case of 1982.

e are now embroiled in an argument over whether or Prayer advocates ... took heart in Hand's observation that W not to teach an ancient creation myth as science and on "the religions of atheism, materialism, agnosticism, and com- an equal footing with scientific notions about evolution. Merely munism and socialism have escaped the scrutiny of the courts

Summer 1984 13 Courtesy of the Buffalo and Erie County Public Library If materialism and agnosticism are religions, is also a religion, especially when it is ardently held. In this magical manner, the foundation of science becomes religious. Here, the process to be featured is that of ideologizing science, of transmuting its philosophical assumptions into reli- gious dogmas. Once done, the pious can trumpet their position as the one true faith while branding every inimical position as false religion. Judge Hand appears to be no stranger to this drift in confused thinking, nor is he necessarily a voice crying in the wilderness, as he has pictured himself.'" There may well be others, many others, similarly situated. Furthermore, given the current cultural climate, still others must be aborning. How, one wonders, would science and science education fare if as many as five justices of the Supreme Court were to view the world as he does? This is no idle question when we consider the possibility of a back-to-the-Bible president packing the Court with Judge Hands, especially if he is given two terms in which to do it. Meanwhile, various kinds of nonjudicial mischief have Supreme Court been occurring. Gallup recently found that about 44 percent of Americans believe that God created man, essentially as he now throughout the years. and make no mistake these are to the is, within the past ten thousand years.'9 Out of this large believers religions; they are ardently adhered to and quanti- minority have come the fundamentalists in general, the self- tatively advanced in the teachings and literature that is designated scientific creationists and Moral Majority, evangeli- presented to the fertile minds of the students in the various cals, and assorted religious rightists. Such people in varying school systems." combinations have (1) tried to pass so-called balanced treatment bills, (2) sought to reinstate prayer in the public schools, (3) This injudicious muddle cries out for analysis. First, gutted science texts, (4) harassed librarians and questioned Thomas Huxley coined the term agnostic to identify skeptics acquisitions, (5) manipulated publishers with economic carrots of and atheism. By what sleight of hand would a federal and sticks. (6) tried to root out values clarification (including judge include agnostics among the faithful? Second, even if sex education) from our schools, and (7) sought to rid the faith is involved in affirming the nonexistence of God, such nation of what they take to be the malign influences of secular affirmation does not thereby become religious. As Durkheim humanism. has shown, where there is no division of the world's contents into sacred and secular, there is no religion." Since atheists reject this bifurcation, to call them "religious" is to call the allup also found that 38 percent of Americans believe irreligious religious. This is playing fast and loose with language Gman is the product of evolution but that evolution was and logic and, one would presume, with law. initiated or assisted by God. Those who can still reconcile Third, philosophical materialism is not a religion but sim- Judeo-Christian teleology with evolution are, of course. ply an intellectual position maintaining that the physical rather America's religious moderates and liberals. Are there any rea- than the mental or spiritual is the fundamental stratum of sons why significant numbers of these people might become so reality. Fourth. socialism is a political and economic theory aggrieved as to join forces with the 44 percent described above? upholding collective or governmental ownership and demo- The following litany of horrors (viewed as such from the reli- cratic management of the basic means of production and dis- gious perspective) thunders "Yes!" tribution of goods. Although it is compatible with religious The litany is this: Christianity is scientifically unsupported belief and can be a component in theological systems. it does and probably unsupportable. philosophically suspect at best not itself invoke holy objects or sacred doctrines. And, fifth, and disreputable at worst. and historically fraudulent. Judge Hand, now well known for his decision that the First To say that Christianity is scientifically unsupportable is Amendment allows the various states to establish religion not to say that scientists must be atheists or hostile to religion, within their borders, omits a likely candidate—naturalism— nor that teleology is logically incompatible with every cos- from his curious list of religions.'° As I have written elsewhere. mology. What it says has been well put by Ralph A. Alpher: "Surely if a necessity for a god-concept in the universe ever turns up, that necessity will become evident to the scientist." The physical sciences operate on naturalistic assumptions. They also proceed agnostically in that they question both a priori Scientific investigation as such does not begin with this concept; notions and opinions based on authority. Moreover, they sys- it leads to no such concept and is not ever likely to do so. tematically doubt their hypotheses through rigorous testing Sheer indifference to , however, is not the only until one, having survived probing attempts at disconfirmation. characteristic of modern science. At times it is hostile, as the emerges to establish the truth of whatever is at issue.I' Medawars have shown:

14 FREE INQUIRY . . . [T]he physicists were in the main very well disposed must conclude that they are philosophically suspect at best, towards God, the geneticists are not. disreputable at worst. The last and perhaps most distressing part of the litany of It is upon the notion of randomness that geneticists have based modern knowledge is that Christianity is historically fraudu- their case against a benevolent or malevolent deity and against lent. The fraud at issue, of course, is pious fraud nonetheless. 21 there being any overall purpose or design in nature. Morton Smith observes tartly that, whenever "a theologian talks of a `higher truth,' he is usually trying to conceal a lower Sensing the coming dark night for Western religion, Freud falsehood."23 Three examples of pious fraud must suffice here. wrote: First, it can no longer be maintained that the church is founded on the New Testament; rather the church compiled Humanity has in the course of time had to endure from the the New Testament, and out of intensely partisan documents hands of science two great outrages upon its naive self-love. written by churchmen with theological axes to grind.2° More- The first was when it realized that our earth was not the center of the universe.... The second was when biological research over, orthodox Christianity preserved only those documents robbed man of his particular privilege of having been specially that furthered its theological and hierarchical ends, suppressing created, and relegated him to a descent from the animal those it took to be inimical.25 No wonder we know so little of world.22 the historical Jesus! But, then, if we knew him better, we might admire him less. How long can it go unnoticed that Christianity is unsup- Second, much in the Gospels concerning Jesus is suspect. ported (and is probably unsupportable) by the dominant mode Neither history nor biography, they were written that their of modern knowledge? At present the religious right does not recipients might believe in him (John 20:31). Intent on con- see science as its true nemesis but rather as a tiny band of vincing Jews of Jesus' messiahship, the Gospel (and other New secular humanists, satanically inspired of course. Perhaps the Testament) writers wrenched passages and prophecies out of scales will fall from their eyes one day and they will see per- the Jews' own scriptures and made them apply willy-nilly to spicuously. Perhaps some, or even many, liberal Jews and Jesus. This massive misuse of the Old Testament amounts to Christians will join them in perspicuous viewing. What will outright fraud. Taking scriptural license into account plus happen to science and science education then? fabricated birth stories, suspiciously different resurrection tales, When the empirical rug is pulled from under a person, the and many inconsistencies, Albert Schweitzer concluded, "The most likely landing is philosophy—for sophisticates at least. Jesus of Nazareth who came forward publicly as the Messiah, But, nowadays, philosophy is not a welcome place to land. No preached the ethic of the Kingdom of God, who founded the longer the handmaiden of theology, it probes theology's major Kingdom of Heaven on earth, and died to give his work its "26 premise with impunity. Put epigrammatically, the invisible and final consecration, never had any existence... . nonexistent look much alike, so much so that when intending Third, the church has always represented Christianity as to speak of the invisible, the theologian may be speaking of the the religion of and from Jesus, but it is not the religion of Jesus. That religion was Judaism, the religion he shared with "Should a significant number of religious liberals and the original Jerusalem church (Acts 21:17-31).27 Nor is ortho- dox Christianity the religion from Jesus. It is the religion about moderates join conservatives and fundamentalists in Jesus emanating from St. Paul's paranormal experiences, unmi- repudiating our litany, there could be a powerful cur- tigated gall, and desire to dominate the movement (Gal. 1:11, rent toward theocracy." 2:11-16; 2 Cor. 11-12). So different is the contrivance of Paul from Jesus' religion that we can say (paraphrasing Jeremy nonexistent. How shall we know? What referent, if any, does Bentham) that, with respect to Jesus, Paul was at the beginning "God" name univocally? Unless and until theologians show us of his Christianity what Judah was at the end of his.'-" One that they are speaking of more than their own concepts, it is could go on and on, but enough is enough. pointless to continue, even though they go on and on endlessly. To get the point, simply let the litany ring out again: When one is denied logical proofs for the existence of Christianity is scientifically unsupported and probably unsup- God and thus forced to depend upon faith alone, the next portable, at best, disreputable at worst, and historically fraudu- lower landing is so-called religious experience. Since all the lent. Even if this litany is not completely true, even if scientific, religions of the world are validated in at least part by the philosophic, and historical knowledge only tend to confirm it, experiences of their devotees, what is the evidentiary nature of the threat is clear. Given time, enough of recondite research these experiences relative to the truth of a religion in general can percolate to ordinary people to engender alarm, especially or to any of its separable doctrines? We in the West who have when religion is at stake. As a recent article in Newsweek said, lately learned more of Islam can scarcely doubt that this great "Now some neuroscientists are beginning to suspect that every- faith is often supported by vital, if not fanatic, feelings. Yet thing that makes people human is no more than an interaction this faith denies the Trinity, the virgin birth, and the death of of chemicals and electricity inside the labyrinthine folds of the Jesus by crucifixion—doctrines that are powerfully validated brain."29 Thus does the percolation occur. Once it has occurred, by the religious experiences of Christians. Experiences that how can the science teacher in the public schools, for example, validate contradictory doctrines cannot but be suspect. Con- handle a contention like Steven Weinberg's: "The more the cerning theism in general and Christianity in particular, one universe seems comprehensible, the more it also seems point-

Summer 1984 15 less"?"' says Congress 'must promote scientific knowledge even at the This litany will likely become insistent intellectually and expense -of religious sensibilities. pervasive, tending to secularize and humanize our culture if Without waiting for such a guarantee, we should (l) work left to itself. But, powerful, conservative religious forces are to improve and expand science education across the board in now counterattacking. Foreseeing victory as the country the public schools; (2) seek ways, including the possible use of allegedly returns to God, some are already talking of the post- professional sanctions, to help safeguard the integrity of science secular America now emerging." Should a significant number instruction in public schools and to shield science teachers of religious liberals and moderates join conservatives and fund- against uninformed public opinion or other political pressures; amentalists in repudiating our litany, there could be a powerful (3) explore with various scientific organizations the possibility current toward theocracy. If so, could our constitutional frame- of the nonprofit production and publication of science text- work contain the ensuing conflict? Could the degree of church- books for the public schools as an economic weapon against state separation that has traditionally characterized our society unprincipled commercial publishers; (4) attempt to involve sci- survive? entists and their professional organizations, as never before, in The worst-case scenario would probably require the curriculum development and improvement in the public emergence of a Christianized Ayatollah Khomeini and the schools; (5) attempt, formally and informally, through educa- Iranization of America. If our secular footings remain as stable tion, to increase Americans' appreciation of science and to as heretofore, these twin terrors are unlikely; but, since the heighten their awareness of its advantages to the nation and its worst-case scenario is conceivable, it would be shortsighted to citizens; (6) join or support organizations committed to the ignore it. Some scenario less evil than the worst would more separation of church and state; and (7) work through education likely happen. Thus, merely escaping the worst case does not to help wean Americans from their traditional religion, espe- mean that we are not in for some bad times. cially in its fundamentalistic, literalistic, and authoritarian manifestations. he immediate constitutional question is this: Can modern Weaning Americans from their traditional religion will, of T knowledge be taught so as to avoid the resulting course, be most difficult. A recent article in U.S. News & that will almost certainly be perceived as a humanistic attack World Report began as follows: "Sensing a gnawing disillusion- on religion? The Supreme Court seems to think so, for it ruled ment with science and secularism as the driving forces in U.S. that "the State may not establish a `religion of secularism' in society, churches are growing more aggressive in proclaiming the sense of affirmatively opposing or showing hostility to a spirituality that is the root of their very existence," and went religion, thus preferring those who believe in no religion over on to say that there "is a newfound determination by those of those who believe." The schools, however, cannot teach religious faith to `search out the sacred' in a society that has modern science without adopting the rational empiricism that increasingly moved away from its religious underpinnings.' underlies it, nor can they teach scientific method without aiding Thus, while some of us press ahead, welcoming more science and abetting the secularism that follows in its wake. The con- and secularity, others work to reestablish the reign of religion. tents and attitudes of public school curricula that so aggrieve Jacques Monod deserves the final word for the compas- religious rightists have not been caused by a handful of secular sionate acuteness of his diagnosis of current Western culture. humanists but by the general secularism that has followed He wrote: science as surely as have its technological applications. Reli- gious rightists, incapable of recognizing this and casting about Modern societies accepted the treasures and the power that for something else to blame, have seized on what they like to science laid in their laps. But they have not accepted—they call "the godless religion of secular humanism." Even the Court, have scarcely even heard—its profounder message: the defining caught up in this nonsense, writes of a "religion of secularism." of a new and unique source of truth, and the demand for a How absurd! Nevertheless, that is the dilemma in which the thorough revision of ethical premises, for a total break with the animist tradition, the definitive abandonment of the "old public schools are caught, particularly now, as new emphasis is covenant," the necessity of forging a new one. Armed with all being placed on improved science education. the powers, enjoying all the riches they owe to science, our What should be done? First, I have a caveat, then, an societies are still trying to live by and to teach systems of impossible dream. If acted upon, the following suggestions values already blasted at the root by science itself. might have the same kind of effect as last-ditch attempts at No society before ours was ever rent by contradictions so westernizing Iran would have had just before Khomeini s take- agonizing.7q over. In short, these suggestions may only exacerbate the situa- tion or worsen it faster than would otherwise have been the Notes case. The impossible dream is that scientific inquiry and the I. Marvin Myers, The Mind of the Founder: James Madison, rev. ed. acquisition and diffusion of knowledge in general, and in the (Hanover, N.H.: Brandeis University Press, 1981), Preface, pp. xxx, xxxi. public schools in particular, might have constitutional guaran- 2. "[S]cience and useful arts" is found in Article 1, Section 8 of the tees equivalent to those enjoyed by religion. It is very hard, Constitution. 3. Epperson v. Arkansas, 393 U.S. 103-104 (1968), states: "Government however, to foresee an amendment that says Congress shall in our democracy, state and national, must be neutral in matters of religious not subordinate scientific information to religious information theory, doctrine, and practice. It may not be hostile to any religion or to the or prohibit the free dissemination of the former, or one that advocacy of no religion; and it may not aid, foster, or promote one religion

16 FREE INQUIRY or religious theory against another or even against the militant opposite. The First Amendment mandates governmental neutrality between religion and religion, and between religion and nonreligion." See also Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. I, 18 (1947); McCollum v. Board of Education 333 U.S. 203 (1948); Zorach v. Clauson, 343 U.S. 306, 313-314 (1952); An Invitation to Become a Torcaso v. Watkins, 367 U.S. 488, 495 (1961); and Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 422-436 (1962). FREE INQUIRY Associate 4. Stephen Jay Gould, "Creationism: Genesis vs. Geology," Atlantic, September, 1982, p. 14. 5. See , vol. 7, no. I (Fall, 1982), pp. 5-6. REE INQUIRY and the Council for Demo- 6. Marvin Perry, "Banning a Textbook," New York Times, Sunday, May 31, 1981. Fcratic and Secular Humanism are unique. 7. McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education, January 5, 1981. They provide responsible, critical examination of 8. See Robert M. O'Neil, "Creationism, Curriculum and the Constitu- tion," Academe (March-April, 1982), p. 21. religious claims—many of them ancient, some 9. Skeptical Inquirer, op. cit., p. 7. new—that are seldom, if ever, the subject of pub- 10. In addition to the Associated Press poll cited above in note 8, see lic discussion. These beliefs, however, can and also a Gallup poll on religion released on August 29, 1982, and a Roper poll on religion in America taken for NBC, released in 1981. do have powerful political, moral, and social con- 11. O'Neil, "Creationism," op. cit., p. 22. sequences. Hence, it is important that they be 12. See "A Victory for Christian Schools," in Time, January 10, 1983, p. 66. critically evaluated. That is the primary educa- 13. Time estimates that there are about 600,000 students in independent tional mission of FREE INQUIRY and the Council Christian schools now. (ibid., p. 66). Since reading this article, the author for Democratic and Secular Humanism. has heard estimates of over a million such students, and Jerry Falwell has been reported to have said that a new Christian school goes up every four hours on the average. If we are to succeed in this important work, we 14. This item was carried widely in Alabama papers. My source was the need all the help we can get, and you, our readers, Opelika-Auburn News, September 14, 1982. 15. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (New are our principal source of support. York: A Free Press Paperback, 1968), p. 52. 16. One might have hoped for better from a federal district judge than May we urge you to contribute to the FREE this, but a reading of his decision in Jaffree v. Board of School Com- INQUIRY Development Fund. Its purpose is to missioners of Mobile County does not inspire confidence. 17. See my paper, "Science, Creationism, and the Constitution," a con- extend the influence of FREE INQUIRY and the tribution to the symposium "Validity of 'Ancient Earth' Data," delivered to Council. A minimum annual contribution of $100 the Southeastern Section of the Geological Society of America, meeting at Tallahassee, Florida, March 17, 1983. To be published under the aegis of the or a one-time gift of $1,000 or more will enroll GSA. you as a FREE INQUIRY Associate. 18. Jaffree v. Board of School Commissioners, op. cit. p. 48. 19. From the Gallup poll released on August 29, 1982. Your support is vital. All contributions are tax- 20. Ralph A. Alpher, "Theology of the Big Bang," , vol. 17, no. 1 (Winter, 1983), p. 12. deductible. May we hear from you? 21. Peter and Jean Medawar, The Life Science (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), p. 17. 22. Cited in Stephen Jay Gould, Ever Since Darwin (New York: W. W. Norton Company, 1977), p. 17. 23. Morton Smith, Jesus the Magician (New York: Harper & Row, 1978), p. 165. I wish to contribute to the FREE INQUIRY 24. See Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels (New York: Random House, Development Fund. 1979). 25. Smith, Jesus the Magician, pp. 1-2. 26. Cited in R. Joseph Hoffman, "Biblical Criticism and Its Discon- Name tents," FREE INQUIRY, vol. 2, no. 4 (Fall, 1982), p. 19. 27. See Samuel G. F. Brandon, Jesus and the Zealots: A Study of the Political Factor in Primitive Christianity (Manchester: University of Man- Address chester Press, 1967), p. 165, n. 4. 28. Jeremy Bentham, The Church of England Catechism Examined (Mount Pleasant, Ramsgate: Thomas Scott, 1868), p. 25. City State Zip 29. Newsweek, February 7, 1983, p. 40. 30. Steven Weinberg, The First Three Minutes (New York: Basic Books, 1977), p. 154. 31. Richard John Neuhaus, "Moral Leadership in Post-Secular Return to: America," Imprimis, vol. 11, no. 7, July, 1982. FREE INQUIRY Development Fund 32. 347 U.S. 225 (1963). P.O. Box 5, Central Park Station 33. See "Religion's New Turn: A Search for the Sacred," U.S. News & World Report, April 4, 1983, p. 35. Buffalo • NY 14215 34. Jacques Monod, Chance and Necessity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971), pp. 170-171. •

Summer 1984 17 God and the Professors

FREE INQUIRY is pleased to join Encounter and Commentary magazines in publishing an excerpt from Sidney Hook's intellectual and political autobiography Out of Step: A Life in the Twentieth Century which will be published by Simon and Schuster. In the following article, Professor Hook recalls his debates with Mortimer J. Adler and Robert M. Hutchins of the University of , the famous neo-Thomist philosopher Jacques Maritain, and other Roman Catholic theologians. Hook also contrasts Judaism with atheism and describes his clashes with sundry rabbis.

Sidney Hook

uring the late thirties, 1 found myself engaged not in a secular state, of freedom for propagation of other religious only on the political front but also on the educational confessions. Dfront defending public education and the ideas of In consequence, some Catholic churchmen denounced the John Dewey against concerted attacks by religious fundamen- American public school system as "public enemy number one" talists and sophisticated neo-Thomists. Dewey's ideas on educa- because of the absence of true religious education in its curricu- tion also suffered from the distorted interpretation of his views lum. In the authoritative Catholic text of that era, Catholic at the hands of some leaders of the progressive education Principles of Politics by Fathers Boland and Ryan, it was movement, whose conception of the child-centered curriculum clearly indicated that, in a Catholic state, there could be no in effect banished the central places of both subject matter and freedom to propagate irreligious views as defined by Catholic the intelligent guidance of the teacher from the classroom. dogma. "Liberty of conscience, if by this is meant that every- Dewey himself was moved to take the field against the misin- one may, as he chooses, worship God or not, is sufficiently terpretations and caricatures of his views by some of his refuted by the arguments already adduced" (from the Encyclical declared disciples. His demurrers were largely ignored. He was Letter of Pope Leo XIII, Libertas Praestantissimum). Together criticized both for the inanities of the progressive educators with the doctrine that "outside the church there is no salvation," and for the failings of the American public school system, this would entail the right to suppress propagation of religious whose practices were allegedly inspired by his educational heresy, meaning all other religions. philosophy. All this went by the board in consequence of Maritain's The chief sources of the criticism were, with respect to influence, leaving Father Feeney of Boston practically charging elementary and secondary education, the hierarchy of the the church and the pope with abandoning the principles of Catholic church and, with respect to higher education, Robert Catholicism. The church's attack against secularism and M. Hutchins and Mortimer J. Adler. The educational and naturalism became more subdued and was restricted to tirades religious situation in America today is so radically different against John Dewey and those influenced by him in diocesan from what it was in the thirties that some readers may have papers like the Brooklyn Tablet. Typical of the sentiments and difficulty in accepting that fact. Until Jacques Maritain's teach- language expressed by Catholic churchmen in the mid-thirties ings and influence modified the position of the Catholic church was the contention of Father Polo of Brooklyn's St. John's in the United States, it subscribed to the papal encyclicals that University that "The professor who teaches American youth condemned liberalism as a heresy, taught that there was no the false philosophies of Hegel and Kant and Croce and Dewey salvation outside the church, and denied the legitimacy, even as ideals that professor is a thousand times more a dictatorial or communist threat than if he wore a brown shirt and steel Distinguished humanist philosopher Sidney Hook is professor helmet or waved the murderous red flag of the Soviet" (New emeritus at New York University and a Fellow at the Hoover York Times, January 7, 1935). Institution on War, Revolution and Peace in Stanford Cali- This view in a more finished and sophisticated form was fornia. soon to be echoed by Mortimer J. Adler at the founding meeting of the Conference of Philosophy, Science, and Religion

18 FREE INQUIRY in Their Relation to the Democratic Way of Life, held in the study with me at N.Y.U. However, he himself uttered not a late summer of 1940. He singled out for his attack naturalists word in criticism of Adler's paper, which in effect was urging and positivists—notably those associated with the schools of an intellectual auto-da-fé in American education. (Many years pragmatism and logical empiricism. Posing as an ardent later, I was told by V. J. McGill, who worked for Adler at the defender of democracy, Adler delivered an address on "God Philosophical Institute, that when he indicated to Adler that and the Professors." His central thesis was that: he didn't share his positions as expressed in the paper, Adler claimed half apologetically that he had been urged on by Rabbi The most serious threat to Democracy is the positivism of its Finkelstein to say what he did.) professors, which dominates every aspect of modern education The number of letters I received from other participants and is the central corruption of modern culture. Democracy of the conference indicated their widespread indignation and has much more to fear from the mentality of its teachers than fear that Adler was trying to torpedo the conference. Instead from the nihilism of Hitler. It is the same nihilism in both cases; but Hitler's is more honest and consistent, less blurred of recognizing the tolerance and generosity of the view that by queasy qualifications, and hence less dangerous. extended a welcome to the presentation of minority views like his, Adler insulted the organizers and members of the con- Adler was not loath to draw the political and educational ference by charging them with "indifference about the truth implications of this view. "Until the professors and their culture which hides behind the mask of tolerance." Among those who are liquidated," he contended, "the resolution of modern wrote me to protest Adler's arrogance were Carl Becker, Van problems—a resolution which history demands should be Wyck Brooks, Irwin Edman, and Harlow Shapley. Although made—will not even begin." In the course of his paper, he laid the shock of Adler's attack disconcerted the conference, he did down eight propositions in metaphysics and eight propositions not succeed in destroying it. It continued for many years, and in theology, belief in every one of which, according to him, Adler never graced any of its numerous subsequent meetings was required for a rational and consistent defense of democ- with his presence. racy. The last of his theological propositions read: Adler's address "God and the Professors" and my reply caused quite a stir at the , where Adler Just as there are no systems of philosophy, but only phil- served as Robert M. Hutchins's guru in matters philosophical osophical knowledge less or more adequately possessed by and educational. Several issues of the college paper, the Daily different men, so there is only one true religion, less or more Maroon, were devoted to the controversy. Edmund Wilson, adequately embodied in the existing diversity of creeds. then serving as literary editor of the New Republic, reprinted my criticism of Adler's address under the title "The New It was clear which religion was the only true religion in Medievalism" (October 28, 1940). Adler was definitely riding Adler's eyes, and he did not hesitate to include its whole atti- high during this period. It was the beginning of a resurgence of tude to life as integral to democracy as a way of life: "The religious thought, of militant criticism of scientific method and modern synthesis must necessarily include the medieval solu- secularism, which I later critically assessed in my essay "The tion, but it can only do so by carrying the medieval principles New Failure of Nerve" in Partisan Review (January-February to a higher level of comprehension." Time did not permit him 1943). Adler had even gone so far as to deliver a talk at the to show how Franco, who had just triumphed in Spain under Cooper Union Forum, which fortunately for him he never the slogan of "the brotherhood of man under the fatherhood published, "In Defense of the Death Sentence for Religious of [the true] God," was applying his democratic principles. Heresy." The argument was an improvement on Aquinas at Nor did he face the implication that Aquinas and most of the least in idiom, but in those grim days we were not amused. popes, not to speak of the founding church, who were not Ethics and politics, according to Adler, were superior democrats, must have misunderstood Catholicism. (because they are more rational) to any of the natural sciences. Oddly enough, although I attended as an official represen- The former give us absolutely true knowledge, the latter more tative of New York University, I had great difficulty in winning or less reliable opinion. The basic truths of ethics and politics the floor at the conference to reply to Adler's tirade. Most of depend upon a metaphysical insight that is direct, immediate, the participants, particularly the Protestants, were quite and certain. Insofar as moral values imply a reference to the distressed by Adler's implicit denunciation of their faith, but supernatural order and revelation, they are subordinate to the they were almost as unhappy about any manifestation of truths of sacred theology; there can be "only one right set of polemical zeal in rebutting it. They pretended not to have principles, one right order of goods and values." This "one heard what Adler was saying or referred to his paper as unfor- right order" is not something to be discovered; it is something tunate. To my surprise, Adler's strongest apparent supporter already absolutely known. Therefore, different and conflicting was Rabbi Louis Finkelstein, head of the Jewish Theological conceptions of this order are necessarily errors errors that Seminary. He chaired the session at which Adler spoke and must lead, and have led, to the corruption of minds and tried to cut me off several times during my relatively brief but weakening of the foundations of public order. vigorous criticism of Adler's remarks by stamping hard on my We do not tolerate the deliberate circulation of disease foot under cover of the low wooden partition that separated us germs that kill men's bodies—and this in a field in which we from the audience. He may have done so less out of sympathy have only probable knowledge or mere opinion. How, then, with Adler than out of dislike for me, since some of his bright- can we tolerate the circulation of errors that destroy men's est candidates for the rabbinate had deserted his seminary to souls, which are infinitely more precious than their bodies, and

Summer 1984 19 that corrupt the fabric of Christian culture—and this in a field of Herbert Schwartz, who later became a member of a religious in which we have absolute knowledge? Differences on matters order. I had known Herbert Schwartz slightly as a young man about which we have absolute knowledge must be heresies. passionately interested in music who had contributed an article Heresies of this kind in politics and ethics, if unchecked, must to The Hound and Horn on the intrinsic meanings of musical be harmful. If public calamity is to be avoided they must be tones, a view I have always had difficulty in understanding. liquidated. Whether heretics are to be liquidated at the stake Schwartz went to Chicago, allegedly fell under Adler's influ- or by the headsman's axe is a question merely of opinion or ence, and joined the church. He announced his conversion in a convenience, not of principle for liquidated they must be. telegram to his mother, which sent her into a faint. When she Adler tells us: "When Christianity [this always means for Adler recovered, she flew to Chicago with her rabbi and her psycho- one species of Christianity] loses its active dislike of heresy, it analyst and protested to Hutchins. loses its dignity as a revealed religion and becomes no better For all his talent, Adler had no profound influence, except than one among the warring creeds, as it was in the Hellenistic on those who collaborated with him on his many projects. One period." of them was Milton S. Mayer, who agreed with the content of That Adler never published this carefully prepared talk Adler's talk "God and the Professors" but chided him for his indicates that he may have regarded it as a jeu d'esprit, but it tone and manner. One should not talk about purging and was a dangerous idea to play around with in those dark days liquidating professors. Mayer's criticism of Adler's provocative when the country was in a restless mood on the eve of the rhetoric seems odd in view of the fact that he himself soon Second World War. became infected by it. In an article entitled "The Case Against Adler is a person of great expository gifts but little wis- the Jews," in the Saturday Evening Post of March 28, 1942, dom. During an earlier period he played a mischievous role in Mayer presented an intellectual version of the inflammatory breaking up the Department of Philosophy at the University of Chicago when he appeared on the scene with President Hutchins to reorient the university in pursuit of the Platonic Form of the Good, which would not only reform the curricu- "Adler's address "God and the Professors" and my reply caused quite a stir at the University of Chicago, where Adler served as Robert M. Hutchins's guru in matters philosophical and educational."

line that Father Coughlin had earlier broadcast in his radio addresses. Coughlin had nothing against "good Jews," i.e., pious Jews with beards and earlocks who knew their place as the chosen and rejected of God and huddled in their ghettos awaiting their redeemer. It was the "bad Jews" who aroused his ire. They were the Jews who no longer believed in or feared God, abandoned their religious ways, and devoted themselves to the pursuit of material goods under the guise of belief in science and democracy, and thereby corrupted the general community. Mayer's article was pitched on a notch higher than this. He did not deny the facts of anti-Semitism but contended that the Jews brought it on themselves because they were not good Jews. They no longer worshiped God. They lacked righteous- ness. They did not practice justice. They refused to be God's chosen people. They flocked out of the ghettos, sold their souls for gold and commerce, and in the end became scapegoats— Hitler's chosen people and the whipping boy of anti-Semites elsewhere. "And why did the world need a whipping boy? Mortimer J. Adler Hitler, I am sorry to say, suggests the answer: `Greek civiliza- tion will be remembered for its philosophy, medieval civilization lum but society as well. Even more questionable was his role for its cathedrals. Ours will be remembered for its department in converting Jewish students at Chicago to Catholicism, stores.' " And everyone knows who owns the department stores. although he himself never joined the church, on the grounds On Mayer's own account, it is not only the Jews who lack that he was not sufficiently worthy. Hutchins, who was misled righteousness but the Gentiles also, whose world the Jews were by Adler only in intellectual matters and was more sensitive to trying to enter. But instead of denouncing what is wrong with the proprieties of the teacher-student relationship, put an end all of mankind or all who are members of our commercial to Adler's missionary activities. Rumor had it, probably industrial civilization, Mayer singled out the Jews. He headlined unjustly, that this was occasioned at the time of the conversion his attack "The Case Against the Jews" as if they were the

20 FREE INQUIRY chief, if not exclusive, carriers of unrighteousness in the modern the philosophy of naturalism, which they alleged to be the world. At every point, he gave the impression that the Jews source of what was wrong in American schooling and of what were worse than the non-Jews in their sins of omission and was evil in American life. commission. I replied to Mayer's diatribe in the New Leader In place of naturalism, they urged a philosophy that would of April 4, 1942, "Milton Mayer—Fake Jeremiah." Needless to radically reform both American schools and the culture of say, Mayer's piece stirred up great indignation and led to an which they were a part. Education was to be desecularized; action unprecedented in the long history of the Saturday metaphysics and theology were to be instated as prescribed Evening Post. It published an apology to its readers for printing courses in the curriculum of institutions of higher learning. The controlling values and objectives of the lower school were "The educational philosophy of Hutchins and Adler to rest upon the truths of metaphysics and religion, which were was an attempt to justify a counter-reformation in declared "superior" to all other truths, particularly those reached by the scientific method. To implement the required American education.... Education was to be desecu- educational reform, the state must abandon its neutrality in larized; metaphysics and theology were to be instated religion. as prescribed courses in the curriculum of institutions These doctrines had every right to be considered on their of higher learning." merits. What was questionable was the way Hutchins and Adler went about discrediting their opponents when their arguments Mayer's article. That seemed to me to be unnecessary as well failed to convince. They seized upon the fear and horror of the as unwise. It would have sufficed to publish my rejoinder American public at the successive triumphs of Hitlerism and instead, which challenged the premises, the argument, and the charged that Hitlerism was nothing more than the philosophy evidence of Mayer's piece. Mayer never forgave me for my of naturalism and progressive education carried to their logical criticism. He subsequently drifted out of Adler's orbit and conclusions. Although progressive education was committed became a pacifist who held that America had lost it in the to democracy as a way of life, Hutchins and Adler charged war against Hitlerism. I was rebuked by some readers of the that it led to the conclusion that "might makes right" and New Leader for linking some of Mayer's assumptions about therefore justified Hitler. Speaking of the dominant intellectual the modern world to Adler's views on the grounds that Adler position that offered a justification for democracy, Hutchins had disavowed Mayer's piece as too extreme. Adler never did asserted that it was "much closer to Hitler than we care to so publicly, but since Adler himself never qualified as a good admit ... Such principles as we have are not different enough Jew, he could hardly approve of Mayer's rhetorical extrava- from those of Hitler to make us very rugged in defending ours ganza. However, logically the connection can easily be estab- in preference to his." Since naturalism in all its forms cannot lished between their assessments of the historical consequences save us from Hitler and modern totalitarianism, what can? of the rise of secularism. Adler's unwearied, repeated answer is: a different kind of totali- tarianism—authoritarianism would be a more accurate term— ar more significant for the educational life of the country of older vintage based on hierarchically ordered truths, cul- Fin the late thirties and forties was Adler's influence on minating in the revelations of one true religion. Hutchins. In this field Hutchins, who appeared genuinely In examining the arguments advanced for this position. distressed by the authoritarian manner, mode, and language of we find that, despite the great play made with terms like reason Adler's arguments in the area of social policy, was an unquali- and logic, the reasoning is quite shabby. Its general pattern fied admirer and devotee. Adler had modified the partial Great consists of making statements that are either commonplaces or Books program that Professor John Erskine had introduced at tautologies, and then by a succession of non sequiturs reaching Columbia College into a complete four-year curriculum of conclusions that more often than not are absurdities. Or a very required undergraduate study. Unable to impose it on the large statement is made, and its proof left begging. Refutations University of Chicago because of opposition from the faculty, of alternative positions to those of Hutchins and Adler are it was offered as a two-year option to entering students. But presented by showing, again through non sequiturs, that they the program in its entirety became the Great Books program have morally unacceptable consequences. of St. John's College at Annapolis, Maryland. I submitted the Here, for example, is the famous series of propositions in entire curriculum of St. John's, as well as the rationale offered Hutchins's The Higher Learning in America, in which he tries for it by its architects, to a rigorous criticism in my Education to justify the conclusion that education should everywhere be for Modern Man. It provoked no reply, but my name became the same, which in turn is a required premise for the Hutchins- a byword at St. John's for several years. Adler view that theology or metaphysics "must be called upon The educational philosophy of Hutchins and Adler was to order the thought of modern times." It reads: an attempt to justify a counter-reformation in American educa- tion. They had an easy time deriding some of the principles Education implies teaching. Teaching implies knowledge. and practices of some progressive educators who were more Knowledge is truth. The truth is everywhere the same. Hence enthusiastic than intelligent about the ideas of John Dewey. education should be everywhere the same. But their target was not so much the principles of progressive education—some of whose practices as embodied in the tech- Even discounting the ambiguous character of each statement, niques of activity programs they were prepared to accept—but and the obviously undistributed middle-terms, the conclusion

Summer 1984 21 is a glaring fallacy, an obvious non sequitur, since the premises character of scientific knowledge, which at the same time is the justify the inference that education is everywhere the same and most reliable knowledge we have, makes their whole theory of not that it should be. The inference is materially false to boot. knowledge palpably inadequate. In consequence, they are com- Or look at Adler's attempted derivation of the same con- pelled to resort to the desperate expedient of referring to the clusion: conclusions of experimental science as mere opinion. Adler scornfully says that "the contingent and tentative character of . . . so long as what is generated remains specifically man, scientific knowledge perfectly fits the egoism. the individualism, human nature remains constant from generation to generation. the libertinism of the modern mind." Perhaps so. But he cannot By human nature 1 mean the native abilities and the organic furnish us with any example of natural knowledge that is more needs which everywhere constitute the same animal, known as reliable or more probable than the scientific truths he and man. . . . If man is a rational animal, constant in nature Hutchins disparage. They believe that the immortality of the throughout history, then there must be certain constant features soul is more certainly true than that men will die, but they can in every sound educational program, regardless of culture or hardly claim for the first the status of natural knowledge. epoch. [Social Frontier, February 1939] Their suggestion that, because scientific knowledge is tentative and contingent, one can therefore choose to believe anything Leaving aside the dubious psychology and anthropology, at all with the same arbitrariness as with which a libertine which according to Adler are irrelevant since the rationality follows his tastes, reveals that they have no conception of the and constancy of man or human nature are established either way in which the freely accepted authority of scientific method by definition or immediate insight, the conclusion can legiti- operates to ensure agreement. mately assert only the constancy of some educational process The real animus of the philosophy of Hutchins and Adler, and not the constancy of any feature of any educational pro- and the chief ground for their emphasis on the primacy of gram, whether it be that of Hutchins, Adler, or anyone else. A theology and religion in education and culture, are manifested constant educational process is compatible with the existence in their theory of values. It is here, too, that they appeared of an immense variety of educational programs. In short, most plausible to the philosophically naive who largely com- Adler's conclusion is, in one sense, a truism; in every other, it posed the audiences they usually addressed. They began by is plainly false. contending that science cannot establish any values and con- Or listen to Hutchins justifying the supremacy of meta- cluded that, unless there is some absolute, immediate knowl- physics over science: "The natural sciences derive their prin- of values (and moral values imply a reference to the ciples from the philosophy of nature, which in turn depends supernatural order and revelation), superior to any knowledge on metaphysics." science can give, we logically must believe that might is right. Neither Hutchins nor Adler makes an attempt to cite any The following is a representative citation from Hutchins, quoted specific principle or general law of natural science that is with approval by Adler: derived from the allegedly a priori and certain principles of the philosophy of nature. The effort would be fruitless, for no For forty years and more our intellectual leaders [meaning such connection exists. In fact, the tentative and probable John Dewey and others] have been telling us in fact that nothing is true which cannot be subject to experimental veri- fication. In the whole realm of social thought there can, there- fore, be nothing but opinion. Since there is nothing but opinion, everybody is entitled to his own opinion. . . . If everything is a matter of opinion, force becomes the only way of settling differences in opinion. And of course: if success is the of rightness, right is on the side of the heavier bat- talions. [Harper's, October 1940]

Not a single sentence logically follows from its predeces- sor. That truths are subject to experimental verification no more makes judgments mere "opinions" in the social sciences than in the natural sciences. And if by "opinion" Adler and Hutchins merely mean that our conclusions are only probable, then it doesn't follow in the slightest that any opinion is as valid as any other, and that everyone is logically entitled to his own opinion. The opinion that diphtheria is caused by evil thoughts is not as valid as the opinion that it is caused by a certain germ; the opinion that it can be cured by exorcism is not as valid as the opinion that it can be cured by drugs or antitoxins. And yet all of these statements have varying degrees of probability. Not even if values were subjective, a possibility that Hutchins and Adler mistakenly believe to be the only Robert M. Hutchins alternative to their view, would it follow that force was the

22 FREE INQUIRY only way of resolving differences in value judgments or that education for betraying Dewey's basic principles. might could determine what is right. Like Job, everyone who It should be mentioned, however, that Dewey's Democracy goes down in a lost cause, every loser in a fight, can say: and Education made the Adler-Hutchins list of the hundred Great Books, and that Adler has dedicated one of his recent Behold he will slay me; I have no hope. books on education to Hutchins and Dewey. To his credit, he Nevertheless will I maintain my way before Him. has fallen from grace in the eyes of the Catholic orthodoxy because he no longer accepts the validity of the Aquinate argu- This is the position, for example, of men like Justice Wendell ments for the existence of God. Recently he proclaimed that Holmes, George Santayana, and . But neither his only reason for believing in God is that the existence of this position nor that of the supernaturalists exhausts the God is the only possible answer that can be made to the alternatives. questions: "Why is there something? Why is there not nothing?" The greatest error of Hutchins and Adler is to assume I devoted the better part of the book The Quest for "Being" to that, because the conclusions of the particular sciences are neu- showing that these questions are cognitively illegitimate, since tral to values, scientific method is irrelevant to values. Given, the same questions can be asked of any presumed answers to however, the concrete, historical situations of need and them. interests, in relation to which proposals of action are made, only a scientific analysis of the context, causes, and conse- the late thirties and early forties, Dewey, Kallen, quences of the values to be furthered by such proposals can DurinNagel,g Kennedy, and I were quite alarmed at the mani- determine their relative validity. And not only their validity. festation of authoritarian tendencies in the cultural and political The very meaning of values depends upon investigations of life of the nation, especially in philosophy and science. We this sort, for often the same set of terms is used to justify the decided to hold a conference and to found an organization to most divergent of practices. From the fact that a man says he counteract these authoritarian tendencies by the persistent believes in the values, say, of justice, loyalty, personality, extension and application of the methods of scientific inquiry humanity—words that even Hitler employed—nothing in the in these and allied fields. At the first, session, which Horace way of practice follows at all. The philosophy behind progres- Kallen chaired, I read a paper criticizing the authoritarian sive education does not deny the existence of value judgments. aspects of Thomism and neo-Thomism, as well as certain Rather, it has made the scientific analyses of such judgments expressions of dialectical materialism. Dewey followed with a central to its outlook in order to develop a rationale which, in discussion of the basic conditions that must be met by those concrete situations, would make our choice between alternative who wish to develop an effective program of experimental proposals more intelligent. The scientific method of testing inquiry into social problems. The second and third sessions values is not circular because the problems of valuation are consisted of papers and comments by Ernest Nagel on logic specific, and we are not required to solve all of them at once. and scientific method, F. H. Pike on biology, S. E. Asch and The history of ethical thought shows that where we do R. M. Ogden on psychology, Wesley C. Mitchell on economics, not rely upon scientific method but on absolute self-evident R. M. Maclver on sociology, and Meyer Schapiro on moral truths, authenticated by immediate intuition, they turn aesthetics. out so empty of content that nothing can be deduced from Although the organization got off to an auspicious start, their assertion. Or, when they do have content, we find a a handful of communist fellow-travelers protested the selection welter of conflicting "truths" that, because they are all held of themes for discussion whose exploration was accompanied absolutely, permit no mediation by intelligent inquiry. The by forthright criticisms of Soviet doctrines and practices in psychological consequence is that absolutists develop a ten- various disciplines. In order to avoid these political conflicts, dency to speak to other absolutists in the language of force. the psychology of the popular front prevailed, and the Con- I never had a personal confrontation with Adler, although ference on Methods in Science and Philosophy eschewed dis- 1 would have welcomed one. Once I was scheduled to appear cussion of the controversial themes that had political implica- on a television program at Aspen, Colorado, where I was tion or were suspected of having them. Topics were selected of attending a conference, as a substitute for a scheduled speaker a technical scientific and philosophical nature and the twice-a- who had failed to appear. The program was Adler's, but the year conference meetings became more and more like the emergency arrangement had been made by the station director sessions of professional philosophical associations. The original without Adler's knowledge. At the last minute I was told by purpose of the conference was forgotten and it functioned like the embarrassed director that I couldn't go on. Adler had a local section of the professional guild. protested that, if I went on, he wouldn't. On one of the many The conference is still flourishing. Ironically enough, it occasions on which some phase of Dewey's life or thought was retained its value and political free character during the decade being celebrated, I was invited by the Education Department when the Eastern Division of the American Philosophical at Rutgers to discuss Dewey's philosophy with Gail Kennedy Association, over the strenuous objections of a handful of us, and Mortimer Adler. I led off with a strong defense of Dewey's became highly politicalized and adopted resolutions on all sorts naturalism and was followed by Kennedy, who discussed some of issues that had little relevance to the declared purposes of points in Dewey's philosophy of education. When Adler arose, the association. I expected the fireworks to begin; but ignoring my paper, he lit At the height of the Hutchins-Adler crusade against into Kennedy and directed most of his fire against schools of naturalism, Dewey, Kallen, and Jerome Nathanson of Ethi-

Summer 1984 23 cal Culture Society decided to launch another conference and movement, who disapproved of divorce and abortion, and his organization entitled "The Conference on the Scientific Spirit younger followers who were more Deweyan than Kantian in and Democratic Faith." Two well-attended meetings were held outlook. Nonetheless, the Ethical Culture movement could have that resulted in the publication of two interesting volumes. For profited from some of the Old Testament prophetic righteous- reasons that were never clear to me, the energies behind the ness in Adler and his refusal to compromise with the forces of organization petered out as the educational and intellectual evil. He would have stood with Dewey and scorned the likes of threat from neo-Thomism dwindled. Algernon Black with respect to communism. There were two contributing factors. Jacques Maritain, Despite appearances and my involvement in polemical although doctrinally orthodox, shared the same passion for exchanges with Catholic authoritarians and communist totali- political freedom and opposition to current forms of total- tarians, I am not conscious of having sought out these encoun- itarianism as we did, and was distancing himself from the ters. I engaged in them because most often no one else was willing to do so. Time and again after resolving to devote myself to the sweet uses of technical philosophy, I would be "Despite my lifelong conviction that faith in the exis- urged once more to enter the fray, often by the very people tence of an all-powerful and all-loving god has no who had advised me previously that I ought to turn my back more intellectual justification than faith in the exis- on politics and write books for eternity. tence of a cosmic Santa Claus ... I am prepared to Over the years, I suppose I have acquired a reputation as make common cause with believers in religious free- a polemicist, but my polemics have always been in response to dom against every form of totalitarianism, religious criticism or in defense of the causes in which I was involved. I have never wittingly done gratuitous hurt to anyone. Someone or secular." who thought differently was Alexander Meiklejohn. I was reviewing his Education between Two Worlds, which contained dogmatic pronouncements of Adler. In the Ethical Culture a full-bodied polemic against Dewey. In one of his paragraphs, Society, a faction headed by Algernon Black, one of its leaders he had quoted a sentence from Dewey and italicized a word in who became a notorious fellow-traveler, was placing obstacles that sentence without indicating that the emphasis was his, in Nathanson's path. Despite its early promise, the Ethical thus giving a distorted meaning to the quotation. In my Culture Society, which sought to unify mankind on the basis respectful but caustic review of his general position, I wrote of universal ethical principles, proved to be ineffectual in that he was "palming off' a false view on Dewey by virtue of mobilizing the large group of secular humanists in the major his own unacknowledged emphasis. He reacted with the fury cities. Its goodwill was based on a naiveté about the hard facts of a man whose honor has been assailed and for years refused of political life and a failure to recognize the face of evil. Some to speak to me. He had taken the term "palming off' literally, of their important leaders were pacifists who, like the , as if he were being charged with cheating at cards. It was thought they could tame ravening ideologists like Hitler and careless of me to use the term, but it was also careless of him Stalin with a loving nonresistance. There were also changes in to italicize the word that was central to his interpretation—or, time, outlook, and membership, typified over the years by the rather, misinterpretation—of Dewey's views. He never deigned distance between Felix Adler, founder of the Ethical Culture to explain how it came about. Nor did he ever reply to my more substantive criticism of his views. Courtesy of the Buffalo and Erie County Public Library I must also confess how pleasantly surprised I was to discover that not all believing Catholics were alike, and especially that many of them were more liberal than the neo- Catholic Adler. Maritain was a person of singular sweetness despite his doctrinal orthodoxy. I met him at a meeting not long after he had been appointed to serve as the French ambassador to the Papal Court. At the close of our friendly but spirited discussion, he remarked: "I shall not give up my hope for you. Anyone who is as passionately interested in the validity of arguments for the existence of God as you are is not far from redemption." It was also in the course of this discussion that I contended that the ritualistic practices of the church were not entailed by any of its theological dogmas. One of the old chestnuts of my militant atheist days was that certain of these dogmas led to unethical practices. If it were impossible to save the life of both mother and unborn child, then, if baptism was necessary to avoid eternal damnation, the tendency would be to let the mother die, since she had already been baptized, in order to safeguard the life of the child. I regarded this as an unethical act. I asked Maritain why the Jacques Maritain sacrament of baptism could not be retained and the technique

24 FREE INQUIRY modified to permit transdermal baptism of the unborn child. the papal encyclicals of the past—we could extend the area of He was highly amused at this suggestion being made to him by agreement. But to be confronted by a Jesuit priest who criti- an unbeliever. cized me for protesting the ruthless persecutions of Catholic Sometime after this, I was invited to my great surprise by and other missionaries on the ground that the Communists the University of St. Louis, a Jesuit institution, to present the were trying to help the exploited Chinese masses was an extra- case for naturalism to the student body. The German Mid- ordinary experience. For a moment it reduced me to a stut- western Catholics seemed to be a different breed from the Irish tering inarticulateness, then I let fly at him. Although I did not Catholics of the East. Several of the faculty assured me that say it, I felt he was a disgrace to his cloth, which was a strange they were not Thomists. And, after I delivered myself of a emotion for a disbeliever. It was dispiriting to see the revival criticism of Aquinas's argument from contingency for the exis- of the age-old fallacy that invoked devotion to ultimate desir- tence of God, I was astounded to hear Father Klubertanz say: able goals in the future to absolve one for making use of the "I have only one criticism to make of Professor Hook's paper. most barbarous, terroristic means in the present. Like others I said it first!" before him, this Jesuit priest was judging communism by its Nonetheless, I have always been partial to the golden demagogic rhetoric and not by its actual terroristic practices. reasoning of Aquinas and his inspired common sense derived When I challenged the statement that the economic lot of the from Aristotle, especially his conception of the soul as the Chinese peasants had improved under the communists' terror- form of activity of the body, which brought down the charge of istic regime and contrasted it with the improvement of the heresy on his works. I have always preferred him to Augustine, Chinese peasants in the less repressive regime of Taiwan, and the true father of Western , whose piety and voluntarism led him to the assertion that God was all-powerful and could make 2 + 2 = 5, which Aquinas would never have "I was shocked to discover a change in the quality of accepted. I find myself intellectually more comfortable in dis- thought and behavior of the Jesuits. The first shock agreeing with the clearly enunciated propositions of Catholic was administered at the Dialogue Between Catholics Thomists than puzzling over the fuzzy confusions of some and Humanists at a Catholic retreat in New York modernist Catholics who have been infected by Protestant and City. I heard a Jesuit defend the Chinese Communists pantheist heresies and lack the courage to avow it. This came who were then still worshiping at the shrine of Mao home to me at a conference at the Arden House, which was also attended by Etienne Gilson, the clearheaded Thomist Zedong." scholar, and Teilhard de Chardin, whose unorthodox views were making a stir in Catholic circles. I found much of what cited the decision of the Chinese prisoners of war after the the latter said incomprehensible. Nothing was stable in his Korean conflict to choose the bitter bread of exile and freedom conception of the world. It flowed like molasses and every part rather than return to Communist China, he simply made sneer- of it was informed by a divine goodness, even the Chinese ing denials. Communists who at the time were butchering Catholic mis- This point of view began to make headway among Jesuits sionaries in mainland China. Gilson and I faced each other in matters of lesser concern, even in the field of education. over an abyss that was temporarily bridged by cooperatively During the sixties, at the time of student troubles, some Jesuit riddling the body of doctrine of Teilhard de Chardin with criti- educators yielded to ultimatistic demands of student rebels cal objections. who were holding universities hostage in their opposition to I also found myself indebted to a young Jesuit scholar, government policy. In the seventies, the Jesuits seemed to have Father John F. Crowley, who had compiled a small book- abandoned theology for social work, some of it of dubious length bibliography of my works—something I never had time character. Even Father Hesburgh of Notre Dame supported to do—in the course of his studies at the Gregorian Institute of the immoral practice of reverse discrimination in employment Rome. His dissertation, in Latin, was on "The Philosophy of and quota systems in education under the guise of affirmative Sidney Hook." I must confess that I was flattered to see a action programs, whose original meaning was to abolish all treatise on me in a classic language I had never mastered. It is forms of invidious discrimination on the basis of religion, race, hard to resist the impression that one's thought has some sex, and national origin. The role of the Jesuits in recent years importance, if not profundity, even if it is being refuted, in the in furthering liberation theology as an ideology for guerrilla language of Cicero and the church fathers. Father Crowley, warfare has become notorious. however, did give me credit for my intentions, my struggle to They lacked not only a proper theological education that pursue the good in man and society. precluded a working alliance with atheistic terrorists, who when But before long I was shocked to discover a change in the they come to power stamp out religious freedom, but also a quality of thought and behavior of the Jesuits. The first shock proper education in the rudiments of democracy. For all the was administered at the Dialogue Between Catholics and Catholic rhodomontave in the past about the evils of com- Humanists at a Catholic retreat in New York City. I heard a munism, even the bishops in the United States are deceived by Jesuit defend the Chinese Communists who were then still the communist rhetoric about "peace" and seem prepared to worshiping at the shrine of Mao Zedong. I had welcomed this sacrifice the safeguards of our imperfectly free society for the dialogue in the hopes that, on the basis of a shared belief in blandishments of the Kremlin, despite its long record of broken freedom of religious belief—which was a far cry, indeed, from treaties and inhuman outrages, from the Katyn massacre

Summer 1984 25 through the downing of the unarmed Korean plane. cruel to mock or jeer such private beliefs—the assumption One experience in the late sixties comes to mind, in which being of course that they are private and not institutionalized, I had occasion to lament the ignorance of some of Aquinas's requiring no public recognition or support. I would no more doctrines in a Catholic institution. Father John Crowley had dispute the private faith of a grief-stricken woman who believes become president of Fairfield University, a Jesuit institution in that she will be reunited with her dead only child in heaven Connecticut. He invited me to address the student body on than I would the belief of a loving husband that his wife is the civil disobedience. When I arrived, I discovered that the situa- most beautiful woman in the world. Would that every hus- tion was quite similar to that which prevailed in most secular band thought so—privately. universities. A handful of students of extremist views had Every free society has its own historical traditions. England managed to get control of the student paper and organization, and the Scandinavian countries show that an established church the administration and faculty were capitulating to all sorts of is compatible with religious freedom. Separation of church student demands for curricular change, and the moral authority and state in the United States never was complete and is still on the campus seemed vested in the student activists. not complete, since church property is exempt from taxation. In the lively discussion that followed my presentation, the My considered judgment about these complex matters is leaders of the student activists kept referring to the supremacy expressed in my book The Place of Religion in a Free Society, of individual conscience. I expressed surprise at the strength which was the product of the Montgomery Lectures at the and simplicity of this Protestant doctrine. "I had always University of Nebraska. thought," I declared, "that for Aquinas, in case of conflict, it was not conscience that is supreme but reason or, in my terms, y criticism of neo-Thomism and Catholic philosophy, intelligence." My interlocutors subsided as if they had heard Mas well as of the various expressions of Protestant neo- something new. When I questioned Father Crowley about the orthodoxy especially the views of Niebuhr and Tillich—were philosophical naiveté of the students, he rather shamefacedly not motivated by any desire to defend Judaism in any of its acknowledged that the study of the philosophy of Aquinas had historic forms. I was a confirmed naturalist who, in the interest been abolished as a required course in this and in other Jesuit of clarity, was prepared to characterize my position as one of institutions. What a pity! open-minded atheism. I had never involved myself in organized Despite my lifelong conviction that faith in the existence political Jewish life, but I was always sympathetic to the point of an all-powerful and all-loving god has no more intellectual of view of the European Bund and the Jewish Labor Commit- justification than faith in the existence of a cosmic Santa Claus, tee in the United States. In my ignorance I was sympathetic to and my agreement with Marx that the critique of religious the position of Judah Magnes, who favored a bi-cultural abstractions is strategic to the critique of all reified abstrac- Jewish-Arabic community in Palestine. Neither I nor anyone tions, I just as strongly hold that freedom of religious belief (or else I know has ever met an Arab who believes in a secular unbelief) is integral to any morally acceptable schedule of Jewish-Arab cultural community. human rights. I am therefore prepared to make common cause During the thirties, I wrote an essay for the Menorah with believers in religious freedom against every form of totali- Journal entitled "Promise Without Dogma: A Social Philoso- tarianism, religious or secular. phy for Jews" in which I argued that the desire of the Jews to survive as a group, whether it be defined in terms of religion, culture, or historical continuity, was as legitimate as the desire "I was a confirmed naturalist who, in the interest of of any other group. I then argued that the prospects of achiev- clarity, was prepared to characterize my position as ing this goal would in all likelihood be strengthened by empha- one of open-minded atheism." sizing the principles of cultural pluralism, political democracy, privatization of religion, a democratic socialist welfare state, and the supremacy of the rational or scientific method. That is Although Marx believed that religion is a private matter, to say, in addition to other good and sufficient reasons for he held that no society is truly free unless human beings are defending these principles, I maintained that the Jews as a free of religious belief. This is an ambiguous and dangerous special group were more likely to escape their age-old discrimi- doctrine if it goes beyond the corollary of separation of church nation in a society whose institutions furthered these values. and state. Ludwig Feuerbach's psychology of religion, which Among other objectives, my argument was aimed at a rather was Marx's point of departure, was much more profound than influential tendency among Jewish lay and religious figures at Marx's development of it. It was from Feuerbach that Marx the time who in effect were engaged in communist fellow- derived the view that "religion was the opium of the people" at traveling. When I confronted them with the evidence that Stalin a time when opium was not considered a degrading drug but had unjustly killed more Jews than Hitler, which was true at an anodyne for suffering beyond the relief of medical treatment. the time, they retorted that he was killing them not as Jews Feuerbach recognized that in this world there will alwlys be but as dissenters. Since in this respect the Jews were being unconsolable suffering, resulting from death, tragedy, heart- treated equally with others that was more important in their breaking failure, whose pangs might be stilled by the illusions eyes than the alleged injustices of their executions. of immortality and other psychologically sustaining myths. Not My essay elicited one gentle, private reaction and one everyone has the courage to face a precarious world in which strong public reaction. The first was from John Dewey, who nothing is guaranteed except ultimate extinction. It is needlessly with an amused look in his eyes mildly inquired why t had left

26 FREE INQUIRY him out. He subscribed to all the criteria I listed. What 1 intense annoyance among professional Jews, dedicated Zionists, proffered as a social philosophy for Jews seemed to him to be and the adherents of the Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform good enough for everyone. The second reaction was a severe Jewish religious faiths. criticism by Alvin C. Johnson, then head of the New School I recall most vividly from those days a public debate with for Social Research. He took me to task in the lead article of Rabbi Leo Jung before a large audience that included many the succeeding issue of the Menorah Journal for implying that members of his congregation. Rabbi Jung was Orthodox in a the democratic socialist welfare state would serve as a protective modern way, spoke flawless English in the rotund accents and barrier for the Jews against the tendency of the impoverished sympathetic resonant voice that seemed to characterize all members of the contemporary rabbinate, a vocal gift I frankly envied. We were discussing, among other things, the arguments "To bring my point home to a pious Jewish audience for God's existence, and after indicating why 1 could not accept that prayed to a God who is both all powerful, just, the validity of any of the traditional arguments for the existence and merciful, I asked: `In the light of the shattering of God I concluded with a short but incisive presentation of revelations about the Nazi holocaust, how can you the , which has always been a bone in the throat of every western theologian except the followers of still believe that our destinies are governed by an Zoroaster or those who accept William James's heretical belief omnipotent and benevolent God?' " in the finitude of God. To bring my point home to a pious Jewish audience that prayed to a God who is both all powerful, masses in a Christian society to make them the scapegoats for just, and merciful, I asked: "In the light of the shattering revela- deep economic distress. He argued that, just as capitalism had tions about the Nazi holocaust, how can you still believe that made it possible for the Jews to emerge from their centuries- our destinies are governed by an omnipotent and benevolent old ghettoes and liberated them from the burdens of their God?" No sooner had I finished and turned away from the medieval religion, so in the modern age it was in the interests podium than Rabbi Jung sprang from his chair, strode to the of the Jewish people to preserve rather than to destroy the front of the platform and, pointing an accusing finger at me, capitalist system. I made a spirited rejoinder to Johnson. I was said in loud, withering tones: "Just listen to the man! He not prepared then, nor am I now, to admit that capitalism in blames God for the holocaust! What an absurdity! God was its traditional form was a necessary condition for the preserva- not responsible for the holocaust. It was Roosevelt's fault!" tion of the Jews as a group. That could more legitimately be (The reference was to the fact that Roosevelt had vetoed the said of political democracy. The argument that some form of a proposal to open the gates of America to Europe's threatened free enterprise system is a sine qua non for the preservation of Jewry on the alleged ground that it would increase anti- political democracy is historically a much more persuasive one. Semitism in the United States.) My interjection: "But isn't God At that time, the full dimensions of the cultural and reli- stronger than Roosevelt?" was lost in the tumultous applause gious oppressions of the Jews in the Soviet Union and its that greeted Rabbi Jung's devastating retort to me. satellite nations had not yet been revealed. Nor did I myself This incident brings back memories of a still earlier discus- realize the totalitarian potential in any large-scale expansion of sion with an even more orthodox rabbi who invited me to the public sector, and my socialism, like that of Norman present my talk on "Promise Without Dogma" before his con- Thomas, involved something far short of the economic collec- gregation. This was Rabbi Joseph Lookstein, who, despite his tivism of any communist society. Today the welfare state or short stature, radiated dynamic energy. He introduced me with mixed economy, pruned of its abuses and waywardness, of the following words: "Tonight we are going to hear from a the cheating of its taxpayers as well as its beneficiaries, seems distinguished American philosopher and an honest Jew. He to be compatible with a vigorous democratic political life. It is doesn't believe in God and admits it—not like Rabbi Mordecai not an inevitable road to serfdom. Kaplan, who doesn't believe in God but won't admit it." To During the middle and late forties, especially as the full my bewilderment, he then spent fifteen minutes denouncing horror of the Nazi holocaust dawned on the Jews in the Dia- Mordecai Kaplan for his hypocritical faithlessness, much to spora. there was considerable discussion about what it meant the enjoyment of the audience. At that time I had hardly heard to be a Jew, especially among those who had no religious or of Kaplan. When I completed my talk, Rabbi Lookstein Zionist faith. Arthur Koestler argued that, with the establish- launched into an extended commentary. Although I was an ment of the Jewish state, there was no sensible alternative for atheist— which proved there was still room for growth on my those Jews who refused to uproot themselves and live in part—what I had said about cultural pluralism, political except complete assimilation, whatever that meant. Partly out democracy, religious freedom, economic welfare and equality, of the necessity of meeting the challenge by some zealous agita- and the centrality of intelligence in the life of man was pro- tors for one or another Jewish revivalist tendency, and partly foundly true. But it was all expressed long ago in the Talmud! out of intellectual perversity, I held that in the absence of a And he thereupon lauched into a learned of the Jewish pope to make pronouncements on matters of faith or Hebrew texts that showed him to be nimble-witted and morals there were many different ways of being Jewish. I endowed with a sense of humor and considerable histrionic defined a Jew as anyone who was called such or who was ability. He didn't seem to mind when I told him that I suspected willing to call himself such in any community that recognized that if I had said the precise opposite in my talk he would have the distinction and was prepared to act on it. This produced found it in the Talmud, too. •

Summer 1984 27 Introduction Armageddö` Doomsday Prophecies and Biblical Fear-mongering and the Apocalyptic Escape from Reason

Paul Kurtz

s the world about to end? Are we living in the last days of civilization? Will the human species and the planet Earth be engulfed in fire storms and a nuclear holocaust? As we approach the year 2000 we are surrounded by prophets of doom who predict that disaster awaits us. Fear-mongering seems to be in the ascendant. Pessimistic forecasts come from all sectors of society. Of course there are real dangers—from environmental pollution to nuclear war and we need to be aware of them and to take rational precautions. I am surely not denying that there are genuine problems that need to be seriously addressed. But not too long ago we were warned that the world would be over- A Symposium taken by famine, that hundreds of millions—even billions of people would starve to death, and that the cities and country- sides would be teeming with swollen bellies. Contrary to expec- Doomsday scenarios allegedly foretold in the Bible tations, India and other impoverished countries have managed are being broadcast by evangelical preachers to increase their food production, and while there are famines through the popular media. The validity of their in central Africa, the predicted universal famine has not occurred. claims were examined at a February conference Demographers told us only a decade ago that population sponsored by FREE INQUIRY's Religion and Bib- growth would increase exponentially and that there was no lical Criticism Research Project at the University way to stop it. By the year 2000, they said, there would be of Southern California at Los Angeles. We are seven billion inhabitants on the earth, and by 2020, 15 billion pleased to present their papers. or more. But, in many parts of the world, there has been a significant decrease in the rate of population growth. Ecologists maintained only twenty years ago that by 1980 This section includes a review of the books the atmosphere would be so polluted that we would need to of best-selling apocalyptic author Hal Lindsey. wear gas masks year-round—not even in Los Angeles has this Lindsey appeared on the program under the aegis occurred! They warned that many of our lakes and waterways of the USC Office of Student Affairs, but he would be so despoiled that all of their fish and plant life would refused to accept questions from the other speakers and would not allow his remarks to be published Paul Kurtz is professor of philosophy at the State University of New York at Buffalo, editor of FREE INQUIRY, and chairman in FREE INQUIRY. of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal.

28 FREE INQUIRY be destroyed. The Great Lakes, they said, would be totally the Book of Revelation of the New Testament. But their vision dead. President Lyndon Johnson in 1968 visited the Buffalo is far more terrifying than anything that mere secularists or River in western New York and ignited it with a match. Mas- scientists can dream up, because it is all part of God's plan of sive efforts to clean it up followed. Last year there was a punishment for all sinners. And it is imminent. Moreover, only noticeable increase in the fish harvest in Lake Erie, and the a small portion of suffering humanity will be saved from it. lake seems to be coming back. Ecologists have warned that we This seems to be the message that fundamentalist prophets would deplete our natural resources and run out of oil, gas, are preaching today. They are truly convinced that we are and other fossil fuels in the near future. In the long run they living in "the last days," and they view earthquake tremors, may be correct, but new resources have been discovered and wars, and rumors of war as signs of the impending apocalyptic new sources of energy developed. disaster. The last great battle of Armageddon is approaching, A frenzied phobia of the unknown surrounds the additives we are warned. Indeed, this generation, many of them insist, is and chemical wastes of modern technological society. There is the last generation, and this was all foretold in the Old Testa- fear of cancer-causing agents; everything from fluoride to sugar ments. Jesus said: "I will tell you this: The present generation is considered to be noxious. will live to see it all" (Matt. 24:34-35, New English Bible). And We have been told by successive Cassandras that the "this generation will not pass away until all these things be imminent collapse of world-banking establishments would bring fulfilled" (Matt. 24:34, King James Version). Many of Jesus' down the entire financial system, that galloping inflation was disciples believed that his admonitions applied to his own uncontrollable, and that we were on the verge of a depression generation in the first century A.D. That prophecy did not that would change the face of society. Marx predicted Arma- come true for the early Christians, and more than 1,950 years geddon for the capitalist system. Millions of his followers are have since passed. We are now told by Jerry Falwell, Pat still waiting for that to eventuate. They think every recession Robertson, Hal Lindsey, and others that the generation referred will lead to a worldwide depression and the Absolute End of to is ours. Even President Ronald Reagan, five days before the the free enterprise system. Yet George Orwell's 1984 has arrived terrorist bombing in Beirut that killed over 240 G.l.'s, was and our freedoms are still intact, much to everyone's surprise. quoted as saying: "You know, I turn back to your ancient Overhanging all of this is the sword of Damocles—nuclear prophets in the Old Testament and the signs foretelling Arma- energy. Nuclear hysteria engulfs large sectors of society. Any- geddon, and I find myself considering if we're the generation thing related to radiation is considered diabolical. The public that is going to see that come about. I don't know if you noted shrinks in terror at the thought of the opening of new power any of those prophecies lately but, believe me, they certainly plants, from Shoreham on Long Island to Diablo Canyon in describe the times we're going through." California. The China Syndrome spreads horror with every crack or possible crack in a nuclear reactor. Greatest of all is the fear of a thermonuclear holocaust. We are admonished on President Reagan: "You know, I turn back to your all sides that death stares us in the face and that some miscal- ancient prophets in the Old Testament and the signs culation will inevitably trigger a worldwide nuclear exchange. foretelling Armageddon, and I find myself considering The results, we are told, will be a nuclear winter and the near extinction of all life on this planet. This is the Age of Anxiety if we're the generation that is going to see that come par excellence. about. I don't know if you noted any of those prophe- Pessimists become angry at optimists who think that civil- cies lately but, believe me, they certainly describe the ization and the human species are likely to muddle through times we're going through." periodic crises and mini-crises but still survive these end-of- the-world forecasts. 1 am only advising that we place them in a balanced perspective. But to say this infuriates those who are In his book The Late Great Planet Earth (the No. I best- convinced that our whole universe will collapse. Woody Allen seller of the past decade), Hal Lindsey claims that Armageddon in one film was worried about what modern astronomers have is just around the corner. According to biblical prophecies, to say about the cosmos, that there are two ultimate possi- seven years of terrible tribulation will soon befall mankind. bilities: either the universe will expand into infinity, cool down, This period is about to begin because the Jewish people after and die, or eventually collapse into itself like an accordion. the long Diaspora have finally returned to their ancient home- For many the Apocalypse seems to he almost a wish land in Palestine, which they left after the destruction of the fulfillment: "I warned you but you wouldn't listen," they mutter. Temple of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. And it is a genuine reality, we "You and your complacent repressive establishment!" The are told, because of the establishment of the State of Israel. mundane world lacks the drama that a fertile apocalyptic Next, Lindsey says, the Israelis will rebuild the temple in imagination produces. Jerusalem. Then a whole series of cataclysmic events will trigger the final Armageddon. A great war will ensue. Israel will be o add to our worries and much to our surprise we today invaded from all sides: by a confederacy from the North (which Tfind within our midst many tens of millions of fellow is said to be the Russians), by the Arab nations, and by a great citizens who interpret the world primarily through a biblical power from the East (which is identified as the Chinese) with lens and see their own end-of-the-world scenarios. Much of an army of 200 million. During the period leading up to these this is based on the Book of Daniel of the Old Testament and events, there will also emerge a ten-nation European confedera-

Summer 1984 29 tion—the old Roman Empire, now the European Common "have been engaged in the past decade with the work of the Market—headed by an preaching a new religion. Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the These years will witness the greatest devastation that mankind Paranormal. We have examined a great number of the para- has ever seen. The valleys will flow with blood, cities will be normal claims that are proliferating today from psychics, seers, destroyed by torrents of —this, it is said, and prophets of various kinds. How many times are those who represents a thermonuclear war, World War Ill, the most awe- claim to have precognitive or psychic powers correct in their some holocaust of all time. At that moment, Jesus Christ will prophecies? The track record, 1 submit, is extremely weak. We return to rescue in those true believers who accept the can and do make predictions about the future based on evi- word. Christ will reign for a thousand years and eventually dence and rational inference, and often these predictions are establish his final kingdom throughout all eternity. reliable. But those made on the basis of mystic power, psychic This is just a brief outline of the events that are supposed intuition, or alleged revelations prove to be no more accurate to be unfolding. This scenario is accepted, as I have said, by than anyone's wild guesses. Those who make such claims have tens of millions of people in our midst. Is it true, or is it pure a tendency to fit a prophecy or vision to present circumstances fantasy? Should we take it seriously? It is clear that a state of after the fact and to make the prophecy so general that it can belief may create a self-fulfilling prophecy. A widely held belief be related to virtually any case. This has been done with the can have profound political and social ramifications, especially predictions of Nostradamus, the sixteenth-century seer. His if it is held by people in positions of power. Apocalyptic think- quatrains have been read by every generation, including the ing may mean that those who are under its sway will do little present one, and his prophecies have been adapted to all sorts or nothing to prevent war, fatalistically awaiting what is inevit- of circumstances in every time period. Often what is taken as able; or they may so act as to allow it to come true, believing prophetic is only due to coincidence; events are not preordained that they are fulfilling divine prophecy. The problem with faith and predetermined as the prophetic tradition maintains. The in prophecy is that it takes control of the future out of the future depends upon our own actions in the given situations. hands of those best able to shape it. We are supposedly impo- Many people in earlier generations also believed in the tent and helpless creatures awaiting our fate, unable or end-of-the-world scenario based on the Bible, and they often unwilling to exert any influence to rectify or modify the course thought that it applied to their own age. A graphic illustration of events. of the deceptive dangers of the use of biblical prophecy is the Books held to be sacred can have a profound and insidious case of William Miller and his followers in the nineteenth effect upon the people who believe in them. The Koran has century. Miller, a fundamentalist Protestant preacher from inspired millions of Muslims to battle in the name of Muham- Vermont (and precursor of the Seventh-Day Adventists) studied mad. Similarly the Bible is a potent political and ideological the Bible carefully. He was convinced that the world would weapon. Many Orthodox Jews who believe in the Old Testa- come to an end in his own day, somewhere between March 21, ment claim that Israel is the land promised them by God. 1843, and March 21, 1844. He based his analysis upon a specific Fundamentalist Christians, accepting the New Testament, biblical passage that draws on the Book of Daniel. "And he believe that dire apocalyptic events are about to unfold. Each said unto me. Unto two thousand and three hundred days; political or military change is interpreted as a confirmation of then shall the sanctuary be cleansed" (Dan. 8:14). Miller inter- the promised Apocalypse. A basic problem today is that those preted "days" as "years." Since the prophecy was dated 457 who use the Bible as a weapon to plead a particular vision of B.C., the end of the world, he said, would occur two thousand reality have rarely examined it openly, fairly, and objectively and three hundred years later, in 1843. The Millerite groups— or submitted it to careful scrutiny. We are virtually over- which numbered in the thousands—sold their possessions and whelmed by biblical proponents who accept the Bible as the awaited the final day. But, as we know, nothing happened. "Word of God" and interpret it literally. The general public Is the same thing true of present-day predictions of Arma- seldom, if ever, has a chance to hear the dissenting or skeptical geddon? The following articles will examine these claims in point of view. And this is unfortunate, for there is a rich great detail. tradition of scholarly criticism that has carefully examined the We live in a highly complex scientific and technological biblical record, its origins, and its meaning. Using the tools of society. We face awesome problems. If we are to solve them, philology, linguistics, archaeology, anthropology, history, the we must draw upon the best critical intelligence available. We study of comparative religion, and the tools of science, many need to use our rational powers, not abandon them. In a free scholars have come up with a far different picture of reality. society, anyone is entitled to his convictions, including his reli- The main purpose of this symposium is to engage in much gious beliefs. Yet when faith is intermingled with government, needed biblical criticism. Among the questions that shall be it can have enormous social, political, and military implications. raised in the following pages are: It is at that point that all those committed to free inquiry have I. Why is the Bible unreliable as a basis for prophecy an obligation to carefully examine those claims being made about the future? about our collective future, whether they are based upon so- 2. Why should its predictions not be viewed as applying called sacred texts or not, and to submit them to criticism. to this generation? There is thus a compelling need for critical examination of the 3. Why should the Bible not be taken literally? Bible and the many unexamined articles of faith, for these 4. What are the implications for society of apocalyptic have wider implications for society at large. • beliefs?

30 FREE INQUIRY

Apocalypse Macabre Evangelicalism's Ultimate Obscenity

Joseph Edward Barnhart

t has been argued many times that the human species is irresponsible kind to make this reckless charge against human- violence-prone. Territorial imperative, original sin, defense ism. But leaving that aside, we may consider that fundamen- against perceived threats (real or imaginary), frustration- talists do not flinch from asserting that the torments and tor- aggression—these are only four of the more popular theories tures of as they conceive them will be more intense, more offered to account for this tendency toward violence. In this excruciating, and certainly more enduring that those agonies article, I wish to explore the conjecture that a religion might suffered in the Nazi death camps.' The point here is not to become a cultural creation that contributes to the rise of intense engage evangelicals and fundamentalists in a debate as to and brutal aggression against "aliens" and "outsiders." whether hell really does or does not exist, but to show that According to the belief system of Christian evangelicals, their position projects a Cosmic Concentration Camp that is the Jews who were tormented and murdered in the Nazi con- infinitely more violent and brutal than those that Hitler and centration camps will one day have their bodies resurrected for Stalin perpetrated on earth. The late E. J. Camel!, considered the specific purpose of uniting them with their souls in ever- by many to have been one of the more moderate evangelicals, lasting torment. The popular pre-millennialist writer Hal Lind- wrote that "hell is that place beyond which nothing more awful sey summarized clearly this fundamentalist and evangelical can be conceived."' doctrine of violence: It is useful to ask not only how a religion could conceive of such an atrocity, but how it could support it, especially in The soul of everyone of every era who dies without receiving light of the fact that modern fundamentalists have become in God's provision for forgiveness of sin will go to "Torments" some sense pro-Israel. In answering this question, we would be and stay there until his body is resurrected from the grave at misled if we construed this pro-Israel stance as a pro-Jew the end of the Millennium and united with his suffering soul. stance.' Israel as a collective entity stands as a major theme in the fundamentalist scheme. Transporting individuals back to Currently, Tim LaHaye, Jerry Falwell, and other funda- Israel is fulfillment of a putative major prophecy. The fact that mentalists are attempting to portray humanism not only as the individual Jews may become pawns in this fundamentalist cause of virtually all modern problems but as the cause of the scheme seems to have been either ignored or rendered unim- Nazi concentration camps in which millions of Jews and others portant. Fundamentalist leaders have made much of the "great- were brutalized.' It is, of course, scapegoating of the most est period of Jewish conversion" at the end of the battle of Armageddon. The Jews who happen to be alive at that incen- Joseph Edward Barnhart is professor of philosopha' at North diary time will observe that God has obliterated their enemies Texas State University. (Russia and the Arabs in particular). And in a mighty upsurge of repentance, one-third of the Jews surviving the great battle

Summer 1984 31 will convert. They will, in effect, become Jews for Jesus, recog- evidence demonstrating that masses of relatively innocent citi- nizing Jesus as the only true Messiah. The remaining two- zens deserve justly deserve—to be tortured without relief. In thirds, however, will be consigned to endless torture.' No Jew fact, no such evidence is presented, but rather a substitute is who remains faithful to his Judaism will be exempted from the offered, something that might be called "mystical evidence." mass mayhem against his people. Only those who convert to Here is how it works. Christianity will escape the most horrible atrocity imaginable. First, in the fundamentalist/evangelical scheme, everyone In partial defense of this projection of sustained torture, is defined as a creature deserving eternal torture merely by the fundamentalists and evangelicals insist that the victims could fact that he was born into sin, which is itself a mystical process have escaped their fate had they confessed themselves guilty with "mystical evidence." Second. the Creator, taking all sin and deserving of hell. It is, of course, no secret that a number personally as an infinite threat against his holiness, must dole out infinite (endless) punishment. Third, the Creator offers the "...the doctrine of a divinely sanctioned Eternal Con- sinner an escape from divine wrath, but most sinners do not centration Camp for fellow human beings is an insidi- accept it. Hence, they doubly deserve the Creator's endless retribution. ous background that serves to desensitize the moral One of the purposes of this article is to gain some under- conscience, making it more susceptible to aggression standing of how a large portion of the population in the United and violence." States (to say nothing of Iran and other Muslim countries where hell for infidels is taken as a matter of fact) can so easily of governments on both sides of the iron curtain still indulge accept a Cosmic Concentration Camp as part of the justifiable in the ancient practice of torturing in order to extract "con- scheme of things. Indeed, some Christian fundamentalists have fessions" from political prisoners. The fact that many—perhaps held that they could not worship a God who did not send most—of the prisoners may be entirely innocent of the crimes unbelievers to an endless hell.'' they are charged with makes no difference. A former agent of The first point I wish to make is that many believers the Israeli Secret Service, Wolfgang Lotz, contends that even simply inherit the doctrine of eternal torment as a part of their political idealists who refuse to sign the false confession cannot cultural endowment. Their acceptance of it is more ritualistic finally endure the torture. Eventually they confess, sometimes than a deep-seated emotional and intellectual commitment that after having been injured or permanently crippled.' This may has been arrived at with deliberation. be compared to the fundamentalist contention that in hell sin- Second, the idea of the Cosmic Concentration Camp does ners will indeed confess the justness of their torment and the not exist in their consciousness with any sustained vividness of virtue of their divine tormentor.' a concrete nature. In short, it is an abstraction for many The point is that Christian fundamentalism and evangeli- perhaps most-- fundamentalists. Professor Robert W. Ross in calism are the heirs to those traditions that employed the his book So It Was True: The American Protestant Press and ancient practice (and rationalization) of torture as a device for the Nazi Persecution of the Jeu•s" writes insightfully of the extracting confessions from innocent people. Having no present holocaust perpetrated by the Nazis: "In the end, [Protestant] power to carry out their torture here and now, however, funda- editors and writers seemed unable to cope with something as mentalists, in particular, make use of the threat of torture. unreal, even unimaginable, as the mass slaughter of millions of They are quick to argue that Jesus spoke more of eternal people, among them six million Jews. in an organized, bureau- torment than eternal bliss. Billy Graham, especially in the cratic, planned extermination." 1950s, used to bemoan the fact that ministers did not preach The key word here is unimaginable. It seems difficult for on hell as frequently as they had in generations past.' anyone believing in hell to imagine concretely in any sustained The threat of torture to extract a confession or compliance way that his relatives, friends, and neighbors are in fact being is nothing new among human beings. That a religion would tortured. Fundamentalist Hal Lindsey has tried to imagine in use threats to extract religious confessions might seem sur- detail some of the scenes of "world-wide destruction," "violent prising to those who have not considered that religion is some- judgment." and "holocaust from the East." But even his vivid times employed in the service of evil, not only condoning evil imagination refuses to look concretely at his friends and rela- (in this case, torture), but rationalizing it, legitimating it, tives in hell. He explains, "Perhaps the reason God will not making it normal and acceptable. It does appear unjust and allow any believers to attend this awful moment of truth is vicious to torture forever one's fellow citizens (especially those that we wouldn't be able to bear having a friend or loved one who have not raped, murdered. etc.): that is, to torture rela- turn to us and say with bewildering accusation, 'Why didn't tively innocent people. The punishment does not seem to fit rou warn me....' the crime if no crime has been committed. At this point, funda- Even here, Lindsey focuses not on the torment of his mentalist and evangelical theologians begin to resemble closely imagined friends, but on their accusations. Some fundamen- the theoreticians of the Nazis' brutalities and Stalin's purges, talists have argued that the agony of friends and loved ones in for their role is to portray apparent and conspicuous viciousness hell will be entirely deleted from the minds of the survivors in as an appropriate means leading to higher good.'' IndeedJ hell heaven. Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas assures his is not regarded by fundamentalists to be a necessary evil to readers that "the blessed in glory will have no pity for the good, but an ingredient of total goodness." damned." Furthermore, while the plight of the damned will It would seem to be a Herculean task to find empirical not be a direct cause of joy for the blessed, "the punishment of

32 FREE INQUIRY Jerry, Pat, Billy, and Oral at the Last Barbecue. the damned will cause it indirectly."'s Notes A third point needs to be made regarding the question of how it is that people are able to accept as "normal and right" I. Hal Lindsey, There's a New World Coming (New York: Bantam Books, 1975), p. 266. the belief that their loved ones may live their next life in a 2. See Tim F. LaHaye, The Battle for the Mind (0ld Tappan, N.J.: hopeless Cosmic Concentration Camp. It seems necessary to Fleming H. Revell Co., 1980), pp. 36, 57, 91 f., 112 f., 119; Jerry Falwell, think of the inmates as something less than human yet as Listen America (New York: Bantam Books, 1981), p. 57; Jerry Falwell, ed., something more than harmless animals. Most fundamentalists The Fundamentalist Phenomenon (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., would doubtless regard it as immoral to torture even an alley 1981), p. 199. 3. See W. C. Proctor, "What Christ Teaches Concerning Future Retri- rat (an animal) endlessly. Hell's inmates, therefore, must be bution," in The Fundamentals for Today, C. L. Feinberg, ed. (Grand Rapids: perceived as being threatening and demonic in some sense. Kregel Publications, 1961), p. 336; Falwell cited in The Fundamentalist This third point requires qualification. If the believer can Phenomenon, p. 172. rest in the realm of abstraction, he may be under little or no 4. E. J. Carnell, A Philosophy of the Christian Religion (Grand Rapids: pressure to imagine the inmates of hell as energetic, over- Eerdmans, 1960), p. 380. 5. See Falwell, Listen America, p. 98. whelming, threatening, and aggressive agents of evil. It may be 6. See Hal Lindsey with C. C. Carlson, The Late Great Planet Earth that fundamentalist preachers in particular are prone to take (New York: Bantam Books, 1973), p. 156. this third step when their preaching about hell tends to become 7. See Wolfgang Lotz, A Handbook for Spies (New York: Harper and graphic and imaginative. In short, when their imagination does Row, 1980), pp. 118-120. focus on the individuals in hell, they seem forced to perceive 8. See E. J. Carnell, An Introduction to Christian Apologetics: A Philosophical Defense of the Trinitarian-Theistic Faith (Grand Rapids: the victims as something quite different from the average Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1948), p. 307, n. 10. human being with whom the preachers come into daily contact. 9. See The Quotable Billy Graham, C. R. Flint, ed., (Anderson, S.C.: The conclusion 1 wish to draw is that, even as a cultural Drake House, 1966), p. 96. abstraction, the doctrine of a divinely sanctioned Eternal Con- 10.The popular book The God that Failed (New York: Bantam, 1952), centration Camp for fellow human beings is an insidious back- edited by Richard Crossman, contains revealing accounts of former com- munists or pro-communists who had once served as apologists for Stalin's ground that serves to desensitize the moral conscience, making threats and murders. it more susceptible to aggression and violence. It is noteworthy 1I. "The universe, with all of the evil in it, is the best possible of all that fundamentalists who oppose abortion have defended worlds, for the very reason that God, the standard of good, has called it Joshua's divinely ordered extermination of all Edomites, good" (Carnell, An Introduction to Christian Apologetics, p. 300. including innocent Edomite children and fetuses still in the 12.See Thomas Warren and W. I. Maston, The Warren-Maston Debate (Jonesboro, Ark.: National Christian Press, 1978), p.45. womb. In the 1960s, fundamentalists utilized Joshua's example 13.(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980), pp. 300 f. of extermination as prooftext and pretext for urging the drop- 14. Hal Lindsey, There's a New World Coming, p. 274. ping of nuclear warheads on North Vietnam. 15.Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theol., III, Supp. Q. 94. •

Summer 1984 33 Hal Lindsey's Late Great Armageddon Update

Vern L. Bullough Contributing Editor

Books by Hal Lindsey (all paper, $3.50): heavily upon the Book of Revelation. In The Late Great Planet Earth, with Carole American history, the Millerites predicted C. Carlson (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, the Second Coming of Jesus in the nine- 1970, 1977), 180 pp. Satan is Alive and teenth century and, when Jesus failed to Well on Planet Earth (Grand Rapids: appear, the faithful regrouped and estab- Zondervan, 1972; New York: Bantam lished the Seventh-Day Adventist Books, 1974), 238 pp. There's A New Church. Others continued to predict the World Coming (Santa Ana: Vision Second Coming, among them the Rus- House, 1973; New York: Bantam, 1975), sellites, followers of Charles Taze Russell, 301 pp. The Liberation of Planet Earth who survive as the Jehovah's Witnesses. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1974; New In fact, Jehovah's Witnesses argue that York: Bantam, 1976), 237 pp. The 1980's 1914 marked the beginning of the last Countdown to Armageddon (New York: days and that Armageddon is near at Bantam, 1981), 175 pp. hand. Hal Lindsey is one of the latest of he world at times can be a trying the Armageddon preachers, updating and Tplace to live in. If atomic fallout reinterpreting the information about not until after the Six-Day War that con- does not kill us, the pollution of our Armageddon in the Bible to apply to ditions were right for the coming of the environment will certainly make us our own time. In the process, he managed Last Days. Not until the Temple is deathly ill, while the escalating problems to author the top nonfiction best-seller restored, however, will the Last Days of feeding the rapidly expanding popula- of the 1970s, according to the New York begin. tion can only result in widespread hunger. Times. His Late Great Planet Earth sold Lindsey proceeds to build a scenario Is there any easy answer to these and more than eighteen million copies, and based upon the Book of Revelation with other major problems? he has written a number of other books some help from the Book of Daniel. The For Hal Lindsey there is, and it is that amplify his thesis and detail the Soviet Union is the great enemy of the simple. "Get Right" with Jesus, and upcoming cataclysm. In all, his books "North" that will rise, with the Arab God's spirit will take up residence within have sold more than thirty-two million nations (the "kings of the South") as its you. And then, before the impending copies. confederates, in order to destroy Israel. destruction of the world occurs—some- The key to Lindsey's new date for China represents the "kings of the East," thing that Lindsey states will happen in the coming of the end is the appearance who will wipe out one-third of the world's this generation—the saved will be taken of the modern state of Israel. He writes population, while the Common Market from the earth through a process known that the attempts of his predecessors to represents the revival of the Roman as "rapture." Where those who have predict the end of the world or to inter- Empire predicted by Daniel. In the next undergone "rapture" will locate while pret both world wars as signs of the phase the Antichrist will appear and lead billions are dying and suffering is unclear imminent return of Jesus have simply the Roman Empire coalition. Then there to Lindsey but, following John 14:1-3, discredited the prophecy. He believes that will be 144,000 Jews for Jesus, and a he advises the reader not to let his "heart he has restored faith in prophecy because war will break out—originally in the be troubled." "Trust in God," he writes, the "one event which many Bible students Middle East, but it will become World because there are many rooms and places in the past overlooked was this para- War Ill—and the Antichrist sitting in in heaven that Jesus has prepared for mount prophetic sign: Israel had to be a Rome will appear to be a great leader. the faithful. nation again in the land of its fore- This brief period of glory, however, will This is the standard millenarian doc- fathers." Israel not only had to be a only last for three and a half years, trine that has been around since the nation but it had to include all of Jeru- whereupon this new leader will proclaim beginning of Christianity and is based salem within its borders, and thus it was himself God Incarnate in Jerusalem, and

34 FREE INQUIRY Armageddon will begin. So many people against nuclear proliferation is meaning- edly makes most of his converts. He may will be slaughtered in the conflict that less; teaching about contraceptives is not have gained this insight during the eight blood will rise to the horses' bridle for a only useless but it is evil because it is years he traveled throughout the United total of two hundred miles northward against God's plan to destroy the world. States as a staff member of the Campus and southward of Jerusalem. "It seems Liberalism and do-gooders are helpers Crusade for Christ. Lindsey himself, like incredible! The human mind cannot con- of the devil. other evangelists, claims to have gone ceive of such inhumanity of man to man, In each subsequent book, Lindsey through the very conversion process he yet God will allow man's nature to fully features a new, attention-grabbing item wants others to undergo. After serving display itself in that day," writes in order to emphasize the coming end of in the Coast Guard during the Korean Lindsey. the world. Portions of the Late Great War, he "got" religion and went to the All the cities of the nations will be Planet Earth dealt with Egypt as a Rus- University of and then to the destroyed, but just as Armageddon sian satellite. This aspect was dropped Dallas Theological Seminary, where con- reaches "its awful climax" and it appears from later books as alliances changed. tributions of well-wishers supported him. that all life on earth will be destroyed— Libya has now become the new evil force. His first two books, both coauthored at this very moment Jesus will return When it was predicted that there would with Carole C. Carlson, were more and save man from self-extinction. be more earthquakes in 1982 because of scholarly and somewhat less disjointed Returning with him to sit in judgment the so-called Jupiter Effect (in which all than his later, independently written ones, will be those who have escaped death the planets are aligned), Lindsey used it which no longer list a coauthor. His and destruction through ascending as a sign of the last days and continues scholarship is consistently highly selective directly into heaven through the to do so even though there is no evidence in terms of biblical sources, and even "rapture" process. After Jesus has that the number of earthquakes was more so when he discusses political destroyed all ungodly kingdoms, he will related to the Jupiter Effect. Whether issues. set up a thousand-year kingdom, which things turn out exactly as Lindsey pre- When a writer argues that his details will then become eternal. To do this God dicts does not matter to him. For exam- might be wrong but that his overall pic- will destroy the old elements and rear- ple, he states that the new manifestation ture is correct, there is not much point range the atoms; after intense fire and of the Roman Empire, the European in enumerating his errors. Lindsey is an heat, the atoms will be reconstructed and Common Market, shall have ten nations, effective snake juice salesman, appealing a new heaven and earth will appear. but then adds that whether it has more to the frightened and the gullible, and For the most part, this is standard or less at any one time does not matter there are large numbers of buyers out apocalyptic prediction, but Lindsey has because when the time comes it will only there. All he needs to do to further a considerable advantage over most of have ten. Even whether these countries capitalize on the public's anxiety is tie in his predecessors and even his rivals. He were part of the Roman Empire is unim- with insurance salesmen to sell insurance is not a traditional hellfire and damnation portant, because it is only Roman culture to all those who might not believe enough preacher, but a low-key, scholarly look- and tradition that counts. The Trilateral to undergo "rapture" in the Last Days, ing type. Several of his books are well Commission was increasingly discussed or whose loved ones or relatives will be footnoted. He is not shrill but rather in the books he wrote after the election killed. Lindsey says that the coming hor- seems to be compassionate, caring, and of President Jimmy Carter and 666, the ror would be eased if insurance policies concerned with the same problems that sign of the devil, is a topic in his later were paid off enough to provide the sur- most of the rest of us are. Lindsey knows works. Lindsey appears more and more vivors with monetary compensation to how to imply expertise. He emphasizes the political reactionary, opposed to wel- buy supplies and weapons to defend his personal acquaintance with important fare programs, and virtually anti-socialist themselves against marauders until they people; and even when he cannot state and anti-bureacracy, but pro-military. can join the rest of those saved at the that he has interviewed them or had Lindsey holds that the new Anti- end of the world. breakfast with them, he somehow christ will rule in Rome, but he carefully The difficulty with Lindsey and manages to suggest that he knows them. avoids equating this ruler with the pope, other preachers of doom is that they do Although the scholar in me notices as traditional apocalyptic writers did. nothing to cope with the problems Lindsey's use of quotations out of con- Instead, he simply condemns most around them. Instead of trying to pre- text, his misinterpretations, his half- churches as secularist (although I am not vent an Arab-Israeli war, they hope for truths, his avoidance of any contrary conscious of him using the term secular one, since this is part of the divine data, his neglect of biblical scholarship humanism). Biblical scholarship is unim- scheme. Instead of dealing with the prob- (he dismisses it entirely), and his portant to him except as it helps produce lems of nuclear explosion, environmental ignorance of the world scene, I can see more effective biblical translations. In his pollution, and overpopulation, they sit why he is successful. The mishmash that early works, he used the examples of back preparing for their anticipated he has put together is believable to those Jeane Dixon and other "psychics" to "rapture." The worse things get, the bet- who want simple answers. He gives a show the rise of prophecy in the Last ter off they are, because they can gain world-view in which all signs seem to Days, but in his later works he became more converts as the end approaches. point to the Second Coming and in which disillusioned with their failures and cri- This seems to me to be the worst kind of all life's problems will disappear. Many ticized anyone who does not believe the "cop-out," but then that is what Lindsey people undoubtedly find such simple Bible's literal truth. is preaching: Save yourself, ignore every- answers attractive. There is no need to Lindsey knows the student mind, thing but your salvation, for the world is work to eliminate pollution; the struggle and it is on campuses that he undoubt- going to Hell. •

Summer 1984 35 The Dangers of Apocalyptic Thinking

Randel Helms

ocalypticism is a pathological state of the religious Hebrew prophetic tradition while ignoring or abandoning its mind, tending to become epidemic during times of reli- most valuable theological and moral precepts. The great glory Apgious crisis. Though often debilitating to the individual of Hebrew prophetic teaching was its insight that the essence intellect, is, paradoxically, invigorating for brief of religion is not "religious" but ethical, that those acts tradi- periods to religious groups; like a fever, its presence is a sign of tionally conceived of as religious—the entire sacrificial and the action of powerful antibodies against a dangerous outside ritual cult were in fact abominations, and that what Yahweh reality. "Apocalyptic fever can narcotize reason and intellectual really demanded is, in the words of Amos, justice and righteous- honesty while stimulating the imagination; it can produce a ness, not the blood of sheep and goats. Both Amos and Jere- literature of great intensity and metaphorical power and can miah denied that animal sacrifice was even a part of the encourage a threatened religious community to withstand an covenant of Israel; as Jeremiah, speaking for Yahweh, put it: otherwise destructive crisis in its development, moving martyrs to cheerful death and new converts to the fold. Our Old and When 1 brought your forefathers out of Egypt, 1 gave them no New Testaments contain the two supreme examples of the commands about whole-offering and sacrifice; 1 said not a world's apocalyptic literature—the books of Daniel and word about them. What 1 did command them was this, If you Revelation and both bear out the description I have just obey me, 1 will be your God and you shall be my people. [Jer. 7:22-23, NEB] given. Since we today are witnessing a resurgence of apocalyptic thinking as a sign of the current crisis in the development of Obedience to the ethical demands of Yahweh—to love mercy, Christianity, we would do well to understand the biblical basis do justice, and walk humbly with your God, as the prophet of such thinking. Micah put it—was for the prophets the essence of religion as The word apocalypse comes from the Greek word mean- far as human action is concerned. H owever, the chief theologi- ing a disclosure, uncovering, or revelation and is found in the cal insight of the prophets that underpinned their ethical New Testament as the first word in the Book of Revelation: insight —1 mean their —brought with it another "Apokálypsis [a revelation] of Jesus Christ, which God gave claim: to predict the future. This is the side of the prophetic him to show his servants the things that must soon happen." tradition inherited by apocalypticism. The implicit basis of This verse reveals both the title of the book and a major prophetic ethics is that humanity is one—all humans are related danger of apocalyptic thought—the delusion that the apocalypt and require our loving concern humanity is one because the can predict the future. The author of Revelation inherited the gods are but one; the one humanity is created by the one God. delusion from his major literary and religious influences, the It was given to the Second Isaiah, an anonymous prophet of apocalyptic portions of the Old Testament, which in turn the sixth century K.c., most clearly to state the ideals of prophe- inherited it from the delusory side of the Hebrew prophetic tic monotheism. but for this prophet the oneness and conse- tradition, and that tradition is where we must begin in order to quent supremacy of Yahweh also necessarily meant that Yah- understand the nature of apocalyptic thought. weh could predict the future: Apocalypticism inherited the least healthy aspect of the 1 am God, there is no other, 1 am God, and there is no one like me; Randei Helms is associate professor of English at the Uni- 1 reveal the end from the beginning, versity of Arizona. From ancient times 1 reveal what is to be. [Isa. 46:9-10]

Even the prophet Amos shared this view: "The Lord GOD

36 FREE INQUIRY does nothing without giving to his servants the prophets knowl- The two and a half "times" is later equated with a period of edge of his plans" (Amos 3:7). There is a counter-theology in 1,290 days (Dan. 12:11). We can even date the Book of Daniel the Old Testament and a much more sensible one in the Book on the basis of chapter 11 verse 45: of Ecclesiastes, but that theology never caught on in our tradi- tion. Ecclesiastes declares that "man is a creature of chance" He will pitch his royal pavilion between the sea and the Holy (Ecc. 3:19), that "time and chance govern all" (Ecc. 9: 1 1). Thus hill, the fairest of all hills; and he will meet his end with no the author of Ecclesiastes believes that "man is greatly troubled one to help him. by ignorance of the future; who can tell him what it will bring?" (Ecc. 8:7). For this author, God does not reveal the But Antiochus died in Persia in 163 B.C., not between Mount future, but this more sensible biblical theology was swamped Moriah and the Mediterranean; so the Book of Daniel was by the notion of predictive prophecy. written not long before 163—within two or three years after The authors of both Daniel and Revelation ignored the 167 B.C., the date of Antiochus's Hellenizing decree. central insights of the prophets and concentrated on the delu- The literary fiction whereby this delusion was depicted brings us to the second and third dangers of apocalyptic "Apocalypticism is a pathological state of the religious thinking: intellectual dishonesty and spiritual pride. mind." The first relates to Daniel's pseudepigrapha. The Book of Daniel was written around 165 B.C. by a Jewish apocalypt "Apocalyptic fever can narcotize reason and intellec- pretending to be the Daniel mentioned in Ezekiel, chapters 14 and 28. It would seem that he picked this name because he tual honesty while stimulating the imagination." needed a figure after whom a biblical book had not yet been named and who would seem chronologically suitable; so he sory views: Daniel forgot about the anti-sacrificial aspect of his found the following in Ezekiel 14:13-14: heroes the prophets (for him the restoration of the daily offering in Jerusalem was a main hope of his book), ignored ethical When a country sins by breaking faith with me, 1 will stretch monotheism (reducing the universe to the two warring camps out my hand and cut short its daily bread. 1 will send famine of spiritual forces), and concentrated on attempting to predict upon it and destroy both men and cattle. Even if those three the future. The author of Revelation did the same; for him the men were there, Noah, Daniel and Job, they would save none chief metaphor for Jesus was a sacrificial lamb and the final but themselves by their righteousness. words he has Jesus say are the remarkably inaccurate prediction "Yes, I am coming soon" (Rev. 22:20). Ezekiel was a prophet of the sixth century B.C. and would have As I have said, apocalypticism is the religious analogue of been a contemporary of the central figure in the Book of fever, and the first great literary product of that fever is the Daniel; yet Ezekiel is clearly writing about ancient figures of Book of Daniel, written at a time of intense crisis in Jewish righteousness from the past—Noah and Job and the Daniel religious life, when Antiochus IV, king of Syria (175-163 B.C.) who was in fact a Canaanite hero of the fourteenth century B.C. tried to Hellenize all his subjects, including the Jewish people, But the author of Daniel did not know this; assuming that his in fulfillment of Alexander the Great's dreamed-of world Greek Daniel was a figure of the sixth century B.C. (which was the culture. According to I Maccabees, Antiochus decreed that ancient past to him), he picked that name for his pseudonym. "his subjects were all to become one people and abandon their Of course pseudepigrapha was a common literary practice own laws and religion" (1 Macc. 1:41-42); he outlawed circum- in the second century B.C. and is a minor sin unless undertaken cision. Sabbath-keeping. and possession of the Torah, and deliberately to delude and mislead an audience. And this is commanded that swine be sacrificed in Jerusalem's temple. precisely the purpose of the literary fiction under which the One of the responses to this crisis was the apocalyptic move- Book of Daniel was written. The book presents itself as an ment that produced the Book of Daniel, which might be ancient hidden text purposefully revealed around 165 B.C. to described as a literary analogue of the Maccabean . explain the divine intentions for the near future, intentions But an unfortunate aspect of the apocalyptic response was the supposedly revealed, written down, and sealed up some four particular delusion that the depredations of Antiochus were a hundred years previously. According to the book's last chapter, sign that the world was in "the time of the end" (Dan. 8:17) Daniel is told: and that God himself would destroy Antiochus within three and a half years of his attack on the Jewish faith: ... keep the word secret and seal the book till the time of the end. Many will be at their wits' end and punishment will he He shall hurl defiance at the Most High and shall wear down heavy.... the wicked shall continue in wickedness and none the saints of the Most High. He shall plan to alter the of them shall understand; only the wise leaders shall under- customary times and law; and the saints shall be delivered into stand. [Dan. 12:4, 10] his power for a time and times and a half a time. Then the court shall sit, and he shall be deprived of his sovereignty, so that in the end it may be destroyed and abolished. The kingly The book was unsealed about 165 B.c'. (the time of the end, as power. sovereignty and greatness of all the kingdoms under far as the author was concerned) but it could supposedly be heaven shall be given to the people of the saints of the Most understood only by the "wise leaders." Here is the key to High. [Dan. 7:25-27] another great danger of apocalypticism: spiritual pride, the

Summer 1984 37 delusion that only one's group or only oneself possesses the the Spirit took him up was "one like a son of man," "the hair divinely revealed answer to the future. Apocalypticism fosters of his head was white as snow-white wool," "and his face a bigoted religious based on divine revelation to shone like the sun"; "when I saw him I fell at his feet as though me, and divine rejection of you. dead. But he laid his right hand upon me and said, `Do not be The Maccabean revolt contemporary with the Book of afraid' " (Rev. 1:13-14, 16, 17). But this alleged visionary Daniel succeeded, establishing an independent Jewish state that experience of the author was in fact a literary fiction borrowed lasted a hundred years, until the Romans took over the area in from the Book of Daniel, where the writer saw "one like a son 63 B.C. But the Book of Daniel did not cause that brief success; of man," and a heavenly figure whose hair was like "purest indeed it trivialized the real though naturally temporary human wool," and whose face "shone." When Daniel saw him he "fell accomplishments of the war by attempting, altogether incor- prone on the ground," but the heavenly figure addressed him, rectly, to present it as the last stage of a divine plan to establish saying, "Do not be afraid" (Dan. 7:14, 10:6, 12). This kind of a world state centered at Jerusalem. After declaring that Antio- conventional and derivative description of pretended visionary chus's campaign against Judaism would last three and a half experience continues throughout the Book of Revelation. Since years, Daniel predicted that "he shall be deprived of his the pretense is a literary convention there is surely nothing sovereignty" and that "the greatness of all the kingdoms under sinister about it, but anyone not understanding the convention heaven shall be given to the people of the saints of the Most will be misled and will grant to the author a greater spiritual High. Their kingly power is an everlasting power and all authority than he in fact deserves. sovereignties shall serve them" (Dan. 7:26-27). This grandiose Like Daniel, Revelation stems from a time of intense reli- delusion has been proved many times to be just that, but it has gious crisis probably from the time of the Emperor Domitian, also been reinterpreted many times, troubling and misleading who died in A.D. 96 and whose reign was marked by persecution generations of believers and helping to cause the uncountable of Christians; and, like Daniel, its effort to predict the future is a dismal failure. "Since the apocalypt always believes that his days are Unlike Daniel, however, Revelation does not pretend to the last days, he has no thought for the future genera- predict the far-distant future, but only what must soon happen. Whereas the fictional Daniel is told that his vision "points to tions that must inhabit the earth. Like James Watt, days far ahead" (Dan. 8:26) and that he must "seal up" his he has little concern for the forests and the sea and book until "the time of the end" (Dan. 12:4), which the author the life in them: They're all going to be burned up of Daniel imagined to have been his own time (about 165 B.C., tomorrow anyway." when he published the book). John, in a direct but reverse allusion to Daniel, writes that he was told, "Do not seal up the miseries of the Jewish War of A.D. 66-70 and of the Bar Cochba words of prophecy in this book, for the hour of fulfillment is revolt of I32-135—both of which were in part efforts to "fulfill" near" (Rev. 12:10). It is the delusion of the apocalypt, whenever Daniel's predictions. he lives, that his own time is the ; for the author of And, not least, Daniel also underlay the writing of the Revelation, this meant the late first century A.D., when the Book of Revelation. One of the first things to grasp about the Roman empire was violently persecuting Christians. He wrote New Testament Apocalypse is its intensely literary nature. In to encourage his co-religionists' endurance, assuring them they the 408 verses of Revelation, there are more than five hundred had but a short time before the Second Coming; Jesus himself allusions to the Old Testament, eighty-eight to the Book of is made to appear and to declare, several times, "1 am coming Daniel alone. To put the matter another way, Revelation's soon." presentation of itself as a series of actual visions is a literary This brings us to the last and greatest danger of apocalyp- pretense, for those visions are in fact carefully constructed ticism: its encouragement of fatalism and spiritual sloth. The fictions modeled after visionary portions of the Old Testament, notion that the future was already predicted long ago, that especially the books of Ezekiel and Daniel. Of course this fact there is no way we can change a divine plan anciently revealed in no way lessens the literary value of Revelation (which is to someone else, that there is nothing to do but passively await very high indeed), but it does call strongly into question the the future to overtake us—this is a dangerous and destructive spiritual sensitivity and honesty of its author. Just as Daniel is delusion in an age of nuclear weaponry. Since the apocalypt a second-century B.c. work of religious fiction presented as a always believes that his days are the last days. he has no sixth-century B.C. collection of divinely revealed visions, so thought for the future generations that must inhabit the earth. Revelation is a first-century A.D. collection of highly derivative Like James Watt, he has little concern for the forests and the fictional scenes presented as a group of divinely inspired visions. sea and the life in them: They're all going to be burned up The visionary aspect of Revelation is a literary convention, tomorrow anyway. a means of gaining a factitious spiritual authority for the book The noblest message of the Old and New Testaments is through a pretense of divine vision. John's descriptions of his not the fatal passivity of apocalypticism, but the activism of visions are borrowed rather than firsthand: "I was caught up the prophets and Jesus, Paul, and James. Openness to a future by the Spirit, and behind me I heard a loud voice," writes that we must help create, the prophetic call to correct a society John in Revelation 1:10; but he wasn't really, he was only that we have allowed to go wrong, these are the great biblical borrowing from Ezekiel 3:10: "The Spirit took me up, and messages perverted and smothered by apocalyptic thinking that behind me I heard a voice." What John reportedly saw when we must keep alive. •

38 FREE INQUIRY Dimensions of Apocalyptic Thinking

Gerald A. Larne

ew apocalyptic literature developed during the third teachings. At his last meal with his disciples, he told them he century B.C., in the era that followed the conquest of the would not eat with them again except in his "Father's kingdom" Jnear eastern world by Alexander the Great. The Dio- (Matt. 26:30). dochoi, his successors, engaged in active Hellenization, which The apostle Paul also believed he was living in final time. produced traumatic response among faithful Jews who believed He told the Christian group in Thessalonica: that their traditional religion was being threatened by foreign and modern ideas and practices. Apocalyptic writings were the . . . we who are alive, who are left until the coming of the literature of response. The message of apocalypticism was sim- Lord, shall not precede those who have fallen asleep ... [I ple: Keep the faith, for the end of time is at hand when God Thess. 4:15] will establish the kingdom of the righteous. The roots of this kind of thinking lay, in part, in the The writer of the Book of Revelation was convinced that Jewish prophetic tradition, which claimed that, in the past, the kingdom was at hand. He wrote of what he believed "must Yahweh had spoken through inspired persons to reveal the soon take place" (1:1) and concluded his essay with the cry or divine intention for the nation. In part, the literary movement the prayer: "Come Lord Jesus." (22:20).... Much later, when drew from concepts originating in Persian Zoroastrian religion, scoffers asked "Where is the promise of his coming? For ever which provided a dualistic view of the world (good versus evil) since the fathers fell asleep, all things have continued as they and a cosmic time-line. The cosmic time-line pictured human were from the beginning of creation" (2 Peter 3:4), they were history in a continuing decline, starting with an ideal age and told the reason for the delay was that "... The Lord is not slow ultimately climaxing in destruction, judgment, and rewards about his promise as some count slowness, but is forbearing and punishment for the living and the dead. The merging of toward you, not wishing that any should perish, but that all these sources produced the Book of Daniel and other kindred should reach repentance" (3:9). The writer went on to assure works not included in the Bible but which can be found in the scoffers that the day of God would come "because of pseudepigraphic writings. Daniel, like these other works, was which the heavens will be kindled and dissolved, and the ele- written in the name of an ancient worthy who revealed the ments will melt with fire! But according to his promise we wait shape of things to come and foretold the end of time and the for new heavens and a new earth in which righteousness dwells" establishment of the divine kingdom of the faithful. (3:12-13). In other words, the delay was to permit time for The production of this literature continued into the com- more persons to be saved and thereby escape the terrible fate mon era and provided part of the religious milieu in which of the nonsaved. The delay was an act of mercy. Nevertheless, Christianity had its beginnings. Because Christian Scriptures the kingdom of the righteous would come. were written during the heyday of Jewish apocalypticism, it is The Christian Scripture writers who anticipated the speedy not surprising to find the New Testament saturated with end- return of Jesus and the establishment of the kingdom of God of-time notions. According to Gospel writers, Jesus believed were wrong. Jesus was wrong. Paul was wrong. All of the New he was living in end-time. He told his disciples: Testament expectations were wrong. Then why did the church not abandon this apocalyptic concept? The writer of 2 Peter . . . there are some standing here who will not taste death provided the means for retaining the beliefs: He reinterpreted before the) see the Son of man coming in his kingdom .. . the time patterns. There was, he declared, human time and [Matt. 16:28] divine time. He wrote:

He sent his followers out to preach "The kingdom of heaven is Do not ignore this one fact, beloved, that with the Lord one at hand" (Matt. 10:7). Many of his parables were kingdom day is as a thousand years and a thousand years as one day. [3:8] Gerald A. Larue is professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical studies at the University of Southern California at The apocalyptic faith has been kept alive, therefore, Los Angeles. because there are those who believe that, since it is recorded in Jewish and Christian Scriptures, it has divine authority and it

Summer 1984 39 must be true: and because (despite the evidence that early gods to punish Narcissus by causing him to fall in love and Christians were misguided and in error about the coming king- have no love returned to him. The gods complied, and one day dom) by following the example set in 2 Peter, the signs, sym- as Narcissus rested by the shore of a lake he saw his own bols, times, and personalities could be subjected to continuing reflection mirrored in the waters, assumed it was a beautiful reinterpretations and be given new meanings in different water nymph, and promptly fell in love. Each time he reached historical settings. Clearly this is what has happened over and forth to embrace the beautiful creature, she disappeared. Nar- over again. In 1944, R. B. Y. Scott wrote: cissus remained transfixed by his elusive image until he died of thirst and starvation. Considerable attention has been given to Millenarian speculation has appeared from time to time narcissism or self-love in the literature of psychology,' and within the Christian community from its earliest days for the much of it has focused on the individual. The interpretations very good reason that it is suggested by certain eschatological and apocalyptic passages in Scripture. Ignatius Polycarp, Justin range from auto-eroticism, with or without genitality, to and Irenaeus in the second century A believed that they parent-child love, to schizophrenia. More recently, some psy- were living in the last times. In the third century Hippolytus chologists have looked at social groups and recognized a kind declared that the end would come five hundred years after the of societal narcissism, and it is on this concept that I want to birth of Christ. In the fourth century Lactantius taught that focus.' the Judgement was at hand, as Otto of Friesing was to do Societal narcissism as it is manifested in apocalyptic think- eight hundred years later. The end of the first millennium of the ing focuses intense interest on the self and the group as a self Christian era was expected by some to be the end of the having a unique identity. This is tit t a new idea. According to world. Shortly before 1260 A.D. Joachim of Flora in "The H. Wheeler Robinson, the early Hebrews imaged themselves Eternal Gospel" set that year for the inauguration of the new as having a corporate personality and saw themselves as a Age of the Spirit. Militiz of Kromeriz similarly fixed on the psychic unity.' So strong were tilt: familial bonds, the clan years 1365-1367, and in the Reformation period Hoffman the bonds, the tribal bonds, that the group was believed to have its Anabaptist set the date 1533. In more recent times but with equal futility Guinness in "Light for the Last Days" (1886) own identity, personality. The individual achieved identity as a picked the year 1930; Russell in "Millennial Dawn" (1907) the member of a group, so that what happened to the group year 1914; and Bell Dawson in "The Time is at Hand" (1926) affected the well-being of a the individual and what happened the year 1934. to the individual affected the well-being of the group. The focus was on group. These erroneous calculations based on the Bible and the Some movement away from group identity toward indi- attempts to make it correlate with modern history can be vidual identity occurred during the Exile in the writings of updated by interpretations made since 1944, including those of Ezekiel (cf. Ch. 18). In apocalyptic writing, a curious intermix the Reverend Hal Lindsey. of group identity and personal identity prevailed. The individual One can readily appreciate the beneficial dimensions of was responsible for personal choices. One could ally oneself this kind of literature when it first appeared. It gave people with wickedness or with the saved. But because of the contin- hope in a time of despair. It provided a means of coping with uing need to reconfirm oneself, the individual required the what must have appeared to be tremendous pressures to follow group and the group identity, and the group focused on itself. governmentally imposed standards seeking conformity, first to The focus on self was intensified by feelings of alienation. Greek life patterns and then to Roman concepts. In a sense, it The pious Jews the Hasidim were alienated during the time put an individual in charge of his or her own behavior. One of the Seleucids, and the Christians were alienated during the could bow to the edict of the government or one could continue Roman period. The focus on group identity, the narcissistic in the faith knowing that ultimately divine justice would set admiration of self as the truly righteous, the truly saved, gave matters in proper perspective. The individual could choose strength to the alienated and provided a means of coping with which path to follow—the way of righteousness or the way of an unfriendly world where the demonic appeared to be in evil. Judgment on the choice would be made in the . control. Believers were promised a new identity in the kingdom There were also negative dimensions. There was a resigna- of God. They would be priests and kings and they would reign tion to divine fate. Time was charted according to a heavenly on earth (Rev. 5:10). This true identity was a group secret, plan. The end of time was set. Neither the individual, indeed unrecognized by the outside world. nor all of humankind, could change that time plan. One could Survival was related to belief in a fantasy world, a world only accept and choose to be faithful to what was accepted as that came out of the misery and unhappiness of present exis- divine revelation or not to be faithful. Humans had nothing to tence and that projected into the future the fondest dreams of do with end-time. History was in the hands of God. One could power, recognition, and authority. In this new, ideal world, the not have faith in human resources or human skill to resolve weak would become strong, the true believer would be honored, problems or to set the world right. There is definitely an other- the present rulers would be ruled, and everything would con- world hypothesis that underlies apocalyptic thinking. form to the fantasies of those who felt robbed of power and There is another dimension to apocalyptic thinking that I identity. It would be a world of one's own choosing, with peers would like to comment upon that responds to a narcissistic who had similar dreams. facet of human personality. The idea of narcissism rests on a Such fantasizing assumes cultic dimensions when it story recounted by Ovid concerning a hunter who spurned the demands total commitment of the individual to the group. love of a wood nymph. The heartbroken nymph invoked the This is no go-to-church-on-Sunday, forget-it-all-on-Monday

40 FREE INQUIRY relationship. This kind of thinking has always demanded some- of the apocalyptic writers utilized denial to cope with their thing more: attendance at prayer meetings, participation in misery. They did not deny what was happening all around biblical study, reaffirmation of beliefs, reinforcement of com- them—that was all too real. But they accepted this as part of mitments, and rites that provide emotional responses stimu- the plan of God, something that had been foreordained. They lating the belief that one is actually in contact with the divine. turned away from this hard real world and focused on the Members can and do move about in the workaday world as fantasy as the true reality and in a sense repressed what was ordinary citizens, but their commitment is to this other world, happening in history by proposing a metahistory for which the fantasy world, the world of the dream. Intense involvement they had the key to understanding. acts as a protective shield against the pressures of the real world, because, for the apocalypticist, the real world is the world of the fantasy, the kingdom of God. "Those who preach the end of the world reject the There is another dimension to this narcissistic focus, and best findings of modern science and the best analysis it is related to deep-seated anger and frustration. The true of biblical literature and history by competent, trained believer presents to the external world the stance of a good, scholars and urge their listeners to put faith in the ethical, concerned, law-abiding citizen. Deep within is a vibrant hostility that becomes manifested in the fantasy world of the fantasy world of very unhappy people who lived some future. While in this present world, one must suffer the presence two thousand years ago." and power of nonbelievers; but, in the world to come, while the true believer is enjoying whatever benefits there may be in golden streets, continual praise, and the presence of the divine, In the beginning, apocalyptic writing was a literary the nonbelievers are plunged into an abyss of suffering that response of the Jews and Christians to a specific set of historical staggers the imagination. The punishment is not the lex talionis, circumstances. The fact that how these groups responded to the an eye-for-an-eye justice; nor is it like vendetta justice, what was taking place in their time is preached as an inter- where a total group may be wiped out (cf. Gen. 4:23, 34; Josh. pretation of events in our time is nothing short of startling. 6; etc). Here punishment is for eternity. There is , Those who preach the end of the world reject the best findings punishment is never-ending. There is no forgiveness, only of modern science and the best analysis of biblical literature punishment that denies the peace of annihilation. This is no and history by competent, trained scholars and urge their Jesus-meek-and-mild imagery. Here are the words of John of listeners to put faith in the fantasy world of very unhappy the Revelation: people who lived some two thousand years ago. Those of us who are concerned about the implications of this kind of think- If any one worships. the beast and its image, and receives a ing (namely, the invitation to passivity to preordained history mark on his forehead or on his hand, he also shall drink the wine of God's wrath, poured unmixed into the cup of his and the narcissistic focus on the self and the group and the anger, and he shall be tormented with fire and sulphur in the condemnation of all outside the group to the fires of hell, plus presence of the holy angels and in the presence of the Lamb. the desire to influence political leaders into whose hands we And the smoke of their torment goes up for ever and ever; and have entrusted the welfare of the nation and perhaps the world) they have no rest, day or night ... [Rev. 14:9-11] can only continue to protest and call for church leaders, trained in the best seminaries, to share with their congregations the No turning of the other cheek here—only vicious, furious current findings of biblical scholarship. At the same time, edu- reprisal in savagery that makes the Nazi tortures look tame by cators need to look to their task of helping youth understand comparison. The fantasy reveals the mental sickness of the principles of research, logic, and common sense. It is time for true believer. a challenge to be made to the dramatic claims of modern The fantasy is a form of denial. One denies the reality of a apocalypticists. world that appears to be alien and uses fantasy to cope. We may tremble to think of what might happen if those who Notes embrace this kind of wish-projection should gain political con- I. R. B. Y. Scott, The Relevance of the Prophets, rev. ed. (New York, trol; wish-fulfillment might become a historical reality. Macmillan, 1944, 1968), p. 3. Scott draws some of his examples from S. J. There is something movingly childlike when one considers Case, The Millennial Hope, 1918. the historical situation out of which this narcissistic fantasy 2. S. Freud, Collected Papers, vol. 1.4 (London, 1924-25); "On Nar- was generated. But there were mature minds then that faced cissism: An Introduction," Standard Edition 14 (London, 1957); E. Jones, the hard realities. Even as the Book of Daniel was being cir- Papers on Psycho-Analysis (Baltimore, 1938). 3. A. B. Johnson, "A Temple of Last Resorts: Youth and Shared Nar- culated, the Maccabees were contending with Graeco-Syrian cissisms," and F. A. Johnson, "The Existential Psychotherapy of Alienated forces in real, not imaginary, encounters. It was the Maccabees Persons," in The Narcissistic Condition (M. C. Coleman, ed. New York, who rescued the Jews, not Yahweh. It was encounters in the 19??). real world that rescued the devout from the hands of their 4. H. Wheeler Robinson, "The Hebrew Conception of Corporate Per- oppressors. And among Christians, too, it was a church facing sonality" Werden und Wesen des Alten Testaments, B.Z.A.W. 66, 1936 pp. 49 ff. See also J. Pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture (Copenhagen, 1926); the issues of existence in a real world that affected the empires A. R. Johnson, The One and the Many in the Israelite Conception of God of the Mediterranean and elsewhere. Relief came through (Cardiff, 1961), and The Vitality of the Individual in the Thought of Ancient human, not divine, action and intervention. The fantasy world Israel (Cardiff, 1964). •

Summer 1984 41 What Is Biblical Apocalyptic?

John Priest

hree prefatory comments are in order. First, in this pseudonymity, mysteriousness."4 To this list might be added article, biblical apocalyptic refers to apocalyptic related bizarre symbolism (particularly animal imagery), "messianic" Tto communities that stood within the biblical traditions figures, and the assured final triumph of God, often depicted and is not restricted to the few pieces of apocalyptic that found as marking the terminus of world history. Quite diverse forms their way into the canon. For the historian, the canon must be of literature are consequently considered to be apocalyptic, recognized as a significant historical datum, but it cannot set a and special attention is given to apocalyptic not as a specific boundary for investigation. Further, to come to any adequate literary phenomenon but as an attitude. "Apocalyptic escha- understanding of canonical apocalyptic requires careful study tology, then, is neither a genre, nor a socioreligious movement, of similar literature that was finally relegated to a noncanonical nor a system of thought, but rather a religious perspective, a status, although the communities that produced and cherished way of viewing divine plans in relation to mundane realities."5 them surely considered them to be authoritative.' Other scholars demur from this broad approach and seek Second, this article will be largely descriptive in nature. to establish a precise definition for apocalyptic as genre. In a While some evaluation will be unavoidable, its primary purpose most valuable book produced by the Apocalypse Group of the is to set forth as clearly as possible the nature and function of Society of Biblical Literature, the following definition was pro- apocalyptic within the communities of the biblical period. Per- posed: "[Apocalyptic] is a genre of revelatory literature with a haps a useful subtitle would be "Apocalyptic Then. narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an Third, and finally, this does not pretend to be a scholarly other worldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a trans- contribution to apocalyptic research but is intended to provide cendental reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages a summary appropriate for the intelligent and interested non- eschatological salvation, and spatial, insofar as it involves specialist in the field.' another supernatural world."6 This definition and the premises Current apocalyptic research is very much in a state of from which it is derived will no doubt be extremely useful in ferment. The key issues in the debate are attempts to reach an subsequent apocalyptic research, but a word of caution should accurate and adequate definition of "apocalyptic" by defining be injected. Other writings that do not display these formal its genre, to seek its most significant sources, and to trace its characteristics manifestly come from the same milieu. Indeed, historical development. I will summarize briefly the most sections of many of those books do fulfill the definition while important current positions on these three topics. other sections do not. Thus it would seem wiser to expand the Some scholars use the term apocalyptic broadly, and narrow form of the critical definition, useful as it may be in include all literature that displays most of the characteristics certain respects, and to include within our survey of apocalyptic considered to be integral to the apocalyptic outlook. These literature all writings that appear to emanate from a similar characteristics include ", mythology, cosmo- ideology and to have been designed for a similar purpose. logical orientation, pessimistic treatment of history, dualism, In the latter portion of this article, I shall deal in some division of the time into periods, doctrine of two ages, playing detail with what I consider the most important facet of apoca- with numbers, pseudo-ecstacy, artifical claims to inspiration, lyptic study, the purpose or aim of apocalyptic, but it seems appropriate at this point to state briefly my own definition of the central elements that constitute literature that may properly John Priest is professor of religion and head of the department fall within the category. Apocalyptic, as its etymology denotes, at Florida State University. is a disclosure, an unveiling, a revelation. What does it reveal? It is a disclosure of the events and conditions that will immedi- ately precede the end of time. Sometimes it may go on to

42 FREE INQUIRY describe conditions that will obtain after the end-time, though our generation, was that the locus in Israel for apocalyptic lay this is not essential. Further, such literature necessarily has a in the wisdom tradition. For Von Rad, the central emphases cosmic dimension. The apocalypticist is not so much concerned of prophecy were eclipsed in the period after Ezra (c. 400 B.C.) with the restoration of the community, as was the case with and were recovered not in apocalyptic but in the preaching of the prophets, as with the redemption or recreation of the cos- John the Baptist and Jesus. Apocalyptic, therefore, did not mos. Third, the course of history is determined by God, there derive from prophecy but from the reflections of the sages on is a day appointed for the end of this age, and the apocalypticist purports to know that time. Fourth, there is the absolute con- viction that the triumph of God and the establishment of his "The primary aim [of apocalyptic] was to give reign is certain and that those who remain faithful to Him will encouragement and hope to those who were under- share in that triumph. Finally, there is the assurance that the going travail.... Hold on, be faithful, and you will day appointed for that triumph is at hand. This generation is be rewarded either in this life or in the imminently the last generation. Let us touch briefly on the questions of the sources of coming Kingdom of God." apocalyptic and its historical development in the biblical com- munities. At one time it was fashionable in scholarly circles to matters universal and ultimately cosmic. He called particular attribute the rise of apocalyptic to foreign influences--Persian, attention to encyclopedic treatises from wisdom materials that Babylonian, and even Egyptian. It is true that much of the were utilized in apocalyptic and to the notion of the deter- conceptual framework shows indebtedness to foreign ideology, mination of the times found in both. The connection between developed angelology, resurrection from the dead, a world con- the "wise" in wisdom and in apocalyptic also was, for him, a flagration, and cosmic dualism. All are well known in other determinative factor.' cultures. But it is my conviction that these are the accidents, Von Rad has done scholarship a service in recalling atten- not the essence, of biblical apocalyptic. No, the rise of apoca- tion to the inherent connections between apocalyptic and lyptic is a response to situations indigenous to conditions within wisdom." But when he says that to "understand apocalyptic the worlds of the biblical communities. To put it another way, literature as a child of prophecy ... is completely out of the Judaism did not import apocalyptic ideas until there arose a question"9 and relates apocalyptic to wisdom exclusively, he genuine crisis in the Jewish community, and then it adapted has gone beyond the textual evidence. He has grasped a truth, rather than adopted the already existing conceptual framework but only a partial one. available. The rise of biblical apocalyptic must be sought within Is there an area where we can look for backgrounds the biblical community itself. between prophecy and wisdom? It has been proposed that the Where then should we look? For a long time it was con- clue lies in the area of myth. Beginning with Hermann Gunkel, sidered axiomatic that apocalyptic was a development, even a many biblical scholars have sought a significant clue for inter- child, of prophecy. There is much to commend this view that preting biblical materials in the light of the mythological is still widely held. Like the prophets, the apocalypticists stress systems within which the biblical communities lived. There has the supremacy of the fulfillment of the will of God, the judg- been an oft-stated assumption that biblical thought broke ment of God on his opponents, and references to history as the sharply from the prevailing ethos of mythic thought and cen- arena of God's activity. But there are significant differences tered itself on the historical. Late nineteenth and early twentieth between the perspectives of the prophets and the perspectives century studies that stressed a pan-Babylonianism, a pan- of the apocalypticists. For instance, in most prophetic material, Persianism, or a pan-mystery cult background for interpreting the great world empires are God's instruments, wielding their both testaments were largely repudiated. The excesses of those authority at his behest against an unfaithful convenant com- movements are clear, but recent scholarship has more cau- munity. In apocalyptic, the world empires are God's enemies, tiously and more carefully reminded us of the persistence and on either a human level or a cosmic level, or a curious com- the recrudescence of myth in the biblical material. Can we bination of both. For the prophets, according to my interpre- detect an influence of myth on apocalyptic literature? tation. the course of history was conditional, depending upon While it would be erroneous to enforce a strict patternism the response of the community to the will of God as embodied on the myths of the ancient Near East in which Israel existed, in the covenant tradition. For the apocalyptic writers, all there is diversity as well as similarity. Certain persistent themes history was determined and would be worked out apart from occur. The myths were etiological and they sought to make the response of human instruments. Consequently, the thrust comprehensible the human situation. They recounted events of the prophetic message was that the community should repent that are related to but not identical with the present order. and thus shape its own destiny. The message of apocalyptic And myth was located in an absolute time that encompassed was that the faithful of the community should repent and past, present, and future in one overwhelming entity."' It is prepare itself for the preordained consummation. Given these increasingly clear that myth played a significant role in Israelite vast differences between prophecy and apocalyptic, some religion. It was not the myth borrowed from Babylon early or scholars have sought to find the background of apocalyptic Persia later, but native myth, related most likely to the Canaan outside the prophetic movement. in which Israel settled. Such myth provided a cosmic dimension The opinion of Gerhard Von Rad, who was no doubt one lacking in the covenant-election tradition and stipulated a view of the most influential Christian Old Testament scholars of of collapsed time not present in the dynamic view of history

Summer 1984 43 that dominated the prophetic materials and the histories largely There is much to commend it. On the one hand, the work of dependent upon them." It is contended by some scholars that these scholars has provided solid data for what already should the ultimate background of apocalyptic is the recovery of the have been evident. No system of thought springs full grown mythic dimension that was latent in some Israelite traditions. from the head of Zeus. There are antecedents, and the antece- This did not occur in a "pure" form. Rather, there was an dents of apocalyptic are becoming increasingly clearer. More interaction between myth and history so that often myth was significant, however, is the fact that this research has begun to historicized and history was mythologized. These twin streams uncover the sociological factors that gave rise to apocalyptic came together in apocalyptic. and to account for the processes by which the apocalypticists Finally, in this connection, I may mention another possible integrated the diverse sources of tradition that were delineated source of apocalyptic. Fidelity to the law, which was seen as above. It is with this sociological analysis of apocalyptic that embodying the covenant tradition, was a central datum of we shall deal in the concluding section of this article. Israelite religion from at least the Deuteronomic period (c. 621 Before addressing that issue, however, 1 propose to make B.c.). The apocalypticists in no way disdained the law. Indeed, a slight digression that is inevitable in presenting any overview encouraging faithfulness to the law in the periods of persecution of biblical apocalyptic. The two items to be considered are the of which they spoke was a major stress. The influence of the matters of pseudonymity and prediction. The first applies to legal traditions of the biblical community cannot be ignored in all apocalyptic, and the latter constitutes the core of the prob- an attempt to recover the sources of the apocalyptic literature. lem of "Apocalypse Now." All apocalyptic, with the possible exception of the revelation of John in the New Testament, is "The social setting conducive to apocalyptic is 'the pseudonymous. That is, the work is attributed to some worthy in Israel's past, the latest being Ezra, who lived at the end of group experience of alienation.' When the prevailing the fifth century. Why is this the case? To that question a symbolic universe of a society is alien to a particular variety of answers has been given. The first and most pervasive group, that group must construct an alternative sym- answer hardly does credit to the apocalyptic writers. In Judaism bolic universe." there arose the tradition that prophecy ceased in the post-exilic period. The dates given for that cessation vary; the times of The preceding analysis should make it clear that I fail to Haggai Zechariah and Malachi or the time of Ezra are the find any univocal source of apocalyptic, either within the bibli- most prominent. After them, the supreme authority resided in cal tradition or outside it. Rather, it is evident that the crystal- the newly modified Law (Pentateuch), and the institution of ization of what may be called "apocalyptic" is heir to a rich prophecy was officially suppressed. Thus, if a prophecy was to diversity. It seems likely that however much the apocalypticists have authority, it must have been received prior to the time of radically altered the fundamental prophetic outlook, they were cessation. most indebted to that movement. But influence from the This is stated most forcefully in a passage in IV Ezra sapiential and nomistic traditions is undeniable. It also appears 14:44-46, where we are told that God dictated ninety-four patent that old native Israelite mythic motifs found new vigor books to Ezra, twenty-four of which (the canonical books) and new expression in the apocalyptic materials. Finally, were to be given to people, but the other seventy were to be though I have tended to de-emphasize the role of foreign reli- concealed till a later time. Similarly, Daniel is told to "seal the gious ideas, that they played at least a minor role should be book, until the time of the end" (12:4). The motif is found acknowledged. Apocalyptic, then, is a genuine synthesis, bor- consistently in such writings and has led to their being desig- rowing from wherever it might, and in the process of that nated by the general term pseudepigrapha. The great British borrowing becoming a new and unique religious phenomenon. Old Testament scholar H. H. Rowley, who was my teacher, We may now inquire as to the history of the development of proposed a striking alternative suggestion. He argued that the that synthesis., author of Daniel had first written the stories about Daniel The scholarly consensus has long been that apocalyptic is (chapters 1-6), and when he produced the later visions, he a late development within the biblical communities. The period attributed them to Daniel to identify himself as the author of in which it flourished is commonly set within the four centuries both sections. This literary device, which was intended to from 200 B.C. to AD. 200. The visions of Daniel (chapters 7-12) deceive no one, then became simply a literary convention for are seen as the first product of genuine apocalyptic, and those later apocalypticists." This seems to me to be a somewhat chapters can be dated with confidence between 168 and 165 desperate attempt to preserve the integrity of the apocalyptic B.C. At the same time, there was general recognition that writers. Nor does the contention that, since the authors lived snatches of material found in the canon and dating from an in times of great peril, they adopted pseudonyms to protect earlier period contained elements strikingly similar to apoca- their identity from the authorities. Anonymity would have lyptic. In particular, Isaiah 24-27, parts of Trito-Isaiah (chap- served the same purpose. ters 34-35; 56-66), Ezekiel (especially chapters 38-48), More recently, another British scholar, D. S. Russell, has Zechariah, and Joel were often assigned the designation "pre- proposed that the pseudonyms were not used to deceive but apocalyptic" or "proto-apocalyptic." were the result of the convictions of the authors that they were This view has in recent years been given renewed emphasis, legitimate expanders of the traditions and the inspirations of above all by Frank M. Cross and Paul Hanson, though to a those whose names they adopted. He utilizes the Israelite notion somewhat lesser degree also by O. Plöger and Morton Smith.'2 of corporate personality and that the power of the continuity

44 FREE INQUIRY of the name "exonerates these authors from the charge of either serious lacuna in the historical study of the life and thought of deception or delusion and indicates that behind the acceptance the biblical communities. This most concerns the serious of this particular literary convention there may well have lain a historian, though it is not without significance for the broader genuine sense of tradition and inspiration in and through which public. The second consequence falls more properly into an they saw themselves and their literature to be in the true Old investigation of "Apocalyptic Now" but cannot be ignored Testament tradition."14 totally in this discussion. Recognizing that the predictions of It may well be that the apocalyptic writers were not inten- the apocalypticists were not fulfilled in their time or in any tional deceivers, nor were they deluded. But their use of the succeeding time up till the present, current expounders of bib- predictive technique to validate their message to their con- lical apocalyptic turn to this material to chart the course of temporaries gives one pause. A quite common device was to world events in our time. In doing so, they divert concern preface the proclamation to their contemporaries with a histori- from the dynamics of geopolitics, social and ecological prob- cal sketch of events from the time they allegedly lived until the lems, and the significance of religion as a continuing factor in present when their sealed books were at last revealed to disclose the social organization and social cohesion. The result is a the events of the end time. Two examples of this device must trivialization of apocalyptic for most, even inside the present suffice. Daniel I 1 sets forth the history of Persia, Alexander biblical communities, or an opiate for those who take the the Great, and the relations between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid predictions seriously. successors of Alexander. The nearer we get to the reign of While careful attention to the ideological and literary Antiochus Epiphanes (175 B.C.), the more precise and the more characteristics of apocalyptic, to the sources from which it accurate the predicted history becomes. It almost seems as if emerged, and to the history of its development are necessary the author is saying to his readers, "If I can know what hap- prolegomena and are indispensable for an understanding of pened from my time, alleged to be in the time of Darius (520 biblical apocalyptic, no adequate understanding of the subject B.c.), till your time, you can trust that my words about your is possible apart from an evaluation of the purpose or aim of time are trustworthy." I may remark in passing that at 11:40 that material. Early apocalyptic was not abstract, detached A.M. on February 27, 1984, his after-the-event predictions turn speculation, though some later apocalyptic writings did move into genuine predictions that were not fulfilled. in that direction. No, biblical apocalyptic was molten in the Likewise, the Testament of Moses purports to be Moses' crucible of the extremities of human dilemmas and forged on predictions of what will happen to the people from his day till the anvil of human suffering. Whatever the historical antece- the end time, which in this case can be dated fairly precisely dents of apocalyptic may have been, and recognition of them within the first three decades of the common era. If the seer is invaluable, the plain fact remains that apocalyptic became a has seen all this correctly, then the proclamation of God's total powerful force in the biblical communities only in times of triumph in 10:1-10 may be received with confidence. The failure intense persecution. There seems to be no other way to account of apocalyptic predictions to come to pass led R. Travers for the apocalyptic explosion presaged by the writing of the Herford to remark that "Apocalyptic is full of promises, but it Book of Daniel. has never kept one of them."15 I do not fault the apocalypticists The Seleucid King Antiochus Epiphanes was the first to on this score. It is probable that they were sincerely convinced launch a systematic persecution of Jews for religious reasons. that they read the signs of the time aright. But later wooden There may well have been political persecution prior to this application of the predictive device led to a gross and grotesque misunderstanding of the fundamental purpose of apocalyptic from at least the middle of the first century A.D. to the present. When predictions are taken literally and remain unfulfilled, they must be reinterpreted. Jeremiah's seventy years of exile had to become Daniel's seventy weeks of years. Daniel's fourth world empire, the Macedonian-Seleucid, is, in Ezra, Rome. His abomination that makes desolate, a sure reference to the acts of Antiochus Epiphanes, must give way to Caligula's attempted sacrilege in A.D. 40, or to the evils of the last Roman governors of Judea just prior to the first Jewish war (66-70). The beast with 666 (or 616) on his forehead, most likely a reference to Nero or perhaps Domitian, becomes successively Attila the Hun, Charlemagne, one or another of the popes, Martin Luther, Napoleon, Kaiser Wilhelm, Hitler, and Stalin, to mention only a few. In my childhood home, the favorite candidate was Franklin D. Roosevelt. All of this would be somewhat humorous if it were not for the tragic consequences that ensue. They are twofold. On the one hand, preoccupation with deciphering the predictions has resulted in a serious misunderstanding of the pragmatic function of apocalyptic in its own setting, thus creating a

Summer 1984 45 time, but in his reign Jews were being persecuted simply In conclusion, biblical apocalyptic, whatever one may because of their insistence on maintaining their traditional reli- think of its validity, is properly understood only when it is gious customs. The mainstream of Jewish belief had averred recognized that it has been a response to pressing contemporary that faithfulness to God and his way of life brought blessing; ideological and sociopolitical issues. The apocalypticists, to say faithlessness entailed punishment and suffering. Though certain once more, spoke to their generation. Further, biblical apoca- voices, particularly in Job and Ecclesiastes, questioned this lyptic was a creative, if not necessarily successful, response to simplistic interpretation of human experience, the view the problems of its own era. We may find its answers unaccept- remained dominant. It was a legacy of the early prophets, able and even odious, but they were genuine attempts to deal Deuteronomy, and the individualistic application of the prin- with the pressing problems facing their age. ciple by Ezekiel. Obedience brought reward; disobedience To adopt their answers to their problems as our answers brought suffering. to our problems is an act of petrification and reification that Later, however, the obverse was the case. Jews who aban- serves no useful contemporary purpose and that demeans the doned their religion were richly rewarded by the Syrian sturdy efforts of those who strove so valiantly in the face of monarch. Those who remained faithful suffered, even to the the inexplicable. Indeed, I am convinced that the biblical point of death. The Jew was punished for his faithfulness, apocalypticists would encourage us to create our own apoca- rewarded for his faithlessness. How can these things be? lyptic vision. Thus our apocalyptic may well lie more within Apocalyptic provided an answer on two levels. At the the realm of poetry and drama than in a futile recrudescence theoretical level, many, though by no means all, apocalypticists of the images of the past." simply refused to accept the notion that the ills of the present age could be accounted to God's doing. For reasons that may Notes seem lame and confused, they asserted that the course of human events had been handed over to human or demonic evil powers. I. For example, the New Testament Book of Jude cites two apocalyptic By so affirming. they proposed a that exempted God works, Enoch and the Assumption of Moses, as if they were scripture. It is from the incredible sufferings his faithful ones were undergoing. interesting that these allusions are deleted from the reworking of Jude in 2 This intellectual enterprise, however, was not their fundamental Peter 2:1-18. 2. This is the suggestive title of Harold Bloom's review article of the aim. new edition of the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, ed. James H. Charles- The primary aim was to give encouragement and hope to worth (New York: 1983) in the New York Review of Books, January 19, those who were undergoing travail. To be sure, the present age 1984. was a time of evil and suffering, but the faithful were assured 3. A few very useful resources are Paul Hanson 's articles "Apocalyptic that there was a day appointed for the end of this age and that Genre" and "Apocalypticism," Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible. Supple- ment (Nashville: 1976); D. S. Russell, The Method and Message of Jewish the day appointed was very, very near. Hold on, be faithful, Apocalyptic (Philadelphia: 1964); H. H. Rowley, The Relevance of Apoca- and you will be rewarded either in this life or in the imminently lyptic, 3rd ed. (New York: 1964). A more advanced and theologically oriented coming Kingdom of God. For all its esoteric language, bizarre work is that of Klaus Koch, the Rediscovery of Apocalyptic (London: 1972). symbolism, and pseudosapiential speculation, biblical apoca- 4. Russell, p. 25. lyptic was essentially pastoral. Its purpose was to provide a 5. Hanson, "Apocalyptic Genre," p. 29. 6. John J. Collins, ed. Apocalypse, The Morphology of a Genre (Mis- living hope for people living in a dying age. soula: 1979) p. 22. I remain convinced that persecution and suffering, in the 7. See Von Rad, Old Testament Theology, vol. 2 (New York: 1965), face of which the believer is impotent, provide the primary pp. 299-315 and his Wisdom in Israel (Nashville: 1972), pp. 263-283. matrix for understanding biblical apocalyptic. However, Han- 8. The connection had already been raised in 1919 by G. Hölscher in son has extended his notion in a way that accounts for the his Die Entstehung des Danielsbuch, p. 92. 9. Von Rad, Theology, p. 303. persistence of apocalyptic in times when actual persecution 10. The pioneer in the area was H. Gunkel, beginning with his Schöp- and suffering are not present. He contends that the social fung and Chaos, (Gottingen: 1895). The summary of myth in the text is setting conducive to apocalyptic is "the group experience of taken from S. Frost, "Apocalyptic and History" in The Bible and Modern alienation." When the prevailing symbolic universe of a society Scholarship, ed. J. P. Hyatt (Nashville: 1965), pp. 98-113. The article is is alien to a particular group, that group must construct an significant in charting a new direction toward study of the interconnection of myth and history, especially in apocalyptic. alternative symbolic universe. The new symbolic universe may 1 I. See, for example, F. Cross, "New Directions in the Study of Apoca- attempt to compete with that of the majority, or when pressures lyptic." Journal for Theology and Church, ed. R. Funk (New York: 1969) increase may be set forth as symbolic utopian universe (i.e., pp. 157-165. Cross and some of his students have developed the theme of the group retires from society), a symbolic subuniverse (i.e., the revival of older mythic materials in a number of more technical works. the group goes underground), or a symbolic counter universe 12. See, for example, Paul Hanson, the Dawn of Apocalyptic (Phila- delphia: 1975); 0. Plöger, Theokratie und Eschatologie (Neukirchen, 1959); (the group actively seeks to overthrow society). I do not think Morton Smith, Palestinian Parties and Politics that Shaped the Old Testa- this paradigm subsumes adequately all of the facets of apoca- ment (New York: 1971). lypticism, but it does have the merit of accounting for the 13. Rowley, Relevance, pp. 40 f. persistence of apocalyptic in an extraordinarily broad set of 14. Russell, Method, p. 139. diverse circumstances and is a useful, if only heuristic, device 15. R. Herford, The Pharisees (London: 1924), p. 181. 16. Hanson, "Apocalypticism." for analyzing apocalyptic movements that are related only tan- 17. At a conference held at the Florida State University January 26-28, gentially to biblical apocalyptic. It certainly warrants careful 1984, more than 125 presentations were made on the topic of apocalyptic. consideration in future research.1 ' All were drawn from either literature, art, or film. •

46 FREE INQUIRY Jesus as an Apocalypticist

James Robinson

po-calyptic means "un-hidden." It is, hence, an approach say, with the natural disasters or acts of God: cyclone and to reality that assumes something is hidden from com- lightning]. His winnowing fork is in his hand, to clear his Amon view and that there is some way that this hidden threshing floor, and to gather the wheat into his granary, but reality can come to be known. The hidden something is of the chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire. ultimate importance, and the way it becomes known is not by scientific investigation or ordinary experience but by some One of the most certain facts about Jesus of Nazareth, in superhuman unveiling. terms of historical method, is that Jesus believed this. He We are accustomed to thinking of apocalypticism as a believed it enough to undergo the rite of passage (baptism) to literary genre and of apocalypticists as authors with apocalypses join the Jewish sect created by this message. Jesus' initiation as their products, such as the biblical books of Daniel and into the Baptist's movement was clearly embarrassing to the Revelation (the Greek name of the latter is actually Apoka- Evangelists, and thus their begrudging admission of it under- ltpsis). But apocalypticism was more than a literary movement; scores its historicity, just as does this rather unhappy quotation it was a popular movement that was preached and believed of Jesus' extreme praise of John ("among those born of women then as now. I would like to focus on one such preacher, John none is greater than John," Q 7:28), to which they add the the Baptist, and one such believer, Jesus of Nazareth. reassurance: "yet he who is least in the kingdom of God is The preaching of John was apocalyptic, revealing the greater than he." imminent end of the world and hence calling for repentance. It Some people, including such important scholars as Ernst sounded somewhat as follows (to cite the lost collection of Käsemann and Robert W. Funk, have thought that Jesus him- Jesus' sayings embedded in Matthew and Luke called "Q," self was not an apocalypticist. This can become a very complex with chapter and verse numbers borrowed from Luke 3:7-9, and inconclusive discussion, in view of the difficulty of pinning 16-17): down an agreed-upon definition of apocalypticism and the difficulty of determining the authenticity of sayings ascribed to You brood of vipers! Who warned you to flee from the wrath Jesus. Jesus' preaching about the kingdom of God may well to come? Bear fruits that befit repentance, and do not begin to have been, whatever else it was, also apocalyptic. In any case say to yourselves, "We have Abraham as our father:" for 1 tell he was not only a product of an apocalyptic movement, he you, God is able from these stones to raise up children to himself triggered an apocalyptic movement (primitive Chris- Abraham. Even now the ax is laid to the root of the trees; tianity). The earliest still-extant author (Paul), whatever else he every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down was, wrote apocalyptic things: "For this we declare to you by and thrown into the fire. 1 baptize you with water; but he who the word of the Lord, that we who are alive, who are left until is mightier than 1 is coming, the thong of whose sandals I am the coming of the Lord, shall not precede those who have not worthy to untie; he will baptize you with the fallen asleep. For the Lord himself will descend from heaven [probably originally: (sacred) wind] and with fire [that is to with a cry of command, with the archangel's call, and with the sound of the trumpet of God. And the dead in Christ will rise first; then we who are alive, who are left, shall be caught up James Robinson is director of the Institute for Antiquity and Chris- together with him in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air; tianity at Claremont College in California. . .." (1 Thess. 4:15-17). "But in fact Christ has been raised from the dead, the first fruits of those who have fallen asleep.

Summer 1984 47 For as by a man came death, by a man has come also the most sublime statements we could cite from Paul, Jesus, and resurrection of the dead. For as in Adam all die, so also in others ... and in apocalypticism ... Except that apocalyp- Christ shall all be made alive. But each in his own order: ticism, in bringing that unavoidable feeling "How long, O Christ the first fruits, then at his coming those who belong to Lord!" to expression within its tradition of symbolic language, Christ. Then comes the end, when he delivers the kingdom to may fall prey to that language and get engrossed in the forms God the Father after destroying every rule and every authority of the expression given to that pure feeling, even lose sight of and power. For he must reign until he has put all his enemies the feeling, and wander off into speculations about the language under his feet. The last enemy to be destroyed is death." ( I itself ("Will the rapture be split?"). Cor. 15:20-26). "Besides this you know what hour it is, how it Jesus was not so distracted. He did not stay engrossed is full time now for you to wake from sleep. For salvation is with apocalyptic language, but spoke radically also in other nearer to us than when we first believed; the night is far gone, realms of disclosure. With what mental attitude did he tell the day is at hand. Let us then cast off the works of darkness people to face life? and put on the armor of light ..." (Rom. 13:11-12). If Jesus was thus closed in, both before and after, by apocalypticists, it Therefore 1 tell you, do not be anxious about your life, what you shall eat, nor about your body, what you shall put on. is hard to assume he was not an apocalypticist, even though it For life is more than food, and the body more than clothing. is the case that much of apocalyptic material attributed to him, Consider the ravens: they neither sow nor reap, they have such as Mark 13, was only later put on his tongue by his neither storehouse nor barn, and yet God feeds them. Of how followers (who hence were themselves apocalypticists). much more value are you than the birds! . . . Consider the Of course this apocalypticism can burst out of its shell lillies, how they grow; they neither toil nor spin; yet I tell you, into sublimity in Paul: "Love never ends; as for prophecies, even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of they will pass away; as for tongues, they will cease; as for these. But if God so clothes the grass which is alive in the field knowledge, it will pass away.... So faith, hope, love abide, today and tomorrow thrown into the oven, how much more these three; but the greatest of these is love" (1 Cor. 13:8, 13). And it could do so also in the case of Jesus. Again one could state this either way, to the effect that Jesus was a sublime apocalypticist, or that the most important things he had to say were not apocalyptic at all. It is the case that most of his Madison Committee Holds sublime sayings do not have built into them an apocalyptic Second Meeting framework such as is still evident in 1 Corinthians 13. And the profundity, sublimity, or seriousness that crops up alongside The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of apocalypticism may not be dependent on the apocalypticism. in Washington, D.C., was the host for the second annual It may be the other way around: that apocalypticism is only meeting of the James Madison Memorial Committee, one way in which that experience expresses itself, and that it is held on March 16, 1984, the birthday of the fourth presi- the experience itself rather than the apocalyptic expression dent. The establishment of the Committee was first that is the root of that sublime outcome found in 1 Corinthians announced in FREE INQUIRY. "The Madison Legacy: 13 and in Jesus. Of course the experience itself took place in Myths, Realities, and Replicability" was the title of the an apocalyptic culture, so, as experience, was already apocalyp- program, and speakers included University of Virginia tically conditioned. Law School Professor A. E. Dick Howard, Papers of The imminence of the end is a distinctive trait of the James Madison editor Robert E. Rutland, and Massimo apocalyptic tradition in which we stand. Anyone who has Salvadori, Wilson Center Fellow and professor of con- observed or experienced excruciating pain has been overcome temporary history at the University of Turin. by a very powerful, all-encompassing feeling that this just can- not go on much longer. This is not a rational conclusion, and, Several new additions to the Committee roster were in fact, all too often is not true at all—the agonizing pain does announced at the meeting. Adding their efforts to the drag on and on until finally, all too late, death comes long promotion of public appreciation of Madison's works after it could be called a merciful release or a death with are former presidents James E. Carter and Gerald R. dignity. But the feeling cannot, and should not, be suppressed Ford, Senator Orrin Hatch, Transportation Secretary that if there is any good in modern medicine, if there is any Elizabeth Hanford Dole, columnist George F. Will, and decency in the government in power, if there is any God in pioneering television producer and writer Norman Lear heaven, this just cannot continue to go on! How despicable are (head of People for the American Way). Willi Paul persons who do not feel this way! Do they have their heads in Adams, Steve Allen, Bernard Bailyn, Raoul Berger, Mar- the sand, not seeing what is going on in the world around us? shall B. Coyne, Nathan Glazer, John Gridley, Takeshi Are they themselves so cruel, so deadened to anguish, that Igarashi, Ralph Ketcham, Russell Kirk, Neil McCormick, they think all this emotional language is overdone? Yet who Wade H. McCree, Jr., Forrest McDonald, J. R. Pole, V. dares to risk the ultimate obscenity of asking what all the R. Shackleford, Jr., Dean Smith, Reginald Stewart, Gor- hand-wringing is about? It is purity of heart, it is tenderness of don S. Wood, and Esmond Wright have also joined the sensitivity, it is human compassion at its best (and these are Committee. really the only hope we have) that come to expression in the

48 FREE INQUIRY

certainly is a vaticinium ex eventu, a "prophecy" formulated in will he clothe you, O men of little faith! And do not seek what you are to eat and what you are to drink, nor be of anxious hindsight after the event has taken place (Luke 21:20, 24): "But mind. For all the nations of the world seek these things; and when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know that your Father knows that you need them. Instead, seek his king- its desolation has come near.... They will fall by the edge of dom, and these things shall be yours as well. [Q 12:22-24, the sword, and be led captive among all nations; and Jersualem 27-31] will be trodden down by the Gentiles, until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled." This is, for better or worse, the biblical Thus Jesus advocated a life-style of radical simplicity, of tradition in which modern apocalypticists stand. childlike trust, or what we might prefer to call (so as to justify In our secular society, any intellectual can dismiss apoca- ourselves for not adopting it) incredible naivité: "Blessed are lypticism with the Socratic ploy of knowing more than the the poor, for theirs is the kingdom of God" (Q 6:20). "Give us nearest apocalypticist in that one knows one's own ignorance, each day our daily bread" (Q 11:3). "Carry no purse, no bag. which the sophists of the classical tradition and the apocalyp- no sandals" (Q 10:4). The acid test for the Christian apocalypti- ticists of the biblical tradition seem not to know. Yet one cist might be at this juncture: "Why do you call me 'Lord, cannot dismiss the radical message of Jesus without putting in Lord,' and not do what I tell you?" (Q 6:46). No wonder latter- jeopardy one's own status as a decent person. • day prophets prefer to spin off into complicated calculations that keep our heads spinning and safely distracted from what Jesus said to do, to which let us return: Good-looking, sturdy files Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who abuse you. To him to protect your copies of who strikes you on the cheek, offer the other also; and from him who takes away your coat do not withhold even your shirt. Give to every one who begs from you; and of him who takes away your goods do not ask them again. And as you wish that men would do you, do so to them. If you love those who love you, what credit is that to you? For even sinners love those who love them. And if you do good to those who do good to you, what credit is that you? For even sinners do the same. . . . But love your enemies, and do good. and lend, expect nothing in return; and your reward will be great, and you will be sons of the Most High; for he is kind to the ungrateful and the selfish. Be merciful, even as your Father is merciful. [Q 6:27-33. 35-36]

Whether or not there is a God, any God worthy of being God would talk like this, rather than playing macabre games with humanity by tucking minute mathematical calculations into obscure places of the Bible for generation after generation of apocalypticists to discover, only to be put to shame one by one by the passing of time as their calculations turn out to be in error. Such a God of gimmicks is not worthy of serious Choose either, red, yellow, blue, green or black vinyl people's trust. But the vision of a utopia that Jesus had, and with gold ornamentation and convenient label- the life-style that it implied for him, can hardly fail to command holders front and back. the respect of any serious and conscientious person, whether one believes in God or not, whether one identifies oneself with Each file holds 20 issues (5 years) of FREE INQUIRY Christianity or not. $6.95 each, plus $1.50 for postage and handling Early Christianity not only heard and understood what Jesus had to say, it also continued the apocalyptic tradition in Please send me files in which he stood, indeed added the bulk of Jesus' apocalyptic red yellow blue green black sayings. The Marcan apocalypse (Mark 13) and the Book of 1 enclose my check or money order for $ Revelation make this quite evident. And the interpretation of those obscure oracles in terms of current events began early. Name Street The Marcan apocalypse itself interpreted Daniel obscurely City State lip (Mark 13:14): "But when you see the desolating sacrilege set up where it ought not be (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains ..." This may already presuppose the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. But Box 5, Central Park Station, Buffalo, NY 14215 the Lucan reworking of it is much more explicit and hence

Summer 1984 49 The Bible as an Engine of American Foreign Policy

Robert S. Alley

he title of this article suggests a particular Calvinist of the Bible in American statecraft, identify current manifesta- influence in American history, one that has sought to tions of such use, and suggest alternative religious expressions T incorporate Christian doctrinal views into statecraft. that seem more compatible with the Constitution, the Bill of However, as we explore this subject, it is imperative to recall Rights, freedom, and justice. that Puritanism is not the American tradition, it is one among From the point of view of one who has spent thirty years many. From Anne Hutchinson down to Ben Franklin, Thomas in a serious examination of the Bible as history and literature, Jefferson, Thomas Paine, James Madison, Abraham Lincoln, the preponderance of premillennial theology being fed directly Franklin Roosevelt, and Adlai Stevenson, our history is rife into the present administration is disturbing, even as the con- with alternatives to orthodoxies sired during the Middle Ages tent of this theology remains an outrage to reason. Best-selling and the Reformation, orthodoxies that are dependent upon a books base foreboding predictions upon irresponsible assump- literal, uncritical view of the Bible. As statesmen began to craft tions—Moses wrote Deuteronomy; a biblical prophet "pre- the nation, this pluralistic panorama formed an important dicted" the Soviet Union, the European Common Market, and backdrop. twentieth-century armored tanks: Daniel was written before Congregationalism, galvanized by intellectual victories over 550 tic.' What appeared three decades ago as a ludicrous side- the Great Awakening in the eighteenth century, equated religion show to Christian theology now demands the attention of the with morality, which, in turn, was the product of human rea- most able biblical scholars. Respect for the biblical writers son. Political ethics came to be the outgrowth of enlightened requires a determined challenge to abuses of the literary and humanism as restrictive creeds were set aside. Anglicanism, historical sources. The urgency of this challenge is underscored viewing politics and religion in essential harmony, flavored an with the knowledge that a world possessing the means of self- uncritical optimism about human reason with a kind of realistic destruction may be influenced by extreme views of providence pragmatism free of heavy-handed biblicism. Deism marked and the Bible to denigrate quests for diversity in international out a noninstitutional humanism. Growth in the numbers of affairs, as well as reason itself. Hysterical claims rooted in Jews and Roman Catholics added to the richness of religious documents and traditions deep in the fiber of American democ- diversity. racy have already effected a recognizable alteration in political Nevertheless, it is true that, of all the religious traditions posturing. And this at a time when every speck of reason active in America, Reform Calvinism was the most pervasive. should be mustered by world citizens to enhance the oppor- As early as 1629, Puritans developed a theory of national tunity for humanity to survive. We must reject impassioned destiny, a "holy experiment" with ancient Israel as the arche- rhetoric against human reason that preaches a surly savior type. Tempered as it would be by various intellectual forces as grandly planning Armageddon. well as other religious perspectives, Calvinism became the back- In order to comprehend this current crisis, one that bone of what has been described as the nineteenth-century inspired Interior Secretary James Watt's policies and causes Protestant Establishment. Since the emergence of America onto President Reagan to employ premillennialist jargon, let us the world stage in the early twentieth century, interpreters of adopt a historical perspective on the use of the Bible as a Calvinism have continued to pump a brand of exclusivistic political text. We can see how twentieth-century presidents providentialism into the body politic, thereby affecting foreign have been influenced to deal with nationalism and foreign policy. My task in this article is to sketch the history of the use policy. And if "there are specific" large-scale evidences for the infusion of religious tendencies into American politics, they would probably be most apparent along these two dimensions: Robert S. Aller is professor of humanities at the University of Rich- mond, Virginia. Intense and often intolerant patriotism and implicit reverence for the President, particular in times of crisis.'

50 FREE INQUIRY Certainly talk of Armageddon, the Antichrist, the Second Britain to that of Israel in the Old Testament. The interim Coming, and the Parousia have always been common enough would be harrowing, perhaps, but with repentance Britain among Christians, as has been the penchant for "Christianizing" would prevail, a Christian state, chosen of God and guarded the Hebrew Scriptures and, in particular, distorting the writings by Him against harm. of the prophets. Coupled with a loose use of apocalyptic From his perspective, it is clear that, had Davies been material, the result has been a series of efforts over the centuries privy to more facts, he could have predicted with greater to associate current events with biblical passages. For Ameri- accuracy the war's outcome. Since those facts were available to cans, such "creative" theologizing began with the claim that God, the idea of national repentance changing that outcome the Massachusetts Bay Colony was the "New Israel." Com- presented some interesting complications. With Britain's unex- bining questionable interpretation with flawed associations, pected victory over the French, Davies gave public praise to American Christian divines have been at such tasks now for God for having kept George II alive to win the war. more than three hundred fifty years. Consider the career of Samuel Davies, the only Presby- It has pleased God to choose Great Britain out of the wide terian minister licensed in Virginia in 1755. During the French world, and to make her the object of his special care for many and Indian War, Davies was identified as the best recruiting ages. officer in the colony. He believed that a cosmic struggle between good and evil, Protestanism and Roman Catholicism, Davies viewed war as a positive act, endorsed by God. was predicted in Revelation 13 and 17. For him, the 1755 The minister's comment upon women who demurred from this earthquake in Portugal was a warning from God to the Catho- position is striking. lic inhabitants of Lisbon. But evil was not confined to "popery" Your soft entreaties and flowing tears may unman the stronger and could be found even in Britain. So God might use the sex, and restrain them from exerting themselves in so good a power of "popery"—France—to chastise Britain.' Davies cause. But, pray let reason, let conscience, let religion, let a believed that what he called the "Popish tyranny" would last regard to yourselves and your children, prevail over your fond for 1,260 years, but he did not know the point of beginning for and foolish passions; otherwise, you may be accessory to the this tyranny predicted by Revelation 12:6. He saw the distinct ruin of your country. possibility that the current war could be the "commencement of this grand decisive conflict between the Lamb and the From its earliest days American Protestantism was affected beast."' As the year 1756 progressed, Britain's fortunes were by a post-millennialism that called for the coming of Christ not promising and Davies noted, "if there be a divine provi- after the millennial age. While this approach allowed greater dence, I think it dreadfully evident that it is against us." It was optimism concerning the future, suggesting to some a human conceivable that God might use the French and Indians, as he responsibility to establish God's kingdom on earth, it continued had the Assyrians, to smite the children he held dear. Hope lay to support the concept of a chosen nation. Jeremy Belknap, only in repentance, "the only hope for a body politic so far writing about the Revolution in 1777, assured his readers that gone as ours." By 1757, Davies was comparing the plight of no "rotten toe of Nebuchadnezzar's image" or "proud horn of

Summer 1984 51 the seven-headed beast" will ever "exercise dominion over this ment emerged as the guarantee of freedom intended by its country."5 Historian James Maclear has noted, "For men who, authors. But even as that Establishment was crumbling, the under the sway of the Great Awakening, had expected God to emphasis upon America as a "Christian nation" grew. bring forth some new stage of universal history in the Western world, the Revolution could be no mere political convulsion."' s the twentieth century dawned, a new theology, espoused Thus, within months of Lexington, abounded con- Aby Brooks and Beecher in the previous century, affirmed veying a sense of God's grand design in the conflict. progress. "The millennial blessing was no longer beckoning at Following the Revolution, the dominance of post-millen- the end of the human story but was located in the inexorably nialism tended to minimize extensive commentary on Revela- progressive tendencies of history itself."10 Thus it was that the tion and its presumed blueprint for the future. However, there New Freedom of President Wilson found support first in the was no diminution of emphasis upon the nation's destiny in domestic realm and then in foreign policy. Wilson, of course, God's sight. President Francis Wayland of Brown University was an ideologue who viewed problems through moral specta- noted in 1830 that "perhaps before the youth of this generation cles. He believed in divine involvement and judgment in history, be gathered to their fathers, there may burst forth upon these although he refused to use the Bible as a blueprint for political highly-favored States the light of Millennial Glory."' The revi- action, seeing himself rather as a Christian in the service of val of premillenialism in the mid-century did not appreciably God. His strong sense of moral righteousness was coupled affect this new direction, one that allowed Christians of various with an assumption that America was the handmaiden of the persuasions to "work for the Kingdom of God on earth." The Lord. The League of Nations was his mission, and its failure Civil War, as William McLoughlin noted, "was the final stage was a disquieting closing chapter for a man who wrote: in the national drama of self-purification and dedication in preparation for the millennium."' God has in His good pleasure given us peace.... It has come In 1886, Josiah Strong christened the Bible as the engine as a great triumph of right. . . . Our gallant armies have of foreign politics. participated in a triumph which is not marred or stained by any purpose of selfish aggression. In a righteous cause they And our plea is not America for America's sake; but America have won immortal glory and have nobly served their nation for the world's sake. For, if this generation is faithful to its in serving mankind. God has indeed been gracious." trust, America is to become God's right arm in his battle with the world's ignorance and oppression and sin. Ours is the elect Wilson's foreign policy was governed by his faith. nation for the age to come. We are the chosen people. We cannot afford to wait. The plan of God will not wait. Those For liberty is a spiritual conception, and when men take up plans seem to have brought us to one of the closing stages in arms to set other men free, there is something sacred and holy the world's career, in which we can no longer drift with safety in the warfare. to our destiny.`'

The presidency soon became a "bully pulpit" for foreign Louis Hartz believed that Wilson's American "Messianism" affairs. President McKinley stated to the nation that the task was coincident with Lenin's rise to power in the Soviet Union. in our war with Spain was to conquer the Philippines and Wilson was "seeking to impose our institutions, seeking to Christianize the population. F. P. Dunne understood this new evangelize the results of a peculiar experience ..."'Z mood when he wrote Mr. Dooley in Peace and in War: The two men who succeeded Wilson are seldom identified with either foreign policy or religion. Alice Longworth said of Th' Lord knows how it'll come out. First wan side prays that Warren Harding, "He was not a bad man, he was just a slob."" th' wrath iv Hivert ll descind on th' other, art • thin th' other As for religion, biographer Francis Russell notes, "Religion side returns th' compliment with inthrest. Th' Spanish bishop was for Harding like the Constitution, something to be honored says we're a lot iv murdherirt , irreligious thieves, an' ought to and let alone."14 Of Coolidge, Herbert Hoover said, "he was a be swept fr'm th' face iv th' earth. We say his people ar-re th' fundamentalist in religion, in the economic and social order, same, an' manny iv them. He wishes Hivin to sink our ships and in fishing."15 This assessment is probably unfair, and it is an' desthroy our men; an' we hope he'll injye th' same gr-reat more accurate to say that Coolidge had a vague view of reli- blessin'. We have a shade th' best iv him, fr his fleets ar-re all gion, one that allowed him to assert, "The nation with the iv the same class an' of style, an' we have some iv th' most greatest moral power will win." modhern prayin' machines in the warruld; but he prays har-rd, Herbert Hoover is often cited as a humanitarian for his an' 'tis no aisy wurruk to silence him.... To meet thim, we sint th' bishop iv New York. . . . accompanied by a flyin' efforts to feed millions of hungry people after World War I. squadhron iv Methodists, three Presbyteryan monitors, a fleet He appears to have invented "bread diplomacy," and sought to iv Baptist submarine desthroyers, an' a formidable array iv use it in 1919 to force the government of Russia either to Universalist an' Unitaryan torpedo boats. accept Western desires or allow its people to starve. George Kennan commented on the morality of this ploy: The Protestant Establishment of the nineteenth century had effectively thwarted the best efforts of Jefferson and Madison The idea of using food as a weapon was one which had a very to separate church and state. It was only with the Supreme strong appeal to the American mind. It appealed to some of Court decisions beginning in the 1940s that the First Admend- the most dangerous weaknesses in the American view of inter-

52 FREE INQUIRY national affairs, and had, in my opinion, a most pernicious inspire concerns for justice. FDR sounded the Harry Emerson influence on American thinking. . . . No use of force was Fosdick dictum of the thirties espousing the fatherhood of involved.... One simply defined one's conditions and left it to God and the brotherhood of man as he commented, "The the other fellow to take it or leave it." realization that we are all bound together by hope of a common future rather than by reverence for a common past, has helped During his stay in the White House, Hoover most often us to build upon this continent a unity ..."2' Judge Samuel expressed displeasure with communism in terms of its opposi- Rosenman summarized it: tion to capitalism and its denial of individualism. The popular term to decry communism in that era was collectivism. In the I have often thought that his deep concern for his fellowmen— fifties Hoover undertook a second line of attack: even those whom social and financial tradition might call the meanest and the lowliest—had its roots in his religious con- What the world needs today is a definite, spiritual mobiliza- viction of the innate dignity of every human being.'-2 tion of the nations who believe in God against this tide of Red agnosticism.'" Roosevelt was compatible with pre-World War I religious liberalism but with a sharper cutting edge of practical realism. He went on to propose the abolition of the United Nations in He was, nevertheless, more sanguine than Reinhold Niebuhr favor of a "cooperation of God-fearing free nations." He con- about human nature. FDR often drew fire from traditional cluded, "And in rejecting an atheistic other world, I am con- churchmen because they felt he lacked morality and a sense of fident that the Almighty God will be with us." While his later mission against evil in the world. He did have a genuine respect writings exhibit considerable venom, the basic concept of for religion, but he refused to incorporate this into a national America as God's nation underlay Hoover's thoughts as early cult. as 1919. By the late forties, war, a fallen leader, an indecisive peace, Dietrich Bonhoeffer described the general tone of United atomic energy, and the rise of the Soviet Union to challenge States policy as being consistent with other Western nations. United States hegemony seriously had eroded the optimism espoused by religious liberals and humanists. The inordinate One of the characteristic features of church life in the Anglo- fear of communism that gripped the nation after World War Saxon countries ... is the organized struggle of the Church Il caused the rapid growth of a patriotism born out of dread against some particular worldly evil, the "campaign," or, taking and terror. As politicians wrestled with the new nationalist up again the crusading ideas of the Middle ages.'y sentiments, premillennial preaching made its debut on tele- vision. Franklin Roosevelt marked a new direction almost from Harry Truman was the bridge to the new era. Viewing the start. He found no problem in recognizing the Soviet Christianity as America's religion, Truman's inaugural address government. His relativism made it possible for him to view harked back to Wilson. the "communist issue" apart from the baggage of messianism. The importance of Roosevelt in our present discussion Steadfast in our faith in the Almighty, we will advance toward lies in the fact that he reasserted an alternative stream in a world where man's freedom is secure. To that end we will devote our strength, our resources, and our firmness of resolve. American history, a kind of "situation ethics" in diplomacy. With God's help the future of mankind will be assured in a Bound by neither narrow orthodoxy nor unbending principles, world of justice, harmony, and peace.' But unlike Wilson, Truman's words of hope were uttered to an "The Protestant Establishment of the nineteenth increasingly frightened world. Almost pleadingly, in 1949, century had effectively thwarted the best efforts of Truman proclaimed that American foreign policy was governed Jefferson and Madison to separate church and by the on the Mount. Late in 1952, as he was leaving state. It was only with the Supreme Court decisions office, he remarked: beginning in the 1940s that the First Amendment Democracy is, first and foremost, a spiritual force, it is built emerged as the guarantee of freedom intended by upon a spiritual basis—and on a belief in God and an obser- its authors." vance of moral principle. And in the long run only the church can provide that basis. Our founder knew this truth—and we will neglect it at our peril.24 he practiced a realistic pragmatism. Religion gave Roosevelt a sense of destiny—not a destiny bound to legalistic determinism More significant for the future was his 1951 statement endors- but one that would be worked out in freedom. He viewed ing the now familiar dichotomy: "Our religious faith gives us politics and religion in harmony.20 FDR's optimism was wedded the answer to the false beliefs of Communism.... 1 have the to a realism that gave meaning to his remark: "The fight for feeling that God has created us and brought us to our present social justice and economic Democracy ... is a long, weary, position of power and strength for some great purpose."2 s One uphill struggle." Consistent with the post-millennial emphasis, is reminded of Attorney General Mitchell Palmer during the Roosevelt worked for the future good of humanity but, free communist scare of 1920. Failing to heed Wilson's plea to from dogma and exclusivism, biblical faith was set loose to avoid a red purge, Palmer fanned fires of fear. But, thirty

Summer 1984 53 years later America could not, as it did in 1921, retreat into in 1921, "When the capitalist discovers a brand of religion isolation, ignoring world realities. which has not the slightest interest in the `social gospel,' but on In retrospect, it is possible to recognize an embattled the contrary intends to pass up all reform to the Messiah who American post-millennialism, stripped of its optimism, doggedly will return on the clouds of heaven, he has found just the thing devoted to a type of Wilsonian theory of national destiny, he has been looking for."" And, second, the premillennialist manifest in the new administration that took office in 1953. became vigorously anti-communist. The full flower of this was to be witnessed in Billy Graham, who coursed through the wight David Eisenhower, named for Dwight L. Moody, land warning of imminent disaster if America failed to turn to Dthe nineteenth-century American evangelist, presided over God. a desperate quantum leap in messianism. In Ike this sentiment had no precise religious base. He said in 1952: "Our government "What appeared three decades ago as a ludicrous makes no sense unless it is founded in a deeply felt religious faith, and I don't care what it is." Digby Baltzell summed it side-show to Christian theology now demands the up: "President Eisenhower calmly reigned as representative of attention of the most able biblical scholars." a generation still dominated by the Protestant establishment."'-6 The president retreated to the high road of moralisms while Graham's style was traditional, but he quickly learned to Secretary of State John Foster Dulles created a foreign policy. control his audience, to avoid emotional outbursts, and to The latter's inflexible morality became a dangerous attribute appeal to the "respectable" element in the churches. By con- as he created for the Eisenhower Administration an image of trolling outbursts of response during the service, Graham effec- fortress America, messianic in the style of classic western shoot- tively channeled his large audiences to the altar. His sermons outs. America was, for Dulles, in tune with the moral law of were consistently filled with the sounds of bombs and missiles, God and was destined to save the world with a superior the specter of utter destruction, unless America made a decision morality and strength. For this "brinkmanship" Billy Graham for Christ. The demonic force was the Soviet Union, which, was a natural ally. like Cyrus the Persian, would be used by God to punish the Graham brought to massive audiences in the fifties an failed churches in America. Graham added to Dulles's "white emphasis upon , along with a vigorous attack hat" policy a litmus test for the nation's prospects of success, upon the social gospel. With the growth of cold war mentality defined as a decision for Christ. If America failed the test and and the threat of nuclear war, premillennialism took stock of did not turn to God, the nation would literally see red. biblical phrases and found them open to interpretations con- In 1961, John Kennedy returned the nation to pragmatism sistent with apocalyptic thinking. And while Graham was with a perspective enunciated toward the close of his presi- warning of Armageddon, Bishop Fulton Sheen was stirring dency, "If we cannot now end our differences, at least we can television audiences to a McCarthy-like fever pitch. At the help make the world safe for diversity." Ted Sorensen informs same time, Dulles practiced a holy war diplomacy that played us that Kennedy apparently saw the Bible as a good source for directly into the hands of the premillennialists. quotations, but with no more reverence than he might have In the same historic period, there was coming to power in had for other great literature, and possibly less than he had for American statecraft a group Richard J. Barnet described as Jefferson."' Hence, once he examined the alternatives in foreign "Security Managers." Coming to power after World War II, policy, unlike Dulles, he was not bound by orthodoxy to main- their style and policy are attributed to Calvinist influences.27 tain a previous position. What sounded like dogma in his Barnet contended that after the war these managers shifted debates in 1960 turned out to be opinions open to rational from the idealistic Wilsonian position to what he describes as a argument. realist position. But unlike the Niebuhr pragmatic realism of As with FDR, communism for JFK was a genuine threat the thirties and forties, so prominent in the Roosevelt "brain- to freedom, but it was not viewed as a monolith. Even in 1959 trust," this new breed convinced themselves that their discretion he argued that the problem of recognition of Mainland China "would be exercised in the pursuit of the highest moral values," was not a moral issue. William Shannon wrote in the New which they defined in Calvinistic absolutes. Such a posture York Times in 1971: seemed dictated by the radically altered world conditions. A coalition between premillennialism and a new, intensi- Throughout his Administration, whether he was dealing with fied nationalism took shape. For the advocates of apocalyptic Congress or Krushchev, with Southern racist Governors or this was a new stance, quite in contrast with the general rejec- steel company executives, Kennedy followed a consistent pat- tion of political involvement by premillennialists in earlier tern of trying to narrow differences, to conciliate rather than decades. It was only as they were drawn into battle with the confront, to seek face-saving compromises." "modernists" that their cause began to embrace support for the survival of the civilization. While in their minds there was no Perhaps the best representation of Kennedy's refusal to make hope for culture, nevertheless, as "traditional American evan- foreign policy a religious cause is his response at two Prayer gelicals," they urged a return to what they construed as ignored Breakfasts. In 1961 he said: "I do not regard religion as a Christian principles.2x Two interests were paramount. First, weapon in the Cold War."' 2 And a year later: "I do not suggest premillennialists came to be firm supporters of rigid capitalism that religion is an instrument of the Cold War."" as over against the social gospel. The Christian Century wrote Largely as a result of the intense commitment to Vietnam,

54 FREE INQUIRY Johnson's presidency reignited the missionary zeal about the and uncertain about the future. President Ford presided over threat of communism. James Reston said of Johnson, "He the final wreckage of Vietnam and the manifestations of believes that God looks out for Uncle Sam. He has no doubt nationalist frustrations in the Mayaguez incident. Graham, in that this nation was set apart to achieve good and noble pur- semi-disgrace after Watergate, disappeared, leaving premillen- poses ..."'4 The public religious scene was still dominated by nialism without a prominent spokesman. Ford presided with Graham, who moved immediately to achieve influence in the little reference to religion. White House.15 The subtle mixture of American messianism President Carter saw faith in private terms—a free church and premillennialist apocalypticism was well advanced. In 1967, in a free state. His personal morality affected his political desperately seeking a national consensus of support for the philosophy, not in terms of messianism and dogma, but rather Vietnam policy, Johnson toured the country in the fall, con- in relation to human rights, justice, dignity, trust, and negotia- cluding with a visit to Bruton Parish Church in Williamsburg, tions. He was a pragmatist with a conscience. Far from the where he would symbolically invoke the God of war against taint of Armageddon were the negotiations with Sadat and his timorous critics. There was on that Sunday a classic con- Begin. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan appears to have frontation between miter and scepter as the priest questioned triggered a nationalist sentiment in Carter manifest in some such a use of his parish. rhetoric, but he remained committed to reasoned and rational Richard Nixon laid claim to the White House at a point responses, evidenced in his treatment of the Russians in Cuba. when the ideology of messianism was under serious restraints Then came Iran. The pent-up feelings of a public smarting due to the Vietnam quagmire. Thus Nixon's natural proclivity from loss of pride in Vietnam and Watergate exploded into to talk in terms of national destiny was muted by the circum- the election of 1980, and Iran was targeted as the means of stances. Yet, on the domestic scene, the president claimed the Soviet expansion into the Middle East. high ground of God's support by the initiation of the White House Sunday services, what Niebuhr called "the King's he politics of 1980 were affected by a second wave of Chapel." Imbued with the "love-it-or-leave-it mentality" coupled Tpremillennialism which had taken root in television, with lapel flags, Nixon, viewing "religion through Cecil B. De trading on what it perceived to be America's low morale. With Mille's eyes"' was an easy mark for Billy Graham and Norman articulate spokesmen and coherent policies this movement allied Vincent Peale. These two men seemed to represent the major itself with the political right, capturing the Republican candi- date. A man of simple religious beliefs, President Reagan is not "From the point of view of one who has spent apocalyptic by nature. He probably doesn't know the Bible thirty years in a serious examination of the Bible well enough to discuss the issues. But, solidly devoted to a as history and literature, the preponderance of pre- Dulles type foreign policy, he is totally under the domination of a fundamentalist theology as he enunciates that policy. Billy millennial theology being fed directly into the Graham has returned to White House favor while Jerry Falwell present administration is disturbing." is a regular communicant in White House rituals of power. Pat Robertson appears to act as spiritual advisor to many of extremes in popular religion in the fifties, but the underlying Reagan's official family. unity between World A/lame and The Power of Positive And what do these self-styled biblical interpreters have to Thinking was the ever-present American messianism. Peale say to Mr. Reagan? Graham informs us in his latest book that endorsed a national purpose based on God's will while he signs of Armageddon are all around us. Falwell says: spoke of self-acceptance as a means to wholeness. Graham, of course, continued his line established in the fifties: There are 11 signs that prove the Lord is coming very soon. ... In my opinion, there is no way we can make it to the year Above all we are faced with the mighty force of Com- 2000. I really believe Jesus is coming first.19 munism— the greatest, most well organized and outspoken foe of Christianity that the church has confronted since the days Pat Robertson answers the question, "Does the Bible of pagan Rome." specifically tell us what is going to happen in the future?": Nixon would accept this identification of the nation with the It sure does, Ben, it definitely does ... this is definite ... it Christian religion as an ideology, and wed it to a sense of specifically, clearly, unequivocally says that Russia and other mission in the world. With adroit use of the religious aura countries will enter into war and God will destroy Russia gained by his associations, Nixon began to infiltrate the through earthquakes, volcanoes .. .411 national scene with notions of superpatriotism that justified numerous illegal acts. Niebuhr warned of the roots of this type Speaking of the influence of humanists, the ACLU, homo- of self-righteous dogmatism: "An ideology is, in fact, a corrup- sexuals, and the Supreme Court, Robertson says: tion of the reasoning process in the interest of self, individual or collective."' Whatever Nixon might have done after the ... if we continue to allow that trend to go then God himself election of 1972 to solidify his "vision" for America, Watergate will say to us "I have no cause in you any longer but judgment. ended it abruptly in 1973. And I'm going to smite your nation ..."41 Watergate and its aftermath left many Americans stunned I think in the United States and other parts of the world

Summer 1984 55 the time has come for God's judgment.42 In a less tense world, premillennialism would pose serious problems if it infested national leadership, but today, threatened Robertson believes that the earthquakes and floods in Marin as the world is by nuclear annihilation, the last thing rational County were God's judgment on immoral life-styles. And make women and men need as an influence in foreign policy is the no mistake, Robertson considers himself a prophet. As long as opinion that original sin has made us incompetent to deal with preachers of gloom and doom plied their trade in public forums the critical global issues. It is an exercise in masochism to where response was possible, little harm was likely. Now we proclaim grandly that the future of the earth, our home, is in have the incursion of premillennialism into the presidency itself. the figurative hands of a bombastic deity who delights in destruction, the anticipation of human annihilation, and enig- matic sayings understood only by a handful of self-appointed "In a less tense world, premillennialism would pose literalists like Robertson, Falwell, Swaggart, and Lindsey. The serious problems, but today, threatened as the deity they parade before the world is a caricature of a bumbling world is by nuclear annihilation, the last thing idiot, who, having dictated his unchangeable "word" to ancient men, allowed the documents to be misplaced. He is a God rational women and men need as an influence in who creates humans in his own image but in whom he has foreign policy is the opinion that original sin has absolutely no trust. He is a deity who concerns himself about made us incompetent to deal with the critical global the protection of the modesty of one Christian inmate in a issues." Nazi prison while allowing six million Jews to be slaughtered.' He is a God who planned Japanese naval strategy in World War II, conjuring a picture of a God playing chess games in The modern practitioners of "biblical fission" grandly pro- some heavenly strategy room while the pawns in the Pacific claim what the Bible says and then proceed to effect a genuine died." These people read into every historic act the motives rape of the text. Hal Lindsey asks: "Are we able to trust these and morals of a scavenger god. Have you listened to these old prophets?" He naturally answers in the affirmative, but the people lately? They make General Curtis LeMay look like a question with which I am more concerned is, "Are we able to pacifist. Delving deep into national racism, we are warned of trust these old prophets' interpreters?" And even as we pose the dark mysteries of the "east" and the horde of soldiers, "the this question we discover President Reagan offering positive yellow peril,"47 swarming from China. Glib predictions of an response to the most extreme premillennialism. expected Antichrist leading the European Common Market to war in Palestine against China, which has just beaten Russia, You know, I turn back to your ancient prophets in the Old make pale in comparison. And where will the Chris- Testament and the signs foretelling Armageddon, and I find myself wondering if—if we're the generation that is going to tians be? They will be sucked up in the "Rapture" while the see that come about. rest of us participate in a God-ordained holocaust.4N I don't know if you've noted any of those prophecies As we encounter the intellectual bankruptcy of premillen- lately, but, believe me, they certainly describe the times we're nialism we should, as well, recognize the threats to freedom going through.43 and democracy inherent in all theories of a divinely chosen nation. At no time in our recent past have we been more in As citizens and as biblical scholars we are concerned to know need of hearing the words of Adlai Stevenson: to whom the chief executive is responding. Is he accepting the preachments of Hal Lindsey, who blithely courses through the The time has come for us as a people, as a community learning biblical texts, equating references in Daniel 9:27 to the nation together, to learn how to assume conscious control of our of Israel in the twentieth century? Lindsey and his fellow destiny.49 champions of chiliastic chimera have made a mockery of serious writing in order to facilitate their fulminating flagella- That is precisely what the Hebrew people strove to accomplish tion of God's creation. The "just war" theory, nationalism, throughout their long history. The Bible is a record of religious populist religious leaders, uncritical interpretation of the Bible, encounters detailing the experiences of men and women of con- glaring errors in understanding of American history, a gigantic viction who employed their human gifts to change history, dose of fear—these combine to encourage a theology of cos- because they took history seriously, believing it to be open to mic doom and irreversible providence. human crafting and creativity. From Genesis to Revelation, we The premillennialist who goes on search-and-destroy mis- encounter sane and rational persons seeking to make sense out sions against variant interpretations of the Bible has forefeited of the world. They discovered what they believed to be a clue any claim to free inquiry and rational discussion. The biblical in Yahweh, their God, and they acted upon it. critic, on the contrary, attempts to free believer and nonbeliever The overwhelming thrust of the New Testament, follow- alike to comprehend the Bible in all its richness. The churches ing the Hebrew pattern, is one of human hope with a founda- have for far too long treated serious biblical study as near tion in justice and love. In spite of fundamentalist rhetoric, the heresy, regularly opting for the authoritative irrationality of primary thrust of the life of Jesus reflected in the Gospels is biblicism. It is tragic how seldom churches recognize that the not salvation but service. Claims of exclusive "knowledge" interrogation of Jesus on that last morning was the prototype coming through some ill-defined faith in Jesus are the result of of all heresy trials.44 a narrow-gauge, single-track excursion by fundamentalists

56 FREE INQUIRY through a biblical panorama of humanist ideas and ethical 8. William McLoughlin, The American Evangelicals, 1800-1900, teachings. To reduce this profound literature to a simplistic Harper, 1968, p. 21. formula-(1) admit you have fallen from God's perfect stand- 9. Ibid., p. 210-211. ard; (2) ask for forgiveness of sins because of what Jesus did; 10. Maclear, p. 192. vol. 2, (3) tell God you want Jesus to come into your life50 is, I 11. Selected Literary and Political Papers of Woodrow Wilson, Grosset & Dunlap, 1927, p. 277. believe, a travesty of the complex life of Jesus as well as of the 12. Ibid., p. 133. serious efforts to comprehend his thoughts and actions. The 13. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Crisis of the Old Order, Houghton consequence is a reduction of the critical faculties so essential Mifflin, 1957, p. 50. to the resolution of human problems. As citizens of a nation 14. Francis Russell, The Shadow at Blooming Grove, McGraw-Hill, born in the minds of rational patriots, we have an obligation 1968, p. 160. 15. Herbert Hoover, The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover, 1920-1933, Mac- to protest what we construe as anti-intellectualism in govern- millan, 1952, p. 56. ment. Equally, we should resist the flagrant violations of bib- 16. Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday, Bantam, 1957, p. 129. lical texts by those who claim divine sanction for such activity. 17. George F. Kennan, Russia and the West Under Lenin and Stalin, Trading upon a formative idea advanced by a colleague, Little, Brown, 1961, p. 138. Addresses upon the American Road, 1948-1950, Professor J. Martin Ryle, it occurs to me that those of us born 18. Herbert Hoover, Stanford, 1951, p. 66. in the first half of this century were reared in a Newtonian 19. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Ethics, Macmillan, 1965, p. 356. world of predictability and order. We subjected all issues to 20. Robert S. Alley, So Help Me God, John Knox, 1972, p. 29. reason, anticipating an orderly set of answers. If we tempered 21. Thomas H. Greer, What Roosevelt Thought, Michigan State Uni- that rational approach with a humanist bias, it was presumed versity Press., 1958, p. 7. Working With Roosevelt, Harper, 1952, p. that human progress would result. But, again, we have been 22. Samuel I. Rosenman, 24. governed by the principle of an ordered universe. Persons born 23. Harry Truman, Memoirs: Years of Trial and Hope, vol. 2, Double- after 1950 have been bombarded with a new physics, that of day, 1956, p. 229. probability and relativity, casting considerable doubt upon 24. Public Papers of the President of the United States: Harry S. traditional patterns of proof. Not the least affected in this Truman-1952, U.S. Gov., 1966, p. 1063. revolution was the Calvinist tradition that proclaimed a rational 25. Public Papers of the President of the United States: Harry S. Truman-1951, U.S. Gov., 1966, pp. 548-549. and predictable God. Dogmatic constructions had abounded 26. E. Digby Baltzell, The Protestant Establishment, Vintage, 1966, p. in theology. As those of us attuned to the new science and the 296. new criticism adjusted our perceptions of theology, ethics, and 27. Richard J. Barnet, Roots of War, Atheneum, 1972, pp. 64-65. biblical studies, there were others who recoiled in fear from the 28. George Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, Oxford, relativism implied, offering the tyranny of biblical literalism as 1980, p. 149. 29. "The Capitalists and the Premillenarians," Christian Century, 38, an antidote. It is these persons who now appear to have com- April 14, 1921, p. 3. bined sheer irrationalism (premillennialism) with the strictest 30. Theodore Sorensen, Kennedy, Harper, 1965, p. 19. formulae contained in predestined cosmic cataclysm. Whether 31. William V. Shannon, , 0ctober 19, 1971. the future lies with the Manichean dualism of those in dread 32. Public Papers of the President of the United States: John F. of potential chaos, or with citizens who can transfer rational Kennedy-1961, p. 77. 33. Public Papers of the President of the United States: John F. arguments to a world defined in terms of the new physics, is Kennedy-1962, March I, 1962. dependent, in some measure, upon the ability of the latter to 34. James Reston, Sketches in the Sand, Knopf, 1967, p. 393. capture the imagination of a concerned public.$' A quarter- 35. Lady Bird Johnson, A White House Diary, Holt, Rinehart, century ago Adlai Stevenson identified the problem: Winston, 1970. 36. See Michael Novak, Choosing Our King, Macmillan, 1976. 37. Billy Graham, World Aflame, Pocket Books, 1965, p. 238. Today not rhetoric but sober fact should bid us believe that 38. Reinhold, Niebuhr, "The President's Error," Christianity and Crisis, our curious combination ... of little aims and large fears, has 29, September 15, 1969, pp. 227-228. within it the seeds of destruction first for our own community 39. Jerry Falwell broadcast, "Nuclear War and the Second Coming of and then for the larger hope that, as science and technology Christ," March 25, 1983. bring the nations inescapably together, freedom, not tyranny, 40. Pat Robertson, "700 Club," December 2, 1981. will be the organizing principle of the society of man.52 41. Ibid., December 28, 1981. 42. Ibid., January 7, 1982. 43. Donald M. Rothberg, AP, October 30, 1983. Notes 44. George Shriver, American Religious Heretics, Abingdon, 1966, p. 16. 1. Hal Lindsey, The 1980's: Countdown to Armageddon, Bantam, 45. Billy Graham, . 1981 46. Hal Lindsey, The Late Great Planet Earth, Bantam, 1973. 2. Lewis Lipsitz, "If, as Verba Says, the State Functions as a Religion, 47. Ibid., p. 70. What Are We to Do Then to Save Our Souls?" American Political Science 48. Lindsey, The 1980's, p. 172. Review, vol. 62, no. 2, 1968, p. 530. 49. Adlai E. Stevenson, "The Survival of the Free Society", Christian 3. Billy Graham would follow this approach in the 1950s. Century, January 11, 1960. 4. Samuel Davies, Sermons, vol. 3, "Signs of the Times," p. 137. 50. Ibid., p. 174. 5. James F. Maclear, "The Republic and the Millennium" in John M. 51. Ideas advanced in this paragraph are the result of formative thinking Mulder and John F. Wilson, eds., Religion in American History, 1978. by my colleague, J. Martin Ryle, professor of history at the University of 6. Ibid., p. 182. Richmond. 7. Ibid., p. 188. 52. Stevenson, Christian Century. •

Summer 1984 57 Books represented. How would Homer Duncan feel if Christian children had to listen to the sales pitches of atheists, agnostics, Secular Humanism and the Schools Unitarians, Jews, Marxists, Muslims, and Hindus? Even the persuasive presentation of the numerous versions of Christianity in The Religion of Secular Humanism and the ing both. the classrooms of America would probably Public Schools, by Homer Duncan (Lub- In addition to such fallacies of have consequences that he would regret. Sci- bock: MC International Publications), 136 authority and fallacies of accent, the work ence, including evolution, belongs in the pp., $3.00. abounds in other serious defects. For public schools whereas creationism does not; instance, Duncan completely ignores the rich not because modern education is unfair, but Tad S. Clements variety of religious and philosophic positions simply because science has intellectually in America, preferring instead to assert that respectable credentials. To ignore such dif- serious philosophic or theological there are only two, absolutely opposite, ferences makes a mockery of the distinction Awork concerned with the "religion of positions—that of secular humanism and between knowledge and unsupportable secular humanism" would attempt to care- that of "Biblical Christians." belief—a distinction fundamental to genuine fully clarify the meanings of the terms He also badly misrepresents history. education. religion and secular humanism, because For instance, he claims that America was Much of Duncan's book supposedly without such conceptual clarification in what founded on Christian principles (p. 7). This establishes secular humanism's responsibility sense secular humanism is supposed to be a is a half-truth that conveniently ignores the for nearly every sort of evil, real or religion would remain unclear. Homer Dun- non-Christian views of many of the Found- imagined, afflicting America and its public can labors mightily but unsuccessfully to ing Fathers, views that probably influenced schools today. Here, as in other parts of his give the impression that he has accomplished their attempt to safeguard the secular state work, Duncan misuses data and uses this task. His book contains literally dozens from undue religious influence by means of dubious premises. He quotes profusely from of quotations, commentaries, and assertions the First Amendment. sources—some of which are excellent—por- that ostensibly prove that secular humanism Some of Duncan's foot-in-the-mouth traying an educational situation with many is a religion, one that dominates public edu- statements are almost humorous. For serious problems, problems that no knowl- cation. All Duncan really proves, however, instance, fundamentalist Christians in other edgeable person would be likely to deny, is that he does not recognize the essential parts of the world should find it strange and then hastily jumps to the conclusion difference between quantity and quality of that, according to Duncan, "... all Bible- that secular humanism is somehow to blame. evidence. believing Christians are patriotic Americans" With ludicrous effect, he claims that such The defects in his "evidence" are (p. 27). things as drug education, the teaching of numerous. For instance, he quotes people With incredible philosophic, theologi- evolution, and global and social studies are who lack the requisite philosophic or theo- cal, and historical naiveté, he portrays the disguised forms of secular humanism (see, logical expertise—legalists, biologists, and complex social and intellectual issues facing for instance, pp. 94 ff.). The quality of his politicians, for instance—and thus commits our nation and public education as simply distortions can perhaps be judged best by the fallacy of transferred authority. He a conflict between "Biblical Christianity" and quoting two of his comments directly: quotes some views of people from the early secular humanism: "a conflict between God days of the humanist movement as though and Satan; between Christ and Anti-Christ; Common sense should tell anyone that their views were binding on secular human- between Divine Revelation and human spec- when people ... were taught they were ists today. (How would Duncan react if ulation" (p. 6). There is, of course, a half- nothing but animals, they would begin to live like animals. [p. 45] someone were to insist that he must hold truth in his view. There is and has been a all the views held by Catholic popes of the conflict between secular values—those If there is no God, if Jesus Christ is not past just because they were Christians?) essential ingredients of modernism, derived the Son of God, if the Bible is not the Duncan even misinterprets some of his from the scientific outlook and from demo- Word of God, if man does not have an own quotations. For instance, he cites a cratic practice—and the "values" derived eternal soul, if there is no heaven to gain Webster's dictionary definition of religion from the prescientific, absolutist orthodoxies or hell to shun ... the best philosophy of that, he claims, fits secular humanism per- of the past. No informed person would deny life is "eat, drink, and be merry for tomor- row we die." [p. 46] fectly, but he conveniently ignores two facts: this. However, to interpret the complex (I) the definition insists that faith is essential issues involved in the simplistic, vague, and Either Homer Duncan does not know to religion, and (2) secular humanists refuse assumptive terms employed by Homer (in which case, he is abysmally ignorant) or to accept anything on faith (as that term is Duncan is intellectually inexcusable. he chooses to ignore some well-known facts understood in acknowledged religious con- Duncan repeatedly charges unfairness. (in which case, he is guilty of extreme dis- texts). And, perhaps worst of all, he fails to Fairness, he claims, requires that creationism honesty). Such phenomena as the extremely distinguish between religious humanists and and other Christian ideas be presented in low crime-rate in Communist China, the secular humanists and quotes the former as public schools. Apart from the constitutional almost complete absence of debauchery spokesmen for the latter, thus misrepresent- issues involved, such a position has implica- among devout Buddhists, the moral excel- tions that even Duncan should find objec- lence of the great pagan philosophers of Tad S. Clements is professor of philosophy tionable. Surely, if the separation-of-church- antiquity, and the rarity of the Unitarian- at the State University of New York Col- and-state principle is to be eliminated in the Universalists and well-educated secular lege at Brockport. name of "fairness," then all religious posi- humanists in our penal institutions, difficult tions should have an opportunity to be to explain according to his premises. The

58 FREE INQUIRY United States probably has more funda- Christians are responsible for our social and adopted by the Roman Catholic church mentalist Christians than any other nation educational ills. from 1864 to 1958 and by American Protes- on earth, and their ranks have swelled I recommend Homer Duncan's book tant fundamentalists. Harrington is unsym- during recent years. If we used Duncan's to logicians and other scholars interested in pathetic to these maneuvers on the ground procedure for assigning causes, we should studying fallacies, errors, and misinterpreta- that they are either irrational or reactionary. probably conclude that bible-believing tions—for this it is invaluable. • The current revival of religious funda- mentalism in the United States is said to be insignificant because studies show that Harrington's Marx and God Americans are not religious in practice. Harrington hopes that ultimately a communitarianism will develop that will honor the functional differentation of modern society while providing common The Politics at God's Funeral: The Spiritual reverence for God. This maneuver removed values that will motivate people to act Crisis of Western Civilization, by Michael God from the public sphere so that his morally. Collectivism, as was found in feudal Harrington (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and presence could no longer fuel social action. society and is found in Stalinist states, is Winston, 1983), 308 pp., cloth, $16.95. By the mid-nineteenth century, middle-class rejected because it is repressive. Democratic atheism was quite prevalent, and religious socialism ought to be the political system of Edward Walter practices declined in all Western nations. the future because it blends the rational Earlier, Protestant Christianity had elevated structure of liberalism with the organic he theme of The Politics at God's the notion of personal salvation based on society favored by Marx. In such a society, TFuneral is that atheism was made ten- inner conviction. the economic sphere would become public able about four centuries ago and belief in These divergent sources agreed that and responsive to the will of the majority. God has been declining ever since, creating people could separate their moral lives from The people, Harrington claims, could estab- a crisis from which the West has yet to their social lives. Capitalism allegedly lish new transcendental values that will do emerge. The author, Michael Harrington, developed because it, too, bifurcated the away with capitalistic hedonism. This kind contends that a de facto atheism exists in world. Liberal democracy reinforced this of society could be achieved by the joint the West today because religious belief has unnatural situation by instituting a legal action of atheistic and religious humanists. lost its influence in social and political system in which people were equal but Harrington's thesis is developed by a affairs. During the Middle Ages, religion tolerating a socioeconomic system where review of the thought of significant thinkers allegedly established common values that people were unequal. Thus, society is torn of the last four hundred years. References harmonized human behavior, legitimized apart because people are motivated to act to Kant, Hegel, Marx, Nietzsche, and others political power, and guaranteed personal hedonistically and selfishly. As Marx under- appear throughout this book. Although identity. Today, governments have lost the stood, Harrington says, capitalism is a Harrington's treatment of these thinkers is confidence of their peoples, economic system of disguised rule that is structurally sweeping and controversial, it is also fas- growth is unplanned and irresponsible, and agnostic. cinating and insightful. Harrington knows social and economic inequities persist. Peo- The Marxist-Stalinist state eventually what is important and presents it in an ple have reacted by supporting totalitarian emerged as another attempt to repair the exciting way. The reader is filled with the regimes and adopting relativistic moral damage caused by the rending of the medi- desire to reread these masters because of values. eval social order. As Nietzsche recognized, their intrinsic worth and to check Harring- God as a social reality has been dying the socialist state could rule by an appeal to ton's interpretations. This is a tribute to his in the West, according to Harrington, since the lowest common denominator. This perspicacity. A "democratic Marxist," he Enlightenment thinkers demonstrated that occurred in many places because "scientific comes across as erudite, nondoctrinaire, and the new science did not require God's exis- socialism," which was really developed by vital. Nevertheless, when one analyzes and tence to account for natural processes. The Engels after Marx died, became the philo- interprets four hundred years of history, intellectual leaders of the Enlightenment sophy of many revolutionaries. In it, anti- there is room for differences of emphasis adopted Stoic philosophy as an answer to religious sentiment combined with a ration- and opinion. the loss of a . Publicly, they alistic political structure to suppress dis- Harrington's Marxism, rather than pro- promoted traditional religion so that the sidents. Totalitarianism necessarily emerged. viding a perspective from which to view masses would remain submissive and pas- Marx is exonerated by Harrington for this social history, prejudices his opinion. A per- sive. According to Harrington, the masses state of affairs. spective in which all assumptions are made were too intelligent to be duped and, as a Theologians from Friedrich Schleier- explicit is impossible, as C.S. Peirce pointed consequence, rejected the rationalism of the macher to Dietrich Bonhoeffer have out some time ago. But one ought to try to Enlightenment. attempted to rescue Christianity from the minimize the effect of this unhappy condi- Rousseau, who influenced the French implied atheism of modern science in three tion as much as possible. Harrington does Revolution, tried to overcome the wrench ways, according to Harrington. First, God's not try sufficiently hard. His Marxism leads created by the new science by claiming that existence and Christ's divinity have been him to go beyond reason to rescue Marx's authentic religious belief was an inner established by an irrational . reputation and to blame liberal democracy Second, the concept of God has been and capitalism for most of the problems of Edward Walter is professor of philosophy reduced to a vague "ground of being" or to the contemporary West. and chairman of the department at the a feeling of awe when one confronts the Marx cannot be exonerated for the University of Missouri at Kansas City. universe. Third, modernism and science have totalitarianism of socialist states. Marx been abjured. This last approach was worked closely with Engels for many years.

Summer 1984 59 Engels is perhaps a better source of Marx's Although Harrington admits to being death the reason that people construct thought than the contemporary disciples of an atheistic humanist, he is, in my judgment, elaborate theories assuring themselves of an Marxism. Their joint writings contain too easy on religious beliefs. An epistemo- afterlife? innumerable references to the "inevitability" logical relativism, probably learned by read- Harringtoñ s historical diagnosis of the of historical processes, religious institutions ing Hegel, Marx, and sociological theorists, present crisis in Western civilization, despite as epiphenomena, ideas as "reflexes" of leads him to claim that atheism is a conse- these problems, is perceptive. Many of his material conditions, and the need for a dic- quence of social developments attending the remedies, however, mentioned only in the tatorship of the proletariat. It is in these scientific revolution rather than that atheism last two chapters, are questionable. He statements that the seeds of totalitarianism was shown to be probably true. In his book, wants to heal the human spirit, establish are found. the attempts by theologians to construct social justice, and harmonize behavior. Very Harrington is too kind to Marx in that elaborate explanations for believing without few people do not have similar goals. Unfor- he uncritically accepts Marx's critique of evidence or to redefine God as a feeling of tunately, Harrington only identifies the end; liberal democracy, which is dismissed as an awe are painfully strained and provincial. he does not disclose the means to achieve it. agnostic structure permitting a disguised rule Why should anyone believe that God exists His conviction that democratic socialism can by the capitalistic class. Possibly, Harring- or that Christ was divine because he has best resolve the so-called spiritual impasse ton's views of liberal democracy would have uncritically read the New Testament? Would in modern society remains, in the last analy- been modified if he had reviewed more care- a Christian theologian suggest that one sis, as an article of faith, a faith that has fully the political history of England and should read the Old Testament, the Koran, been seriously shaken a century after Marx's America, where liberal democracy was or any other religious writing in that way? death in the light of what has happened nourished, and if he studied the thinkers And is not the Christian who retains since. For many democratic humanists, not who devised it: Locke, Hume, Smith, Ben- Christianity without believing in God and only is the God of Abraham, Isaac, Jesus, tham, Mill, Jefferson, Dewey, and Keynes Christ's divinity merely treating his religion and Muhammad dead, but the second com- do not appear, or appear only fleetingly, in as a featherbed on which to fall? Finally, as ing of God, under the mantle of Marxism, the pages of The Politics at God's Funeral. Freud observed, is not the desire to survive has also failed. •

Beyond telling it like it is as far as the Sex and the Bible Bible is concerned, Larue offers some com- mentary on sex attitudes and practices in modern society. It is not at all clear what his purpose is in this effort, however, since Sex and the Bible, by Gerald A. Larue (Buf- (thump, thump) faith. he does not trace the development of sex falo: Prometheus Books, 1983), 212 pp. It is as a counter to these claims that mores from the writing of the Bible to the cloth, $17.95; paper $9.95. Larue tells us what the Bible says, and does twentieth century, nor does he seem to be not say. His account is fair, realistic, and offering a consistent perspective or set of Robert T. Hall even-handed, as befits a professor emeritus principles of his own. It is mostly a matter of biblical studies. He has no axes to grind of conventional wisdom—perhaps a little too ex and the Bible by Gerald A. Larue is and no program to sell, save enlightenment conventional, as in his all too easy accep- Sa commentary on or an interpretation on the subject. When it comes to the ques- tance of the notion that gay men and lesbian of the Bible. It avowedly contains no new tion of premarital sex, for example, Larue women grew up as sissies and tomboys. But historical research; the author readily admits is as sympathetic to those whose ideal is to no doubt the commentary on modern atti- that "little of the material presented here share their first experience with someone tudes toward sex is intended as an aid to will be new to clergy trained in accredited who will be their lifetime partner as he is to reflection on the great cultural differences universities and seminaries." those whose development prior to marriage between the biblical age and our own times. True enough, but as the author also includes sexual expression. The only shortcoming of this otherwise perceptively recognizes, the graduates of Of course the last thing fundamentalists interesting book is Professor Larue's failure accredited universities and seminaries of the (whether they be sectarian or within major to acknowledge the many contemporary major denominations do not always tell denominations) want is for someone who enlightened liberal and moderate Christians people what the Bible actually says, or help knows the Bible as a scholar to tell people who find that the Bible embodies some them to interpret it wisely, or show how an what it actually says on these subjects. It important humanistic principles and enlightened Christian or Jewish approach undermines the one and only true and values—or at least stands as the cornerstone to sex can be based upon a biblical perspec- authentic biblical faith to discover that there of a tradition in which such values and prin- tive. The failure of liberal and moderate is no one and only ultraconservative sex ciples have continued to develop throughout Christians on this score has practically left ethic in the Bible and that those who claim the centuries. For these people, who treat the field to fundamentalists, who now suc- to find one there simply read their own the Bible as an ancient text and not simply cessfully claim that their own sex ethic is Victorian mores in selected pages and ignore as a justification for their own preconceived the one and only true and authentic biblical the rest of the text. To be fundamentally ideas, the task of developing a contemporary biblical, one would have to revive the approach to sex and human relationships is levirate (the duty of a dead man's brother a matter of discovering new meanings in an Robert T. Hall is an Episcopal priest and to impregnate his widow to provide an heir), old tradition. Such folk, however, who may professor of philosophy and sociology at ritual purification, and perhaps polygamy. still constitute the greater part of Christian- the University of Steubenville in Ohio. Such practices would hardly sit well with ity, have unfortunately been as Larue sug- the conservative conscience. gests, an all too silent majority. •

60 FREE INQUIRY (Letters, continued from p. 4) Paul Kurtz replies: tials, and we should avoid dogmatic creeds of any sort. that there would be two leaders merged into I did not mean to imply that anyone who Jefferson and Paine were deists not a single messiah (Christ). The Gentiles who believes in salvation was disturbed, only that theists. They were anti-clerical and also cri- adopted this idea coupled it with Mithraic Jesus was insofar as he believed that he was tical of biblical revelations, although Jeffer- and other pagan beliefs and rites to produce sent by God to save mankind. son accepted the ethics of Jesus. Both Jeffer- Christianity and the Jesus of the Gospels. son and Paine were staunch defenders of Higher criticism was popular among The Academy of Humanism the free mind and opposed to any ecclesi- German theologians in the nineteenth cen- astical or governmental tyranny over the free tury. Interest waned, but I hope Professor I am afraid that Paul Kurti s response to conscience. Robert Alley and James Robin- Wells has renewed that interest. Too many my letter (FI, Spring 1984) does not satisfy son, although valued contributors to FREE people who should know better believe that my misgivings about the Academy of INQUIRY, are not members of the Academy the Jesus of the Gospels actually lived. Humanism (FI, Fall 1983). It would be of Humanism. Alfred North Whitehead does incorrect to describe the God of Socrates, have humanistic strains, as you point out, E. E. Brennan Plato, Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson but whether he is a secular humanist is Lakewood, Colo. in Spinozistic terms, and yet they are in another matter. Last, we did not include your Humanist Pantheon. A "person" to Plato in our Humanist Pantheon since he Paul Kurtz says that people who believe in me and for the philosophical tradition has seemed to be the enemy of freedom. Christian salvation (and presumably also been defined as a rational being. Therefore, In any case, the great heroes in the gods, immortal souls, supernatural powers, the God of the thinkers listed above (I forgot Humanist Pantheon may have expressed and the like) are "disturbed" (FL Spring Aristotle) is a rational being, not just the some if not all of the characteristics of con- 1984, p. 3). I assume he meant psycho- order and structure of the universe. Further- temporary secular humanism. They were in logically or emotionally disturbed. Had he more, Thomas Jefferson called himself a general critical of any revelations from on been less charitable, but more colloquial, he Christian, claimed the authority of Jesus, high, whether specific or general, and of might have said "crackers," "bonkers," and praised his ethics and person. Paine's any notion of a supernatural divine being. "crazy," "nuts," "insane," etc. Yet I would God, although not the Christian one, was Clearly there is a real problem with the use have thought that Kurtz would have learned definitely not just an ordering principle. of the term theism, especially if it is used to important lessons from Thomas Szasz, and Finally, the God which Richard Taylor refer to a "person." one of Szasz's most important lessons is that argues for in his Metaphysics is also more We would welcome further comments there is little objective or rational ground than just a principle. from our readers on this topic. for characterizing anyone as being mentally Your definition of theism is ambiguous ill. in that it fails to distinguish between general So what should we nonbelievers call or natural revelation and special or scrip- For me, the name of Julian Huxley was believers? I suggest that they are simply tural revelation. Again the people I have conspicuous by its absence from your irrational. I say "irrational" rather than listed above appealed to general revelation, Humanist Pantheon. "nonrational" because the latter charac- and Jefferson obviously is also referring to terizes beings that are by nature incapable some special revelation. Therefore, if Jeffer- Philip E. Rice of reasoning. We are by nature capable of son is a humanist, then all liberal Chris- Southbury, Conn. rationality, of reasoning, of being reason- tians—like those who follow the philosophy able. But we are also capable of failing to of Alfred North Whitehead—are also The omission of Julian Huxley's name was act according to our nature. To be rational humanists. While they are not on your indeed an oversight. It has been cor- is to always require, in appropriate circum- laureate list, you do call on Christian rected. —E o. stances, supporting reasons or arguments for humanists all the time for your programs— our beliefs and behavior. To hold a position like Robert Alley and James Robinson. 1 Skinner and Freedom on faith is to require no reasons or to take believe that you would be much better off I believe in freedom, that people have the the absence of reasons as a reason. To hold with a broader definition of humanism, right to live as they want as long as they do a position on faith or on the basis of non- which stresses the primacy of reason and not interfere with the equal rights of others supporting reasons is to be irrational. the acceptance of theism as long as the to live as they want (i.e. as long as they do Any person, whether disturbed or rational method is not compromised. not initiate force or fraud against others). irrational, requires our sympathy and under- Undoubtedly, B. F. Skinner (Interview, FI, standing (for they are often ourselves). But Nicholas F. Gier Moscow, Idaho Winter 1983/84) would say that 1 suffer while the former require treatment the latter from the same "illness" that he attributes to require education. We free inquirers who Thomas Szasz, "libertas nervosa." call the true believers "disturbed" take the Paul Kurtz replies: Skinner invented libertas nervosa as an easy way out. By seeing them instead as Professor Gier's point is well taken. It is analogous condition to anorexia nervosa. irrational we accept the burden and chal- difficult in examining the history of thought Apparently, libertarians like Szasz and lenge to teach. Teaching is always a libera- to find exact precursors of modern-day myself endanger the health of society by ting exercise. secular humanism. We should be receptive desiring too little nonfreedom. As anorexics to a wide range of points of view. The Acad- should learn to accept themselves at their emy's commitments are to free inquiry and ideal weight, presumably we libertarians George Englebretsen the use of reason and evidence as a process should learn to accept an "ideal weight" of Bishop's University of development. Surely we should not authoritarianism for a healthy society. But Lennoxville, Quebec exclude people who claim humanist creden- while it is undeniable that person must eat

Summer 1984 61 certain quantities and types of food and the other groups that Matson castigated care that his views are in agreement with "the maintain a certain minimum weight for very much about people, too. latest thinking in the trade." health and life, there is no evidence of which Davies was wrong in his claim that the I am aware that an individual's freedom W. A. T. White law of energy conservation is violated in must be limited by anything (except the Eugene, Ore. quantum physics. His view might coincide equal freedom of others) to maintain a with an old idea, long abandoned, of Bohr, healthy society. Skinner's analogy is without Kramers, and Slater (Philosophy Magazine foundation. God and the Physicists 47, 785 [1924]), which maintained that energy Skinner reveals his misunderstanding of conservation is true in the microdomain only freedom by implying that we sufferers of Neither Mario Bunge nor Mendel Sachs statistically. But this idea was abandoned libertas nervosa want the "right to be left ("God and the Physicists," FI, Spring 1984) when the notions of the Copenhagen school alone" and that this is an illegitimate right seem able or willing to come to grips with crystallized in the 1920s, with the measure- because it supposedly includes "the right to Paul Davies's central thesis: "the laws of ment interpretation of quantum mechanics, breed, consume, pollute the world, and con- physics that permit the Universe to come due to Bohr, Heisenberg, Dirac, and others. struct weapons that could destroy all life on into being ... point irrefutably [sic] to an The modern quantum theory asserts that earth." 1 must point out to Dr. Skinner that element of design, and therefore meaning, the qualities of micromatter, such as its the first two of these most certainly are behind physical existence . . . a god who intrinsic energy, may only be specified in human rights, providing the consuming is lies behind physical reality." Elsewhere (New terms of its measured values, necessarily of goods and services not obtained through Scientist, 23, June 1983, pp. 872-874) Davies ascertained by a macroapparatus. The force or fraud and the breeder is not a rapist. argued that "we live in the only possible uncertainty relations do not violate energy The third is hardly within the concept of Universe." Neither of these statements are conservation. Rather, they relate to the fact freedom, as polluting clearly involves the warranted, empirically or philosophically. that one may not specify the measured initiation of force against persons and their The universe is by definition all there values of energy of micromatter arbitrarily property. The last has been done only by is and all that we can and do know. There precisely, at any precise moment of time. governments, as it is impossible to amass simply are no "other" universes to compare On the other hand, recall that the law of such weapons without the initiation of force "ours" with in order to decide which one is energy conservation (locally) is a logical through coercive taxation and fraud through the most likely to exist. We can therefore consequence of the covariance requirements the government's propaganda apparatus, have no reason to believe that ours is the of the theory of (special) relativity. A viola- which includes the state ("public") schools. only one possible, except in perhaps the tion of energy conservation would then The libertas nervosa paradigm for free- rather trivial sense, to contain human beings. imply a violation of the theory of rela- dom is a strawperson created by Skinner so Pari passu, as there are no other uni- tivity—which 1 doubt Davies wishes to it is not surprising that he easily knocks it verses to demonstrate what effect the claim! down. But the true concept of freedom absence of Davies's "element of design" Next, it is illogical to claim that at the remains untouched by Skinner's verbal would have on the laws of physics, whatever moment of the big bang the matter of the legerdemain. The denial of freedom is not warrant can we have that the laws we dis- universe (and its accompanying radiation) nourishing food. cover or postulate in the universe are not, was created from "energy." This is because, as they appear, in fact intrinsic but imposed, in physics, "energy," per se, is a quality of Howard L. Glick whether from "behind," outside, or wher- matter and is not a thing in itself. This is Madison, Wis. ever? And if, as Davies admits, the universe irrespective of the model of matter that one does not need "a creator god," his pale, may appeal to, whether it be an atomistic atavistic ghost of the traditional image of a model, as in Newtonian physics or in quan- deity can hardly endow it, let alone our per- tum theory, or a model based on the con- Defining Humanism sonal lives, with design or meaning. His tinuous field concept, as in Einstein's theory arguments that modern cosmology "offers a of general relativity, as an underlying theory I agree with Floyd Matson ("Humanist surer path to god than religion" are therefore of matter. In either case, the "energy" of Self-Portraits" FI, Spring 1984) that human- not only misleading and unjustified but, in matter or radiation is one of the qualities of ism can be equated with humane-ism, but I the absence of another universe demon- these entities, and not a thing by itself. cannot accept that Matson has a lock on strably without "a god behind [its] physical Similarly, the "space-time" of Einstein's what is humane. Matson indicts many reality," unjustifiable. They only serve to relativity physics is not a thing in itself; groups in the social sciences, including perpetuate mankind's desperate efforts to rather, it relates to the relative language that behaviorists. But, when I review educational deny its own contingency and distract from is to be used for the purpose of expressing practices and research, 1 find that two the task of formulating our own destiny. laws of nature covariantly, i.e., independent behavioral approaches to instruction—direct of reference frames. It is then illogical to instruction and applied behavior analysis— K. W. de Pauw claim that from "pure energy" one may have helped people. They are usually more Nottingham, England create a "blob of space-time," which in turn effective in teaching students than so-called is to transform into the material universe— humanist approaches, which are so poor in since neither "energy" nor "space-time" are many cases that they may be considered My criticism that Paul Davies's views on objective entities in themselves. inhumane. cosmology are "theological" rather than I believe it is possible to be a behaviorist "scientific" was based on technical argu- who opposes many "humanist" educational ments concerning theology, quantum theory, Mendel Sachs practices, yet still be a humanist and care and the theory of relativity. His reply to me SUNY at Buffalo about people. And I suspect members of did not address my argument, except to say Buffalo, N.Y. 62 FREE INQUIRY Asimov, 64; sociobiologist Edward O. Is the U.S. Humanist Movement Wilson, 54, of Harvard University; Sagan, 45; and two scientists born in the 1940s, paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould of Har- in a State of Collapse? vard and anthropologist Donald Johanson, discoverer of the 4.7-million-year-old partial The Los Angeles Times recently devoted a gelicals) to enter the teaching field and to skeleton of the hominid dubbed "Lucy." major story to secular humanism. FREE back recognition of all religious celebrations Coincidentally, at the American INQUIRY is pleased to reprint portions of it in the public schools. Humanist Association's annual meeting, below. John Dart is religion editor of the Christianity Today editors indicated April 20-22 in Washington, the 3,000 mem- Times.—ED. that they were unable to obtain a written ber organization [honored] Asimov as response from Sagan. He generally strays Humanist of the Year and Gould as the John Dart from his field of astronomy only to address 1984 Humanist Distinguished Service award scientific issues of public concern.... recipient. obody has taken out want ads yet, Television producer Norman Lear The need for relatively younger spokes- Nbut the job of "humanist hero" is wide founded "People for the American Way" to persons for humanist ideals was acknowl- open. fight what he and others perceived as grow- edged by retired psychologist Maxine Negri Able, willing, and well-known human- ing religious intolerance, but Lear also has of Los Angeles, national vice president of ists were hard to find when "secular not been one to assume the broader respon- the American Humanist Association.... humanism" was the religious right's scape- sibility of defending humanism as a legiti- Kurtz blames organized humanism's goat during the 1980 election year. Indeed, mate world view. failure as a mass movement on three factors: the aging organized humanist movement was If anyone today wears the mantle of The "lack of an inspiring message of suf- tiny then and now has virtually "collapsed," "Mr. or Ms. Humanist," it is usually con- ficient clarity and drama to command public one leader said. Fewer than 10,000 members ceded to Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy attention," the paucity of "charismatic are left in its various groups. at the State University of New York at Buf- leadership of sufficient skill and dedication" In 1984, President Reagan has not used falo. Kurtz formerly edited Humanist maga- and the "mistaken" strategy of trying to the catchwords "secular humanism" in push- zine, helped launch the Skeptical Inquirer become another religious organization rather ing for organized prayer in schools, a pro- magazine to debunk psychic phenomena than a broadly based educational movement. posal that fell short of U.S. Senate approval claims, and now edits Free Inquiry One small step in the educational direc- [recently] but humanism still takes its licks magazine. tion [was taken] in New York City when from the likes of fundamentalists Jerry Fal- Kurtz announced the establishment of the Humanist Institute, a leadership training well, Tim LaHaye, and Francis A. Schaeffer. the Academy of Humanism last year, a year body, formally opened in the Manhattan The charge, revived also in a recent marking, he said, the 500th anniversary of facilities of the New York Society for Ethical issue of the evangelical magazine Christian- the Spanish Inquisition and the 350th anni- Culture. The institute was formed last ity Today, is that secular humanism, or versary of the trial of Galileo, "both August by the new North American Com- secularism, is an insidious "religious" phi- infamous events in the history of thought." mittee for Humanism... . losophy that disguises itself as a just-plain- Thirty laureates were named to the lifelong It was at that organizational meeting educated view of life pervading the schools, honor for outstanding contributions, devo- in Minneapolis that Kurtz declared that the courts, the entertainment and news media, tion to free inquiry, commitment to a scien- humanist movement had for all intents and and the universities. tific outlook and use of reason toward purposes "collapsed ..." without drawing a The article focused on scientist Carl nature, and upholders of humanist ethical direct challenge from the partisan crowd, Sagan, who is recognized by both organized values. according to a report in a Unitarian humanists and critics of humanism as an At the same time, some "humanist Universalist newspaper. engaging spokesman for the wonders of heroes in history" were listed, including However, many humanist leaders do science. Socrates, Spinoza, Voltaire, Thomas Jeffer- not agree with Kurtz that it has been a His television series "Cosmos," first son, James Madison, Charles Darwin, Mark mistake to offer alternatives to churches and shown in 1980, contrasted superstition and Twain, Sigmund Freud, Jane Addams, and temples. religion's mistaken battles against science in Bertrand Russell. Gerald Larue, USC emeritus professor the past with the modern age's mind- Kurtz was asked during a Los Angeles of religion and a member of the Academy boggling pursuit of knowledge through visit who would be the best candidates for a of Humanism secretariat, said "Paul and I experimental evidence and logical theory. contemporary "humanist hero," a person have gone around on this. I see humanism Sagan is "a believer ... one committed to who could exemplify humanist ideals in a having different levels." an alternate religion," asserted Richard A. period of U.S. culture when celebrity status Larue is leader of the Ethical Culture Baer, Jr., a Cornell colleague on the natural affords the widest hearing in the competition Society of Los Angeles, which meets in a resources faculty, in the Christianity Today of ideas. rented school facility in West Los Angeles. article. He mentioned Sidney Hook, 81, pro- He performs marriages for people, often for "We are at a state of war with the secu- fessor emeritus of philosophy at New York interfaith couples who found opposition in larists," said evangelical author Robert E. University and a member of the five-man their respective faiths. Larue said he thinks Webber ("Secular Humanism: Threat and secretariat of the Academy of Humanism. that people need to gather to work out Challenge") in a printed response to Baer's But when asked to narrow the list to together what it means to have the liberal article. Rather than launching more lawsuits younger persons, Kurtz named several values in humanism and "how this helps to or more Christian private schools, Webber Americans already tapped as academy bring out the best in me and others." ... • urged fellow Christians (meaning evan- laureates: author-science popularizer Isaac Cop might. 1984. Los Angeles Times

Summer 1984 63 In Washington, House Speaker Thomas O'Neill, D-Mass., complained that Mr. Rea- gan doesn't even go to church and suggested ON THE BARRICADES he may sponsor legislation to build a chapel at Camp David, the president's hideaway in the mountains of Maryland. "I think I'll put up an amendment to put a chapel at Camp David," Rep. O'Neill Humanist Mondale career. Friends and associates say he never quipped. (Buffalo News, March 7, 1984) abandoned his ambition toward the ministry Did you know a humanist is the front- but refined and broadened it. They say he A White House Chapel running candidate for for the Democratic shared the trend among many divinity stu- presidential nomination? dents of that period who expanded their If Senator Jesse Helms (R-N. C.) and some When Fritz Mondale was vice president definition of the ministry to include such of his evangelical Christian friends have their of the United States he addressed the Fifth areas as social action and public policy, par- way, the White House may soon have its Congress of the International Humanist and ticularly law and government. own chapel. The senator has introduced Ethical Union and said he was not a dues- Dr. Thomas Boyd, a philosophy pro- Senate Joint Resolution 179 which author- paying member, but rather "a member by fessor at Oklahoma University who attended izes and requests the president to "designate inheritance." college and divinity school with Mr. Hart, a room in the White House as a place for a Having a candidate for the Oval office said ... "I think Gary had a longstanding chapel to be used by all White House per- who says he is a humanist is a cause for commitment to the preaching ministry in sonnel and by all incoming administrations." concern.... college, then at Yale Divinity toward teach- The chapel would be furnished, the resolu- If Mondale has humanist sympathies, ing, then to a more pragmatic course of tion notes, by "the voluntary contributions we think they should be made very clear to applying principles to political action. (Ken- of the citizens of the United States." the public. neth A. Briggs, in the New York Times, The White House chapel is being It's difficult to imagine that Christian March 10, 1984) pushed by the Rev. Tom Munson, a Clear- voters could, in good conscience, elect a man water, Florida evangelist who heads the with humanist leanings in the office of Reagan Addresses Evangelicals National Honor and Prayer Fellowship. President of the United States. "Now is the time to see this happen," said We know there is a small, powerful Columbus, Ohio—President Reagan ... was Munson, "because we have a president who humanist minority in the United States, but cheered Tuesday when he urged Christian is sensitive to spiritual things." Munson's we find that most people utterly reject their ministers to pray that Kremlin leaders might ministry is financially supported by the Rev. doctrines. (Paragould [Arkansas] Daily learn "the liberating nature of faith in God." Jerry Falwell and his Old-Time Gospel Press, March 15, 1984) Mr. Reagan's remarks to the National Hour. (Church & State, March 1984) Association of Evangelicals, which claims Hart's Religious Commitment 38,000 member churches, were dramatically Unconstitutionality of the Crèche different from his speech to the same group Bethany, Okla.—Bethany Nazarene College, a year ago. At that time, he called the Soviet ... Pawtucket's [Rhode Island] inclusion a small church-affiliated college at the center Union an "evil empire" that was the focus of a life-sized display depicting the Biblical of this town, was Gary Hart's intellectual of evil in the modern world." description of the birth of Christ as part of incubator and the site of his first political The president said Tuesday that while its annual Christmas celebration is uncon- tests... . the United States would never accept the stitutional. Nothing in the history of such Four years later, he graduated with a Soviet system, "we will never stop praying practices of the setting in which the city's degree in philosophy and headed for Yale that the leaders, like so many of their own crèche is presented obscures or diminishes Divinity School with a growing eagerness people, might come to know the liberating the plain fact that Pawtucket's action to expand his religious horizons... . nature of faith in God." amounts to an impermissible governmental Indeed, a person's religious profile In perhaps his most overtly religious endorsement of a particular faith... . counts for much on this 40-acre campus. It speech . . . Mr. Reagan . . . decried the The "primary effect" of including a is one of eight Nazarene colleges in the moral decay he said occurred in the United Nativity scene in the city's display is, as the nation, all of which clearly espouse the heri- States over the past decades. But he main- district court found, to place the govern- tage of the church, a mingling of evangelical tained the nation was undergoing a national ment's imprimatur of approval on the par- preaching and a "holiness" tradition that renewal that was as spiritual as it was eco- ticular religious beliefs exemplified by the stresses the adoption of Christ-like virtues. nomic, and he appeared to date the begin- crèche. Those who believe in the message of At Bethany, now as when Mr. Hart ning of that renewal from his election to the the Nativity receive the unique and exclusive was an undergraduate, students and faculty presidency. benefit of public recognition and approval commit themselves to a life of abstinence "America has begun a spiritual of their views. The effect on minority reli- from alcohol, tobacco. reawakening," he said. "Faith and hope are gious groups, as well as on those who may After finishing at Yale Divinity School being restored. Americans are turning back reject all religion, is to convey the message Mr. Hart attended Yale's law school in an to God. Church attendance is up. Audiences that their views are not similarly worthy of apparent shift in direction from the sacred for religious books and broadcasts are grow- public recognition nor entitled to public to the secular. ing. And I do believe that he has begun to support. It was precisely this sort of religious Not so, say those who watched his heal our blessed land." chauvinism that the Establishment Clause

64 FREE INQUIRY was intended forever to prohibit... . of silence presents no threat" to the Con- amendment. Contrary to the Court's suggestion, the stitution's bar against state aid to religion. The bill is opposed by the American crèche is far from a mere representation of The justices will hear arguments this Civil Liberties Union and many traditional a "particular historic religious event. " It is, fall by the state of Alabama appealing the religious groups. Representative Don instead, best understood as a mystical re- ruling by the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals Edwards, Democrat of California, said he creation of an event that lies at the heart of that struck down its law allowing a minute saw it as an attempt to legalize school prayer Christian faith. To suggest, as the Court of silence. in another form. (Steven V. Roberts, in the does, that such a symbol is merely "tradi- "We do not imply that simple medita- New York Times, April 1, 1984) tional" and therefore no different from tion or silence is barred from the public Santa's house or reindeer is not only offen- schools; we hold that the state cannot par- sive to those for whom the crèche has pro- ticipate in the advancement of religious Jehovah's Witness Wins Dispute found significance, but insulting to those activities through any guise, including A Jehovah's Witness in Kentucky has won who insist for religious or personal reasons teacher-led meditation," the federal appeals a legal battle to regain custody of his uncon- that the story of Christ is in no sense a part court said. scious wife from a hospital where doctors of "history" nor an unavoidable element of Alabama is one of 23 states that allow gave her a blood transfusion to save her our national "heritage." (From Supreme a moment of silence in the public schools. life. Court Justice William J. Brennan's dissent- (Buffalo News, April 2, 1984) Calling the procedure "spiritual rape," ing opinion on the constitutionality of muni- Harold Austin convinced District Judge cipal crèches, the New York Times, March Moral Majority's Retribution George Triplett to lift a court order giving 6, 1984) temporary guardianship of Lola Austin to Moral Majority called yesterday for retribu- the Owensboro-Daviess County Hospital. tion at the polls against senators who helped "Year of the Bible" Suit Dismissed The judge allowed Mrs. Austin, who was defeat the proposed constitutional amend- injured in an auto accident, to be transferred ment which would have permitted organized The congressional resolution and presiden- to an Evansville, Ind., hospital where three prayer in public schools ... . tial proclamation declaring 1983 the "Year doctors have agreed to treat her in accord- The Rev. Jerry Falwell, president of of the Bible" do not have the force of law ance with her religious beliefs. Jehovah's the Moral Majority, in a statement issued and cannot be challenged in federal court, a Witnesses believe the Bible forbids at his headquarters in Lynchburg, Va., said, federal district court judge has ruled. blood transfusions. (Church & State, April Chief U.S. District Judge Manuel Real "We believe that most Americans will want 1984) held that the plaintiffs in Zwerling v. Reagan to know which of their Senators supported and which opposed school prayer." had assumed "a false major premise—that TV Evangelism is, all actions of Congress are laws." Real "Like those of ancient Israel who cried out to their oppressors, 'Let my people go,' compared the Year of the Bible proclama- [A University of Pennsylvania] study found those of us who are oppressed by our poli- tion with the annual presidential Thanks- that viewers of religious programs were tical leadership today are also crying for giving proclamations, and said neither is mostly people who attended churches and them to let us go, " he said, "or we plan to "sufficiently forceful to mandate religious made contributions to religious organiza- let them go in November. "(Ari L. Goldman, conduct." tions. These viewers also tend to be older, in the New York Times, March 21, 1984) The Bible proclamation was challenged have lower incomes and less education than in court by the American Civil Liberties New Prayer Bill Surfaces people who do not watch religious pro- Union and 16 citizens representing a wide grams. range of religious beliefs. They charged that Washington—... The House Education and In addition, they are more likely to live the congressional resolution (which called Labor Committee heard testimony this week in the South or Middle West, are more likely the Bible "the Word of God") and presiden- on legislation that would permit student- to be disturbed by what they see as moral tial proclamation violated the separation of sponsored religious groups to meet in public laxity on regular television programs. (Peter church and state. (Church & State, February high schools as long as nonreligious groups Kerr, in the New York Times, April 18, 1984) were permitted to use school facilities for 1984) their meetings. Court to Decide "Silent Moment" The penalty for denying access to these Djilas Arrested facilities for religious groups would be a Washington—The Supreme Court agreed cutoff of Federal funds to the state and local Belgrade, Yugoslavia—Authorities broke up today to decide whether the Constitution school systems involved... . an alleged dissident meeting, arresting a for- allows a "moment of silence" for quiet The bill has the support of the same mer vice president and 27 others in the prayer or meditation in public school class- religious groups that lobbied for the amend- country's biggest political crackdown since rooms. ment on school prayer. President Reagan 1975, one of those arrested said Saturday. The mere fact that the justices agreed has also urged passage of the bill in a state- Former Vice President Milovan Djilas— to review the matter gave hope to school ment after the defeat of the proposed stripped of power 30 years ago and jailed prayer advocates, who have been lobbying amendment. for nine years—said his detention was in Congress to make prayer a part of the The new bill requires a majority vote intended as a "strict warning" to stop alleged school day. in each house of Congress, not the two- anti-state activities. He was released after The Reagan administration urged the thirds needed for a constitutional amend- 18 hours. [Mr. Djilas is a member of the court to take up the question, arguing that ment. It has attracted the support of a num- Academy of Humanism.] (UPI, April 21, "permitting children to maintain a moment ber of those who opposed the prayer 1984)

Summer 1984 65 MARRIAGE BUREAU—Foreign Doctors, Can the population problem be solved by Engineers, millionaires wishing to marry reducing humans to an appropriate size— CLASSIFIED Americans. 1-800-446-7660, or U.S.B.I.C., Box about three inches? These and other vital 29769, Richmond, VA 23229. subjects are discussed in CRUCIAL C0N- Rates CEPTS. Five dollars per year. Twelve monthly Prisoner, in the state of Colorado, interested issues. Box Ten, 0zone Park, N.Y. 11417. Per word (single insertion) in corresponding with any ladies or men who Sample copy one dollar. 10-word minimum 40 cents can overlook another's mistakes and accept 10% discount for placement in 3 him as he is. Those interested, please share BIBLICAL ERRANCY—Free Copy; Subscrip- consecutive issues yourself with Michael Sutka, Box 600-04546, tion $3/6-months. 23 Fay Drive, Enon, 0hio Canon City, C0 81212. 45323. 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66 FREE INQUIRY The Academy of Humanism

The Academy of Humanism was established to recognize distinguished humanists and disseminate humanistic ideals and beliefs. The members of the Academy, listed below, are nontheists who are (1) devoted to free inquiry in all fields of human endeavor, (2) committed to a scientific outlook and the use of the scientific method in acquiring knowledge, and (3) upholders of humanist ethical values and principles. The Academy's goals include furthering respect for human rights and freedom and the dignity of the individual, tolerance of various viewpoints and willingness to compromise, commitment to social justice, a universalistic perspective that transcends national, ethnic, religious, sexual, and racial barriers, and belief in a free and open, pluralistic and democratic society.

Humanist Laureates: Isaac Asimov, author; Sir Alfred J. Ayer, fellow of Wolfson College, Oxford University; Brand Blanshard, professor emeritus of philosophy, Yale University; Sir Hermann Bondi, professor of applied mathematics, King's College, University of London; Bernard Crick, professor of politics, Birkbeck College, University of London; Francis Crick, Nobel Laureate in Physiology, Salk Institute; Milovan Djilas, author, former vice-president of Yugo- slavia; Sir Raymond Firth, professor emeritus of anthropology, University of London; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, former professor of medical ethics, University of Virginia Medical School; Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Com- parative Zoology, Harvard University; Donald Johanson, Institute of Human Origins; Paul MacCready, Kremer Prize winner for aeronautical achievements; Ernest Nagel, professor emeritus of philosophy, Columbia University; Jean- Claude Pecker, professor of astrophysics, College de France, Academie des Sciences; Chaim Perelman, professor of philosophy, University of Brussels; Sir Karl Popper, professor emeritus of logic and scientific method, University of London; W. V. Quine, professor of philosophy, Harvard University; Carl Sagan, astronomer, Cornell University; Andrei Sakharov, physicist, Nobel Peace Prize winner; V. M. Tarkunde, chairman, Indian Radical Humanist Association; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, University of Rochester; G. A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck College, University of London; Edward O. Wilson, professor of sociobiology, Harvard University; Lady Barbara Wootton, Deputy Speaker, House of Lords. *Deceased: George O. Abell, George Olincy.

Secretariat: Vern Bullough, dean of natural sciences, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Antony Flew, professor of philosophy, Reading University, (England); Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, New York University; Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Buffalo, Editor of FREE INQUIRY; Gerald Larue, professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical studies, University of Southern California at Los Angeles.

Religion and Biblical Criticism Research Project

The Religion and Biblical Criticism Research Project was founded to help disseminate the results of biblical scholarship— studies in comparative religion, folklore, scientific archaeology, and literary analysis. It investigates the claim that the Bible is divinely inspired, the historical evidence for Jesus and other Bible personalities, the role of religious myth, symbol, and ritual, and the possibility of basing morality upon reason and experience instead of biblical doctrine. The Research Project's goals include compiling bibliographies of the best sources of information about the Bible, publishing articles and monographs about different facets of biblical research, and convening seminars and conferences.

Steering Committee: Gerald Larue (Chairman), emeritus professor of biblical history and archaeology, University of Southern California; Robert Alley, professor of humanities, University of Richmond; Randel Helms, professor of English, Arizona State University; R. Joseph Hoffman, associate professor of biblical studies, University of Michigan; Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Buffalo; John F. Priest, professor and chairman, Department of Religion, Florida State University; James Robinson, director, Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont College.

Associates: Michael Arnheim, professor of ancient history, St. John's College, Cambridge; Paul Beattie, president, Fellowship of Religious Humanists; Fred Berg; H. James Birx, chairman of Anthroplogy/Sociology Department, Canisius College; David B. Buehrens; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, former professor of medical ethics, University of Virginia Medical School; Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, New York University; Robert Joly, professor of philosophy, Centre Interdisciplinaire d'Etudes Philosophiques de l'Universite' de Mons (Belgium); William V. Mayer, director, Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, University of Colorado; Delos McKown, professor of philosophy, Auburn University; Carol Meyers, professor of religion, Duke University; Lee Nisbet, associate professor of philosophy, Medaille College; George Smith, president, Signature Books; Morton Smith, professor of history, Columbia University; A. T. Steegman, professor of anthropology, State University of New YOrk at Buffalo; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, University of Rochester; G. A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck College, University of London.

Summer 1984 67 Back issues of FREE INQUIRY are available! Summary of major articles: Winter I980/81 Summer 1982 Special 72-page issue Vol. I, no. I: A Secular Humanist Declaration. Also, Democratic Humanism, Vol. 2, no. 3: A Symposium on Science, the Bible, and Darwin: The Bible Humanism: Secular or Religious?, Sidney Hook. Paul Beattie. Free Thought, Re-examined, Robert S. Alley; Gerald Larue, John Priest, and Randel Gordon Stein. The Fundamentalist Right, William Ryan. The Moral Helms. Darwin, Evolution, and Creationism, Philip Appleman, William V. Majority, Sol Gordon. The Creation/ Evolution Controversy, H. James Birx. Mayer, Charles Cazeau, H. James Birx, Garrett Hardin, Sol Tax, and Moral Education, Robert Hall. Morality Without Religion, Marvin Kohl Antony Flew. Ethics and Religion, Joseph Fletcher, Richard Taylor, Kai and Joseph Fletcher. Freedom Is Frightening, Roy P Fairfield. The Road to Nielsen, and Paul Beattie. Science and Religion, Michael Novak and Joseph Freedom, Mihajlo Mihajlov. L. Blau.

Spring 1981 Fall 1982 Vol. I, no. 2: The Secular Humanist Declaration: Pro and Con, John Roche, Vol. 2, no. 4: An Interview with Sidney Hook at Eighty, Paul Kurtz. Sidney Sidney Hook, Phyllis Schlafly, Gina Allen. Roscoe Drummond. Lee Nisbet, Hook: A Personal Portrait, Nicholas Capa/di. The Religion and Biblical Patrick Buchanan, and Paul Kurtz. New England Puritans and the Moral Criticism Research Project, Gerald Larue. Biblical Criticism and Its Discon- Majority, George Marshall. The Pope on Sex, Vern Bullough. On the Way tents, R. Joseph Hoffmann. Boswell Confronts Hume: An Encounter with to Mecca, Thomas Szasz. The Blasphemy Laws, Gordon Stein. The Meaning the Great Infidel, Joy Frieman. Humanism and Politics, James R. Simpson of Life, Marvin Kohl. Does God Exist? Kai Nielsen. Prophets of the Pro- and Larry Briskman. Humanism and the Politics of Nostalgia, Paul Kurtz. crustean Collective, Antony Flew. The Madrid Conference, Stephen Abortion and Morality, Richard Taylor. Fenichell. Natural Aristocracy, Lee Nisbet. Winter 1982-83 Vol. 3, no. I: 1983—The Year of the Bible. Summer 1981 Special Feature: Academic Freedom Under Assault in California, Barry Singer, Nicholas P. Hardeman, Vol. I, no. 3: Sex Education, Peter Scales and Thomas Szasz. Moral Educa- and Vern Bullough. The Play Ethic, Robert Rimmer. An Interview with tion, Howard Raciest. Teen-age Pregnancy, Vern Bullough. The New Book- Corliss Lamont. Was Jesus a Magician? Morton Smith. Astronomy and Burners, William Ryan. The Moral Majority, Gerald Larue. Liberalism, the "Star of Bethlehem." Gerald Larue. Living with Deep Truths in a Edward Ericson. Scientific Creationism, Delos McKown. New Evidence on Divided World, Sidney Hook. Anti-Science: The Strange Case of Paul the Shroud of Turin, Joe Nickell. Agnosticism, H. J. Blackham. Science and Feyerabend, Martin Gardner. Religion, George Tomashevich. Secular Humanism in Israel, Isaac Hasson. Spring 1983 Fall 1981 Vol. 3, no. 2: The Founding Fathers and Religious Liberty, Robert S. Alles: Vol. I, no. 4: The Thunder of Doom, Edward P Morgan. Secular Humanists: Madison's Legacy Endangered, Edd Doerr. James Madison's Dream: A Threat or Menace? Art Buchwald. Financing of the Repressive Right, Secular Republic, Robert A. Rutland. The Murder of Hypatia of Alexan- Edward Roeder. Communism and American Intellectuals, Sidney Hook. A dria, Robert E. Mohar. Hannah Arendt: The Modern Seer, Richard Symposium on the Future of Religion, articles by Daniel Bell, Joseph Kostelanetz. Was a Humanist? articles by Sidney Hook, Jan Fletcher, William Sims Bainbridge, and Paul Kurtz. Resurrection Fictions, Narveson. and Paul Kurtz. Randel Helms. Summer 1983 Special 68-page issue Winter 1981/82 Vol. 3, no. 3: Religion in American Politics Symposium: Is America a Vol. 2, no. I: The Importance of Critical Discussion, Karl Popper Freedom Judeo-Christian Republic? Paul Kurtz. The First Amendment and Reli- and Civilization, Ernest Nagel. Humanism: The Conscience of Humanity, gious Liberty, articles by Sen. Lowell P. Weicker, Jr.. Sam J. Ervin, Jr., Leo Konstantin Kolenda. Secularism in Islam, Nazih N. M. Avubi. Humanism Pfeffer. Secular Roots of the American Political System, Henry Steele Corn- in the 1980s, Paul Beattie. The Effect of Education on Religious Faith, mager, Daniel J. Boorstin, Robert Rutland. Richard B. Morris, Michael Burnham P. Beckwith. Novak. The Bible in Politics, Gerald Larue, Robert S. Alles; James M. Robinson. Also, Bibliography for Biblical Study. Spring 1982 Fall 1983 Vol. 2, no. 2: A Call for the Critical Examination of the Bible and Religion. Vol. 3, no. 4: Announcing the Academy of Humanism. The Future of Also: Interview with Isaac Asimov on Science and the Bible, Paul Kurtz. Humanism, Paul Kurtz; Humanist Self-Portraits, Brand Blanshard, Barbara The Continuing Monkey War, L. Sprague de Camp. The Erosion of Evolu- Wootton, Joseph Fletcher, Sir Raymond Firth, Jean-Claude Pecker. An tion, Antony Flew. The Religion of Secular Humanism: A Judicial Myth, Interview with Paul MacCready. A Personal Humanist Manifesto, Vern Leo Pfeffer. Humanism as an American Heritage, Nicholas F. Gier. The Bullough. The Enduring Humanist Legacy of Greece, Marvin Perry. The Nativity Legends, Randel Helms. Norman Podhoretz's Neo-Puritanism, Lee Age of Unreason: A Defense of the Rational Enterprise, Thomas Vernon. Nisbet. Apocalypse Soon, Daniel Cohen. 0n the Sesquicentennial of Robert G. Ingersoll, Frank Smith. The Historicity of Jesus, John Priest, D. R. Oppen- FREE INQUIRY heimer. G. A. Wells. Box 5, Central Park Station, Buffalo, NY 14215 Winter 1983 84 Please send me the following back issues: Vol. 4, no. I: Interview with B. F. Skinner. Was George 0rwell a Humanist? Antony Flew. Population Control vs. Freedom in China, Vern and Bonnie Vol. I, no. I , no. 2 , no. 3 no 4 Bullough. Academic Freedom at Liberty Baptist College, LI•nn Ridenhour. Special Feature on the Mormon Church: Joseph Smith and the Book of Vol. 2, no. I , no. 2 , no. 3 ($5.00) no 4 Mormon, George D. Smith, and The History of Mormonism and Church Vol. 3, no. 1 _, no. 2 , no. 3 ($5.00) no 4 Authorities: An Interview with Sterling M. McMurrin. Anti-Science: The Vol. 4, no. 1 no 2 Irrationalist Vogue of the 1970s, Lewis Feuer. The End of the Galilean Cease-Fire? James Hansen. Who Really Killed Goliath? Gerald A. Larue. 1 enclose $3.50 plus $1.00 for postage and handling for each copy. Humanism in Norway: Strategies for Growth, Levi Fragell. Spring 1984 Amount enclosed $ (U.S. funds on U.S. bank) Vol. 4, no. 2: Save 0ur Children from Faith Healers: Christian Science Practitioners and Legal Protection for Children, Rita Swan. and Child Abuse and Neglect in Ultra-fundamentalist Cults and Sects, Lowell Streiker. Name (print clearly) The Foundations of Religious Liberty and Democracy: A Symposium, Carl Henry, Paul Kurtz, Father Ernest Fortin, Lee Nisbet. Joseph Fletcher, Richard Taylor. Biblical Views of Sex: Blessing or Handicap? Jeffrey J. W. Address Baker. Moral Absolutes and Foreign Policy, Nicholas Capaldi. The Vatican Ambassador, Edd Doerr. A Naturalistic Basis for Morality, John Kekes. Humanist Self-Portraits, Matthew les Specter, Floyd Matson, Richard City State Zip Kostelanetz.