2009 STATE OF OU R RESOURCES
Recognising the state of natural resources of the Eyre Peninsula
Page 2 STATE OF OUR RESOURCES FINAL 1.5.09.DOC 2102731A PARSONS BRINKERHOFF Natural Resources Management Act 2004
Natural Resources Management Plan for the
Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Region
STATE OF THE REGION REPORT EYRE PENINSULA
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RESOURCES FINAL 1.5.09.DOC EYRE PENINSULA NRM BOARD
The Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Plan
The natural resources management plan for Eyre Peninsula comprises four volumes.
Managing our Resources A strategic plan for the management of the natural resources of Eyre Peninsula guiding the actions of all organisations and individuals to optimise natural resources management outcomes of the region and achieve the shared regional vision.
Managing our Resources will be reviewed every five years.
Caring for our Resources A framework to encourage changes in attitudes and behaviours towards better care of the natural resources of Eyre Peninsula and to value, protect and improve the condition of these resources. The approach favours education, awareness raising, voluntary compliance and incentives to raise the standard of natural resources management supported by a range of legislative tools within the Natural Resources Management Act 2004 which are defined in Caring for our Resources .
Caring for our Resources will be reviewed every five years.
Investing in our Resources Investment and business plan for the Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Board, a key body for the management of the natural resources of the region. The Investing in our Resources volume outlines how the Board will invest in the management of the natural resources of the region over the next three years.
Investing in our Resources will be reviewed annually.
State of our Resources Summarises the state of natural resources of the region and identifies threats to these resources to appropriately guide action for improved management of these resources.
State of our Resources will be reviewed every five years.
Additionally a framework for natural resources management monitoring, evaluation, reporting and improvement in the region, although not part of the Plan, will be closely linked to the plan and support its implementation.
State of our Resources Final 1.5.09.doc STATE OF OUR RESOURCES – STATE OF NATURAL RESOURCES OF EYRE PENINSULA
Contents
Page number Glossary vii Acronyms xi Managing our Resources 2 Caring for our Resources 2 Investing in our Resources 2
1. Introduction 8
1.1 Natural resources 8 1.2 Purpose of the Plan 9 1.3 State of ourResources 9 1.4 Natural Resources Management Act 2004 10 1.5 The State of our Resources report 10 1.6 The Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Region 12 1.7 Influences on the condition of the resource 12 1.4 Bibliography 17
2. Summary and significance of natural resources of the region 19
3. People and heritage 21
3.1 Demographics 21 3.2 Aboriginal heritage 28 3.3 European heritage 34 3.4 Tourism 42 3.5 Awareness, involvement and community capacity 45 3.6 Key threats and influences on the condition of the resource 47 3.7 Key management initiatives 49 3.8 People and Heritage indicators 50 3.9 Information gaps 51 3.10 Bibliography 52
4. Biodiversity 54
4.1 Native flora 55 EYRE PENINSULA NRM BOARD
4.2 Native fauna 71 4.3 Key conservation areas and reserves 79 4.4 Key threats and influences on the conditions of the resource 80 4.5 Key management initiatives 90 4.6 Biodiversity indicators 97 4.7 Information gaps 98 4.8 Bibliography 99
5. Land 103
5.1 Geological features and landscapes 103 5.2 Soils 110 5.3 Land use 122 5.4 Key management initiatives 131 5.5 Land indicators 138 5.6 Information gaps 139 5.7 Bibliography 140
6. Water 142
6.1 Climatic influence on water resources 143 6.2 Surface water 144 6.3 Groundwater 147 6.4 Aquatic habitats 169 6.5 Water resource development 172 6.6 Key threats and influences on the condition of the resources 174 6.7 Key management initiatives 180 6.8 Water indicators 180 6.9 Information gaps 181 6.10 Bibliography 182
7. Coasts and marine 185
7.1 Overview of the region 185 7.2 Coastal and marine flora and fauna 189 7.3 Conservation areas and reserves i 7.4 Coastal and marine biodiversity and habitats v 7.5 Commercial fisheries and aquaculture ix
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7.6 South Australian marine park program xiv 7.7 Coasts and community xiv 7.8 Key threats and influences on the condition of the resources xv 7.9 Key management initiatives xxi 7.10 Coast and Marine indicators xxiii 7.11 Information gaps xxv 7.12 Bibliography xxvi
8. General references xxviii
Abbreviations xxx
Glossary 32
List of tables
Page number
TABLE 1.1 Projected average temperature and rainfall changes for Eyre Peninsula 14
TABLE 3.1 Population by Local Government area 2006 & 1998 22
TABLE 3.2 Main industries within individual council areas by percentage of population employed over 15 years of age 24
TABLE 3.3 Age distribution for individual council areas as a percentage of the total population 25
TABLE 3.4 Social and economic indicators, out of council areas 27
TABLE 3.5 Aboriginal place names and meanings 30
TABLE 3.6 State and National Estate heritage places 36
TABLE 3.7 Community groups with an interest in natural resources management of Eyre Peninsula 46
TABLE 3.8 People and heritage indicators 50
TABLE 4.1 Vegetation communities on Eyre Peninsula 60
TABLE 4.2 Woodland vegetation communities of conservation significance occurring on Eyre Peninsula 62
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TABLE 4.3 Mallee vegetation communities of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula Region 64
TABLE 4.4 Sedgeland vegetation communities of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula Region 65
TABLE 4.5 Plant species of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region 67
TABLE 4.6 Mammal species of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region 71
TABLE 4.7 Resident and migratory bird species of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region 73
TABLE 4.8 Reptiles of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region 77
TABLE 4.9 Amphibians of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region 78
TABLE 4.10 Native freshwater fish of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region 78
Table 4.11 Endangered or vulnerable butterflies occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region 79
TABLE 4.12 Key conservation areas on Eyre Peninsula 80
TABLE 4.13 Priority pest plants and animals of the region 84
TABLE 4.14 Potential impacts of climate change on biodiversity 87
TABLE 4.15 Biodiversity Indicators 97
TABLE 5.1 Sites designated as geological monuments on Eyre Peninsula 109
TABLE 5.2 Estimated area and percentage of cleared land with soils susceptible to wind erosion in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region 116
TABLE 5.3 Estimated area and percentage of cleared land with soils susceptible to water erosion in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region 116
TABLE 5.4 Estimated area and percentage of cleared land exhibiting soil acidity in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region 117
TABLE 5.5 Estimated area and percentage of cleared land affected by salinity in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region 121
TABLE 5.6 Changes in grain production on Eyre Peninsula, 1982 to 2007 133
TABLE 5.7 Land indicators 139
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TABLE 6.1 April to September rainfall (mm) – Prescribed Wells Areas 143
TABLE 6.2 Annual rainfall extremes, Eyre Peninsula locations 144
TABLE 6.3 Musgrave Basin aquifer summary 157
TABLE 6.4 Recharge rates for the lenses of the Quaternary limestone aquifers within the Musgrave Prescribed Wells Areas (ML/annum) 158
TABLE 6.5 Assessment of capacity and demands for Musgrave Prescribed Wells Area 161
TABLE 6.62 Water resource indicators 181
TABLE 7.1 Biounit details for the Eyre Peninsula Region 186
TABLE 7.2 Threatened coastal and marine vertebrates 204
Table 7.3 Key coastal parks and reserves i
Table 7.4 Major coastal geological monuments within the Eyre Peninsula region ii
Table 7.5 Estuaries in region v
TABLE 7.6 Coast and Marine Indicators xxiv
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List of figures Follows page number
Figure 1.1 Eyre Peninsula NRM region boundary 4
Figure 3.1 Location council areas population trends 212
Figure 3.2 Eyre Peninsula tourism 30
Figure 3.3. Eyre Peninsula Market Summary 2006 32
Figure 4.1 IBRA subregions 44
Figure 4.2 Pre European vegetation type 44
Figure 4.3 Post European vegetation 44
Figure 4.4 Vegetation structure 44
Figure 4.5 National parks 62
Figure 4.6 Heritage agreements 70
Figure 4.7 Roadside vegetation 72
Figure 5.1 Geology and geological monuments 80
Figure 5.2 Rainfall and topography 80
Figure 5.3 Soil groups 82
Figure 5.4 Wind erosion potential 84
Figure 5.5 Areas susceptible to water erosion 86
Figure 5.6 Soil acidity 86
Figure 5.7 Inherent soil fertility 88
Figure 5.8 Dry saline land 88
Figure 5.9 Land use zones 88
Figure 5.10 Average annual period of protection of susceptible land from water erosion (Water Erosion Protection Index) in the Eyre Peninsula region and South Australia for the period 2000–2007 (from May 2008) on page 90
Figure 5.11 Average annual period of protection of susceptible land from wind erosion (Wind Erosion Protection Index) in the Eyre Peninsula
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region and South Australia for the period 2000–2007 (From May 2008) on page 92
Figure 6.1 Surface water 108
Figure 6.2 Stream salinity 108
Figure 6.3 Eyre Peninsula groundwater 112
Figure 6.4 Diagrammatic representation of a porition of Southern Basins PWA underground water system 15212
Figure 6.5 Groundwater basins and Obswell monitoring network 114
Figure 6.6 Groundwater salinity 114
Figure 7.1 Marine planning areas and marine biounits 140
Figure 7.2 Marine and Coastal habitats 140
Figure 7.3 Australian Sealion and New Zealand Fur Seals colonies 150
Figure 7.4 Seabirds breeding sites 150
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1. Introduction
The Natural Resources Management Plan for Eyre Peninsula is a plan for all organisations and individuals who take part in the management of the natural resources of the region. Aspects of the Plan will be relevant to community members, industry, local, state and Australian governments, and other stakeholders.
The Plan sets a long term vision for the natural resources of the region and a framework of goals, strategies and targets that will drive the realisation of this vision.
The four volumes of the Plan are linked but each has a distinct role.
Managing our Resources A strategic plan for management of the natural resources of Eyre Peninsula
Caring for our Resources A framework to encourage changes in attitudes and behaviours towards better care of the natural resources of Eyre Peninsula.
Investing in our Resources An investment and business plan for the Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Board.
State of our Resources A summary of the state of the natural resources of Eyre Peninsula.
1.1 Natural resources
The natural resources of the region that are managed under the Plan include soil, water, native plants and animals, geological features and ecosystems.
Activities affecting other resources that may be traditionally classed as natural resources, such as minerals, air quality and energy are not managed directly under this Plan; their controls and management are prescribed elsewhere. The use of the these resources with the natural resources of the region is considered in this Plan, particularly the impacts of changing climatic conditions and a developing mining sector in the region.
Development of the Plan recognised that the use of the region’s natural resources and the viability of the communities depending on the use of those resources are critical to continuing sustainable natural resources management. The management and use of the resources is integral to the management framework presented alongside the long term environmental preservation and enhancement of the region’s land, water, plants and animals.
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1.2 Purpose of the Plan
The Plan establishes a framework to guide the actions and investment of the community, industries, local, South Australian and Australian governments, and other stakeholders for the next decade to ensure that the natural resources of the Eyre Peninsula are managed within the principles of ecologically sustainable development.
Natural resources management is a shared responsibility; its benefits are enjoyed equally by primary producers, industry and the residents of Eyre Peninsula along with visitors to the region. If we the Eyre Peninsula community are to continue to be a major agricultural and seafood producer and exporter, maintain the health of our environment, and conserve our native species and ecological communities, we must ensure that natural resources management sustained and effective.
Specifically, the purpose of the Plan is to:
review the state of the region’s natural resources
identify the processes that threaten them
examine the opportunities for more effective management of those resources
establish a natural resources management framework for the region.
1.3 State of ourResources
The State of the Resources (this volume) provides a comprehensive summary of the natural resources of the Region(based on the best available science), their current state and condition, threats and influences on the condition of the resources faced by natural resources, and the current strategies inplace for managing these resources. It also provides the information gaps, pressure, state and response environmental indicators of change. It provides both qualitative and quantitative baseline information to guide action and investment in natural resource management towards the greatest threat to the natural environment. The State of the Region Report will be reviewed every five years.
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1.4 Natural Resources Management Act 2004
The Natural Resources Management Act 2004 (the NRM Act) has guided the development of the Natural Resources Management Plan for Eyre Peninsula, specifically by:
defining the region and the natural resources to be considered
describing the procedure that must be followed in developing the Plan and issues that the Plan must address
prescribing processes for regulating impacts on the natural resources of the region including soil and land, pest plants and animals, and water resources
giving the Plan a context in the natural resources management framework for South Australia.
The role of the Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Board is defined in the NRM Act. The Board operates in partnership with other agencies that operate under a range of different legislation related to natural resources management.
1.5 The State of our Resources report
This State of our Resources report presents the background for the Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Plan. Its content is, in part, prescribed by the NRM Act. It is also based on practical state of the environment reporting methodology which brings together information on environmental conditions, trends and pressures, generally based around a number of themes.
This report presents a ‘snapshot’ of the region’s resources, and outlines the pressures or threats that face the region and the management initiatives, priorities and actions that are (or have been) undertaken to address these issues.
1.5.1 Resource themes
The five key resource themes of this State of our Resources report are:
People and Heritage
Biodiversity
Land
Water
Coasts and Marine.
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Key evaluation criteria A number of evaluation criteria, common to all themes, help determine and prioritise issues:
key management initiatives
key threats and influences on the condition of the resource
environmental indicators
information gaps.
Each of these criteria is summarised for every theme; the last two are further explained below.
1.5.2 Environmental indicators
Environmental indicators are used to track changes in the environment. They can be physical, chemical, biological or socio economic measures that provide information about a whole system. Indicators generally fall into the categories of:
state or condition indicators – of the condition of the environment
pressure indicators – of positive or negative effects of human activities on a particular component of the environment
response indicators – of management responses that have or are being undertaken to address the pressures upon the environment.
The state, pressure and/or response indicators in this report are based on key issues within each theme. They will be further developed and used by the Board as tools for measuring progress towards the sustainable use of the region’s resources.
1.5.3 Information gaps
Although this State of our Resources report aims to be a comprehensive summary of current information about the Eyre Peninsula Region, resource and information constraints may have not allowed detailed consideration of all issues. Thus information gaps are discussed throughout the report and the bibliography and the text in general contains suggestions for further information.
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1.6 The Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Region
The Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Region (Figure 1.1) covers a significant area of the State including the western Spencer Gulf and the City of Whyalla. The region stretches across the southern boundaries of the Gawler Ranges, west of Ceduna to the edge of the Nullarbor Plain and south to Port Lincoln. The surrounding coastal and marine environments are included as are offshore islands.
The region covers an area of over 80,000 square kilometres (km 2) (including marine areas) and supports a population of about 55,000 people. Significant areas of native vegetation cover remain (approximately 2,187,560 hectares (ha), or 45% of the pre European extent, of which 44% is protected) and contain important mallee habitat, several woodland communities, a high number of endemic fauna and flora species, and a number of rare, threatened or endangered flora and fauna.
The region features unique fresh and saline wetlands, and a long and relatively undeveloped coastline. The adjacent coastal and marine environments are included in the region along with 254 offshore islands in total ranging from as small as 179 square meters to as large as 40,000 square meters.
Only one significant surface water catchment (the Tod River) has been used for water storage and supply. Thus groundwater plays a vital role in the region. The major groundwater basins are within the Southern Basins Prescribed Wells Area and the Musgrave Prescribed Wells Area. Other localised groundwater lenses provide limited quantity and varying quality of water throughout the peninsula.
The economic industries of Eyre Peninsula are based on agriculture (traditionally grain and wool), seafood (fishing and aquaculture), tourism and mineral resources. The region’s future economic wellbeing is reliant on a well managed and For more sustainable suite of natural resources. information on Climate Change management in Australia contact the Australian Greenhouse Office 1.7 Influences on the condition of the www.climatechange. gov.au or in South Australia resource www.climatechange. sa.gov.au 1.7.1 Climate change
Long term management of the natural resources of Eyre Peninsula cannot assume that future climate characteristics will be as they were in the past or even the present. The region will need to mitigate the effects of a changing climate on its natural resources while adapting to this changing climate.
The relationship between increased temperatures and increased greenhouse gas concentrations is now widely discussed around the world. It is predicted that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations are likely to reach more than double pre industrial levels this century and some level of climate change in all parts if the world is considered inevitable. Around the world, the impact of climate change on
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Mediterranean climate systems similar to South Australia’s is predicted to be more severe than on most other climate types (Bardsley 2006).
Climate change is already a reality in South Australia with trends showing lower annual rainfall since 1900. Over this period much of the northern half of South
Australia became wetter while southern coastal regions became drier. These tendencies were strengthened during the last 55 years (Suppiah et al. 2006).
Climatic observations on Eyre Peninsula since 2000 has not been consistent with the modelled predictions based on historical climate behaviour in the region. In particular during this period, the climate of Eyre Peninsula has displayed a warming trend that is divergent from natural variability and rainfall data in the region has been reduced compared with simulations. Observations on Kangaroo Island have been similar, indicating that southern regions of South Australia may see the emergence of a greenhouse signal in rainfall earlier than inland northern regions of the state (Suppiah et al. 2006).
Table 1.1 presents projected average temperature and rainfall changes for Eyre Peninsula at 2030 and 2070 if atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are not stabilised at any defined limit. Suppiah et al. (2006) made alternative projections of conditions for levels stabilised at 450 parts per million (ppm) and 550 ppm (not included here).
TABLE 1.1 Projected average temperature and rainfall changes for Eyre Peninsula
Climatic range Annual Summer Autumn Winter Spring Warming by 2030 (°C) 0.4 to 1.2 0.4 to 1.3 0.4 to 1.1 0.4 to 1.2 0.4 to 1.3 Warming by 2070 (°C) 0.9 to 3.5 0.8 to 4.0 0.8 to 3.5 0.8 to 3.6 0.9 to 3.8 Rainfall changes in 10 to 1 9 to +4 10 to +3 12 to 2 20 to 2 percentage by 2030 (%) Rainfall changes in 30 to 2 25 to +13 30 to +8 35 to 4 60 to 4 percentage by 2070 (%) Source: Suppiah et al. (2006)
The effects of climate change could include shorter or more unreliable growing periods for native plant and animal species as well as natural resource industries such as agriculture, fisheries and aquaculture. There are early signs that climate change is likely to make existing threats to biodiversity and agriculture worse (WWF 2008).
While direct impacts of climate change on populations of native species, such as rising temperature, extreme weather events and declining rainfall, are more easily understood, indirect impacts will also place pressure on these populations. These indirect impacts include the exacerbation of existing threats such as fires, pest species and pressures from human migration into current intact ecosystems. In semi arid areas such as much of the Eyre Peninsula these threats may include more frequent and hotter wild fires; further reduction in connectivity between already fragmented habitats; and expansion of pest species. As humans respond
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to changes in climate, agricultural expansion could mean old threats to species in new places (WWF 2008).
Anticipated consequences of climate change on the coast and marine environments include sea level rise, rising sea temperatures (causing thermal expansion of the upper layers of the oceans), increased seawater acidification due to the elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, altered ocean currents, changes in upwelling events and impacts to fisheries productivity.
In response to uncertainty in future sea levels, the Coast Protection Board has recommended that a sea level rise of 0.3 m by the year 2050 be adopted for most coastal planning and design. This represents a continuation of the present rate rise (and is not additional to it). Climate change will continue beyond 2050 but projections to 2100 are less certain. Notwithstanding this uncertainty, the Coast Protection Board has recommended that a further rise of 0.7 m (i.e. 1.0 °m total) be factored in for designs to the year 2100.
Anticipated consequences of sea level rise include increased episodes of inundation from coastal flooding, coastal erosion, sedimentation, and habitat change and damage as well as resource loss.
Seawater temperatures on the continental shelf and Australian Bight increased marginally (i.e. by 0.39 °C and 0.43 °C respectively) between 1950 and 2000. It is predicted that further temperature increases on the continental shelf could be 0.2– 1.2 °C by 2030 and 0.6–3.6 °C by 2070. In the deeper waters further south, smaller temperature increases are predicted (i.e. 0.1–1.2 °C to 2030 and 0.3–3.6 °C by 2070) (McInnes et al . 2003 in Government of South Australia 2007).
A priority for natural resources management in South Australia and on Eyre Peninsula will be to ensure communities adapt to and mitigate climate change impacts. Climate change, and the understanding of it, is evolving rapidly in the wider community, and on the scientific, technological and policy front. It is critical that policies and decisions are made on the basis of the best current information, and in the knowledge that they will need to be adjusted with time.
1.7.2 Development
Industrial and residential development is a key natural resources management issue. The population of Eyre Peninsula has grown in recent years, particularly along the coast as a result of the ‘sea change’ phenomenon. Increasing development in Eyre Peninsula will require careful management to ensure that the integrity of the natural resources of the region are not compromised, that the services these resources provide and economies relying on these resources are protected.
Key areas of continuing development on Eyre Peninsula areas are anticipated to be:
Urban development, which is increasing in regional areas across Australia as the nation’s increasingly affluent and ageing population relocates temporarily or permanently away from cities to coasts (sea change) and to rural areas (tree change) to retire or to enjoy a slower pace of life. 15
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Rural areas will be restructured as agricultural enterprises are challenged coupled with an increase in mining development. Population migrations as communities adapt to these changes will lead to the redevelopment of existing townships and the construction of new townships.
Mining infrastructure developed as extractive industries expand will include development of mine sites, the creation of transport corridors, ore processing facilities and associated shipping/handling infrastructure.
Holiday accommodation will increase to a serve a growing tourism market in the region.
The first level of development management is directed by a location’s development plan. Links between natural resources management authorities, local communities and these development plans are critical for the consideration of regional natural resources during the development assessment process.
The assessment and determination of development proposals is the responsibility of the relevant planning authority. The determination of the relevant planning authority is directed by the Development Act 1993 , typically a local council, development assessment panel or the Development Assessment Commission (DAC) (notably in out of council areas on Eyre Peninsula). In some instances the DAC will also assess and report on the suitability of a development proposal on behalf of the Minister and/or Governor for their ultimate determination. This process typically occurs for Crown developments and public infrastructure proposals or for developments declared to be major developments or projects. Mining proposals have a separate development control process under the Mining Act 1971 .
1.7.3 Industry
The economy of Eyre Peninsula makes a significant contribution to the economy of South Australia, producing 33% of South Australia's grain harvest and 65% of South Australia's seafood harvest with only 2.3% of the State’s population (ERDB 2008).
The economy of the region is natural resources based. The three most economically important industries to the region are agriculture, mining, mineral processing, fishing and aquaculture and tourism, which collectively generate in excess of two and half a billion dollars each year for the economy of the region. The region’s future economic wellbeing is reliant on a well managed and sustainable suite of natural resources. Continuing good management of the use of these resources – minimising the impacts on the resources and optimising the value to the region from their use while preserving the unique natural environment of the region – is a balance that the region must pursue.
Agriculture, fishing, aquaculture, mining, mineral processing and tourism are the major economic enterprise across much of the Eye Peninsula. Most of the agricultural enterprises are land intensive, rather than capital intensive. The traditional crops are wheat, barley, wool and livestock, recently alternatives such as goats, deer, and horticulture have been introduced. Revenue from agriculture will vary in relation to commodity prices and yield. In a good year the total value of the agricultural industry can swell to over $400 million. 16
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The recent drought, ongoing climate uncertainty and economic pressures are placing pressure on the region’s agricultural industry and rural communities, their townships, community services and infrastructure.
The largest income from fishing in the region is from Southern Bluefin Tuna but the seafood industry, through fishing and aquaculture, harvests a wide range of fish species including Pacific Oysters, finfish, abalone, Southern Rock Lobster and mussels. (ERDB undated).
Eyre Peninsula is South Australia's most visited country tourist region attracting over 350,000 visitors every year. Tourism injects over $140 million annually in to the local economy, or around 4% of total regional turnover. Eyre Peninsula tourism is based on the peninsula’s natural beauty and reputation for a clean environment. Future tourism developments are anticipated to include eco tourism and adventure holidays (SATC 2006).
Mining and mineral processing sector is a valuable contributor to the economy of the city of Whyalla. Mining on Eyre Peninsula currently experiencing a period of growth and optimism, has not yet become a major industry. Commodities mined on Eyre Peninsula include iron ore, dolomite, lime sand, gypsum, silica, granite, nephrite jade, talc and salt. Historically, graphite, copper, lead, silver and gold were also mined. Land and infrastructure developments that would accompany increased mining activity will impact the natural resources of the region. These may be permanent or temporary and would be expected to include development of mine sites, the creation of transport corridors, ore processing facilities and associated shipping/handling infrastructure.
1.4 Bibliography
Bardsley, D. 2006. There’s a Change on the Way – An initial integrated assessment of projected climate change impacts and adaptation options for Natural Resource Management in the Adelaide Mt Lofty Ranges Region . Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity, Adelaide.
ERDB. 2008. Eyre Regional Development Board website tcsh.inetd.com.au/~erdb/index.html Accessed 28 March 2008
ERDB. undated. Eyre Peninsula – Regional Profile . Eyre Peninsula Development Board.
Suppiah, R, Preston, B, Whetton, P, McInnes, K, Jones, R, Macadam, I, Bathols, J and Kirono, D. 2006. Climate change under enhanced greenhouse conditions in South Australia . An updated report on: Assessment of climate change, impacts and risk management strategies relevant to South Australia. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, report for the South Australian Government.
SATC. undated. Eyre Peninsula History, South Australian Government. www.southaustralia.com/EyrePeninsulaHistoryHeritage.aspx
WWF. 2008. Australian Species and Climate Change . World Wildlife Fund.
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2. Summary and significance of natural resources of the region
Eyre Peninsula has a characteristic Mediterranean climate with warm to dry summers and cool, wet winters. The southern areas experience a milder, moister climate influenced by the proximity to the coast. Inland to the north and northwest the climate is warmer and drier. Mean annual rainfall ranges across the region range from 250 mm in the north and northwest to more than 500 mm in the south.
Geographically the region has a triangular shape and covers over 80,000 km 2 including the marine environment. It is bounded in the north by the Gawler Ranges, the east by Spencer Gulf, the south by the Southern Ocean and the west by the Great Australian Bight. The geographical relief of the region is gentle and low, and is mostly less than 150 m above sea level. The largest hills are located in the north with the lower projection of the Gawler Ranges forming a number of spread peaks below 500 m. The Koppio Hills, covering an area of about 100 km 2, are the most significant topographical feature in the southern part of the region.
The region is inhabited by approximately 55,000 people in both urban and rural communities. Over half of the region’s population lives in the two cities of Whyalla and Port Lincoln. Other major centres in the region are Ceduna, Streaky Bay, Elliston, Cummins, Lock, Wudinna, Kimba, Cleve, Cowell and Tumby Bay. Section 3 of the report outlines the region’s demographics.
The region includes 11 local government areas, plus an additional ‘out of council’ area that extends westward along the coast to approximately 130 km west of Penong.
The economy of the region is based on substantial agricultural, mining, mineral processing, tourism, aquaculture and fishing industries. The value of these industries, including value adding components, associated industry and marketing, is estimated by the Eyre Regional Development Board to be in excess of $ 2.5 billion per year.
For more The agricultural area of Eyre Peninsula has one of the highest levels of remaining information about natural vegetation cover in South Australia, with 45% of original vegetation still the minerals found on Eyre Peninsula intact. Clearance of vegetation to allow agriculture and pasture development see the SA Resources ranges from 14% cleared in the far west to 72% cleared in the south. About 15% of Information the region, used mainly for grazing, is covered with scattered vegetation. Section 4 Geoserver (SARIG): info.pir.sa.gov.au/ge of this report outlines the region’s biodiversity in greater detail. oserver/sarig/frame Set.jsp For the most part the soils of Eyre Peninsula are typically low fertility, low water holding capacity and deficient in plant nutrients. Despite their relative infertility, the soils of Eyre Peninsula, combined with improvements in farm management and practices, provide significant economic returns through dryland cereal cropping and grazing, producing 33% of South Australia's grain harvest. Section 5 of the report presents detail of the region’s Land resources EYRE PENINSULA NRM BOARD
The minerals of Eyre Peninsula that are currently mined include iron ore, dolomite, graphite, lime sand, gypsum, silica, granite, nephrite jade, talc and salt. Historically, copper, lead, silver and gold have also been mined. The mining sector in the region is experiencing growth and optimism, and has the potential to become a significant contributor to the region’s economy.
Water resources are characterised by isolated local systems, with groundwater providing the bulk of the region’s potable supply. The two major groundwater basins of the region lie within the Southern Basins Prescribed Wells Area and Musgrave Prescribed Wells Area. Many other localised lenses throughout the region produce varying quality and quantity of yield. Tod river is the only annual flowing system on Eyre Peninsula. There are 10 water protection areas within the catchment. Section 6 of this report outlines the water resources of the region in greater detail.
The 1800 km coastline supports a number of major centres and plays an important role in tourism, and the fishing and aquaculture industry. 65% of South Australia's seafood harvest is taken from the water’s of Eyre Peninsula. Section 7 further details the coastal and marine environment.
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3. People and heritage Relevant legislation Aboriginal Heritage Act 1988 (SA)
Aboriginal Lands Trust Act 1966 (SA)
Native Title (South 3.1 Demographics Australia) Act 1994 (SA) Eyre Peninsula’s relatively stable population of approximately 55,000 people is Native Title Act 1993 spread along the coastline and throughout inland areas. The region represented (Cwlth) about 2.2% of the South Australian population in 2002. In recent years the region’s Native Title population has grown, particularly along the coast. Amendment Act 1998 and Native Title Amendment Act 2007 Over half of the region’s population live in the two cities of Whyalla and Port (Cwlth) Lincoln, with populations of approximately 22,544 and 14,000 respectively. Whyalla is a service centre for the northern and eastern parts of Eyre Peninsula and is Heritage Places Act 1993 (SA) industrial in nature supporting the mining sector and heavy manufacturing has been part of the town for decades. Port Lincoln is a service centre for the southern Development Act 1993 – State region's industry and commerce and supports a growing aquaculture and commercial fishing industry. The town of Ceduna is the largest settlement in the Historic Shipwrecks west of the region. Act 1976 – Federal
Historic Shipwrecks Outside of these areas, most people are located in regional centres. There has Act 1981 – State been a decline in population in some areas in recent years following a reduced employment levels in the agriculture in these areas. In the coastal settlements of Port Lincoln, Streaky Bay, Franklin Harbour and Ceduna populations have increased. This population increase is associated with the development of aquaculture and tourism, and the arrival of people making a significant change in lifestyle by moving to the seaside (sea change) or country (tree change) (ERDB 2006; DIT 2002).
The region has 11 local government authorities: the City of Port Lincoln, City of Whyalla and the District Councils of Ceduna, Cleve, Elliston, Franklin Harbour, Kimba, Wudinna, Lower Eyre Peninsula, Streaky Bay and Tumby Bay. In addition, there are a number of out of council areas in the region.
The 2001 census indicated 1836 people, are of Aboriginal descent. This represents a 2.9% increase since the 1996 census. In total 5.5% of the total population on Eyre Peninsula are of Aboriginal descent, compared with the Aboriginal population of South Australia, which represent 1.6% of the State’s population. Approximately 45% of Eyre Peninsula’s Aboriginal population live in the district council of Ceduna (ERDB, undated).
3.1.1 Council characteristics
Area and population statistics for the Local Government areas of Eyre Peninsula are shown in Table 3.1 and their locations in Figure 3.1. EYRE PENINSULA NRM BOARD
TABLE 3.1 Population by Local Government area 2006 & 1998
Current population Council area Total area (ha) Population in 1998 (2006 census) Port Lincoln 3,800 13,603 13,152 Ceduna 543,120 3,572 3,545 Cleve 480,343 1,896 1,904 Elliston 669,300 1,132 1,207 Franklin Harbour 328,300 1,277 1,234 Kimba 350,000 1,116 1,254 Le Hunte (now 539,380 1,314 1,540 Wudinna) Lower Eyre 477,100 4,402 4,123 Peninsula Streaky Bay 623,200 2,024 1,962 Tumby Bay 261,590 2,541 2,625 Whyalla 4,150 21,416 23,700 Source: ABS 2006
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3.1.2 Socio economic data
Employment
The primary production sector is the largest employer of people over the age of 15 years in the region followed by school education (Table 3.2). Health services are a key employer in the council areas of Cleve, Franklin Harbour and Kimba, and aquaculture is a significant employer in Port Lincoln, Ceduna, Cleve, Franklin Harbour and the Lower Eyre Peninsula. Whyalla is the only council area where mineral processing is a significant employer.
TABLE 3.2 Main industries within individual council areas by percentage of population employed over 15 years of age
Port Lincoln Ceduna Cleve Elliston Franklin Harbour Kimba Le Hunte (now Wudinna) Lower Eyre Peninsula Streaky Bay Tumby Bay Whyalla
Farming 10.4 36.4 42 21.7 42.3 38.2 21.4 27.8 35 5.8 School education 5 8 4.2 7.1 5.6 3.6 4.9 4.9 6 6.4 4.7 Hospitals 4.2 7.3 5.2 2.6 5.9 Health services 3.7 5.1 4.3 Residential 2.9 2.1 building Accommodation 4.8 3.5 3.1 Road freight 4.1 2.4 2.9 transport Retail 3.1 3.6 2.6 3.3 Local government 5 2.3 3.5 Food service 2.8 Aquaculture 5.1 4.7 2.7 7.3 4.3 Seafood 4.1 processing Fishing 2.9 Scientific 2.3 research Mining 4.8 Metal 17.7 manufacturing Source: ABS 2006
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Age distribution
Age distributions are similar across all Local Government areas (Table 3.3). Elliston has slightly higher proportion of people aged 25–54 years; Kimba and Tumby Bay have nearly twice as many people aged 65 years and over compared with as Ceduna and Elliston.
TABLE 3.3 Age distribution for individual council areas as a percentage of the total population
Council area 0–4 years 5–14years 15–24 years 25–54 years 55–64 years 65 years overand
Port Lincoln 6.8 14.8 13.2 40.1 10.6 14.4 Ceduna 7.9 16.3 12.2 41.1 11.6 10.9 Cleve 7.2 14.0 10.5 39.3 12.8 16.2 Elliston 6.4 16.4 9.5 44.4 11.0 11.9 Franklin Harbour 6.2 13.7 7.9 37.6 18.0 16.5 Kimba 5.6 13.2 10.8 38.8 11.3 20.0 Le Hunte (now 6.7 15 10.4 41.9 11.3 14.7 Wudinna) Lower Eyre Peninsula 6.0 16.3 9.8 41.4 13.8 12.8 Streaky Bay 6.8 15.2 8.6 42.9 12.5 14 Tumby Bay 5.1 11.8 9.4 36.4 15.7 21.6 Whyalla 6.8 14.9 12.9 40.5 11.2 13.7
Income levels
Median individual and household incomes on Eyre Peninsula are lower than the South Australian average. Additionally, heavy reliance on agriculture makes income levels dependent on variations in commodity prices and seasonal climatic factors. The councils of Lower Eyre Peninsula and Port Lincoln have the highest median income levels in the region. The below average incomes in the Whyalla region are influenced by the higher than average proportion of income support recipients in this area (Government of SA 2008a).
Unemployment levels
Unemployment levels in all Local Government areas are below the South Australian level of 5.2%, with the exception of Port Lincoln and Whyalla. Whyalla has a notably higher unemployment rate of 8.9%. (Government of SA 2008a).
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Income support and low income families
The Eyre Peninsula region as a whole has a lower proportion of income support recipients than the State average for disability support pension, new start allowance and parenting payment single benefits. In contrast, Whyalla has a higher proportion of income support recipients than the State average (Government of SA 2008a).
5723 families living in the City of Whyalla (or 31.1%) are considered to have low income. In comparison, 23.8% of families in the State are considered to have low income. For the rest of the Eyre Peninsula region, a high proportion of households are considered to have low to middle range incomes (Government of SA 2008b).
Housing tenure
The outright home ownership rate is higher than the State average and the proportion of homes with mortgages is considerably lower than the State average, the rate of home ownership is high across Eyre Peninsula other than Whyalla. It is assumed that the high ownership rate across the region is related to the level of farm ownership which is often stable in the region. Housing SA maintains a small share of the rental market in the region, particularly in the towns of Port Lincoln and Ceduna (Government of SA 2008b).
In contrast to the rest of the region, Whyalla’s levels of outright home ownership and homes with mortgages are well below the State average. The Whyalla area has much higher levels of rental housing and Housing SA has a higher share of the region’s rental market. Almost a quarter of the population rents from Housing SA (Government of SA 2008a).
Occupations
The Eyre Peninsula region as a whole has a higher concentration of people employed as managers and administrators (primarily farmers and farm managers), production workers and labourers than the rest of South Australia. This is indicative of the concentration of employment in agriculture, fishing and aquaculture in the region. Whyalla has a higher concentration of people employed in trades, production and labouring, consistent with the predominant manufacturing industries in the council area (Government of SA 2008a).
Education levels
In the Eyre Peninsula region the general level of school achievement and post school qualifications is below the State average, but the level of people with Certificate III or IV qualifications is above the State average (Government of SA 2008b). These levels are consistent with the predominant industries and employment of the region.
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3.1.3 Out of council areas
A number of areas in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region lie outside of council areas:
Coorabie – a small farming and grazing settlement 160 km west of Ceduna and For more information about adjoining the Yalata Aboriginal lands Eyre Peninsula statistics visit Fowlers Bay – 145 km west of Ceduna; one of only two remote, unincorporated www.abs.gov.au districts in South Australia with coastal frontage; has an aquaculture industry
Bookabie – a very small farming and grazing community 110 km west of Ceduna
Penong township – 75 km west of Ceduna; a mixed farming and cropping area with a district population of about 170 including 75 in the township itself; one of only two remote, unincorporated districts in South Australia with coastal frontage; frontage includes Point Sinclair and Cactus Beach
According to 2006 census data, a total of 696 persons reside in the out of council areas of the Eyre Peninsula region:
472 people in the unincorporated West Coast (Coorabie, Fowlers Bay, Bookabie and Penong)
212 people in the unincorporated area of Whyalla
12 people in the unincorporated area of Port Lincoln.
Social and economic indicators for the out of council areas in the region (Table 3.4) demonstrate their relatively socio economic disadvantage.
TABLE 3.4 Social and economic indicators, out of council areas
West Coast Whyalla Port Lincoln Resident population 472 212 12 Population change (2001– 22.2% 9% 29.4% 2006) Aboriginal status 35.8% 0.0% 0.0% Total employed 221 49 3 Unemployment rate 5.5% 6.7% 0.0% Median household income $708 $416 n.a. ($ weekly) (av. $36,816 p.a.) (av. $21,632 p.a.) Source: Government of SA 2008b
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3.1.4 Population dynamics
During the development of the region major settlements were established and maintained adjacent to ports and other related infrastructure in the region. Today, outside of the major population centres at Port Lincoln and Whyalla, the small population is more widely distributed. The population of the Eyre Statistical Division (which excludes Whyalla, and is slightly different from the NRM Board boundaries) was estimated in 2001 to reach between 35,000 and 38,000 in 2021, reflecting growth of between 1200 and 4100 people (Planning SA 2007).
The recent decline in employment in agriculture, and an associated reduction of the population of inland areas, has been balanced to some degree by increases in aquaculture, tourism and the arrival in the region of people seeking ‘sea change’ and ‘tree change’. This dynamic is reflected in figures for 1998 and 2006 (Table 3.1) which identify small population declines in the District Councils of Cleve, Elliston, Kimba, Wudinna and Tumby Bay, and small population increases in Ceduna, Franklin Harbour, Streaky Bay and Lower Eyre Peninsula. The City of Port Lincoln population had a small increase of approximately 500 people between 1998 and 2006, and the City of Whyalla had a decrease of around 2000 people during the same period, mostly before 2001.
3.2 Aboriginal heritage
For more 3.2.1 Aboriginal cultural values information about Aboriginal sites and objects on the Eyre Aboriginal cultural heritage exists throughout the lands and waters of Australia as Peninsula contact the Aboriginal well as all aspects of the Australian landscape. Aboriginal people have an Affairs and integrated relationship with the natural environment and often a strong relationship Reconciliation Division, of mutual obligation with various elements of the environment, such as certain Department of the Premier and Cabinet plants, animals and water. or visit www.prem cab.sa.gov/dpc/dep Aboriginal people have been living in Australia for at least 60,000 years and at the artment_aard.html time of first European contact there were 50 culturally distinct Aboriginal groups in South Australia. Eyre Peninsula has been home to Aboriginal people for thousands of years, with the Nauo (southwestern Eyre), Barngarla (eastern Eyre) and Wirangu (northwestern Eyre) being the predominant original cultural groups present at the time of the arrival of Europeans (Tindale 1974 in DEH 2004a; SATC 1999).
During initial European contact the population of Aboriginal people on the peninsula is estimated to have been no more than about 2000 individuals (Berndt 1985 in Welz 2002). The number of people in each language group varied, as did the size of the territory they occupied. In the northern parts of the State, tribal areas tended to be large and boundaries were not always well defined. Along the coast where water and food resources were more easily accessible, smaller tribal areas had loosely defined boundaries. All Aboriginal groups on Eyre Peninsula are known to have used a wide variety of native plant and animal (including fish) species for food and other resources.
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The Lake Newland area is traditionally associated with the Nauo Barngarla and Wirangu peoples with visits by the desert Kokatha peoples. The Barngarla/Nauo people are the traditional owners of the land of Lincoln National Park (DEH 2004b). The Gawler Ranges to the north of Eyre Peninsula are thought to have been part of the boundary of Barngarla and Kokatha territories (DEH 2006a). This area is thought to be rich in cultural sites.
An archaeological survey along the Anxious Bay coast from Elliston to Fowlers Bay yielded important information about the use of coastal areas and Lake Newland during day to day life, through a number of camp sites and midden finds (Nicholson 1991 in DEH 2003). The area around Lincoln National Park has a rich Aboriginal cultural heritage with a number of sites of Aboriginal significance having been described, including fish traps in Porter and Proper Bays (DEH 2004b). The most comprehensive archaeological study undertaken to date on lower Eyre Peninsula and surrounding areas was a fish trap study by Sarah Martin in 1988 (Welz 2002). A number of surveys and research recorded 87 fish traps, as well as a number of campsites and soakages (Welz 2002). In 1999, Eddie Munro was commissioned by the (then) Australian Heritage Commission to conduct an archaeological and anthropological survey of lower Eyre Peninsula. Munro reviewed data collected from past studies to establish a database of over 145 sites, including burials, stone arrangements, middens and fish traps.
Other archaeological/anthropological studies on Eyre Peninsula were predominantly commissioned by companies or agencies in response to proposed developments. No comprehensive, wide ranging or exhaustive study has been undertaken for Eyre Peninsula to date.
Many sites of cultural significance are recorded under the State Heritage Register but there are many unrecorded sites of major significance to Aboriginal people.
Aboriginal place names
South Australia’s place names are often a reflection of the State’s history with their meaning and derivation indicating the significance of that area. Many early place names in Australia, in particular, reflect a desire to re create those towns and countries left behind by early settlers. On Eyre Peninsula the proliferation of Aboriginal place names reflects the significance of Aboriginal values in the region from earliest European settlement. Table 3.5 outlines some examples of place names that have Aboriginal meanings (research limitations meant that these meanings could not be assigned to particular Aboriginal cultural groups) (Praite and Tolley 1970; Reed 1967):
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TABLE 3.5 Aboriginal place names and meanings
Place name Aboriginal meaning Ceduna A waterhole in the region, ‘a resting place’ Coulta A nearby spring or ‘a waterhole in the area’ Karkoo ‘Sheoak’ Kielpa ‘Short distance’ Kimba ‘Fire’, or a bush on fire Koongawa ‘Good’ Kyancutta A hill in the vicinity Mudamuckla ‘Sea fish’ or ‘water supply’ Sheringa ‘Place of yams’ Waddikee A name for a rocky soakage nearby Wangary A place used for corroborees Wharminda Name given to a spring in a nearby hill range Whyalla ‘Deep water place’ Wirrulla ‘Fast, rapid’ Wudinna ‘A hill with granite rocks’ Yaninee ‘To go, walk or travel’ Yeelanna Name for a spring in the district
3.2.2 Aboriginal heritage
Aboriginal heritage is protected at both State and Commonwealth level.
The Aboriginal Heritage Act 1988 protects all aspects of Aboriginal cultural heritage in South Australia. Under this Act, no Aboriginal site, place or object can be destroyed without written permission from the Minister for Aboriginal Affairs (section 23) and any ‘discovery’ of an Aboriginal site, object or remains must be reported to the Minister (section 20). The department also maintains a Register of Sites. All sites are protected, whether or not they are listed in the register.
Protection is also provided to areas, sites and objects, which are of significance to Aboriginal people Aboriginal heritage under the Commonwealth Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984. Some sites and objects are provided additional protection at a national level with listing on the Register of the National Estate. The Aboriginal Affairs and Reconciliation Division (AARD), administers a Central Archive, which includes the Register of Aboriginal Sites and Objects across Australia. The register is not a comprehensive record of all Aboriginal sites and objects and many sites and objects may exist in the NRM Region that are not identified on the register (AARD pers. comm. 2008).
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The majority of registered and reported sites in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region occur along the coast, with clusters around the coastlines near Coffin Bay and Avoid Bay, Port Lincoln and Louth Bay, Cowell, Whyalla, the coastline west of Sheringa, Anxious Bay, Sceale Bay, Corvisart Bay and Streaky Bay, Smoky Bay, Ceduna, the coastline between Denial Bay and Point Bell, and Fowlers Bay. Inland sites include Lake Malata, Wanilla, Yalata Aboriginal Reserve and near Kimba. An absence of registered or reported sites does not indicate an absence of sites or objects; it may simply indicate that an area has not been surveyed for Aboriginal cultural heritage sites.
3.2.3 Native title
Native title describes the rights and interests of Aboriginal people (recognised under Australian law) according to their traditional laws and customs. Aboriginal people can apply to the courts to have their native title rights recognised under Australian law and native title holders have the right to be compensated if governments acquire their land or waters for future developments.
Native title is managed through the Commonwealth Native Title Act 1993 and the Native Title Amendment Act 1998. In South Australia, native title is also managed through the Native Title (South Australia) Act 1994, which was enacted to parallel the Commonwealth Act before the 1998 amendments were made.
On Eyre Peninsula, the following native title applications have been accepted for registration (NNTT 2007), (see Map – Native title claimant)
Barngarla Native Title Claim (SAD6011/98)
Wirangu No. 2 Native Title Claim (SAD6019/98)
Nauo Barngarla Native Title Claim (SAD6021/98)
Far West Coast Native Title Claim (SAD6008/98).
The following claims areas are also just within the Eyre Peninsula NRM Board boundary:
Nukunu Native Title Claim to the northeast of the Board’s area (SAD6012/98)
Gawler Ranges Native Title Claim to the north of the Board’s area (SAD6020/98)
Southern Arunda–Yunkunjatjara Nguraritja Native Title Claim to the north of the Board’s area (SAD130/07).
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3.2.4 Indigenous land use agreements
An indigenous land use agreement (ILUA) is a voluntary agreement between a native title group and others about the use and management of land and waters (NNTT 2007). They can be made separately from the native title process but can also be part of a native title determination. ILUA’s may address the following topics:
native title holders agreeing to a future development
how native title rights coexist with the rights of other people
access to an area
extinguishment of native title
compensation.
As of December 2007, 16 ILUA’s had been registered in South Australia. Land use agreement includes Ceduna Keys Marina ILUA at the far west of the region and Iluka Pty Ltd ILUA to the north west of our northern boundary including one borders the northern boundary (Gawler Ranges Mineral Exploration ILUA).
The Ceduna Keys Marina Indigenous ILUA was registered with the National Native Title Tribunal on the Register of Indigenous Land Use Agreements on 11 December 2006. Its purpose is to promote an effective relationship between the traditional owners, the State of South Australia, Ceduna Marina Development Company Pty Ltd and the District Council of Ceduna in order to allow the development of the Ceduna Keys Marina waterways project (ATNS 2008).
The Gawler Ranges Mineral Exploration ILUA was registered with the National Native Title Tribunal on the Register of Indigenous Land Use Agreements on 30 June 2006. It has been established in relation to proposals for mining and sets out the consent of the various parties for carrying out exploration activities.
3.2.5 Aboriginal communities
There is a broad distribution on Aboriginal residents across the Eyre Peninsula NRM region. Townships of Whyalla, Port Lincoln and Ceduna is resident to major aboriginal populations. Around 770 aboriginal persons living in Whyalla which represents around 3.6% of the overall population followed by around 700 aboriginal population living In Port Lincoln as per the Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 census. This accounts for 5.1% of the overall population of Port Lincoln. In the districts of Ceduna aboriginal population is estimated at 730 persons which represents 21% of the overall population. The township of Koonibba is one of the major township located 30 km the northwest of Ceduna with a population of approximately 130 people.
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In the 1990’s there was a strong movement back to the land with the formation of the Homelands Movement. There are currently a number of such communities with Scotdesco located at Bookabie and Glen Boree located at Fowlers Bay. In the vicinity of Ceduna there are a number of homelands, namely Dinahline, Munda Munda Watujinna, Warevilla and Koongawa Dundee. On Murat Bay the homelands of Yarilena and Betts Corner are located. South of Ceduna in the Smoky Bay area is the homelands of Munda Wanna Mar, Tia Tuckia and Bullinda.
Around the Port Lincoln area the homelands of Kuranya and Ikkata both located at Big Swamp and Akenta is located at Poonindie.
The Aboriginal Lands Trust is also significant landholders in the region with holdings at Poonindie, Wanilla and Streaky Bay.
3.3 European heritage
3.3.1 History
In 1627 the dutchman Peter Nuyts was the first European to sight Eyre Peninsula, but the substantial European interaction with the region didn’t begin until 1802 when Matthew Flinders spent three months mapping the coastline, followed soon after by the Frenchmen Nicholas Baudin and Louis Freycinet.
Sealers and whalers visited the region in the early 1800s, but this industry did not last long, collapsing within a few decades because of depleted stocks. The first permanent European settlement was at Port Lincoln in 1839. Edward John Eyre was the first person to extensively map Eyre Peninsula in the 1840s. By the 1870s much of the region was being grazed.
In 1836 Governor Hindmarsh, the first Governor of South Australia instructed Colonel William Light to survey for the capital of the new province at Port Lincoln, but Colonel Light rejected the site in favour of Adelaide (Port Lincoln Council 2008).
Many places that are now of heritage significance are related to early industries on Eyre Peninsula including the settlements of sealers and whalers and other maritime heritage places, such as lighthouses and coastal jetties, which are often associated with the industrial growth such as mining and agriculture. As these industries developed so did better shipping facilities for wheat, wool, ore and other products. Shipwreck sites reflect these early industries and portray early maritime engineering and general life in the 19th and 20th centuries. Many other sites on the peninsula also display aspects of early industries, for example mills, mines and agricultural buildings.
Other sites of heritage significance located around the peninsula include monuments, cemeteries, dwellings, churches, hotels, railways infrastructure, farm buildings, school buildings, and buildings and infrastructure associated with businesses such as blacksmiths, postal companies and bakeries.
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Heritage is protected at several levels, only some of which apply on Eyre Peninsula:
World Heritage Places
National Heritage Places
Commonwealth Heritage Places
Register of the National Estate
State Heritage Places and State Heritage Areas
Local Heritage Places and Local Heritage Areas.
Commonwealth heritage
National and Commonwealth heritage is protected by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. There are currently no places or areas on Eyre Peninsula on either the National or Commonwealth Heritage Lists. The Register of the National Estate is managed by the Australian Heritage Council, enacted under the Australian Heritage Council Act 2003 . The Register of the National Estate contains over 1200 'historic' places and over 500 'natural' and 'Indigenous' places in South Australia but technically, only Commonwealth owned or managed places in this register are protected. A significant number of places on this register are located on Eyre Peninsula (Table 3.6).
State heritage
To search for items on the South State heritage is protected under the Heritage Places Act 1993 and the Australian Heritage Register or the Development Act 1993 . The South Australian Heritage Register contains a list of Register of the places that are of heritage significance to the State. It includes places and objects National Estate use the Australian that meet criteria outlined in section 16 of the Heritage Places Act 1993 . Eyre Heritage Places Inventory at www. Peninsula places on the South Australian Heritage Register are listed in Table 3.6. Heritage.gov.au/ ahpi/index.html The heritage of Eyre Peninsula and Far West Coast Survey was surveyed in 1985 (and published in 1987) by Danvers Architects for the (then) Department of Environment and Planning. This survey identified a number of heritage places that For more were subsequently given protection. Heritage SA intends to completely review all information about heritage on Eyre Peninsula within the next few of years, in partnership with all Eyre shipwrecks visit www.deh.gov.au/ Peninsula councils (Angas pers.comm. 2008). heritage/maritime and www.atlas. sa.gov.au (select the Eyre Peninsula Local heritage region, then ‘Land Management’, ‘Coastal Heritage items and places of local significance are protected under the Management’, and Development Act 1993. Local heritage places that have been protected under the then finally select the ‘Shipwrecks’ Development Act 1993 are generally listed in council development plans. A layer) development plan can designate a place as having local heritage value if it satisfies criteria outlined in section 23 of the Development Act 1993 .
Maritime heritage
Maritime heritage is managed by the South Australian Department for Environment and Heritage DEH under the three Acts of relevant legislation: the Heritage Places 35
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Act 1993 the Historic Shipwrecks Act 1981 (SA) and the Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976 (Cwlth). The Maritime Heritage Program within Heritage SA (DEH) includes land and underwater sites associated with the State’s maritime heritage, predominantly shipwrecks, sealing and whaling stations, jetties and lighthouses. A significant amount of research and documentation on whaling and sealing heritage sites along Eyre Peninsula coast and offshore islands is kept by DEH, which is currently conducting a West Coast maritime survey.
All South Australian shipwrecks can be searched through the Atlas SA website.
State and National Estate maritime heritage places on Eyre Peninsula are outlined in Table 3.6.
TABLE 3.6 State and National Estate heritage places
Place/item Location Register SA SA Heritage Register of the National Estate
1 Acacia pinguifolia site Ungarra
2 Acraman Creek Conservation Park Flagstaff Landing via Smoky Bay 3 Arborville Scrub Rudall
4 ‘Arrandale’ (dwelling, cottage and Port Lincoln stables) 5 Avoid Bay Islands Conservation Park Avoid Bay via Coffin Bay
6 Axel Stenross Maritime Museum Port Lincoln
7 Baird Bay Islands Conservation Park Calca
8 Bascombe Well Conservation Park Murdinga
9 Boston House Port Lincoln
10 Calpatanna Waterhole Conservation Culca Park 11 Cape Carnot Port Lincoln
12 Cape Donington Area Port Lincoln
13 Cape Donington Lighthouse remains Cape Donnington via Port Lincoln 14 Carappee Hill Conservation Park Darke Peak
15 Caratoola Recreation Reserve Haslam
16 Cast iron lead light Elliston
17 City of Adelaide hulk Port Lincoln
18 Cleve Post Office Cleve
19 Coffin Bay and surrounds Coffin Bay
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Place/item Location Register SA SA Heritage Register of the National Estate
20 Cooeyana Well Historic Reserve Streaky Bay
21 Coompana Water Conservation Cleve Reserve (in part) 22 Cowell Post Office (former) Cowell
23 Cunyarie Rocks (Emu Rocks) water near Cunyarie supply structure 24 Darke Range Darke Peak
25 Drummond Point Mount Hope via Coulta
26 Dwelling (‘Boston House’) Port Lincoln
27 Dwelling – Gay Street Cottage Whyalla Norrie (relocated to the Mount Laura Homestead Museum Reserve in 1978 28 Dwelling (‘Ravendale House’) Port Lincoln
29 Dwelling (‘Yeldulknie Cottage’) near Cleve
30 Eba Island Conservation Park Streaky Bay
31 Elliston CWA (Country Women’s Elliston Association) rest rooms 32 Elliston jetty Elliston
33 Eyre’s Waterhole (former Cooeyana near Streaky Bay Well) 34 Flinders Monument Stamford Hill via Port Lincoln 35 Flinders Monument, Stamford Hill, Port Lincoln Lincoln National Park 36 Former bakehouse complex and well, Poonindie former Poonindie Mission 37 Former Coffin Bay whaling site Coffin Bay (designated place of archaeological significance) Coffin Bay National Park 38 Former CW Schuermann’s Mission site Port Lincoln (Lutheran) 39 Former Fishery Bay whaling station near Sleaford Bay
40 Former Lake Hamilton eating house Lake Hamilton
41 Former McKenzie’s Landing, within Denial Bay Murat Bay 42 Former Poonindie Mission cemetery Poonindie
43 Former schoolhouse, former Poonindie Poonindie Mission
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Place/item Location Register SA SA Heritage Register of the National Estate
44 Former superintendent’s residence, Poonindie former Poonindie Mission 45 Former Windmill Base (sometime Port Lincoln Pioneer Mill Museum) 46 Former wooden lock up for Whyalla Whyalla Norrie policeman’s dwelling (relocated to the Mount Laura Homestead Museum Reserve in 1978) 47 Franklin Harbour Conservation Park Cowell
48 Gaol wooden lockup Whyalla
49 Green Patch Green Patch via Port Lincoln 50 Greenly Island Conservation Park Point Whidbey via Coffin Bay 51 Hambidge Conservation Park Lock
52 Hawson’s grave Port Lincoln
53 Hincks Conservation Park Wharminda
54 HMAS Whyalla Whyalla
55 JC Darke Memorial and grave near Darke Peak
56 Indigenous place Coffin Bay
57 Indigenous place Coffin Bay
58 Indigenous place Cowell
59 Indigenous place Cowell
60 Indigenous place Horse Peninsula via Coffin Bay 61 Indigenous place Horse Peninsula via Coffin Bay 62 Indigenous place Horse Peninsula via Coffin Bay 63 Indigenous place Jussier Peninsula via Port Lincoln 64 Indigenous place Tulka West via Port Lincoln
65 Isles of St Francis Conservation Park Ceduna
66 Kellidie Bay Conservation Park Coffin Bay
67 Kirkala station site, including the Streaky Bay homestead, school (sometime shearers’ dining room), stables, blacksmith’s shop and cottage
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Place/item Location Register SA SA Heritage Register of the National Estate
68 Kirkala Station, outstation, including Streaky Bay two roomed cottage, external bakehouse and underground tank 69 Koonibba area Koonibba via Ceduna
70 Lake Hamilton eating house Lake Hamilton Head Station via Elliston 71 Laura Bay Conservation Park Laura Bay via Ceduna
72 Lincoln National Park Jessieu Peninsula via Port Lincoln 73 Lincoln National Park additions Jessieu Peninsula via Port Lincoln 74 Lipson Island Conservation Park Warratta Vale via Lipson
75 Lowly Point Lighthouse Point Lowly via Whyalla
76 Lowly Point Lightstation complex Point Lowly via Whyalla
77 Marble Range area Coulta
78 Maryvale (including homestead, school, Streaky Bay shearing shed and quarters) 79 Memory Cove area Lincoln National Park via Port Lincoln 80 Middlecamp Hills Conservation Park Cowell
81 Mill Cottage Port Lincoln
82 Moody Tank Railway Reserve Moody via Ungarra
83 Mount Dutton Bay Conservation Park Coffin Bay
84 Mount Dutton Bay jetty and woolshed Mount Dutton Bay East via Wangary 85 Mount Joy homestead and shearing Cowell shed 86 Mount Wudinna and environs (Mount Wudinna Wudinna, Little Wudinna, Polda Rock and Turtle Rock) (designated place of geological significance) 87 Mount Wudinna and environs Wudinna
88 Munyaroo Conservation Park Whyalla (as at 1979) 89 Murphys Haystacks Calca
90 Murphy’s Haystacks Geological Site Mortana
91 Nothomyrmecia macrops primitive ant Poochera habitat
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Place/item Location Register SA SA Heritage Register of the National Estate
92 Nuyts Archipelago Conservation Park Ceduna
93 Oaklands shearing shed Elliston
94 Olive Island Conservation Park Cape Bauer via Streaky Bay 95 Our Redeemer Lutheran Church of the Koonibba former Koonibba Lutheran Mission 96 Pigface Island Conservation Park Streaky Bay
97 Pildappa Rock (designated place of Minnipa geological significance) 98 Pinkawillinie Conservation Park Kimba
99 Point Collinson whaling station site Smoky Bay
100 Point Labatt Aquatic Reserve Streaky Bay
101 Point Labatt Conservation Park Calca
102 Point Lowly Lighthouse complex Point Lowly (including lighthouse, reserve land of 2.14 hectares, power house, two keepers’ cottages, oil store and signal flag mast 103 Police station and lock up (former) Cowell
104 Poonindie Mission Poonindie via North Shields 105 Port Lincoln Conservation Area Port Lincoln
106 Port Lincoln courthouse Port Lincoln
107 Port Lincoln police station and Port Lincoln courthouse 108 Port Lincoln railway station Port Lincoln
109 Poverty Bay Historic Reserve Cowell
110 Ptilotus beckerianus site Wanilla
111 Pultenaea trichophylla site Knott Hill via Edillilie
112 Ravendale house and outbuilding Port Lincoln
113 Residence (former police station) Elliston
114 Rocky Island (north) Conservation Park Convention Beach via Coulta 115 Rocky Island (south) Conservation Park Point Avoid via Coffin Bay
116 Round Lake washing pool Sheringa
117 Rudall Conservation park Rudall
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Place/item Location Register SA SA Heritage Register of the National Estate
118 Schuermann Mission site Port Lincoln
119 Shed tanks Cowell
120 Sheoak Hill Conservation Park Cowell
121 Sims Farm homestead Cleve
122 Sir Joseph Banks Group Conservation Tumby Park 123 Sleaford Mere Conservation Park Tulka via Port Lincoln
124 St Matthews Anglican Mission church Poonindie via Port Lincoln
125 St Matthias Anglican church Wangary
126 St Thomas Anglican church Port Lincoln
127 Stables, shed and yards Kimba
128 Steam traction engine Cowell
129 Tod River Road bridge (disused) Poonindie
130 Tourville Bay Natural Site Davenport Creek via Ceduna 131 Tumby Bay Hotel Tumby Bay
132 Tumby Island Conservation Park Tumby
133 Ucontitchie Hill (designated place of Wudinna geological significance) 134 Upper Spencer Gulf Whyalla
135 Venus Bay Conservation Park Venus Bay
136 Wanilla Conservation Park Wanilla
137 Water Tank, Moody Rocks, Moody Ungarra Tank Conservation Park 138 Whidbey Isles Conservation Park Point Avoid via Coffin Bay
139 Whyalla–Iron Knob–Iron Baron area Whyalla
140 Whyalla Conservation Park Whyalla
141 Whyalla High School (former Whyalla Whyalla Technical High School) 142 Wittelbee Conservation Park Ceduna
143 World War Two Gun Emplacements, Whyalla Hummock Hill 144 Yarwondutta Rock Minnipa
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Place/item Location Register SA SA Heritage Register of the National Estate
145 Yarwondutta Rock and quarry Minnipa (designated a place of geological significance) 146 Yarwondutta Rock tank Minnipa
147 Yeldulknie Weir near Cleve
148 Yellabinna Region Ceduna
3.4 Tourism
Tourism is one of the key industry and economic driver on Eyre Peninsula. The key tourism themes of the region are centred on the natural assets of the area and include unspoilt nature, ecotourism and unique wildlife (Planning SA 2003). Other tourism themes include coastal recreation, seafood and dining, adventure 4 wheel driving and Aboriginal culture (ERDB 2006) (Figure 3.2).
The industry supports around 2000 jobs with the expenditure by overnight domestic visitors on Eyre Peninsula estimated at $102 million in 1998 (Planning SA 2003; DIT 2002).
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a) Origin of visitors
b) Purpose of visit
FIGURE 3.3 Eyre Peninsula Tourism Market Summary 2006
Eyre Peninsula is the fourth most visited region in South Australia, attracting more visitors than any other country tourist region. Visitor numbers exceeded 300,000 in 2006. In 2006–07, Coffin Bay National Park attracted 61,800 visitors and Lincoln National Park 57,700 visitors (SATC 2008)
Most visitors were residents of South Australian rural communities (42%) and Adelaide (35%) (ERDB 2006). As high as 9% of visits were for business, which is higher than other South Australian tourism regions (ERDB 2006) (Figure 3.3).
A number of national parks and reserves contribute to nature based tourism in the area and highlight the diversity of the region’s natural assets. Gawler Ranges National Park is well known for its rare, threatened and unique wildlife; Coffin Bay National Park attracts tourists for its seabirds and sea lions. The Great Australian Bight Marine Park, known internationally as an area for whale watching, has significant Southern Right Whale breeding grounds close to shore (SATC 2007). Eyre Peninsula produces more than 65% of South Australia’s seafood and Port Lincoln, Ceduna and Whyalla host seafood based tourism activities.
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Key seafood alinged tourism events in the region include Port Lincoln’s Tunarama Festival, Whyalla’s Fishy Fringe and Ceduna’s Oysterfest and the annual amateur fishing tournament for snapper held in Whyalla, is one of the largest fishing tournaments in the State (DEH 2007).
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3.5 Awareness, involvement and community capacity
The sustainable management of the region’s natural resources is vital to the ongoing social, economic and environmental wellbeing of the region and its community. The social and economic stability of Eyre Peninsula largely depends on its economically sustainable industries. Those industries have an effect on the natural resources of the region and are affected by the way in which those resources are managed.
Limited resources and vast distances are two of the biggest challenges to raising awareness, involving the community and increasing their NRM capacity on Eyre Peninsula. Many partners contribute to natural resources planning and management, and the various communities and organisations have a diversity of interests and expectations.
3.5.1 EPNRM Board
The EPNRM Board is the key body for leading and directing the sustainable natural resources management in the region. Other key NRM organisations include local government, landholders, schools and community groups. These organisations and individuals form key links to the broader community. Specific Board programs aim to engage and support schools and community groups, landholders and Aboriginal communities. Community capacity is built as part of these programs through workshops, technical advice and field days.
In 2006, the Board undertook an assessment of the Eyre Peninsula community’s capacity to undertake natural resources management projects and developed a list of recommended capacity building activities required for the Board to deliver its programs (Rural Solutions 2007). The overall conclusion of the study was that people in general are not engaged, nor fully aware of what natural resources management means and what the organisations active in NRM do. Those already involved do not have a good understanding of how the natural resources management system works (Rural Solutions 2007). The key recommended capacity building activities were: developing additional community engagement and communication strategies; tapping into existing networks and champions; supporting groups with funding applications; and improving access to natural resources management information. A further recommendation was the provision of more networking opportunities for groups to share information.
In an effort to improve awareness, the Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Board launched the ‘100 Footprints Program’ in 2007 as a way of informing Eyre Peninsula residents about how their contributions were being used to sustain Eyre Peninsula’s natural resources. More information about this initiative can be found in Section 3.7.
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3.5.2 Community groups
The role of community groups is a core part of the social structure and service delivery across Eyre Peninsula. Community groups play a major role in delivering natural resources management initiatives in the Eyre Peninsula region and are also primarily responsible for the recreation, sport and open space programs which benefit the community (Phillip Gray and Associates 2002). The involvement of these groups and the establishment of meaningful partnerships between these groups and with agencies can help overcome the limited resources and vast distances of the region.
Table 3.7 outlines the key community groups with an interest in natural resources management in the region.
TABLE 3.7 Community groups with an interest in natural resources management of Eyre Peninsula
Community groups Aboriginal groups Progress associations Agricultural bureaus Projects Australian Plant Society Resident associations Bird societies Revegetation groups Catchment groups Schools Coastcare Service clubs Community clubs Shack owners associations Community councils Sporting clubs Community development groups Streamcare Country women’s groups Steering committees Dunecare Tourism associations Diving groups Town committees Environmental committees Weed management groups Estuary groups Youth groups Farmer groups Non government organisations Fishing groups Greening Australia Friends of Parks Wilderness Society Landcare Birds Australia Management groups Reefwatch Native Title claimants Conservation Council of South Australia Pastoralists groups Conservation Volunteers Australia
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3.6 Key threats and influences on the condition of the resource
3.6.1 Key threats
Natural resources management is all about people. So many of the threats to natural resources relate to how effectively different sectors of the community are engaged in sustainable resources management. The challenges of limited resources and vast distances on Eyre Peninsula are exacerbated by the great diversity of interests and expectations in the communities and organisations involved in NRM in the region.
Volunteers, the backbone of natural resources management efforts, often burn out or become disillusioned. Valuing and celebrating their achievements is critical. Some issues and difficulties for community engagement and volunteers in the region are:
motivating and sustaining interest in NRM activities within the community
risk of over consulting or inappropriate consultation techniques leading to disillusionment
time and cost of undertaking NRM activities for agricultural and small business
identifying volunteer programs that provide ‘value for time’ and on ground benefit
linking with funding opportunities
accessibility to and provision of technical advice
capitalising on new NRM arrangements to attract volunteers
recognising and supporting volunteers
recognising and realising the volunteer contributions in NRM.
Financial pressures facing many rural communities following several years of drought, may shift some NRM initiatives to a lower priority.
3.6.2 Influences on the condition of the resource
Climate change
Climate change is a major threat facing rural and coastal areas throughout Australia. Southern South Australia is likely to become warmer, with an increase in the number of hot days and a decrease in the number of colder nights. Water resources are also likely to be further strained, with a decline in annual rainfall and higher evaporation rates leading to less runoff to streams and estuaries. Droughts are also expected to be more frequent and severe (Commonwealth Government 2006).
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The impacts of climate change could be significant on Eyre Peninsula, particularly where potential sea level rises could affect coastal residential and tourism developments. In addition, the predicted drier weather patterns and increased wind and storm damage would impact on cropping land and arable land, and therefore farming practices in the region. Land capability and sustainable land management will have implications on lifestyle and the number of people living and working on the land, and thus on rural communities and settlement patterns within the region.
Development
Industrial and residential development is a key management issue. The Board needs to work with the private sector as well as with state and local government to ensure development is appropriately managed and does not adversely impact on the sustainability of natural resources.
The Eyre Peninsula NRM Region’s population has grown over the past few years, particularly along the coast through the ‘seachange’ phenomenon. Demand for residential development on the coast is increasing and a number of significant marina and residential developments are currently underway or being planned in the region. Significant land divisions total 1000 blocks in Port Lincoln, Boston Point, Ceduna, Elliston, Streaky Bay, Tumby Bay, Arno Bay and Coffin Bay. It is assumed that this development will continue as the demand for retirement, lifestyle choice, and holiday and recreational investment continues to grow.
These developments pose a number of environmental threats, such as loss of flora and fauna, issues associated with increased recreational boating, loss of marine habitats and pressure on infrastructure and services. At the same time, they contribute significantly to the economy of the region and provide jobs and often much needed infrastructure.
Industry
Agriculture is Eyre Peninsula’s largest industry, producing more than 45% of South Australia’s wheat crop and 20% of the barley crop. The drought and other economic issues have had an impact on the region and the agricultural industry, further exacerbating rural decline and placing pressure on existing rural townships, community services and infrastructure.
Mining and aquaculture are growth industries in the region that both provide significant employment opportunities and economic growth for the region. The region is widely recognised as one of the most exciting new frontiers for mineral wealth in Australia, with significant exploration activity across the region. Gypsum and salt represent the two largest established commodities currently being mined (ERDB 2008).
Aquaculture is one of the largest industry in terms of the number people employed and wealth generated to the region. Much of the product is exported. The main species being farmed or harvested are:
Southern Bluefin Tuna
Pacific Oysters
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finfish (including Yellow tailed Kingfish and Mulloway)
abalone (both onshore and offshore)
mussels.
Tourism presents both opportunities and threats for natural resource management and protection. Increased awareness about natural assets is a benefit from increased tourism; however, increased development, larger visitor numbers and some recreational pursuits can threaten the integrity of fragile natural systems.
3.7 Key management initiatives
The EPNRM Board participates in a wide range of activities and programs with the community and employs a volunteer coordinator to facilitate engagement with community groups and the wider community.
100 Footprints Program
The 100 Footprints Program aims to increase the level of understanding of natural resources management in the community and important stakeholders by:
producing a 100 Footprints Information Pack containing information about the Board and its projects
providing information to the media on a regular basis through stories and advertising
developing and delivering a brochure outlining the hundreds of NRM activities across the region and where they are located
developing a list outlining projects delivered by the Board.
Working with landholders
The Board employs a number of authorised officers to work with landholders to implement pest control programs and other activities to improve farming practices. Community committees and groups have made significant achievements in managing natural resources with the assistance of dedicated project officers and with technical and policy support from the Board and government agencies. In the Salt Creek and Brooker catchment, for example, a steering committee represents over 100 landholders who are keen to continue the commitment to Landcare. The committee encourages sustainable farming practices and productivity improvements through maximising plant water use and addressing soil issues. Other examples are the Cummin–Wanilla Basin and Charlton Gully to Tulka.
Community education
The Board, in partnership with DEH, works with schools to support natural resources management and sustainability education through teacher professional development sessions.
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The Board attends or organises a range of community events such as the Rabbit Control Field Day, the Direct Seeding Field Day, the Water Affecting Activities Workshop and the Mallee Fowl Workshop.
The Board produces and distributes a wide range of communication tools to promote NRM activities and educate the community on NRM issues, such as Footprint , a newsletter distributed regularly..
Aboriginal engagement
The Board employs an Aboriginal Project Officer to facilitate engagement with Aboriginal communities in natural resources management activities. An Aboriginal Advisory Committee is being established to provide regional strategic advice to the Board.
3.8 People and Heritage indicators
Environmental indicators are used to track changes in the environment. They are:
state or condition indicators – of the condition of the environment
pressure indicators – of positive or negative effects of human activities on a particular component of the environment
response indicators – of the management responses that have or are being undertaken to address the pressures upon the environment.
Indicators for the People and Heritage of Eyre Peninsula are listed in Table 3.8.
TABLE 3.8 People and heritage indicators
Type of Condition/ Issue Indicator indicator trend
Number of people involved in community groups and activities R
Number of industries involved in NRM initiatives R ??? Number of students enrolled in NRM courses in the region R ???
engagement Number of volunteer hours in NRM R ???
Community capacity and Number of hits to the EP NRM Board website and understanding of the Board’s roles and R responsibilities
Stock heritage assets C
heritage Number of section 23 authorisation requests to
Aboriginal P disturb an Aboriginal site ???
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Type of Condition/ Issue Indicator indicator trend Number of section 23 authorisation approvals to P disturb and Aboriginal site ??? Number of Aboriginal sites on the Aboriginal R Heritage Branch’s Register of Sites and Objects ??? Area of Eyre Peninsula surveyed for Aboriginal R Heritage Number of Aboriginal people involved in NRM C activities Stock of heritage assets C Number of heritage items modified or removed P ??? Number of management plans developed for R heritage sites ??? Number of development applications for heritage R items referred to Heritage Advisor
European Heritage Number of local heritage items listed in council R development plans Number of heritage items protected at the State R and national level Number of tourism related development C applications Number of approved tourism developments C Tourism Number of local community employed in tourism C sector C = condition (state) indicator; P = pressure indicator; R = response indicator Assessment is colour coded: blue = optimal; green = good; yellow = moderate; red = poor Trends are noted with symbols: ↓ – negative; ↑ – positive; ↔ stable; ? – unknown
3.9 Information gaps
An apparent information gap across the region relates to Aboriginal heritage. No all encompassing Aboriginal cultural heritage survey has been undertaken across the region, which would greatly increase our understanding of Aboriginal heritage, history and values on Eyre Peninsula.
Accurate information on community capacity and voluntary participation in NRM remains difficult to quantify in this region as in others.
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3.10 Bibliography
ATNS. 2008. Agreements, Treaties and Negotiated Settlements Project. www.atns.net.au
Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2006. Regional Statistics South Australia . Commonwealth of Australia.
DEH. 2003 . Lake Newland Conservation Park Management Plan . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
DEH. 2004a. Parks of the Coffin Bay Area Management Plan . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
DEH. 2004b. Lincoln National Park Management Plan. Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
DEH. 2006. Gawler Ranges National Park Management Plan . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
DEH. 2006. Island Parks of Western Eyre Peninsula Management Plan. Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
DEH. 2008. Heritage SA website. Department for Environment and Heritage www.deh.sa.gov.au/heritage
DIT. 2002. Economic Profile of Eyre Peninsula . Industry Policy and Planning Division, Department of Industry and Trade, Adelaide, South Australia.
Dixon, I, Agius, P and Hall, P. 2005. Implementing the South Australian Indigenous Land Use Agreement (ILUA) Statewide Negotiations . AIATSIS Conference, South Australia.
Eyre Peninsula Local Government Association and Government of South Australia. 2006. Draft Eyre Peninsula Coastal Development Strategy . Government of South Australia.
Eyre Regional Development Board. 2006. Eyre Peninsula, SA: A Regional Profile .
Eyre Regional Development Board. undated. Port Lincoln, South Australia . Eyre Regional Development Board, South Australia.
Government of SA. 2005. State of the Outback Report , a Report for the Outback Areas Development Trust.
Government of SA. 2008b. Eyre Employment & Skills Network Region Regional Profile 2008.
Government of SA. 2008a. Whyalla Employment & Skills Network Region Regional Profile 2008 .
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Mantin, P, Van Mellor, T, O’Connell, V and Lawrence, L. 2006. Financial Performance of Farms in the Eyre Peninsula of South Australia . ABARE Conference Paper 2006.
Mazourek, P. 2005. Early Maritime Heritage of Northern Spencer Gulf. www.history.sa.gov.au/history/conference/Paul_Mazourek.pdf
NNTT. 2007. National Native Title Tribunal website www.nntt.sa.gov.au
Phillip Gray and Associates. 2002. Eyre Peninsula Recreation, Sport and Open Space Strategy . Office for Recreation and Sport, Planning SA, South Australia. www.recsport.sa.gov.au/research planning/eyre_peninsula.pdf
Planning SA. 2003. Planning Strategy for Regional South Australia . Department of Transport and Urban Planning, South Australia.
Planning SA. 2007. Population Projections for South Australia (2001–31) and the State’s Statistical Divisions (2001–21) . Primary Industries and Resources SA.
Port Lincoln City Council. 2006. Port Lincoln City Profile . Port Lincoln, South Australia tcsh.inetd.com.au/~erdb/documents/investment/PortLincolnProfile.pdf
Praite, R and Tolley, JC. 1970. Place Names of South Australia . Rigby Limited, Sydney.
Reed, AW. 1967 . Aboriginal Place Names and Their Meanings . Wellington Publishing, Sydney.
Rural Solutions SA. 2007. Assessment of the Community’s Capacity to Deliver NRM Outcomes on Eyre Peninsula . Government of South Australia.
SATC. undated. Eyre Peninsula History . SA Tourism Commission, South Australian Government. www.southaustralia.com/EyrePeninsulaHistoryHeritage.aspx
Welz, AI. 2002. The environmental and cultural influences in fish trap placement along the Australian coastline. Unpublished Honours Thesis, Flinders University, South Australia
Whyalla City Council. 2006. Whyalla Social Profile . Whyalla, South Australia www.whyalla.sa.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/Whyalla_Social_Profile_2006.pdf
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4. Biodiversity
Relevant legislation Biodiversity is the broad term used to describe the variety of natural organisms and Environment Protection and includes the different species of plants, animals and micro organisms, their genes Biodiversity and the ecosystems of which they are a part (DEWHA 2007). No Species Loss: A Conservation Act 1999 (Cwlth) Nature Conservation Strategy for South Australia (DEH 2007a) defines biodiversity as ‘the variety of life in all its forms – the different plants, animals, fungi, bacteria National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 (SA) and other micro organisms, the genes they contain, and the ecosystems of which they form a part’. Environment Protection Act 1993 (SA) The biodiversity of all parts of the landscape are closely related and there are many overlaps between the biodiversity of different parts of the landscape. In this report Native Vegetation Act 1991 (SA) the biodiversity of the aquatic areas and the coasts are described in different sections. This section should be read with section 6.4, which describes the aquatic Natural Resources habitats of the region, and section 7 which describes the coast and marine flora Management Act 2004 (SA) and fauna of the region.
Plants, animals and micro organisms interact with the non living environment to form functional units described as ecosystems. Healthy, functioning ecosystems are necessary for maintaining ecological processes while making natural products such as food, medicines and timber (AMLR NRMB 2007). Ecosystems provide services that support economic activities and social requirements by fulfilling human cultural, spiritual and intellectual needs. The parts of an ecosystem don’t need to be part of a system for have economic worth and benefits may be derived from the components of ecosystems individually.
Ecosystem services include: Relevant policy producing foods, pharmaceuticals, energy and durable materials No Species Loss: A Nature Conservation Strategy for South recycling nutrients and maintaining health Australia 2007-2017
re cycling water, making it suitable for various uses and users
generating oxygen and removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
stabilising coastal landscapes and seascapes by controlling rates of erosion and balancing (pest and beneficial) species types and abundance
ameliorating potential impacts of dryland salinity
sheltering stock and crops on primary production land
regulating climate
maintaining and regulating habitat
supporting cultural heritage, tourism, lifestyle and all human endeavours.
Eyre Peninsula is a significant ecotone, being the western limit to a range of eastern Australian species and the eastern limit to many western Australian species (DEH 2002). The relative isolation of Eyre Peninsula (by sea and by arid lands to the north) has allowed a high degree of endemism and species diversity to develop.
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The systematic development of a comprehensive, adequate and representative For more National Reserve System across Australia rests on a framework of bioregions. information about IBRA refer to Each bioregion is a large geographically distinct area of similar climate, geology, http://www.environm landform, vegetation and animal communities. These bioregions and subregions ent.gov.au/parks/nrs /science/ibra.html are the reporting unit for assessing and monitoring the status of native ecosystems and their protection. Most of the Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management (NRM) Region is within the Eyre and Yorke Blocks Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation of Australia (IBRA) Bioregion of Thackway and Cresswell (1995). The Eyre Peninsula portion of this bioregion has been further subdivided into three subregions, Eyre Hills, Talia and Eyre Mallee (Figure 4.1).
The subregions set up a framework for the discussion of biodiversity issues of Eyre Peninsula and will be used primarily within this section.
The Eyre Hills IBRA Subregion consists of uplands along the eastern coast of Eyre Peninsula and undulating low to hilly plains to the west. The uplands have moderately deep yellow duplex soils with lateritic concretions and the plains are formed on old alluvium with shallow reddish loams or calcarenite. These soils support low open woodland of Eucalyptus cladocalyx, E. odorata and E. leucoxylon; E. incrassate/Melaleuca uncinata mallee and M. lanceolata woodland (DEH 2002).
The Talia IBRA Subregion is predominantly composed of undulating to hilly plains on calcarenite with some coastal fringing dunes. Soils are typically shallow brownish sands and support woodland of M. lanceolata, Allocasuarina verticillata, E. socialis, E. gracilis, E. porosa and E. diversifolia (DEH 2002).
The Eyre Mallee IBRA Subregion is distinguished climatically by being more arid than regions to the south. This subregion consists of an undulating plain with an extensive cover of dunes and sand sheets. The typical vegetation types in this subregion include mallee associations of E. socialis and E. gracilis , and E. incrassate/M. uncinata (DEH 2002).
4.1 Native flora
Since European settlement, 55% of original vegetation has been cleared and 45% was still intact on Eyre Peninsula when reviewed in 2002 (DEH 2002) (Figures 4.2 and 4.3). The remaining 2% includes revegetated areas and natural areas such as cliffs, sand dunes and wetlands. Many of the largest blocks of the remaining native vegetation are in areas that are not ideal for agriculture, such as deep sands (e.g. Lowan Sands) or sheet limestone (Bridgewater Formation or Bakara Soils). Blocks and patches of native vegetation is also retained in the steeper country in the Cleve and Koppio Hills often retains (DEH 2002).
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4.1.1 Vegetation communities
Seven major vegetation structures (Table 4.1) have been recognised on Eyre Peninsula, with Shrubland divided into three subcategories. Figure 4.4 illustrates in more detail the vegetation type/structure on Eyre Peninsula.
Note that the areas covered by the Eyre Peninsula Biodiversity Plan (DEH 2002) and the three subregions do not coincide with the boundaries of the Eyre Peninsula NRM region. Additionally vegetation mapping was incomplete in the Eyre Mallee subregion for preparation of this report, therefore total area covered by particular vegetation community types may be under estimated.
Marine flora of the region is considered in section 7 Coast and marine .
TABLE 4.1 Vegetation communities on Eyre Peninsula
Eyre Eyre Hills Talia Eyre Mallee Vegetation structure Peninsula Subregion Subregion Subregion Forest Number vegetation 2 2 1 2 communities Total area (ha) 1,712 534 85 214 % in region conserved 37 65 42 70 Woodland Number vegetation 13 10 7 12 communities Total area (ha) 196,038 21,668 11,223 17,488 % in region conserved 13 13 16 55 Mallee Number vegetation 45 34 41 44 communities Total area (ha) 1,285,000 172,911 375,373 495,697 % in region conserved 46 39 35 63 Shrubland Number vegetation 20 16 13 16 communities Total area (ha) 138,051 39,610 30,850 35,331 % in region conserved 33 30 23 52 Coastal shrubland Number vegetation 9 3 8 5 communities Total area (ha) 21,548 499 17,588 2,064 % in region conserved 25 59 24 21 Chenopod shrubland 60
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Eyre Eyre Hills Talia Eyre Mallee Vegetation structure Peninsula Subregion Subregion Subregion Number vegetation 10 8 6 10 communities Total area (ha) 84,245 4,433 4,156 12,157 % in region conserved 11 13 26 10 Grassland Number vegetation 3 2 3 3 communities Total area (ha) 65,890 3,687 49,940 4,759 % in region conserved 6 14 4 10 Sedgeland Number vegetation 4 4 3 2 communities Total area (ha) 11,109 67 10,447 530 % in region conserved 4 7 5 1 Herbland Number vegetation 1 – 1 – communities Total area (ha) 110 – 105 – % in region conserved 44 – 46 – Note: Vegetation mapping was incomplete in the Eyre Mallee subregion Peninsula at the time of publication . Source: DEH 2002
Forests
Forests are vegetation structures dominated by single trunk trees with 30–70% canopy cover. The only terrestrial forest type mapped on Eyre Peninsula, the Melaleuca armillaris spp. akineta (Needle leaf Honey myrtle) Forest, is restricted to a few localities southwest of Kimba (Eyre Mallee IBRA Subregion) and one east of Coffin Bay (Talia IBRA Subregion). Forests are well represented in reserves protected by the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 (Table 4.1).
Mangrove forests
Mangroves are salt tolerant trees or shrubs that have their lower trunk and roots in seawater. Only one species of mangrove ( Avicennia marina ) is represented in South Australia. More than 3300 ha of mangroves are located in the Eyre Peninsula region, with 23% (766 ha) of those protected in parks and reserves, such as the Franklin Harbour and Venus Bay conservation parks (DEH 2002).
Some of the most extensive mangrove forests in the State occur at Tourville Bay, Ceduna, Franklin Harbour and Cowell, with smaller stands in other sheltered areas such as Arno Bay, Smoky Bay, Streaky Bay, Venus Bay, Tumby Bay and Whyalla. Mangroves once extended as far south as Boston Bay and Proper Bay but were removed as part of the development of the Port Lincoln marina.
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Mangroves occupy the intertidal zone and are extremely important for their high productivity as nursery, feeding or breeding areas for fish, crustaceans and waterbirds. Primary threats to mangroves include coastal developments such as marinas, pollution from industry, oil spills and sediment erosion or deposition (DEH 2002). Mangroves are discussed in more detail in Section 7.
Mediterranean woodlands
Woodlands are vegetation structures with single trunk trees with a canopy cover of less than 30% (DEH 2002). Some Eyre Peninsula woodlands contain species or communities of restricted distribution and high conservation significance, such as Sugar Gum (Eucalyptus cladocalyx ), which is restricted to four populations in South Australia, two of which are on Eyre Peninsula, and Eyre Peninsula Blue Gum (E. petiolaris ), which is restricted to Eyre Peninsula. The most significant woodlands remaining on Eyre Peninsula occur in the Koppio Hills (Eyre Hills IBRA Subregion) (DEH 2002).
Woodlands support a diverse suite of flora and fauna. For example, in a study of insectivorous birds throughout Australia (Gilmore 1985 cited in DEH 2002), the highest densities of insectivorous bird communities were supported by vegetation communities with tall trees (regardless of species). Tree hollows, insects and nectar are some of the important resources found in woodlands (Robinson and Traill 1999 cited in DEH 2002). Woodland vegetation is well conserved in the Eyre Mallee IBRA Subregion but relatively poorly conserved in other subregions (Table 4.1).
Table 4.2 lists four Eyre Peninsula woodland vegetation structures that are of conservation significance at the State level.
TABLE 4.2 Woodland vegetation communities of conservation significance occurring on Eyre Peninsula
Rating Examples of Woodland community * IBRA Subregion (State level) populations Eucalyptus petiolaris Endangered Mainly in Eyre Hills, Koppio and Cleve (Eyre Peninsula Blue some in Eyre Hills Gum) Woodland Mallee Allocasuarina verticillata Endangered Mainly in Eyre Hills Coffin Bay National (Drooping Sheoak) (once widespread Park, Hincks Grassy Low Woodland across Talia Conservation Park, on clay loams of low hills Subregion and still Lincoln National occurs within it) Park Eucalyptus viminalis Vulnerable Eyre Hills Near Sleaford Bay (Manna Gum) Woodland Eucalyptus odorata Endangered ** Eyre Hills Koppio Hills (Peppermint Box) Grassy Woodland * Rating (State level) are provisional. ** provisional state rating for Eucalyptus odorata +/ E leucoxylon Grassy Woodland is listed as a “Threatened Ecological Community” under the EPBC Act 1999. (DEH 2009) Source: DEH 2002, DEH 2009
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The clearance, fragmentation and degradation of much woodland habitat has been attributed to its high agricultural value and the relative ease of grazing or clearing. Primary threats to woodlands include altered fire regime, clearing, fragmentation, salinisation, grazing and weed infestation.
Woodlands of arid regions
The Western Myall, Black Oak and False Sandalwood woodland communities are restricted to the more arid parts of Eyre Peninsula. These communities also occur in the adjoining Alinytjara Wilurara and South Australian Arid Lands NRM regions (DEH 2007b). They are valuable habitats for native birds, reptiles and mammals including food sources (e.g. nectar, insects) and hollows.
Acacia papyrocarpa (Western Myall) Low Open Woodland is significant on Eyre Peninsula as it is the southernmost limit of a community that extends into central Australia. This woodland has been extensively cleared and is vulnerable to grazing by rabbits and stock.
Threats to arid woodlands include clearing, grazing and introduced species that have become serious environmental weeds, in particular Boxthorn, Buffel Grass, Horehound, Olive, Onion Weed, Salvation Jane and a number of introduced grasses, including Perennial Veldt Grass (DEH 2007c).
Mallee
Mallee is the dominant vegetation structure throughout Eyre Peninsula, particularly in the Eyre Mallee IBRA Subregion. Mallee is dominated by Eucalyptus species that are multi stemmed and have trunks arising from a lignotuber (mallee stumps). The main mallee communities are:
Eucalyptus incrassata (Ridge fruited Mallee) Open Mallee – the dominant vegetation community throughout Eyre Peninsula especially the Eyre Mallee and Eyre Hills IBRA subregions
Eucalyptus brachycalyx (Gilja) Mallee – common on Eyre Peninsula, especially in the northern areas of the Eyre Hills and Eyre Mallee IBRA subregions
Eucalyptus diversifolia (Coastal White Mallee) Open Mallee – a major vegetation community of Eyre Peninsula mainly in the Talia IBRA Subregion
Eucalyptus gracilis/E. socialis (Yorrelll and Beaked Red Mallee) Open Mallee – mainly in patches throughout the Eyre Mallee and Eyre Hills IBRA subregions
Eucalyptus porosa (Mallee Box) Mallee – widespread distribution from Streaky Bay eastwards to Yorke Peninsula and south to Keith in the South East.
The four mallee communities on Eyre Peninsula are considered to be regionally threatened in South Australia (Table 4.3).
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TABLE 4.3 Mallee vegetation communities of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula Region
Rating Rating IBRA Examples of Mallee community (national (State level) Subregion populations level) Eucalyptus behriana +/- – Endangered Eyre Hills Koppio Hills E. odorata +/- and Cummins E. dumosa (broad leaved box, peppermint box, white mallee) mallee Eucalyptus cretata – Endangered Eyre Hills Darke Peak and (Darke Peak mallee) Carappee Hill mallee Eucalyptus peninsularis – Endangered Eyre Hills Hambidge, +/ E. dumosa +/ Verran Tanks, E. calycogona (cummins Wharminda callee, white mallee, Conservation square fruited mallee) Park mallee Note: Eucalyptus odorata (peppermint box) open mallee was listed in DEH 2002 with a national rating of critically endangered. The mallee tree form of the E Odorata grassy woodland is not part of the EPBC listed community (DEH 2009) and has been excluded from Table 4.3. Source: DEH 2002
Threats to mallee include fragmentation, altered fire regime, grazing and weed infestation (DEH 2002). As a broad structural group, mallee vegetation is well conserved on Eyre Peninsula (Table 4.1).
Shrublands
Shrublands are communities in which shrubs form the dominant overstorey. They occur in all three IBRA subregions and cover a large range of habitat, from terrestrial to wetland habitats. These shrubland plant communities may be differentiated into different categories, including shrubland (e.g. Allocasuarina helmsii (Helm’s Oak bush) Shrubland), coastal shrubland (e.g. (Olearia axillaris Coast Daisy bush) Shrubland) and chenopod shrubland (e.g. Halosarcia halocnemoides (Grey Samphire) Low Shrubland). No Eyre Peninsula shrublands are considered to be threatened at the State level. Threats to shrublands include grazing, salinisation and brush cutting (DEH 2002). As a broad structural group, shrublands are well conserved on Eyre Peninsula (Table 4.1).
An example of Eyre Peninsula’s chenopod shrublands are samphire wetlands. These integral parts of the coastal ecosystem are a buffer between the coast and terrestrial environs. Samphire wetlands provide key habitat for a number of species, such as migratory birds and juvenile fish. Predicted sea level rise as a result of changing climatic conditions has been identified as a threat to these samphire ecosystems in the Draft Recovery plan for 23 Threatened Flora Taxa on Eyre Peninsula (Pobke 2008).
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Grasslands
Grasslands and grassy woodlands have largely been replaced by intensive cropping and introduced pasture species, although there are remnant native grasslands in the Talia and Eyre Mallee IBRA Subregions, many around Elliston.
Grasslands support a diverse array of invertebrates. Several bird species of conservation significance, such as the Plains wanderer and Australian Bustard, are dependent on grasslands and the range of small vertebrates they sustain.
Threats to grasslands include over grazing and weed infestation. Eucalyptus odorata (Peppermint Box) Grassy Woodland on Eyre Peninsula are part of the South Australian Peppermint Box Grassy Woodlands ecological community that is critically endangered under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 . Grasslands are poorly conserved in the Department for Environment and Heritage (DEH) reserve system with no more than 14% of mapped grasslands conserved in any of the three IBRA subregions (Table 4.1).
Sedgelands and freshwater herblands
Sedgelands include plants such as sedges, rushes, cord rushes and bulrushes. These plants usually grow from bulbs and rhizomes or propagate from seed. Four sedgeland communities have been identified on Eyre Peninsula. Southern Eyre Peninsula supports some important sedgeland communities that are generally poorly conserved (DEH 2002). No more than 5% of sedgelands are conserved in DEH reserves or Heritage agreements in any of the three IBRA subregions (Table 4.1).
Several species of butterfly are totally dependent on Gahnia species for part of their lifecycle and some of them are considered threatened. The Yellowish Sedge skipper, for example, is rated as endangered and the Chrysotricha Sedge skipper (endemic to the lower Eyre Peninsula) is rated as vulnerable under the State rating. Sedgelands are also extremely important for the nationally vulnerable and State and regionally endangered Eyre Peninsula Southern Emu wren (DEH 2002).
Three sedgeland plant communities on Eyre Peninsula are of conservation significance at the State level (Table 4.4).
TABLE 4.4 Sedgeland vegetation communities of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula Region
Sedgeland Rating (State Examples of IBRA subregion community level) populations
Freshwater herbland/ Endangered Eyre Hills Big and Little Swamp sedgelands and Sleaford Mere Gahnia trifida (Cutting Endangered Eyre Hills Murrunatta Grass) Sedgeland Conservation Park Gahnia filum (Smooth Vulnerable Eyre Hills Tod River catchment, Cutting Grass) Talia Big and Little Swamp Sedgeland and Coffin Bay National Park
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Source: DEH 2002
The management of sedgelands is often poorly understood, leading to poor management of issues that impact these areas such as grazing, fire and salinity are often poorly managed (DEH 2002).
Freshwater herbland communities on Eyre Peninsula are found in freshwater swamps and lakes (such as Big and Little swamps, and Sleaford Mere). The limited occurrence of freshwater wetlands on Eyre Peninsula and their associated threats (such as increasing salinity) identify the freshwater herblands as being particularly important for biodiversity. These herblands have been identified as endangered (Table 4.5) in South Australia (DEH 2002).
4.1.2 Threatened plant species on Eyre Peninsula
For more information about Of the 26 species (Table 4.5) of national conservation significance recorded on threatened species on the Eyre Eyre Peninsula (DEH 2007b), nine are endemic to Eyre Peninsula and another five Peninsula, refer to are endemic to South Australia (DEH 2002). A draft recovery plan has been the Biodiversity Plan for the region, prepared for 23 threatened floral taxa on Eyre Peninsula (Pobke 2007). available from the Department for Environment and Threatened plant species occur in localities across Eyre Peninsula but several are Heritage www.environme associated with recognised threatened habitat areas (DEH 2002), including Koppio nt.sa.gov.au/bio Hills, Cleve Hills and the southwest. Other significant areas are near Cummins and diversity in the northern and western parts of Eyre Peninsula. The main threats to plant species on Eyre Peninsula are clearing for agricultural purposes, grazing, development, salinity, inappropriate fire regimes and weed infestation and fungal Recovery plans and fact sheets for a disease such as Phytophora Cinnamomi.(DEH 2002). number of threatened species are available at www.environment.s a.gov.au/biodiversity /threatened.html
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TABLE 4.5 Plant species of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region
Conservation Family and names of plant species Notes on distribution significance National State Regional Family Scientific name Common name status status status Amaranthaceae Ptilotus beckerianus Ironstone Mulla Mulla V V E South Australian endemic (foxtails) Southeastern Eyre Peninsula Asteraceae (daisies) Brachycome muelleri Corruna Daisy E E E Corruna, upper Eyre Peninsula (DEH 2007c, Jusaitis and O’Connor 1999) Asteraceae Olearia microdisca Small flower Daisy bush E E E Central Eyre Peninsula Asteraceae Olearia pannosa ssp. Silver Daisy bush V V V Southern and northeastern pannosa Eyre Peninsula Asteraceae Pleuropappus Silver Candles V V V South Australian endemic phyllocalymmeus Calpatanna Waterhole Conservation Park, Warrow, Marble Range and west of Cummins Brassicaceae Microlepidium alatum – V V V Eyre Peninsula endemic (crucifers) Northwestern Eyre Peninsula Chenopodiaceae Halosarcia Bead Samphire V V V West coast and Flinders Island, Arno Bay and lower central (chenopods) flabelliformis Eyre Peninsula Fabaceae Acacia cretacea Chalky Wattle E E E Eyre Peninsula endemic (legumes) Small population north of Cowell (DEH 2007c) Fabaceae Acacia enterocarpa Jumping jack Wattle E E E Southeastern Eyre Peninsula, Tumby Bay, Kimba and Franklin Harbour (DEH 2007c) Fabaceae Acacia imbricata Feathery Wattle V R R Eyre Peninsula endemic Cummins and Koppio Hills Fabaceae Acacia pinguifolia Fat leaf Wattle E E E South Australian endemic Cummins and Koppio Hills
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Conservation Family and names of plant species Notes on distribution significance National State Regional Family Scientific name Common name status status status Fabaceae Acacia rhetinocarpa Neat Wattle V V V South Australian endemic East coast Eyre Peninsula and Cleve Hills Fabaceae Acacia whibleyana Whibley’s Wattle E E E Eyre Peninsula endemic Near Tumby Bay Fabaceae Pultenaea Tufted Pea bush V R R Eyre Peninsula endemic trichophylla Koppio Hills and Cummins Fabaceae Swainsona pyrophila Yellow Swainsona pea V R R Northern Eyre Peninsula Gyrostemonaceae Codonocarpus Slender Bell fruit V E E Southern Eyre Peninsula, Franklin Harbour pyramidalis Haloragaceae Haloragis eyreana Prickly Raspwort E E E Eyre Peninsula endemic (raspworts) Fragmented populations around Cummins Lamiaceae (mints) Prostanthera calycina West Coast Mintbush V V V Eyre Peninsula endemic Western Eyre Peninsula Orchidaceae Caladenia brumalis Winter Spider orchid V V V South Australian endemic (orchids) Koppio Hills and NE Eyre Peninsula Orchidaceae Pterostylis ‘Eyre Lowly Greenhood V V V Eyre Peninsula endemic Peninsula’ Central eastern Eyre Peninsula Orchidaceae Pterostylis xerophila Desert Greenhood V V V Gawler Ranges with scattered populations throughout dry areas to Cowell Orchidaceae Thelymitra Metallic Sun orchid E E E Southern Eyre Peninsula epipactoides Poaceae (grasses) Austrostipa nullanulla Club Spear grass V V – Central and northern Eyre Peninsula (DEH 2007b) Sapindaceae Dodonaea Trailing Hop bush V V – Southern Eyre Peninsula (DEH 2007b) procumbens
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Conservation Family and names of plant species Notes on distribution significance National State Regional Family Scientific name Common name status status status Scrophulariaceae Euphrasia collina Osborn's Eyebright E E X ssp. osbornii Scrophulariaceae Limosella granitica Granite Mudwort V V V Eyre Peninsula endemic Northern Eyre Peninsula Stackhousiaceae Stackhousia annua Annual Candles V V V Stamford Hill (south of Port Lincoln) (candles) V = Vulnerable E = Endangered Source: DEH 2002, 2007b,c
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Native fauna
4.2.1 Mammals
Of the 103 species of native mammal in South Australia, 40 have been recorded on Eyre Peninsula. Some of these species (and/or subspecies) are endemic to the region (e.g. Pearson Island black footed rock wallaby). Nine mammal species or subspecies (Table 4.6) have been identified on Eyre Peninsula as having conservation significance (DEH 2002), six of national conservation significance and nine of State conservation significance (Table 4.6).
TABLE 4.6 Mammal species of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region
Level of conservation Names of mammal species significance National State Common name Scientific name status status Australian sea lion Neophoca cinerea V R Greater bilby Macrotis lagotis cd E Pearson Island black footed Petrogale lateralis pearsoni V V rock wallaby Brush tailed bettong Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi cd R Greater long eared bat Nyctophilus timoriensis V V Greater stick nest rat Leporillus conditor V V Sandhill dunnart Sminthopsis psammophila E E Southern brown bandicoot Isoodon obesulus nauticus V V I. o. obesulus Common Brush tailed possum Trichosurus vulpecula – R E = Endangered V = Vulnerable R = Rare cd = conservation dependent Source: DEH 2002
The Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea ) is Australia’s only endemic pinniped Recovery plans and and 70% of its population occurs in South Australia. Its distribution on Eyre fact sheets for a number of Peninsula includes the offshore islands (Dangerous Reef being one of the largest threatened species are available at colonies) and a mainland colony at Point Labatt. This species prefers the sheltered www.environment.s sides of islands (in rock crevices or vegetation for protection of pups) and tends to a.gov.au/biodiversity /threatened.html avoid highly exposed headlands. Threats to Australian Sea Lions include net entanglement associated with the fishing and aquaculture industry, ingestion of harmful debris, competition with increased numbers of New Zealand Fur Seals, oil spills and disease. Direct disturbance by humans at breeding time often causes abandonment and subsequent death of pups (DEH 2002).
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The Greater Bilby (Macrotis lagotis ) is considered extinct in the wild in South Australia. This species once inhabited a wide range of habitats but is now confined to deserts (Maxwell et al. 1996 cited in DEH 2002). This restriction of distribution is related to the absence of threats within the desert regions, rather than desert being preferred habitat. In recent years, Bilbies have been reintroduced into areas where the threats to their existence can be effectively managed (i.e. Venus Bay Conservation Park) or where these threats do not exist (i.e. Thistle Island).
A unique subspecies of the Black footed Rock wallaby ( Petrogale lateralis pearsoni ) naturally occurs on Pearson Island and has been introduced to Thistle and Wedge islands. The preferred habitat for this species is coastal cliffs especially where caves, boulter piles and freshwater seepages lie in close proximity to each other (Maxwell et al. 1996 cited in DEH 2002). The limited distribution of this subspecies makes it vulnerable to disturbance or stochastic events such as disease, fire and extreme weather conditions.
The Eyre Peninsula subspecies of Brush tailed Bettong (Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi ) has been extinct since the early 1900s. A Western Australian subspecies was introduced to several offshore islands (in Venus and Baird bays, Wedge Island and St Peter Island) and mainland sites (Venus Bay Conservation Park and Lincoln National Park).
Populations of the ‘central’ form of the Greater Long eared Bat (Nyctophilus timoriensis ), which is vulnerable to extinction, inhabit the mallee regions of the northern Eyre Peninsula (DEH 2002). This species roosts in tree hollows and under loose bark (Parnaby 1998 cited in DEH 2002). Little is known about this species but it is thought that habitat modification from vegetation clearance may be responsible for reduced numbers.
The Greater Stick nest Rat (Leporillus conditor ) was, before it became extinct on the mainland, widespread in arid and semi arid regions of southern Australia. Until recently the only extant population was on the Franklin Islands. It has now been re introduced to Reevesby Island, St Peter Island and the Arid Recovery Area near Roxby Downs. It makes communal nests of interwoven branches and soft plant material that are often over one metre high. Robinson 1998 cited in DEH 2002). The reduction in the previous distribution has been attributed to loss of habitat (through the action of sheep and rabbits), drought, altered fire regimes and nest destruction by humans.
Until recently, the Sandhill Dunnart (Sminthopsis psammophila ) had only been known from Mamblyn and Boonerdoo on Eyre Peninsula but animals were recently found in sandy dunes near the Middleback Ranges, as well as in Pinkawillinie and Hincks Conservation Parks. This species favours sandy soils (sometimes with low dunes) and an understorey of hummock grass (Pearson 1998 cited in DEH 2002). Fire frequency closely influences the structure of the Sandhill Dunnart’s preferred hummock grass ( Triodia irritans ) nesting habitat. Little is known about the threats facing this species but it is likely that the Sandhill Dunnart has suffered from similar threatening processes to other species mentioned, particularly predation by cats and foxes and altered fire regimes (Maxwell et al. 1996 cited in DEH 2002).
The only populations of Southern Brown Bandicoot (Isoodon obesulus nauticus I. o. obesulus ) on Eyre Peninsula survive on the Franklin Islands and St Francis 72
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Island. This species inhabits areas with sandy, well drained soils supporting scrubby vegetation with healthy low shrubs or ground cover (Braithwaite 1998, Maxwell et al. 1996 cited in DEH 2002). These island populations are considered at risk due to their extremely limited distribution and their vulnerability to disturbance (DEH 2002).
The Common Brushtail Possum (Trichosurus vulpecula ) has become locally extinct or rare across much of its range in South Australia and is considered endangered on Eyre Peninsula (Paton et al. 1996). A previous survey found three subpopulations in the northern Koppio Hills, the southern Koppio Hills, and between Greenpatch and Chapman roads (DEH 2006a). The possum depends on woodland with hollow bearing trees which have been selectively cleared and now have a limited extent.
4.2.2 Birds
South Australia has 355 native bird species, 244 of which have been recorded on Eyre Peninsula. Some of these species (and/or subspecies), such as Eyre Peninsula Southern Emu wren, are endemic to the region. Seven resident bird species (Table 4.7) were identified as having conservation significance on Eyre Peninsula (DEH 2002): 5 vulnerable at the national level and another two endangered at State level. A further 27 migratory species are identified as having conservation significance on Eyre Peninsula (Table 4.7), 4 vulnerable at the national level and 20 with State conservation significance.
TABLE 4.7 Resident and migratory bird species of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region
Level of conservation Bird species significance National State Regional Common name Scientific name status status status Bush Stone Curlew Burhinus grallarius – V E Eyre Peninsula Stipiturus malachurus V E E Southern Emu wren parimeda Malleefowl Leipoa ocellata V V V Osprey Pandion haliaetus V E R Plains wanderer Pedionomus torquatus V E E Red lored Whistler Pachycephala rufogularis V V V Western Whipbird Psophodes nigrogularis V V R leucogaster Yellow tailed Calyptorhynchus – V E Black Cockatoo funereus White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster V E V Migratory bird species Antarctic Tern Sterna vittata V Australian Bustard Ardeotis australis – V V Blue Petrel Halobaena caerulea V –
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Level of conservation Bird species significance National State Regional Common name Scientific name status status status Blue breasted Wren Malurus pulcherrinus – V V Blue winged Parrot Neophema chrysostoma – V – Chestnut Quailthrush Cinclosoma castanotum – R V Diamond Firetail Stagnopleura guttata – V V Eastern Curlew Numenius – V V madagascariensis Fairy Tern Sterna nereis – V V Freckled Duck Stictonetta naevosa – V V Grey headed Albatross Diomedea chrysostoma – V – Hooded Plover Thinornis rubricollis – V V Latham’s (Japanese) Gallinago hardwickii – V V Snipe Lewin’s Rail Rallus pectoralis – V E Major Mitchell (Pink Cacatua leadbeateri – V V Cockatoo) Painted Button quail Turnix varia – V V Rufous Treecreeper Climacteris rufa – – V Scarlet Robin Petroica multicolour – V V campbelli Scarlet chested Parrot Neophema splendida – R V Shy Albatross Diomedea cauta cauta – V – Square tailed Kite Lophoictinia isura – V V Striated Grass wren Amytornis striatis – V V Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans V V – Western Warbler Gerygone fusca – R V (Gerygone) White winged Chough Corcorax – – V melanorhamphos E = Endangered V = Vulnerable R = Rare cd = conservation dependent Source: DEH 2002
The range of the once widely distributed Bush Stone curlew (Burhinus grallarius) in southern Australia has become greatly reduced. Several offshore islands of Eyre Peninsula support Bush Stone curlews (e.g. Wedge, Reevesby, Boston and Thistle islands) and the species occurs in the mainland in Lincoln National Park and private farmlands of the lower Eyre Peninsula (DEH 2009). Islands are very important for the survival of the Bush Stone curlew. Their decline has been attributed to the loss of habitat due to land clearance and predation of eggs, chicks and adults by foxes (DEH 2002).
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The Osprey ( Pandion haliaetus ) is considered rare both regionally and throughout South Australia. This species feeds exclusively on fish and, as such, nests near the sea on rock stacks or cliffs. Threats to the Osprey include the disturbance of coastal nesting sites (DEH 2002).
On Eyre Peninsula, the Southern Emu wren (Stipiturus malachurus parimeda ) is confined to the southern most parts (e.g. Coffin Bay, Wangary, Wanilla, Sleaford Bay and Lincoln National Park). This species requires dense understorey such as Low Closed Coastal Heath and Swampy Wet Heaths dominated by Gahnia spp. and Melaleuca spp., much of which has been cleared for agriculture. Threats include fragmentation, fire and loss of genetic variability (DEH 2002, DEH 2009).
The Malleefowl ( Leipoa ocellata ) has disappeared from much of its former range and now has a highly fragmented distribution largely confined to the sand dune areas across the northern Eyre Peninsula, and the mallee of the central west and northern Cowell. Higher densities are found in areas of higher rainfall and better soils where habitat is denser and food more abundant. Malleefowl are threatened by altered fire regime, predation by foxes and cats, and competition from sheep, rabbits and goats. The most suitable nesting habitat is large areas of long unburnt mallee but that is not preferred by other mallee birds (e.g. Western Whipbird Psophodes nigrogularis ). A mosaic fire regime thus suits more birds.
The Plains wanderer (Pedionomus torquatus ) has disappeared from much of its former range across Australia, especially in areas modified for intensive agriculture. A locality in the vicinity of Kimba has been identified as a core area of its distribution. Threats include overgrazing by stock and rabbits, aerial spraying for locust control, and predation by foxes and cats (DEH 2002).
The red lored whistler ( Pachycephala rufogularis ) was first recorded from Eyre Peninsula in 1993 in the Pinkawillinie Conservation Park northeast of Wudinna. Targeted surveys conducted during the mid 1990s and again between 2005 and 2006 failed to detect individuals of this species in Eyre Peninsula. The Red lored Whistler is elusive and the lack of sightings does not necessarily mean that they no longer exist in this area and the status of this species remains unconfirmed (DEH 2009). This species inhabits mallee and mallee heath. Threats include clearance and fragmentation of mallee habitat, feral predators and altered fire regimes.
On Eyre Peninsula, the Western Whipbird ( Psophodes nigrogularis leucogaster ) is confined to the southern parts, where it inhabits mallee, heath or acacia woodland. The species requires dense understorey. Threats include vegetation clearance, habitat fragmentation, loss of genetic variability, altered fire regime, and predation by dogs and cats.
A very small flock of nine to eleven Yellow tailed Black Cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus funereus ) remain on Eyre Peninsula. The population spends winter in and around the Mount Damper area and Kulliparu Conservation Park. It returns to the Koppio Hills in summer to breed and its nesting is confined to remnant patches of Sugar Gum ( Eucalyptus cladocalyx ) Woodland.
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Threats to this species include a loss of suitable nesting and feeding habitat due to land clearing for agricultural purposes, competition for nest sites with Galahs and Feral Honeybees, and degradation of habitat by grazing stock. The 2005 Wangary fire burnt the entire Yellow tailed black cockatoo breeding area and in 2008 the species is still suffering from a critical lack of food resources. Such an isolated population with a limited distribution also makes them extremely vulnerable to the impacts of stochastic events such as disease, fire and drought (DEH 2002, DEH 2009).
4.2.3 Reptiles
Of the 224 species of native reptile species in South Australia, 107 have been recorded on Eyre Peninsula. Some of these species (and/or subspecies) are endemic to Eyre Peninsula (e.g. Eyre Peninsula Dragon). Three species are of national conservation significance, two of which are only occasional visitors to South Australia. Three species are vulnerable in South Australia and 11 are rare.
The subspecies of Carpet Python ( Morelia spilota variegata ) that occurs on mainland Eyre Peninsula (Table 4.8) has been identified as a vulnerable species at State level (DEH 2002). The St Francis Island subspecies of Carpet Python (Morelia spilota imbricata ) is a different subspecies and is not State listed.
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TABLE 4.8 Reptiles of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region
Level of conservation Name of reptile species significance National State Common name Scientific name status status Bardick Echiopsis curta – R Beach Slider Lerista arenicola – R Bight Coast Skink Pseudemoia baudini – R Carpet Python (mainland) Morelia spilota variegata – V Carpet Python (St Francis Morelia spilota imbricata V – Island) Common Bandy bandy Vermicella annulata – R Dwarf Four toed Slider Lerista distinguenda – R Green Turtle* Chelonia mydas V V Heath Goanna Varanus rosenbergi – R Loggerhead Turtle* Caretta caretta E V Long legged Slider Lerista microtis – R McKenzie’s Dragon Ctenophorus Mackenzie – R Ribbon Slider Lerista taeniata – R Thorn tailed Gecko Strophurus assimilis – R Western Three lined Skink Bassiana trilineata – R Common Bandy bandy Vermicella annulata – R Notes: E = Endangered V = Vulnerable R = Rare cd = conservation dependent * = occasional visitor Source: DEH 2007d; DEH 2002
4.2.4 Amphibians
There are approximately 211 amphibian species in Australia and 28 of these occur in South Australia (DEH 2002). Seven species have been recorded on Eyre Peninsula, but only four of these species are confirmed to be naturally occurring on Eyre Peninsula. The burrowing frogs and spotted grass frog are widespread and common on Eyre Peninsula. Crinia signifera is very restricted to a few wetlands in the southern Block of the Eyre Hills subregion. Eastern Banjo Frog and Ewings Treefrogs – are probably introductions if they have been recorded in Port Lincoln. The one record of a Pseudophryne bibronii (heard only) – has not been confirmed with an actual sighting and could be a miss identification (DEH 2009). Only one locally occurring species, Bibron’s Toadlet ( Psuedophryne bibroni ), is not common and is considered to be rare in South Australia (Table 4.9).
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Threats to amphibians include grazing of aquatic and riparian vegetation areas that disrupts both breeding and feeding areas for frogs. Pollution of water supplies and water extraction also affect frog populations.
TABLE 4.9 Amphibians of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region
Level of conservation Species name significance National State Common name Scientific name status status Bibron’s Toadlet Pseudophryne bibroni – R Source: DEH 2002
4.2.5 Freshwater Fish
One cartilaginous fish species of national conservation significance and one fish species of State conservation significance have been reported from Eyre Peninsula, the White Shark and the Climbing Galaxias, respectively (Table 4.10). The Climbing Galaxias is a freshwater fish typically found in coastal drainage systems. There is little information available on its distribution and there have been few direct surveys within Eyre Peninsula NRM region (DEH 2009).
TABLE 4.10 Native freshwater fish of conservation significance occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region
Level of conservation Species name significance National State Common name Scientific name status status Climbing Galaxias Galaxias brevipinnis – R White Shark Carcharodon carcharias V – Source: DEH 2002, 2007d
4.2.6 Invertebrates
Some Tenebrionid beetles appear to be endemic to Eyre Peninsular offshore islands (Matthews 1985 cited in DEH 2002). Eight butterfly species recorded from Eyre Peninsula (Table 4.11) may be threatened or extinct but these have no official status (DEH 2002). There is little information available on the distribution of these species and there have been few targeted surveys for them in Eyre Peninsula NRM region.
All of the listed species are in the Family Hesperiidae or Lycaenidae. The larval food of Hesperiids includes species of Lomandra , Gahnia and various grasses and these butterfly species are consequently vulnerable to agricultural activities.
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Table 4.11 Endangered or vulnerable butterflies occurring within the Eyre Peninsula region
Locality information and Common name Scientific name associated food species Endangered Large Bronze Azure Ogyris idmo halmaturia Not recorded from Eyre Peninsula since 1890 until recently May be in Lincoln, Yumbarra, Pinkawillinie Larvae dependent on Sugar Ants Yellowish Sedge Hesperilla flavescens Larval food: Gahnia filum and skipper flavia G. deusta Small Bronze Azure Ogyris otanes Southern Eyre Peninsula. (Endangered on Larval food: Choretrum glomeratum mainland) Vulnerable Chrysotricha Sedge Hesperilla chrysotricha Port Lincoln to Coffin Bay. skipper cyclospila Larval food: Gahnia filum and G. (Vulnerable in South trifida Australia) Fiery Jewel Hypochrysops ignitus Not recorded from Eyre Peninsula (Vulnerable in South ignitus since 1890 until recently. Port Kenny Australia) area Dependent on one species, Iridomyrmex ant White veined Grass Herimosa albovenata Northeastern Eyre Peninsula skipper albovenata Larval food: includes wiry spear grasses Rare White spot Rush Trapezites luteus luteus Southern Eyre Peninsula, last skipper recorded in 1911 Larval food: Lomandra densiflora and L. multiflora Lithochroa Hairstreak Jalmenus lithochroa Endemic to SA, northeastern Eyre Peninsula. Larval food: Acacia victoriae Dependent on one species, Iridomyrmex ant Source: DEH 2002
Threats to butterflies include loss of habitat by clearing or grazing, altered fire regime and agricultural insecticide sprays (DEH 2002).
4.3 Key conservation areas and reserves
Protected areas are essential to the conservation of ecological communities and individual plant and animal species. They provide habitat, feeding and breeding resources, and potential mates for local species in a situation where threats (i.e. human disturbance, predation) are minimised.
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South Australia currently has seven categories of parks: national parks, conservation parks, game reserves, regional reserves and recreation parks (all established under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 ), wilderness protection areas (set aside under the Wilderness Protection Act 1992 ) and conservation reserves (set aside under the Crown Lands Act 1929 ).
The Eyre Peninsula NRM Region contains 99 parks, from national parks, such as Coffin Bay National Park, to small conservation parks and reserves, including those on offshore islands and in marine areas.
Key conservation areas on Eyre Peninsula are listed in Table 4.12. Figure 4.5 shows the locations of parks and reserves on Eyre Peninsula.
TABLE 4.12 Key conservation areas on Eyre Peninsula
Estimated No of Conservation area Key sites total area (ha) reserves Conservation parks 981,149 67 Pinkawillinie, Hincks, Wahgunyah, Hambidge, Pureba, Bascombe Well Conservation 111,556 23 Gawler Ranges, Cocata, Fowlers reserves Bay National parks 338,613 4 Coffin Bay, Great Australian Bight Marine, Lincoln Heritage 268,945 603 agreements Source: DEH 2002, DEH 2009
4.4 Key threats and influences on the conditions of the resource
4.4.1 Specific threats
Several factors pose threats to the biodiversity on Eyre Peninsula.
Native vegetation clearance and habitat fragmentation
Clearing the land of native vegetation for agricultural use (especially woodlands cleared for the high agricultural value of the underlying soils) has led to the decline in populations of many plant and animal species (DEH 2002). Native vegetation has also been cleared for residential developments, marinas, roadside maintenance and fire breaks. Remaining populations of native species often occur along roadside and railway corridors in small patches of suitable habitat in remnant vegetation. They are still threatened by road widening and maintenance (DEH 2009).
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After clearing of native vegetation, the remaining suitable habitat becomes smaller and more fragmented. Plant and animal populations tend to become smaller and isolated from one another causing changes to their genetic variability (and hence viability). Remaining habitats become vulnerable to edge effects such as weed invasion. Inappropriate fire regimes can also represent a significant threat to plants and animals in fragmented habitats. (DEH 2009)
Connectivity (via corridors of native vegetation between fragments) helps to maintain genetic linkages and allow dispersal of flora and fauna to refuge habitats
Inappropriate fire regimes
Fire is a natural part of the Australian landscape but can pose a significant threat to biodiversity and other natural resources. The threat relates to inappropriate fire regimes, which are defined by factors such as frequency, intensity, season and spatial extent. These factors interact with each other and other factors such as weather, landscape connectivity and introduced species to determine the impact of fire on biodiversity.
Different plant and animal species have different requirements of and tolerances to different aspects of the fire regime. Frequent fires can kill many plant and animal species. If two fires occur in close succession, plants may not have had enough time to recover from the first fire, i.e. by resprouting or setting seeds, before they are burnt again. However, infrequent fires disadvantage plants that need fire to assist regeneration, such as several wattle and banksia species. Following a fire, a vegetation community goes through a series of successional stages as it recovers and matures. The type of food and shelter available to animals in a vegetation community changes as it moves through these stages. Different animal species have preferences for different successional stages. Some animals thrive in habitat that has been recently burnt while others are restricted to areas that have not burnt for many years. For example mallee fowl prefer habitat that has not been burnt for at least 30 years (Benshemesh, 2000). In some areas of the Eyre Peninsula NRM region, fire frequencies may be low due to fragmentation and successful fire suppression. Whilst in other areas, fire frequencies may be high due to prescribed burning. Neither situation is ideal as long periods without fire and short fire intervals can both lead to declines in biodiversity.
Therefore ecological fire management should aim towards a mosaic of successional stages on a landscape scale.
Dr Don Driscoll of the Australian National University is currently undertaking a major project with partners including the Australian Research Council and the Native Vegetation Council. The project is studying the response to fire in mallee communities and includes study sites on Eyre Peninsula. The results of this study will assist land mangers to determine appropriate fire regimes for biodiversity management.
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in unfavourable conditions. North–south corridors are particularly important on Eyre Peninsula to maintain the integrity of ecological gradients associated with climate and landform. The fragmentation of ecosystems is particularly problematic given the likely impacts of changing climatic conditions. The preferred bioclimatic envelope for species is likely to shift over time, further emphasising the need for movement corridors of native vegetation. South Australia’s Strategic Plan initiative, East meets West, specifically aims to tackle habitat connectivity.
Salinity
Salinity is a natural feature of many streams on Eyre Peninsula (primary salinity) but clearance of native vegetation has increased recharge of saline groundwater systems, raising groundwater levels and resulting in secondary salinisation (Day et al. 2004). Dryland salinity, particularly in low lying areas, poses a risk to the health of plant species and the quality of fauna habitat and water (DEH 2002).
Introduced species
Pest plants pose a major threat to biodiversity. Weeds can suppress the growth of native plants, degrade the quality of habitat for native fauna and change the fire patterns of vegetation.
Environmental weeds found in Eyre Peninsula include Bridal Creeper, Aleppo Pine, African Boxthorn, Boneseed, Buffel Grass, Horehound, European Olive, Onion Weed, Salvation Jane and a number of introduced grasses including Perennial Veldt Grass. Eyre Peninsula has some of Australia's heaviest known concentrations of Bridal Creeper, one of Australia's 20 Weeds of National Significance. Aleppo Pines are problem plants in areas where rainfall exceeds 400 mm annually, particularly along transport corridors. Olives are also a problem in higher rainfall areas where they contribute to fire hazard, and out compete native plants. Introduced grasses are particularly problematic in lower rainfall areas of the central and northern Eyre Peninsula.
Pest animals are also a major threat to biodiversity, impacting on native flora and fauna through predation (especially by cats and foxes), competition for forage and physical habitat, excessive grazing, increasing the spread of weeds and soil erosion. Pest animals found on Eyre Peninsula include Common Starling, Feral Cat, European Red Fox, Rabbit and Goat. Feral Honeybees can impact on native species which depend on tree hollows, including the State listed vulnerable Yellow tailed Black Cockatoo.
Table 4.13 lists the priority pest plants and animals identified for developing management programs in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region. In addition, the Board has a responsibility to manage the declared pest plant and animal under the Act, which are listed at www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au/nrm/topics/nrm_policies.html
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TABLE 4.13 Priority pest plants and animals of the region
Common name Botanical name Priority pest plant species African Rue Peganum harmala Asparagus Fern Asparagus scandens Athel Pine Tamarix aphylla Blanket Weed Galenia pubescens Bifora Bifora testiculate Boneseed Chrysanthemoides monilifera Bridal Creeper Asparagus declinatus Buffel Grass Cenchrus ciliaris Carrion Flower Tribulus terrestris Coastal Teatree Leptospermum laevigatum Couch Grass Cynondon dactylon Creeping Knapweed Acroptilon repens Cutleaf Mignonette Reseda lutea Fountain Grass Pennisetum setaceum Gazania Gazania linearis Gorse/Furze Ulex europaeus Kikuyu Pennisetum setaceum Marguerite Daisy Argyranthemum frutescens subsp. frutescens Norfolk Island Hibiscus Lagunaria Patersonia Nutgrass Cyperus rotundus Prickly Pear Opuntia spp. Succulent species Cotyledon spp. e.g C. orbiculata Top five pest animals for priority programs Feral Cat Felis catus Feral deer Axis axis, Dama dama, Cervus timorensis, Axis porcinus, Cervus elaphus Feral Goat Capra hircus Fox Vulpes vulpes Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus Source: The Eyre Peninsula Natural Resource Management Board Biosecurity Management Plan, 2008
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Abundant native species
A number of native animals also cause localised threats to the stability of the region’s biodiversity and primary production, including the western grey kangaroo, galahs, Cape Barren geese, southern hairy nosed wombat and the emu. These species become particularly problematic when they occur in high numbers, often arising from habitat modification.
An increase in watering points eg stock troughs, the extensive clearing of native vegetation and the planting of annual crops and pastures has greatly benefited the above animals and birds, to the extent that their numbers are now greater than before settlement.
These “pest” native animals cause more damage to primary production than to the remaining native vegetation of the region,
Human disturbance
Direct disturbance by humans at breeding time (such as damage to nests) may cause the young of some animal species to be abandoned and thus die. Disease could be introduced by humans and is a potential threat, since transmission is easy within densely populated colonies of highly gregarious animals such as Australian Sea Lions (Shaugnessy 1999, cited in DEH 2002). Some native plant species (e.g. Allocasuarina verticillata ) are susceptible to the water mould, Phytophthora cinnamomi which causes root rot symptoms, and to attack from white scale and caterpillars which could lead to premature death.
Fishing activities may disturb colonies of native species (e.g. Australian Sea Lions may become caught up in fishing nets). Potential impacts of fishing also include by catch, pollution and the introduction of marine pests.
Changes in fire regimes since European settlement may result in changes to the frequency, intensity, season and extent of fires in the region (DEH 2002). Further, in some areas of the Eyre Peninsula NRM region, fire frequencies may be low due to fragmentation and successful fire suppression. These altered fire regimes pose a threat to native flora communities and there could also be loss of significant numbers of fauna species, particularly where the number of species in the region is low, such as the Yellow tailed Black Cockatoo.
Changed water regimes can affect susceptible vegetation such as wetlands and sedgelands (and other aquatic habitats). Activities that can change water regimes are water extraction, vegetation clearing, use of drainage channels, climate change and development of water management structures.
Open areas that are devoid of trees are favoured by recreational drivers and trail bikes and bogged off road vehicles can cause severe disturbance.
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Grazing
Grazing by stock, overabundant native fauna and pest animals degrade native vegetation. Grazing pressures relate to unrestricted stock access in vegetation remnants, feral goats and rabbits and over abundant native herbivores (e.g. kangaroos).
They deplete understorey species, compact soil and reduce recruitment of palatable overstorey vegetation. Grazing causes native vegetation to become more vulnerable to weed invasion. Uncontrolled or unlimited stock access to vulnerable habitats such as river banks can cause severe soil erosion, degrade native vegetation by trampling and increasing nutrient loads in watercourses.
The Sheoak Grassy Woodlands of Eyre Peninsula have been particularly severely impacted by grazing. Allocasuarina verticillata i s palatable to many feral herbivores and this plant community has been impacted by sheep, cattle, horses, rabbits and kangaroos.
Chemical pollution
The degradation of marine habitats due to pollution from industry and oil spills can affect populations of native animal species (Figure 7.6). Herbicides used on agricultural crops may also pose a threat to native species. The spraying of insecticides for control of pests (e.g. plague locusts), particularly by aerial means, may kill some species directly or indirectly from entering the food chain (DEH 2002). Further, fungicides applied with little regard to off target drift could be expected to interfere with native soil fungi and spores (e.g. an agri crop fungicide is known to interfere with the Bridal Creeper biocontrol rust spores). Native flora species that rely on specialist native insects may be disadvantaged if insect lifecycles are disrupted (DEH 2009).
Erosion
Soil erosion caused by water and wind is a widespread problem in the agricultural areas of the region and results in a loss of habitat value. Erosion is exacerbated by vegetation clearance, poor land management practices and poor soil structure (Figures 5.4 and 5.5). Rabbits also add to the soil erosion threat.
4.4.2 Climate change
Climate change is a major threat facing many areas across Australia with potential consequences including changes in temperature and rainfall patterns, and sea level rise. These changes could impact significantly upon the ecosystems and flora and fauna species of the Eyre Peninsula NRM region. Further, climate change is likely to increase fire intensities, fire sizes and fire frequencies, and change the seasonality of fires (DEH 2009). Adjustment to climate change is a goal of No Species Loss: A Nature Conservation Strategy for South Australia (2007–2017 ) (DEH 2007a). Examples of impacts to biodiversity include areas of mangroves and salt marshes being affected by sea level rise, particularly if there are land barriers developed in adjacent areas (such as roads and levee banks).
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In the case of significant global warming, there is the threat that the capacity of ecosystems to adapt will be exceeded, with a risk of eventual species extinction.
The Council of Australian Governments (COAG) and the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC) have both identified biodiversity as a priority for climate change adaptation (Department of Climate Change 2008). The NRMMC have set out adaptation strategies and actions to minimise the impacts of climate change on biodiversity:
reducing existing threats to biodiversity to build resilience into natural systems and species
incorporating climate change information into management tools for biodiversity managers
assisting the natural adaptation of species and ecosystems through improved on reserve and off reserve management of areas of high conservation value
continually developing a comprehensive, adequate and representative National Reserve System which incorporates adaptation to the impacts of climate change
increasing monitoring and research into the impacts of climate change and adaptation options for species and ecosystems threatened by climate change (Department of Climate Change 2008).
The Australian Government Department of Climate Change has developed a table of direct and indirect impacts of climate change on biodiversity on its website (Table 4.14).
TABLE 4.14 Potential impacts of climate change on biodiversity
Potential direct physical and ecosystem Potential secondary and indirect effects impacts Increases in temperature
Potential Southward species migration Mismatching of lifecycle interactions
Changes in range of pest animals and between species (predator–prey; plant– plants, and diseases herbivore; pathogen–host; pollinators– flowering plants) leading to species Species migration to higher altitudes declines and extinctions Changes in phenology (lifecycle events: Changes in competitive interactions flowering, egg laying, migration) among species, and the structure and Changes in distribution and abundance composition of communities and of species ecosystems
Changes in metabolism Increased occurrence of eutrophication (photosynthesis, respiration, growth of streams, lakes, wetlands and and tissue composition) in plants estuaries
Species loss Reduced capacity for recovery of Increased frequency and intensity of natural areas following wild fire and wild fires other disturbance regimes
Genetic changes in species to new climatic conditions
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Potential direct physical and ecosystem Potential secondary and indirect effects impacts Sea level rise
Changes in structure of coral reefs and shallow water marine communities
Increased inundation of coastal wetlands and lowlands
Loss of estuarine, coastal species and communities
Increased intrusion of saltwater vegetation into freshwater ecosystems in coastal areas Increases in sea surface temperature
Increased coral bleaching
Pole ward species migration
Increased algal blooms
Decrease in coastal montane cloud forests
Changes in species distribution and ecosystem composition Altered rainfall and runoff patterns (local increases/decreases)
Altered river flow and changes to Increased incidence of eutrophication of sediment and nutrient dynamics streams, lakes and estuaries
Altered lowland flood risk Changes in species distribution and
Loss of wetlands and associated ecosystem composition biodiversity
Loss of migratory birds dependent on wetlands and streams Disruption to stream, estuarine, wetland food webs due to reduced supply of nutrients Drying of ecosystems leading to loss of species and changes in community composition Invasion of woody shrubs into drying landscapes Altered frequency of extreme weather events
Increased destruction of coral reefs, Changes in species competitive other coastal ecosystems and terrestrial interactions and species and ecosystems community composition
Mass mortality when climate thresholds Changes in range of pest species are exceeded during extreme events
Loss of species due to reduced snowfall and reduced occurrences of frosts
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Potential direct physical and ecosystem Potential secondary and indirect effects impacts
Elevated CO 2 in the atmosphere and ocean
Increased ocean acidification Impaired movement and function of
Increased erosion of coral reefs due to high oxygen ocean acidification and decreased rates demand fauna (e.g. squid, fish)
of calcification Changes to plant–insect prey relations Increased disruption to food chains due to decreased nitrogen content in (e.g. Southern Ocean) vegetation
Changes in photosynthesis, respiration, Changes in species distribution and growth and tissue composition in plants ecosystem composition
Decreased nitrogen content in vegetation
Increased invasion of woody shrubs into arid and semi arid rangelands Source: IPCC, Pittock 2003 and Howden et al 2003 in Department of Climate Change 2008
4.4.3 Threats from development activities
Changing population dynamics and industry changes place significant development pressures upon Eyre Peninsula, particularly in coastal areas. These pressures are not just from coastal housing but also from coastal industrial developments such as aquaculture, fisheries, tourism and recreation. The potential trade off of development and biodiversity conservation must be taken into account. Unless appropriately handled, development has the potential to compromise biodiversity and agricultural production values. As understanding of the ecology of the region grows, so does our awareness about the interconnectedness of landscapes, habitats, ecological processes and species. The cumulative impacts of a number of proposed developments is more complex than the sum of the single development but each is assessed as a single entity. The ability to assess the ongoing cumulative impacts of multiple development is problematic.
All forms of development potentially impact on biodiversity values. These impacts need to be investigated in the planning process and planning stages of proposed developments by identifying the values and the risks to them. If the values are threatened, development must be subject to controls or suitable mitigation measures included with approvals.
4.4.4 Threats from industry
The trade off between industrial development and biodiversity conservation must be taken into account. Industrial development can compromise the biodiversity values of a region or locality if it is not handled appropriately.
Agriculture is one of the main industries on Eyre Peninsula. The clearance of native vegetation for agriculture and stock grazing has contributed to significant impacts on biodiversity of the region including erosion, loss of habitat, loss of species and fragmentation after loss of habitat (DEH 2002).
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Tourism is the third largest land based industry on Eyre Peninsula (ABS 2006) and presents both opportunities and constraints for natural resources management and protection (DEH 2002). Increased awareness about natural assets is a tourism benefit; however increased development, larger visitor numbers and some recreational pursuits can threaten the integrity of fragile natural systems, particularly on the coast. Uninformed tourists can contribute to the destruction of biodiversity, for example by straying from designated trails/roads and trampling habitats, and by polluting fragile environments with rubbish and other waste.
4.5 Key management initiatives
4.5.1 Department of Environment and Heritage related programs
DEH plays a major role in the conservation, protection and restoration of South Australia’s natural environment. DEH has staff located at Port Lincoln, Coffin Bay National Park, Venus Bay Conservation Park, Ceduna and the Gawler Ranges National Park. DEH has primary land management responsibility for 99 parks and reserves (3,545,775 ha) dedicated under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 across the Eyre Peninsula NRM region. The department manages them for public benefit and enjoyment and to provide for the conservation of wildlife in a natural environment. All activities are guided by statewide and regional strategies including No Species Loss: A Nature Conservation Strategy for South Australia 2007–2017 .
4.5.2 Wild Country
Wild Country is a conservation initiative of the Wilderness Society that brings together a consortium of non government and government organisations. Wild Country develops a science based, continent wide approach to conservation planning. Wild Country focuses on maintaining and/or restoring ecological connections in the landscape (The Wilderness Society 2006). Wild Country initiatives on Eyre Peninsula include securing funding for land acquisition, promoting issues and initiatives within the community and addressing regional conservation threats including climate change.
4.5.3 Integrated Weed Management
Integrated Weed Management aims to provide control measures for Asparagus asparagoides , A. declinatus and other asparagus weeds including the newly identified Western Cape form of A. asparagoides . This project, an initiative of the Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Board, works closely with landholders to establish biological controls such as Leaf Hopper, Leaf eating Beetle and Rust Fungus.
4.5.4 Integrated Pest Management
Integrated Pest Management programs have over 400 landholders across the central and western Eyre Peninsula incorporating vertebrate pest management into routine land management. The project aims to provide long term benefits for the
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whole community in biodiversity and agricultural productivity. It is an initiative of the Eyre Peninsula NRM Board (EPNRMB 2007).
4.5.5 Bush Management and Conservation
Bush Management and Conservation programs include on ground works to promote biodiversity, bushland condition monitoring and habitat management for species survival. These initiatives of the Eyre Peninsula NRM Board (EPNRMB 2007) target threatened species and habitats of high conservation significance.
4.5.6 Heritage Agreement Scheme For more information about Heritage Agreement scheme provides landholders with resources to assist with the the Heritage management of their native vegetation. The heritage Agreement grant scheme Agreement scheme, visit www.environ provides financial assistance and expert advice on the management of issue in the ment.sa.gov.au/biod iversity/heritage_ed native vegetation. Heritage Agreements make resources available to landholders to ucation.html assess biodiversity, and access management expertise and funding for management and rehabilitation.
A 'Heritage Agreement' is a contract between a landholder and the Minister for the Environment and Conservation for the protection in perpetuity of a particular area of native vegetation (DEH 2007c). The scheme is administered by the Department for Environment and Heritage on behalf of the Native Vegetation Council and Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation. Heritage agreements on Eyre Peninsula are shown in Figure 4.6.
4.5.7 Biodiversity programs of Eyre Peninsula and the Far West
Eyre Peninsula Regional Revegetation Strategies aim to draw together priority natural resources and economic issues, and identify actions to be promoted through on ground works (Ellis 1999, cited in DEH 2002).
Development plans for many councils on Eyre Peninsula set out planning and development objectives relating to the natural environment, ecologically sustainable development, and the management or conservation of land, buildings and heritage areas.
Existing biodiversity management initiatives include:
East meets West NatureLinks (South Australia’s Strategic Plan Target 3.2)
Fire management
Venus Bay Ecological Restoration
Threatened Ecological Communities Recovery
Threatened Species Recovery.
The following initiative has concluded: Lower Eyre Peninsula Bushfire Re establishment Program 91
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Wild Eyre
The Wild Eyre CAP is a joint intiative of a EPNRM Board, DEH, Greening Australia and the Wilderness Society of South Australian branch. The project intends to conserve a large track of continoius and relative intact native vegetation including coastal habitat in an area (approximately 1,225,000ha) of central and north west of Eyre Peninsula. The project identifies to conserve key assests which are home to numerous threatened and iconic species such as shorebir, osprey, and sea lions. Inland areas feature significant stands of different mallee communities as well as native pine, sheoak and grasslands. Significance of this project is an opportunity for partnership by key natural resource stakeholder for maximising the impact to biodiversity associated with cliamate change.
East Meets West NatureLinks
The East meets West NatureLink is being established to assist the species and ecosystems within central and northern Eyre Peninsula and the far west of South Australia to survive, evolve and adapt to environmental change. It will connect habitats through a system of core protected areas, buffered and linked by lands which have complementary land management objectives. East meets West aims to involve people in nature conservation and conserve the integrity of ecological processes. It seeks to achieve positive outcomes for nature conservation while enhancing sustainable land management and regional economic development (DEH 2006b).
Fire management planning in parks and reserves
DEH is systematically preparing and implementing Fire Management Plans for all reserves managed under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 in the Eyre Peninsula NRM region. As of 1 October 2008, a Fire Management Plan had been developed for the parks of the Lower Eyre Peninsula and preparation for the Central Mallee parks had begun. Fire management plans outline the necessary fire management measures and prescribed burning strategies to help manage the conservation values within reserves.
In addition SAWater is a major land manager responsible for large areas of land located across Eyre Peninsula. Land management plans including fire management plans area developed for these areas.
Venus Bay Ecological Restoration
The main portion of Venus Bay Conservation Park is located on a narrow peninsula of land bounded on three sides by sea, making it ideal for the reintroduction of threatened wildlife species. To make the conservation park a permanent safe haven for the native fauna species, pest species (specifically cats and foxes) eradications have been run and a vermin proof fence erected to prevent re infestation. Introduced weeds are also being removed and a native plant revegetation program is underway (DEH 2007c).
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Threatened Ecological Communities Recovery
In 2001, DEH began a Threatened Ecological Communities Recovery project to restore the Drooping Sheoak ( Allocasuarina verticillata) Grassy Woodland ecological community in Coffin Bay National Park. The woodland was once widespread across Eyre Peninsula and provided habitat for many animal species including the Brush tail Bettong, Greater Bilby and Tammar Wallaby. DEH is restoring this regionally significant ecological community by reducing total grazing pressure (by removing herbivores such as horses, rabbits and kangaroos) and revegetating areas with sheoak seed and seedlings. Threatened Species Recovery operates in a similar way for individual fauna and flora species (DEH 2007c).
Lower Eyre Peninsula Bushfire Re establishment Program
Established after the January 2005 Black Tuesday bushfire this two year program implemented critical management actions to conserve the valuable biodiversity impacted by the fire (DEH 2007c).
Community engagement
Community engagement in the West Region aims to increase community awareness and involvement in biodiversity conservation on Eyre Peninsula and the Far West through various media and public events such as field days (DEH 2007c).
4.5.2 Other programs
Roadside vegetation management For more information about DTEI’s Roadside The Department of Transport, Energy and Infrastructure (DTEI) helps local councils Significant Sites Database, contact map, prioritise and manage roadside vegetation reserves. Roadside management DTEI or visit www plans at the council level, together with signage at high value sites and community .transport.sa.gov.au and contractor education, is important in protecting these corridors and remnants. DTEI manages and maintains the Roadside Significant Sites Database (RSSD) to help protect sites of environmental and cultural significance along roads that it maintains. Figure 4.7 outlines areas of roadside vegetation on Eyre Peninsula.
4.5.3 Recommended initiatives
Maximise biodiversity expertise available to landholders.
Take an integrated approach to develop a comprehensive scientific knowledge base of biodiversity issues and threats on Eyre Peninsula that builds on existing programs and identifies high priority areas for future investigation and management.
Assess the regional significance of threats and the relative contribution of natural assets to overall biodiversity on Eyre Peninsula. Apply best practice prioritisation approaches to appropriately allocate resources for investigation and management and to target threats such as climate change, fire and weed management, fragmentation and habitat loss.
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Initiate a forum to coordinate efforts, build partnerships, include industry and share information in the broad range of NRM initiatives that target aspects of biodiversity protection and enhancement, which are implemented by communities, non government organisations, and local, State and Commonwealth government agencies.
Develop a coordinated strategy at the NRM Board level to identify and target potential community ‘clients’ for existing initiatives that build knowledge and capacity in the community, such as Heritage Agreements, revegetation programs and pest plant and animal control.
Use awareness programs to educate the community about training and other resources and the role of pest plant and animal control in biodiversity, and thus enlist their participation in pest plant and animal control programs.
Build community capacity, already a component of several biodiversity programs, by educating them on conservation values and management threats and enabling ongoing management beyond the scope of specific projects.
Determine the optimum fire regime to promote biodiversity and control threats associated with undesirable fire frequency and intensity.
Involve local government in a collaborative partnership approach to contribute to biodiversity outcomes by incorporating biodiversity values and issues in development plans. Local government requires rigorous processes to identify ecological risks in developments and to appropriately refer them to government agencies under Section 8 of the Development Act 1993.
Incorporate native flora and fauna habitat in the built environment of the peri urban areas of Whyalla and Port Lincoln.
Gain funding for further research into the Eyre Peninsula Southern Emu wren.
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4.6 Biodiversity indicators
Biodiversity indicators are used to track changes in the environment. They are:
state or condition indicators – of the condition of the environment
pressure indicators – of positive or negative effects of human activities on a particular component of the environment
response indicators – of the management responses that have or are being undertaken to address the pressures upon the environment.
Table 4.15 lists the biodiversity issues and their respective indicators which are defined by indicator type (condition, pressure or response) and the condition or trends (negative, positive, stable or unknown) they exhibit.
TABLE 4.15 Biodiversity Indicators
Type of Condition/ Issue Indicator indicator trend Number of known populations of endangered and C vulnerable species and ecological communities ??? Extent and rate of vegetation clearance or major P modification of habitat Extent and condition of remnant native vegetation C
Area of revegetation for habitat restoration R
Percentage development plans which include R
Flora Faunaand biodiversity provisions Degree of habitat fragmentation/degree of habitat C connectivity Number of action or recovery plans for threatened R species implemented ??? Proportion of vegetation types conserved in the DEH reserve system R
Total area in DEH reserve system C
Area of protected by Heritage Agreements R Protected areas
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Type of Condition/ Issue Indicator indicator trend Number of key conservation sites with significant P weed issues Changes in populations of pest plant and animal P species ??? Distribution of key terrestrial pest plants (and P changes in distribution) ??? Investment in pest plant control R Pest plants animalsand
Community involvement in biodiversity programs R
Biodiversity related tourism products such as eco C tours School and independent education programs and R community monitoring programs
Other indicators Resources used for research to fill in knowledge R gaps ??? C = condition (state) indicator; P = pressure indicator; R = response indicator Assessment is colour coded: blue = optimal; green = good; yellow = moderate; red = poor Trends are noted with symbols: ↓ – negative; ↑ – positive; ↔ stable; ? – unknown
4.7 Information gaps
Several key gaps exist in the biodiversity knowledge of Eyre Peninsula.
Climate change will place additional pressure on the region’s biodiversity. Knowledge of the range of these impacts is needed to allow the region’s management to minimise the impacts of these pressures.
Information is lacking on the current status of threatened plant and animal species. If biodiversity programs are to appropriately target matters of high conservation significance, the status of threatened species must be monitored. This could involve a baseline audit and regular (e.g. five yearly) reports on improvements or deterioration in population sizes, habitat quality or threats to important species. This information is essential to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of biodiversity programs. If programs are not successful in their biodiversity objectives they must be improved and strategic decisions can only be made if the outcomes are monitored.
Is not clear whether current biodiversity programs are targeted on the sites and species of highest conservation priority. Baseline information form the basis of a regional biodiversity risk assessment that identifies the most important species and sites to target based on their conservation significance and the degree of threat. A regional risk assessment would guide investment strategies to the most important biodiversity issues.
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Aboriginal knowledge of flora and fauna appears to be largely undocumented on Eyre Peninsula. This information provides a cultural dimension to biodiversity programs and potentially helps guide recovery programs for threatened species.
4.8 Bibliography
AMLR NRMB. 2007. Creating a Sustainable Future: A Natural Resources Management Plan for the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region . Volume A – State of the Region Report. Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board, South Australia.
Australian Nature Conservation Agency. 1996. A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia , 2nd ed. Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra.
Benshemesh, J (2000) National Recovery Plan for Malleefowl. publ: Environment Australia
Boggon, T and Evans, I. 2006. A Coordinated Approach to Wetland Management on Eyre Peninsula . Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Board, South Australia.
Day, P, Das, P, Hunwick, J and Clarke, K. 2004. Eyre Peninsula Catchment Report . Eyre Peninsula Catchment Water Management Board, Port Lincoln.
DEH. 2002. Biodiversity Plan for Eyre Peninsula . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/pdfs/bio Plans/eyre_summary.pdf
DEH. 2003. Lake Newland Conservation Park Management Plan . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
DEH. 2004a. Lincoln National Park Management Plan . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
DEH. 2004b. Parks of the Coffin Bay Area Management Plan . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
DEH. 2006a. Distribution and status of Brushtail Possums on the Lower Eyre Peninsula following the January 2005 bushfire. Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/ west_bcp/pdfs/brushtail_possums_dist.pdf
DEH. 2006b. NatureLinks: East Meets West Corridor Plan Draft . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
DEH. 2006c. Gawler Ranges National Park Management Plan . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
DEH. 2006d. Island Parks of Western Eyre Peninsula Management Plan . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
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DEH. 2007a. No Species Loss: A nature conservation strategy for South Australia 2007–2017 . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.environment.sa.gov.au/naturelinks/pdfs/emw_ Plan.pdf
DEH. 2007b. Threatened Flora of the South Australian Department for Environment and Heritage’s West Region . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
DEH. 2007c. Biodiversity Conservation Programs of Eyre Peninsula and the Far West . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. [website] www.biodiversity.sa.gov.au/west_bcp
DEH. 2007d. Threatened Fauna of the South Australian Department for Environment and Heritage’s West Region . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
DEH. 2008. South Australian National Parks and Reserves . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.parks.sa.gov.au/parks
DEH 2009 Comments on Draft State of Our Resources for EP NRMB State of the Region Report (unpublished)
DEH. undated. Biological Survey of Kulliparu, Eyre Peninsula . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/pdfs/biosurvey/kulliparu.pdf
DEH. undated. Biological survey of the Eyre Peninsula . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/pdfs/biosurvey/eyre_peninsula.p df
DEH. undated. Review of threatened fauna monitoring on Eyre Peninsula . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/west_bcp/pub.html
DEH. undated, Strategic management of Aleppo Pines on Lower Eyre Peninsula to maximize biodiversity conservation outcomes . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/west_bcp/pdfs/aleppo_pines.pdf
DEWHA 2007. Biodiversity . Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra. www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity
IPCC. 2008. Green facts: facts on health and the environment . Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change www.greenfacts.org/links/site boxes/itcc.htm
Jusaitis, M and O’Connor, T. 1999. Acacia whibleyana and Brachycome muelleri : Conservation Biology Reports for Two Endangered Species from South Australia’s Eyre Peninsula.’ Danthonia 7:4. The Australian Network for Plant Conservation. [website] www.anbg.gov.au/anpc/jusaitus
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McMurray, D. 2006. Impacts of Farm Dams on Streamflow in the Tod River Catchment, Eyre Peninsula, South Australia . Knowledge and Information Division, Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation Report, South Australia.
Natural Resources Management 2008. Australian Government funded NRM projects, www.nrm.govCont.au/index.html.
Paton, JB, Alexander, PJ, Bird, PL, Piva, FD, Inns, RW, Kelly, DK and Storr, RF. 1996. The Common Brushtail Possum in South Australia: Seminar Proceedings, Adelaide, South Australia, May 29, 1996. Fauna Management Coordinating Committee, Adelaide.
Pobke, K. 2007. Draft Recovery Plan for 23 Threatened Flora Taxa on Eyre Peninsula, South Australia 2007–2012 . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
Thackway, R and Cresswell, ID. 1995. An Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia: A framework for setting priorities in the National Reserves System Cooperative Program, Version 4.0 . Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra.
The Wilderness Society. 2006. Wild Country, Australia. www.wilderness.org.au/campaigns/wildcountry
Twidale, CR, Tyler, MJ and Davies, M. undated. Natural History of Eyre Peninsula. Royal Society of South Australia (Inc), South Australia.
Van Weenen, J, Bellchambers, K and Armstrong, D. 2006. Threatened Species – the Brush-tailed Bettong in South Australia – from extinct to indicator species . Adelaide, South Australia.
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5. Land Relevant legislation Natural Resources Management Act 2004 (SA)
5.1 Geological features and landscapes
Eyre Peninsula is part of a major tectonic province known as the Gawler Craton, For more information about which includes Yorke Peninsula, the Gawler Ranges and the vast region of central the Geology of Eyre Peninsula, South Australia. The Gawler Craton extends west of Lake Torrens north to Marla, see Primary as far west as Ooldea and southwards to the outer edge of the continental shelf. Industries and Resources SA The Gawler Craton is defined as a geologically stable part of the earth’s crust that www.pir.sa.gov.au/ minerals/geology/g has not been subject to major tectonic forces for 1450 million years. eological_province s/gawler_craton The geological evolution of Eyre Peninsula spans 2700 million years. The oldest rocks on Eyre Peninsula (the Sleaford Complex) are of late Archaean to early Proterozoic age (about 2700–2300 million years ago). They have suffered a number of complex metamorphic, igneous and deformational events that have transformed them into a series of contorted gneisses. These gneisses are overlain by a sequence of iron bearing sediments known collectively as the Hutchinson Group.
Granites underlie much of Eyre Peninsula, some of which contain traces of metals. During the Cainozoic era a veneer of fairly thin, largely alluvial sediments blanketed Eyre Peninsula. The surficial deposits were formed during the last one million years. Extensive aeolian dune sands, alluvial sands, silts and conglomerates, and thin but often very tough calcareous layers form a thin veneer rarely more than a few metres thick covering almost the entire peninsula (Figure 5.1).
The triangular shape of Eyre Peninsula is dictated by faults in the earth’s crust. A zone of faults runs down the eastern coast and includes faults such as the Lincoln Fault that delineates the Koppio and Cleve hills. Another fault zone runs from south of the peninsula along the coast toward Elliston. A series of northwesterly faults south of the Gawler Ranges resulted in a weakness that was eroded by ancient streams (and later infilled), forming the Corrobinnie Depression.
For most of its history the region has been a relatively stable mass, eroding away and periodically being altered by further mountain building phases (referred to as orogenies), volcanic events, the intrusion of molten rocks, and faulting along ancient lines of weakness. In more recent times, old eroded land surfaces have been overlain by sediments to form new landscapes.
The land surface of Eyre Peninsula rises from sea level to the Koppio Hills (320 m) with other scattered granitic outcrops, up to 495 m in height throughout central Eyre Peninsula. The main topographic features on the peninsula are the Cleve Hills in the northeast and the Koppio Hills (or Lincoln Uplands) toward the southeast. These areas are generally above 200 m and peak above 400 m.
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The highest peaks are Carapee Hill (495 m), Caralue Bluff (486 m), Carpie Puntha (479 m) Darke Range (450 m), Mount Olinthus (453 m). A number of isolated ranges are also scattered across the region: Marble Range (436 m) and South Block (391 m) on lower Eyre Peninsula and Mount Wudinna (261 m), Ucontitchie Hill (119 m) and Mount Wedge (249 m) in the central and western districts (Figure 5.2).
5.1.1 Minerals
The mining industry on Eyre Peninsula is experiencing growth and optimism, and For more information about has the potential to become a significant contributor to the region’s economy. the minerals found on Eyre Peninsula Commodities currently mined on Eyre Peninsula include iron ore, dolomite, see the SA graphite, lime sand, gypsum, silica, granite, nephrite jade, talc and salt. Historically, Resources Information copper, lead, silver and gold have also been mined. Geoserver (SARIG): info.pir.sa.gov.au/ge oserver/sarig/frame The region is Australia’s largest producer of gypsum for the national plasterboard Set.jsp market with annual production at the Lake MacDonnell mine near Penong exceeding 1 million tonnes.
Eyre Peninsula also produces an extensive range of granite types for decorative use in Australia. They have been exported widely and used for monuments nation wide. Eyre Peninsula granites have been used in the national Parliament and Sydney Opera House as well as in landmark developments in Japan, Taiwan and the Solomon Islands.
Cowell jade represents the world’s largest source of jade. A large salt mine is located at Penong using a method of naturally occurring salt water and solar evaporation.
The lime sand at Coffin Bay was used for 30 years until 1993 in the Whyalla steelworks, and is now used in relatively small amounts for local use and the Port Pirie smelters. Stone and rubble are also widely quarried and utilised for local construction. Potential also exists for Olympic Dam style copper, uranium and gold mineralisation.
There are known occurrences in the region of uranium, zinc, coal, oil shale, kaolin, heavy mineral sands, scheelite, nickel and chrome with promising prospects for gold, copper, porphyry and stones of other dimensions.
Recently, viable iron ore deposits were located at Wilgerup near Lock and zircon rich mineral sands in the Ceduna region. Exploration for iron ore, uranium and mineral sands continues on the peninsula.
Graphite resources, notably at Uley near Port Lincoln, are the largest reported in Australia. Coal deposits located near Lock have been mooted as an alternative fuel source for the Port Augusta Power Station.
Numerous significant uranium occurrences have been recorded on southeastern Eyre Peninsula. Primary pitchblende uranium mineralisation has been recorded
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from areas near Port Lincoln, and secondary uranium minerals along fractures, joints and foliations identified in a number of areas particularly the hills west of Cowell.
Exploration has outlined very large kaolin resources in the region of Mount Hope, Kimba, Poochera and Mount Sturt. Substantial resources have been delineated which are suitable for beneficiation to meet specifications required for the top end of paper coating, ceramic and filler markets.
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5.1.2 Geological monuments
Geological monuments are sites that show features of such outstanding geological or geomorphological significance that they are considered by the community of For more information about earth scientists to be worthy of conservation. Exposures or outcrops of rocks are geological monuments of Eyre numerous and diverse in much of South Australia but relatively few provide Peninsula is outstandingly significant scientific data. Those that do constitute irreplaceable available from Primary Resources segments of earth history. They illustrate one or more geological features and/or and Information SA processes that are not shown elsewhere or with such clarity. www.pir.sa.gov.au/ minerals/geology/ge ological_monuments Sometimes, additional qualities such as aesthetic appeal, rarity and historical links may be present, in which case the monument is likely to be better known to, and more valued by, the public at large. Some may be well known as landscape features and have an additional role in tourism and recreation. Monuments are typically found at natural outcrops, river or coastal sections, disused quarries, road cuttings and, occasionally, caves. They may be a single small outcrop or a large landscape feature; they may be located on public or private land.
On Eyre Peninsula, 37 sites designated as geological monuments (Table 5.1; Figure 5.1).
TABLE 5.1 Sites designated as geological monuments on Eyre Peninsula
Geological monument title GSA Reference Pilpdappa Rock E10 Yarwondutta Rock E11 Tcharkuldu Hill E12 Chilpuddie Hill E13.1 Podinna Rock and Chilpuddie Tank E13.2 Poondana Rock E14 Mount Wudinna and environs E15 Corrobinnie Hill E16.1 Peella Rock E16.2 Pygery Rocks E17 Southern Eyre Peninsula (Kirton Point, Cape Donington to Cape E2.1, E2.2, E2.3 Catastrophe, Fishery Bay to Cape Carnot) Waddikee Rocks E22 Talia Caves E23 Arno Bay E24 Scapolite near Cowell E27 Drummond Point E28 Murphy Haystacks E29 Cape Donington E31 Eyre Island E32
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Geological monument title GSA Reference Point Brown E33 Clare Bay E34 Port Le Hunte: Pleistocene outcrops, Glanville formation exposure E35.1 Port Le Hunte: Pleistocene outcrops, jetty exposure E35.2 Smooth pool E36 Ucontitchie Hill E38 Port Neill–Kalinjala mylonite zone E39 Cape Carnot E8 Whyalla District (New Water Tank Hill, Mount Laura, Douglas W1.1, W1.2, W1.4, Point, Backy Point, Cultana) W1.5, W1.6 Moonabie Range – Area 2 W2.2 Deep Creek W3.1 Wertigo Rock Hole W3.2 GSA = Geological Society of Australia
5.2 Soils
The major soil types on Eyre Peninsula are calcareous soils and siliceous sands (Figure 5.3). Eyre Peninsula has extensive shallow calcrete and calcareous loams overlying highly calcareous unconsolidated deposits with areas of dune–swale and sandplain complexes.
For detailed local soil information and 5.2.1 Soil types historic management, see soil conservation Soils on Eyre Peninsula are closely associated with the region’s geology. The plans prepared for the Soil Districts of oldest soils have formed from weathering of the ancient (Archean) basement and the Eyre Peninsula Hutchinson Group rocks. The resulting sediments have been deposited to form in 2002–2003 (listed in Bibliography) landscapes such as the Cummins Plains. In some cases ancient laterite landscapes, have then been subject to further weathering, resulting in the formation of ironstone soils. In more recent times, deposition through aeolian (wind blown) processes have dominated, causing the development of limestone and sand landscapes. The result is extensive areas of calcareous soils and sands. The latter are often water repellent with low water holding capacity.
Calcareous soils are the most common soils in the region, covering nearly 60% of the surface. They are often associated with the Bridgewater Formation, Bakara or Ripon calcrete. They have low water holding capacity, are deficient in plant nutrients such as copper, zinc, molybdenum and manganese and, like most soils on the peninsula, have inherently low levels of phosphates and nitrogen.
Siliceous sands cover 20% of the region and form sand over clay soils and parallel and jumbled dune systems. They have low inherent fertility and low water holding capacity, are often highly water repellent and generate little runoff.
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Other soil categories, such as lateritic and sodosolic soils, hydrosols, vertosols and sandy soils other than siliceous sands are of high conservation value in the region for catchment hydrology and ecological diversity.
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5.2.2 Inherent characteristics
Most of Eyre Peninsula’s soils are formed on sedimentary or metamorphic basement rocks, their weathering products, ancient unconsolidated clays and sands, calcareous marine deposits or windblown deposits derived from them. The rate of soil formation is slow in the relatively arid climate, with low inherent soil fertility and biological activity. Due to the high degree of weathering which they have undergone, or to their sandy or calcareous nature, the parent materials on which modern soils are formed are nutritionally poor (Figure 5.3).
A long weathering history, arid climate and past marine incursions have left significant quantities of sodium and other soluble salts in soil profiles in most parts of Eyre Peninsula. In lower rainfall districts of Upper Eyre Peninsula, alkalinity, sodicity and salinity commonly affect subsoils; those soils not affected are likely to be deep, low fertility sands prone to water repellence and wind erosion.
In the higher rainfall districts, texture contrast (duplex) soils are common. Subsoils are often nutritionally deficient, with high strength and bulk density, resulting in low water conductivity and consequent poor root growth and function. Eyre Peninsula has significant areas of sloping land with highly erodible soils particularly in the Koppio and Cleve hills.
Across the peninsula, it is common for root zone depth to be limited by adverse physical and/or chemical subsoil characteristics. Sandy soils in the higher rainfall areas, particularly on Lower Eyre Peninsula can suffer the additional problems of leaching and acidification.
Despite their relative infertility, the soils of Eyre Peninsula, combined with improvements in farm management and practices, provide significant economic returns through dryland cereal cropping and grazing – chiefly winter cropping of wheat and barley as well as wool and livestock production.
Coastal acid sulphate soils are discussed in section 7.9.4.
5.2.3 Soil condition
Soil condition is an indicator of the health of the soil and a key to sustainable land management. It is a measure of the capacity of a soil to function, within land use and ecosystem boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, maintain environmental health, and promote plant, animal, and human health.
Very few indicators are used to measure soil condition directly. Different soil types have inherently different characteristics, and therefore it is not usually appropriate to compare the characteristics of the soil at one site with another to infer which is in better condition. Indicators of land condition are more straight forward to measure and are therefore more commonly used. In South Australia, the Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation (DWLBC) measures indicators of land condition for soil erosion risk factors, rather than directly measuring land degradation.
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Soils on Eyre Peninsula, like most soils throughout South Australia, are prone to the damaging effects of wind and water erosion, salinity and other degrading factors. The evidence of severe wind and water erosion can still be seen in some areas, as a legacy of the past or a demonstration of ongoing problems. However, a range of less visible soil degradation processes also threatens the long term sustainability of agriculture.
In the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region, 2.8 million hectares (ha) of land have been cleared for agriculture and over time much of it has experienced some form of degradation from unsustainable farming systems:
Wind erosion is a major land degradation issue.
Water erosion is a significant land degradation issue on sloping land of the Koppio and Cleve hills.
Water repellent sands are a significant management problem that limits water use efficiency in crops and pastures.
In the extensive areas of dry saline land, erosion of shallow topsoil leaves a surface very hostile to plant establishment and growth.
Significant areas of poorly buffered (sandy) acid soils are under intensive cropping in the more reliable higher rainfall areas where rates of acidification are relatively high.
Scattered saline soaks appear where shallow local watertables intercept the soil surface.
The soils of the region are typically low in fertility with over 24,000 ha affected by dryland salinity, some 370,000 ha at high–extreme risk of wind erosion, 180,000 ha of land prone or affected by soil acidity and 288,000 ha at risk or affected by water erosion (DWLBC 2007).
Wind erosion
Organic matter and most of the nutrients critical for plant growth are usually concentrated in the upper 10 cm of the soil. With slow forming, shallow topsoils that can also be structurally unstable, and subsoils that are infertile and often hostile to root growth, any loss of soil by erosion or other degradation process can cause large and very long term losses of productive capacity.
The greatest potential for land degradation on the peninsula is related to wind erosion. There are 834,000 ha (29% of cleared land) in the region with moderate or higher potential for wind erosion (DWLBC 2007) (Table 5.2; Figure 5.4). The worst affected areas are the sandy soils, particularly water repellent sands, of eastern and upper Eyre Peninsula. A further 1,698,000 ha or 60% of the cleared land in the region has a moderately low risk of erosion. These soils have a heavier texture (contain more clay) but still require the use of management practices such as minimum tillage and stubble retention to reduce the risk of erosion.
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The worst wind erosion events tend to occur on areas where stubble cover has been depleted in times following seasons of drought or low rainfall. During the droughts of 1977 and 1988 wind erosion was widespread with up to 236,000 ha of land on Eyre Peninsula subject to wind erosion in 1988 (Hughes et al 1990). The areas that are most susceptible are the sandy soils over much of northern and western Eyre Peninsula, mostly in areas with less than 400 millimetres (mm) of rainfall and high seasonal variability. Inherent wind erosion potential is less in the lower Eyre Peninsula district where rainfall is higher and more reliable ensuring greater soil cover during most seasons.
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Monitoring by DWLBC has indicated that management of soils prone to wind erosion is improving. Stubble retention and reduced cultivation levels have had a major impact in reducing the risk of erosion.
TABLE 5.2 Estimated area and percentage of cleared land with soils susceptible to wind erosion in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region
Susceptibility Area (‘000 ha) % Region Arable Low 307 11 Moderately low 1,698 60 Moderate 699 24 Moderate to high 103 4 Non arable High 18 <1 Extreme 14 <1 Total 2,839 100 Source: DWLBC 2007
Water erosion
Eyre Peninsula has significant areas of sloping lands with highly erodible soils, particularly in the Koppio and Cleve hills, and further north at Buckleboo. Because much of this land is used for cropping, serious water erosion can occur where high risk tillage practices are applied such as early workings and long term fallow. There are 217,000 ha or 8% of cleared land in the region with moderate or high potential for water erosion (DWLBC 2007) (Table 5.3; Figure 5.5). This land can be cropped with very careful management to prevent erosion. As with wind erosion, the risk of water erosion varies with management practices and the seasonal conditions.
TABLE 5.3 Estimated area and percentage of cleared land with soils susceptible to water erosion in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region
Susceptibility Area (‘000 ha) % Region Arable Low 2,139 75 Moderately low 463 16 Moderate 186 7 Moderate to high 31 1 Non arable High 14 <1 Extreme 6 <1 Total 2,839 100 Source: DWLBC 2007
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Soil acidity
Soil acidification is often associated with nutrient deficiencies and/or imbalances (e.g. molybdenum, calcium, magnesium and potassium) that adversely affect plant growth. Some compounds (e.g. manganese and aluminium) become soluble at very low pH and can reach levels toxic to plants. Acidity also decreases the activity of many micro organisms, notably nitrogen fixing rhizobial bacteria associated with legumes. Clay minerals can also be decomposed in strongly acid conditions, resulting in permanent loss of soil fertility.
Off site impacts of soil acidity and associated poor plant growth and water use include greater accessions to watertables and potential salinity as well as increased nutrient levels and metals in groundwater and surface water.
Soil acidification occurs naturally but can be accelerated by agricultural practices such as excessive use of nitrogen fertilisers and removal of agricultural product. Soil acidity can be overcome by the regular application of lime to the soil.
The main factors influencing inherent susceptibility to soil acidification are rainfall and soil type. Higher rainfall areas with siliceous sandy soils that contain little clay, low buffering capacity and no free lime are generally more likely to be acidic than soils with more clay in drier areas.
Approximately 180,000 ha or 6% of the cleared land in the region is affected by soil acidity, predominantly in topsoils. Most affected soil is found in the higher rainfall area on southern Eyre Peninsula and the hilly country near Cleve (DWLBC 2007) (Table 5.4; Figure 5.6).
TABLE 5.4 Estimated area and percentage of cleared land exhibiting soil acidity in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region
Acidity of topsoil Area (‘000) % of region Neutral or alkaline 2,659 94 Acidic, moderate to high buffering capacity 54 2 Acidic, low buffering capacity 126 4 Strongly acidic, low buffering capacity 0 0 Strongly acidic, low buffering capacity 0 0 Total 2,839 100 Source: DWLBC 2007
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Physical condition
The physical condition of soil can place a physical limitation on the productive capacity of the soil. Maintaining good soil physical condition is vital, as it can affect the availability of air, water and nutrients for plant growth.
Eyre Peninsula soils (both surface and subsoils) can have various structural problems such as hard setting, surface crusting, sodic subsoils, compaction layers and soil hard pans. An estimated 213,000 ha of cleared land are susceptible to hard setting and other surface structural problems; 581,000 ha of cleared land has poorly structured subsoil at a depth of 60 cm or less (DWLBC 2007). These soil features can affect plant growth and increase the potential for soil erosion and dryland salinity.
Fertility
Fertile soils possess and retain high levels of available nutrients that are required for plant growth. In addition they do not have chemical or physical barriers constraining plant growth. In agriculture, soil fertility influences the growth and yield of crops.
An estimated 2.2 million ha of cleared land on Eyre Peninsula are considered to have moderately low to very low inherent soil fertility (DWLBC 2007) (Figure 5.7). This low fertility can lead to poor crop growth with low levels of soil cover, increasing risk of wind and water erosion.
Salinity
Salt is a natural feature of the Eyre Peninsula landscape. Salinity reduces the productivity of agricultural land, degrades natural habitats, biodiversity and water resources, and damages roads, buildings and other infrastructure.
Salt is most obvious in the landscape, as salt land and salt lakes that existed long before European settlement. These natural expressions of salinity are termed primary salinity. The accelerated development of salinity due to changes in the water balance and groundwater levels since European settlement is termed secondary salinity. When watertable rise is caused by increased accessions from rainfall following land use change to dryland agriculture, the resultant salinity is termed dryland salinity.
It is estimated that 24,000 ha of cleared land on Eyre Peninsula is affected by dryland salinity (Figure 5.8).
Table 5.5 contains estimates of salinity extent, including primary and secondary salinity, at the landscape scale.
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TABLE 5.5 Estimated area and percentage of cleared land affected by salinity in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region
Acidity of topsoil Area (‘000) % of region Negligible 2,700 95 Moderately low 67 2 Moderate 0.6 <0.1 Moderately high 1.3 <0.1 High 23 <1 Very high 21 <1 Extreme 20 <1 Total 2,839 100 Source: DWLBC 2007
Salinity results from a dynamic process and its extent and severity will change in response to such factors as climatic variation, land management change, and the characteristics of the local groundwater flow system. Salinity is not a problem that can usually be fully ameliorated. The three main approaches to managing salinity are, where possible, to halt or slow the spread of salinity, to reduce the area affected, and to apply productive approaches to living with some saline land.
Key areas for salinity management in South Australia include Cummins–Wanilla and Driver River catchments on Eyre Peninsula. Here, depth to groundwater has been monitored since the early 1990s and ground based electromagnetic surveys have been used to help quantify the change in saltland extent between 1992 and 2005. At Wanilla the electromagnetic surveys showed a decrease in the area of land affected by dryland salinity. The area of moderate to severe saltland has reduced by approximately 2% per year, while at Darke Peak it has reduced by 2.5% per year. The reduced area of saltland is associated with a falling trend in groundwater levels, which in turn is correlated with an extended period of below average rainfall since the early 1990s.
Dry saline land
Land with a naturally high salt content that is not caused by a saline water table is known as dry saline land. Surface expression of dry saline land usually occurs as patches in an otherwise unaffected landscape and is commonly referred to as “magnesia” patches. Dry saline land tends to inhibit crop establishment therefore leading to poor cover, which can then lead to increased susceptibility to wind erosion.
Dry saline land is considered to be a major land management issue in some parts of Eyre Peninsula, particularly in the far west and north. The main areas where dry saline land occurs are between Ceduna and Penong, south east to north west of Kimba and from Cleve to Arno Bay to Cowell. In these often marginal cropping areas, dry saline land is difficult to manage.
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In severe cases a mosaic of large bare patches develop covering over 50% of affected paddocks. Approximately 15,000 ha or 0.5% of the cleared land on Eyre Peninsula is in this category (DWLBC 2007). While not a large area, it is a substantial problem on the land affected. Dry saline land is a moderate to high limitation on a further 521,000 ha or 18% of the region (DWLBC 2007).
5.3 Land use
Land use on Eyre Peninsula includes primary production, dense urban centres, commercial and industrial activities and significant areas of native vegetation in undeveloped condition. Defence and the mining industry is also an emerging presence in parts of the NRM region. Land use zones (Figure 5.9) show a predominantly rural area with significant areas of watershed protection, conservation and coastal zones.
The rate of development and land use change is most marked in urban and peri urban areas and in other locations associated with emerging mining developments and Defence activities.
There are clear and direct links between land use and natural resource management on Eyre Peninsula. The resources of the region can limit the scale and type of developments in a locality and land not used according to its capability can degrade significant areas if developments are sited inappropriately (e.g. urban development on prime agricultural land or the destruction of key habitat areas for development).
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over grazing by domestic stock and feral herbivores such as rabbits and goats
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crop failure or poor growth
bushfire
lack of protection of highly susceptible areas.
Water erosion
Large soil loss events vary highly in time and location. They usually result from the an extreme rainfall event on an area of land left at risk by a set of inappropriate or poorly timed management practices. A given piece of land might not suffer significant soil loss for several decades but then lose a great deal of soil in only a few hours. Thus monitoring soil loss by direct measurement is technically impractical.
Agricultural land in the region is protected cyclically from water erosion risk. In most years, the lowest level of protection occurs in June during the crop sowing period and then increases to virtually 100% by August as crops and pastures establish and cover the ground. Land first exposed to erosion risk in October can remain that way for at least eight months, until the subsequent crop establishes and stabilises the soil surface. Summer weeds can play a significant role in protecting the soil surface after crops have been removed. A large proportion of annual soil loss will come from land cultivated before sowing, particularly on long fallows and land cultivated by late summer.
Since there is no significant technical barrier to reducing early cultivation of land, the level of water erosion soil loss could be greatly reduced from current levels if soil was not disturbed before May, even if conventional tillage practices were used after that. It could be further reduced if no cultivation preceded sowing. Most land managers across Eyre Peninsula are moving towards no till seeding options. In future years we would expect the risk to greatly decrease, and correspondingly, the level of protection to increase.
Monitoring through DWLBC’s Land Condition Monitoring Program measures the effects (on the land surface) of the combination of management practice and seasonal conditions (McCord and Payne 2004). Risk indices are derived from simple groundcover, surface looseness and soil/landscape ratings, as well as the period of time the land is at risk. This methodology does not provide a direct estimate of the amount of soil lost in any given erosion event or period; it aims to provide a quantitative indicator of changes in risk of water erosion or, conversely, protection from erosion, due to management practices over the longer term. Any change in risk is expected to translate into a proportionate change in overall quantity of soil lost from agricultural landscapes, provided climatic conditions do not change significantly.
McCord and Payne (2004) developed the Water Erosion Risk Index (ERI) as an indicator of the level of water erosion risk to which an area or region is exposed each year. This can also be expressed as a Water Erosion Protection Index (EPI) to indicate the level to which an area is protected from erosion risk each year.
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The Water EPI is effectively an estimate of the average annual period for which inherently susceptible land is adequately protected against erosion risk. If all susceptible land were adequately protected throughout the whole year then the W EPI would be 365 days. The nominal value for the index under direct drill with stubble retention is around 350 days. The Water EPI for Eyre Peninsula ranged from 283 to 330 days during the eight years of monitoring (from October 1999 to October 2007), with an average of 305 days (Figure 5.10).
350
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250
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50 Relative period Relative of protection(days)
0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Year EP SA FIGURE 5.9 Average annual period of protection of susceptible land from water erosion (Water Erosion Protection Index) in the Eyre Peninsula region and South Australia for the period 2000–2007 (from May 2008)
There is scope to increase the EPI through further delays in the timing of the first cultivation. This can be achieved through increased adoption of direct drilling and stubble retention, and in particular no till systems for crop sowing.
Wind erosion
Wind erosion events have periodically devastated rural landscapes across South Australia, particularly in the first half of the 20th century. Millions of tonnes of productive soil have been lost from agricultural land. In many areas, the productive capacity of soils has been significantly decreased.
Most soils are relatively resistant to erosion provided their surfaces are left undisturbed and vegetative cover is maintained. In uncleared areas, natural levels of erosion are generally low. While erosion levels are dependent on the inherent erosion potential of the land and seasonal conditions, the clearance of perennial vegetation for agriculture and inappropriate management practices can increase erosion rates.
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The main factors determining inherent potential for wind erosion are soil type and climate. Sandy textured soils are the most susceptible to movement by wind and a relatively small proportion of clay in the soil will significantly reduce wind erosion potential. Sandy soils in districts with low rainfall and high likelihood of dry spells have greatest inherent risk of erosion.
Obvious signs of wind erosion are airborne dust storms and active dune drifts. Less obvious is the stripping of fine clay particles and organic matter from topsoils, the principal components of soil fertility.
Current levels of wind erosion
As with water erosion, large soil loss events due to wind erosion are highly variable both temporally and spatially. They usually result from a concurrence of strong winds and dry conditions on an area of land left at risk by a set of inappropriate or poorly timed management practices. A given piece of land might not suffer significant soil loss for several decades, despite being at risk for extended periods, but then lose a great deal of soil in only a few hours. Thus monitoring soil loss by direct measurement is technically impractical.
The seasonal pattern of wind erosion protection generally corresponds to the timing and extent of cultivation. McCord and Payne (2004) developed the Wind ERI as an indicator of the level of wind erosion risk to which an area or region is exposed each year. This can also be expressed as a Wind EPI to indicate the level to which an area is protected from erosion risk each year. The Wind EPI is effectively an estimate of the average annual period for which inherently susceptible land is adequately protected from erosion risk. If all susceptible land were adequately protected throughout the whole year then the Wind EPI would be 365 days. The nominal value for the index under direct drill is around 350 days.
The average Wind EPI for Eyre Peninsula ranged from 164 to 312 days during eight years of records.
Greater adoption of minimum tillage systems combined with stubble retention, such as no till or zero till technology, offers the greatest potential to increase protection levels. Land manager surveys by DWLBC in 2000, 2002 and 2005, monitored the knowledge, attitudes and key management practices used. They showed an increase in uptake of no till cropping systems on Eyre Peninsula, from 19% of farmers in 2000, to 62% in 2005. The strategies for significantly reducing the area of land exposed to (or increasing the area adequately protected from) wind erosion risk, parallel those of water erosion.
The widespread adoption of tillage systems such as direct drill and no till combined with stubble retention, that reduce the erosion risk before and after sowing in cropping districts, is paramount. Grazing management that maintains surface cover is also important where livestock are part of the farming system. Maintenance of surface cover is arguably more critical for management of wind erosion risk than water erosion, since sandy soils are usually highly erodible once cover is removed, even with only limited disturbance.
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A large proportion of annual soil loss comes from land that is cultivated in the months before sowing, particularly on long fallows and land cultivated by late summer. The seasonal decline in wind erosion protection usually begins around April but can be as early as February in some seasons (Figure 5.11). The decline in protection can vary with the seasonal conditions. For example, during the dry season of 2002 when crops were sown late, many paddocks were left unprotected by crops failing to establish or not sown at all. Fallows may have also occurred earlier than normal accounting for the lower levels of protection in the period leading up to April 2003.
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0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 EP Year SA FIGURE 5.10 Average annual period of protection of susceptible land from wind erosion (Wind Erosion Protection Index) in the Eyre Peninsula region and South Australia for the period 2000–2007 (From May 2008)
5.3.1 Accelerated soil acidity
Soil acidification does occur naturally but it can be significantly accelerated by agricultural practices. Accelerated soil acidification is an inevitable consequence of most agricultural systems mainly because of:
use of acidifying nitrogen fertilisers
removal of agricultural products
nitrogen fixation by legumes
leaching of nitrate.
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nutrient deficiencies and imbalances that affect plant growth
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decreased activity of micro organisms, notably nitrogen fixing rhizobia
in strongly acidic conditions, clay compounds decompose, leading to permanent loss of fertility.
The addition of lime to soil is the most effective way to raise the pH of soils.
5.3.2 Industry
The soils and minerals of Eyre Peninsula could be the basis for continued economic growth in the region through continued development of innovative land agricultural management practices and the growth of the mining sector, which has the potential to become a significant contributor to the region’s economy.
Industrial developments, and any increase in intensive agriculture or mining in the region, may be limited by water availability, although some water requirements for mining can be met by using non potable higher salinity water.
5.3.3 Climate change
The maintenance of vegetative cover is significant in managing soil degradation risk. The apparent drying trend in the region of recent years may be associated with longer term climate change. It is critical that the impact of any ongoing drying is monitored closely so that the vegetation can be managed adequately to protect the soil resources.
Particular influences presented by forecast climate changes include:
more intense rainfall events will increase risk of erosion
lower rainfall will result in less plant growth and surface cover, increasing the risk of erosion
increased summer rains might increase growth of summer growing plants and provide more surface cover hence reduce risk of erosion but increased summer weed growth may also lead to more cultivation and a higher risk of soil erosion
lower rainfall may reduce the rate of acidification through less leaching and lower production
lower rainfall may lead to a decline in groundwater levels or a lower rate of rise which may reduce the area affected by dryland salinity or delay its spread
decreasing rainfall will likely lead to an increase in dry saline land.
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5.4 Key management initiatives
Private landholders manage most land resources on Eyre Peninsula. They are accepting that a number of land management practices either increase or minimise the risk of degradation.
Key strategies to delivering the Water EPI target include reducing the period in which soil is loose particularly due to cultivation, and maintaining surface cover to further moderate the risk. This is best achieved by adopting minimum tillage or no tillage farming systems and by maintaining crop and pasture residues for as long as possible before sowing. The benefits of no till farming systems have been widely recognised by the farming industry and there are strong opportunities to work with the industry to increase the adoption of these systems. Strategies that promote the careful management of livestock and grazing pressure are also a key factor in maintaining surface cover to protect the soil from erosion, especially in dry years.
Key strategies to delivering the Wind EPI target include reducing the period over which high risk soils are loose and bare. This is best achieved by adopting no till and minimum tillage sowing techniques combined with stubble retention, and maintaining vegetative cover for as long as possible before sowing. The benefits of no till farming systems have been widely recognised by the farming industry with strong uptake of these systems on Eyre Peninsula. There are significant opportunities to work with the industry to further increase takeup. Strategies that promote the careful management of livestock and grazing pressure are also a key factor in maintaining surface cover to protect the soil from wind erosion, especially in dry years. There are considerable opportunities to increase adoption of techniques to manage grazing pressure and surface cover, such as confinement feeding or temporary feedlotting.
Other land management initiatives that are employed include managing to landclass and claying sandy soils.
Annual lime applications increased during the period 1999 to 2002 in response to a focused extension program conducted at that time. They have since declined and are now well below that required to manage the current acidification rates on Eyre Peninsula (May 2008). Another coordinated and focused extension program could be used to increase application again.
A major research program of the Future Farm Industries Cooperative Research Centre (FFICRC) to develop new perennial pasture plants and farming systems, includes the development of saltbush and other shrubs as fodder plants. There are opportunities for the region to participate in this research. The FFICRC is also conducting research into new plants and methods to improve the management of saline land. Further opportunities exist in the development of cost effective engineering solutions for controlling dryland salinity where the value of the asset under threat is high.
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Surveys of the knowledge, attitudes and key management practices of land managers by DWLBC in 2000, 2002 and 2005 collected data that is analysed by agricultural region and by rainfall zones (high >600 mm, medium 325–600 mm and low <325 mm). The data to date provides useful baseline measures but a much longer monitoring period is required to determine reliable trends. The following survey outcomes relate to the various management options associated with control and reduction of wind and water erosion.
The uptake of management options for control and reduction of wind and water erosion is demonstrated in the 2005 Land Manager survey results (May 2008).
The practice of long fallow, which increases erosion risk, on Eyre Peninsula was only 6% usually and another 8% occasionally. Statewide an average of 20% of farmers in low rainfall areas still usually use long fallows for preparing some of their cropland and a further 23% use it occasionally.
Many farmers on Eyre Peninsula (30–50%) will begin cultivation in April with only a small proportion (4%) cultivating before March. The early cultivations pose an erosion risk in wind erosion prone districts during the normally dry summer and autumn period.
An average of 69% of farmers who sowed crop on Eyre Peninsula indicated that they use direct drilling (including no till) for sowing at least a proportion of their crop. This compares with an average 53% across South Australia and 42% in low rainfall areas.
On Eyre Peninsula, 94% of land managers considered it important to retain all stubble and pasture residue compared with 89% of land managers who sow crop in South Australia.
On Eyre Peninsula, 36% used feedlotting and 11% of cropping farmers no longer ran livestock; across South Australia 34% of all farmers used feedlots as a means of managing erosion risk and another 8% had no livestock on their properties. These figures are likely to vary from season to season as feedlots tend to be used in drought seasons when feed residues are low.
5.4.1 Sustainable farming systems
Intensive cropping has become a feature of farming systems on Eyre Peninsula since the early 1990s (Table 5.6). The demise of the wool industry in the late 1980s was a key driver for this change. The introduction of canola into the system, plus the increasing availability of improved grain legume varieties and species helped to provide disease breaks in cereal cropping rotations, greatly enhancing cereal yields. Intensive cropping systems in the more reliable farming districts include wheat, barley, grain legumes (field peas, lupins, faba beans) and canola. In the lower rainfall districts, wheat and barley are the main crops grown, with many farm businesses in these areas retaining sheep in the system. Pastures in these systems tend to be based on unimproved self regenerating annual species, including medic and annual ryegrass and a variety of weed species. Wheat still remains the key cash crop in both systems. In more recent times, alternative pasture/forage systems, such as lucerne and saltbush, have been increasingly used to address issues such as erosion and salinity.
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TABLE 5.6 Changes in grain production on Eyre Peninsula, 1982 to 2007
1982–83 1992–93 2001–02 2007–08 Western Eyre Peninsula Cropped area (ha) 408,700 281,100 430,280 686,804 Total harvest (tonnes) 185,850 310,620 736,050 383,772 Yield t/ha 0.45 1.11 1.71 0.56 Central Eyre Peninsula Cropped area (ha) * 228,960 * Total harvest (tonnes) * 403,077 * Yield t/ha * 1.76 * Southern Eyre Peninsula Cropped area (ha) 193,080 200,560 303,700 314,631 Total harvest (tonnes) 153,905 353,685 918,140 448,863 Yield t/ha 0.80 1.76 3.02 1.43 Eastern Eyre Peninsula Cropped area (ha) 308,500 398,825 514,500 520,020 Total harvest (tonnes) 71,670 741,537 1,039,800 351,413 Yield t/ha 0.23 1.86 2.02 0.68 Total – All districts Eyre Peninsula Cropped area (ha) 910,300 1,109,400 1,248,500 1,521,500 Total harvest (tonnes) 411,400 1,808,900 2,694,000 1,184,000 Yield t/ha 0.45 1.63 2.16 0.78 * statistics combined with Eastern and Western EP Source: PIRSA Monthly Crop Reports Current status
Significant change over the past 20 years to farming on Eyre Peninsula has seen farming systems become much more intensive and requiring far greater management input.
More management skills are needed to run the farm business, with greater reliance on specialist consultants to assist in decision making. The tight margins in farm business today leave little margin for error.
There has been a shift away from livestock in the system, especially in the more reliable grain growing districts. In more marginal grain growing districts, sheep provide returns in the poorer years when grain crops fail.
The increase in inputs has fostered significant improvement in grain yields, especially when seasonal conditions are favourable. Farm practices have also contributed to this increase in production, in both the drier and wetter seasons.
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The move to conservation farming systems, with reduced tillage and retaining of stubble residues, has improved soil moisture conservation, which has shown significant yield benefits in dry seasons. More recently, the move to no till farming systems has further improved moisture and soil conservation across the farming districts. This technology has also significantly reduced soil erosion through lower levels of soil disturbance and higher levels of surface cover. There are some reports that no till has worsened the soil hydrophobic (water repellent) properties of some sandy soils. This situation will need to be monitored.
The use of trace elements, increased use of nitrogen fertilisers, new improved crop varieties and species and the availability of a broad range of effective knockdown and selective herbicides has also driven productivity increases and sustainability of farm businesses.
Amelioration of water repellent properties and the low inherent fertility of sandy soils through clay spreading and delving has greatly benefited crop production and reduced wind erosion. Inappropriate practice by contractors has led to negative impacts on production in some instances. Best practice must be promoted to contractors and farmers.
The risks associated with broad scale farming have increased substantially in this period. With increased inputs come increased costs. A large proportion of these costs are incurred well before any income is generated following harvest. Fertiliser, chemical and fuel costs have grown much faster than the consumer price index in recent years. Farm machinery costs have also escalated, with just about all machinery for broad scale cropping being imported. The shift to greater levels of cropping within the farming systems (compared to livestock) have also increased the level of financial exposure. This has had serious impacts on farm viability in the recent run of dry seasons.
The grains industry relies almost solely on export markets. Consequently supply and demand in any part of the world has a significant impact on grain commodity pricing. The freeing up of marketing arrangements for grain in Australia has also added to the burden on farmers in covering price risk. In an immature free market, most of the price risk has been with the farmers.
Rainfall variability and a trend towards lower seasonal rainfall across Eyre Peninsula add another layer of risk that farmers must manage. Climate modelling, long range forecasting, and improved understanding of soil water and crop interaction is assisting farmers in this process. But further work is required to fine tune this science and understanding.
Risk management is considered critical for future planning for farming businesses. Farmers face ongoing risks in production, climate, environment, marketing and finance. A number of tools are available to assist farmers in managing these risks but they have not yet been widely adopted.
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The need to sustain these networks to ensure resilient and adaptable farming systems moving into the future is crucial.
Future challenges in farm practice include the effective use of precision agriculture technologies, the incorporation of genetically modified crop options, managing herbicide resistant weeds in the system, fine tuning crop nutritional inputs, developing multi purpose cropping and reduced risk options (grazing/hay/grain).
Livestock, especially sheep, will continue to play an important role in farming businesses on Eyre Peninsula. However, the emphasis placed on cropping in the last two decades has seen a loss of knowledge and expertise in pastures and livestock management. Livestock can reduce farm business risks but can also carry additional resource management risks for soil condition and cover. Innovative use of existing and emerging technologies can improve livestock productivity as well as protect the soil resource. Determining the most profitable mix of cropping and livestock in the farming system, and taking new approaches to fodder production and management can bring substantial benefits to the livestock enterprises but will require a greater focus on the livestock component of the farm business.
Water supply for sustainable livestock production is an emerging issue as demand on this limited resource increases and average annual rainfall decreases. Innovative solutions for capturing, holding and distributing water efficiently need to be trialled and adopted if livestock is to remain a viable part of farming businesses on Eyre Peninsula.
Land stewardship programs and market based instruments can be used to boost adoption of sustainable farm practices while protecting and enhancing the biodiversity found in natural systems across Eyre Peninsula.
As cropping becomes an even more marginal proposition in the lower rainfall districts of Eyre Peninsula, alternative farming systems and approaches need to be considered. Woody perennial species and the use of native grass species for managing grazing may provide for more sustainable farm businesses in these districts. Land stewardship programs may provide the impetus for these new systems to be trialled while retaining the skills and knowledge of local land managers in these districts.
5.4.2 NRM Implications
Approximately 55% of Eyre Peninsula is farmed. Soil conservation is a major NRM issue for the ongoing viability of farm productivity. Maintaining adequate soil cover is crucial in preventing wind erosion, especially on the lighter, more fragile soil types. Conservation farming practices maintain soil cover and stability. Livestock management on erosion prone soils is also important in maintaining soil cover.
Soil fertility is an important factor in maintaining productivity in farming systems. Eyre Peninsula soils are inherently low in fertility and require substantial inputs to maintain productivity and soil health.
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Dry years are supporting the spread of dry salinised land (‘magnesia’ patches) on grey calcareous and poorly structured red soils of drier regions of Eyre Peninsula.
Large areas of Eyre Peninsula farming land are no longer capable of sustaining current high input farming systems, and alternatives need to be considered to ensure the land is managed for long term stability and health.
Water is a scarce resource on Eyre Peninsula, and is essential for sustaining livestock enterprises in farming systems. To ensure ongoing water supplies for livestock enterprises, water resource access and use management will need to be better planned and managed into the future to ensure environmental, livestock and human needs are met.
Farm practices have an impact on natural systems on Eyre Peninsula and that impact has to be taken into account to ensure the ongoing maintenance and improvement of the natural systems.
Pest animals and plants have an ongoing impact on the viability of farming systems. Integrated management programs are important for the sustainable control of these pest animals and plants.
Projects on Eyre Peninsula
The low rainfall farming systems project has been operating out of the Minnipa Agricultural Centre for the past eight years. This research, development and extension project has been joint funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) and South Australian Research and Development Institute.
The project has found practical options to reduce the impact of seasonal variation and soil pathogens on grain yield and quality, providing land managers involved in the project with the potential to improve profitability and reduce their exposure to seasonal risk.
The Grain & Graze program, funded by the GRDC, Meat & Livestock Australia, Land and Water Australia, and Australian Wool Innovations, aimed to boost farm profitability across the mixed farming zone of Eyre Peninsula, while helping to protect the environment. Research and extension activities have focused on cropping, pastures, livestock, profitability, feed base management, whole farm economics, biodiversity, social issues, and soil and water.
The sustainable agriculture program, funded by the Natural Heritage Trust, has been working with grower groups across Eyre Peninsula looking at alternative pasture options, including the use of perennials, to improve the sustainability of farming systems. This work has also looked at grazing practices, to ensure best use while protecting the soil resource. This program has also been addressing improved management options for highly erodible soils and hostile subsoils. This has focused around claying options on sandy soils through delving and clay spreading, and deep ripping into hostile subsoils to improve root access to soil moisture.
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The National Landcare Program has funded the SA No Till Farmers Association and the Minnipa Ag Centre to address issues relating to the uptake of no till farming practices across Eyre Peninsula. The program has worked with land managers to identify the key barriers to uptake of no till and to undertake research and extension activities. In the higher rainfall cropping district of the Southern Eyre Peninsula, the Lower Eyre Agricultural Development Association has focused on poor water use efficiency on the variable soils of the area.
5.4.3 Development plans
Development Plans The Development Act 1993 requires that development plans be prepared and may be accessed through Planning SA published for each geographical part of the State in order to guide development www.planning. Sa.gov.au/go/develo and inform the assessment of development proposals. Accordingly, development of pment plans/ each local government council area, as well as remote parts of the State that do development plans online not fall within or are specifically excluded from a council area, are directed by a development plan for the specific locality.
A development plan outlines the desired character for different parts of a council area, the types of development preferred and the policies and standards against which development applications will be assessed. The policies within a development plan cover a range of social, environmental and economic matters including planning, building, heritage and environmental protection. The policies are set out as text descriptions, zoning maps, diagrams and tables.
Each local government area in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region has its own development plan, as do the remote parts of the State which do not fall within or are specifically excluded from a council area:
Ceduna (DC) Development Plan
Streaky Bay (DC) Development Plan
Wudinna (formerly Le Hunte (DC)) Development Plan
Elliston (DC) Development Plan
Kimba (DC) Development Plan
Lower Eyre Peninsula (DC) Development Plan
Port Lincoln Development Plan
Tumby Bay (DC) Development Plan
Franklin Harbour (DC) Development Plan
The Cleve (DC) Development Plan
Whyalla Council Development Plan
Unincorporated West Coast Land
Unincorporated area of Whyalla
Unincorporated area of Port Lincoln.
The Development Act 1993 also encourages development plans to promote the objectives and principles of the Planning Strategy for a particular area.
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5.4.4 Planning Strategy for Regional South Australia
The current Planning Strategy for Regional South Australia was released by the Minister for Urban and Regional Planning in January 2003 and has since been amended, mostly recently in December 2007. It presents the South Australian Government’s policy directions for the physical development of the State over the next 10 to 15 years and must be updated by the Government at least every five years.
The Planning Strategy is intended to provide clear direction from the State Government on land use and development activities of councils, Government agencies and the private sector in regional South Australia. The Planning Strategy is integrated with, and should be read in conjunction with, other specialist plans, including the Strategic Infrastructure Plan for South Australia, the Housing Plan for South Australia, and South Australia's Greenhouse Strategy. It provides a physical and policy framework to assist in reaching various targets outlined in South Australia’s Strategic Plan (www.stateplan.sa.gov.au/).
The Planning Strategy contains maps, policies and specific strategies, covering a full range of social, economic and environmental issues.
5.4.5 Development assessment
The assessment and determination of development proposals is the responsibility of the relevant planning authority. The determination of the relevant planning authority is directed by the Development Act 1993 , typically a local council, development assessment panel or the Development Assessment Commission.
In many instances, the commission will also assess and report on the suitability of a development proposal on behalf of the Minister and/or Governor for their ultimate determination. This process typically occurs for Crown developments and public infrastructure proposals or for developments declared to be major developments or projects.
5.5 Land indicators
Environmental indicators are used to track changes in the environment. Indicators have been classed as either:
state or condition indicators – of the condition of the environment
pressure indicators – of positive or negative effects of human activities on a particular component of the environment
response indicators – of the management responses that have or are being undertaken to address the pressures upon the environment.
The indicators for the land of Eyre Peninsula are presented in Table 5.7.
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TABLE 5.7 Land indicators
Type of Condition/ Issue Indicator Indicator trend Wind erosion protection index for Eyre Peninsula R
Soil Water erosion protection index for Eyre Peninsula erosion R Area and percentage of agricultural land affected by soil salinity C Salinity Amount of lime used on medium and high risk agricultural land relative to that required to R
Soil balance acidification rates acidity
Water use efficiency of agricultural crops and pasture due mainly to improvements in soil physical condition and nutritional condition R ??? condition Soil fertility and physical C = condition (state) indicator; P = pressure indicator; R = response indicator Assessment is colour coded: blue = optimal; green = good; yellow = moderate; red = poor Trends are noted with symbols: ↓ – negative; ↑ – positive; ↔ stable; ? – unknown
5.6 Information gaps
While soil and land monitoring has improved, there remain many land and soil management techniques that require further research, including:
improved salinity management technologies, including research and development into new plant based systems
soil and crop nutrition following clay spreading and delving
ameliorating limitations in subsoils
long term treatment of dry saline land
cost effective engineering solutions for controlling dryland salinity where the value of the asset under threat is high
response to climate change and adaptive innovation farming system
Improved knowledge of location of inland acid sulphate soils, ownership and management needs.
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5.7 Bibliography
Central Eyre Peninsula Soil Conservation Board. 2002. Land Management Guidelines and Three Year Program of Activities . Central Eyre Peninsula Soil Conservation Board, SA.
DEH. 2004. A Policy on Rabbits . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au/assets/files/lbsap_rabbitpolicy_june2005_nrm.pdf
DEH. undated. Planting Indigenous Species Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/pdfs/is_policy.pdf
DWLBC 2007. Land and Soil Spatial Data for Southern South Australia – GIS Format. Soil and Land Program, Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, South Australia.
Eastern Eyre Peninsula Soil Conservation Board. 2002. Land Management Guidelines and Three Year Program of Activities . Eastern Eyre Peninsula Soil Conservation Board.
EPNRMG. 2004. Regional Natural Resources Management Plan: 2004–2007 , Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Group.
Far West Coast Soil Conservation Board. 2003. Land Management Guidelines and Three Year Program of Activities . Far West Coast Soil Conservation Board.
Hughes, BW, Wetherby, KG, Kew, GA & Lewis, DL. 1990. An assessment of wind erosion on Eyre Peninsula during 1988/89 , SA Department of Agriculture Technical Report no. 167
Lower Eyre Peninsula Soil Conservation Board. 2003. District Plan and Three Year Program . Lower Eyre Peninsula Soil Conservation Board.
McCord, AK and Payne, RA. 2004. Report on the Condition of Agricultural Land in South Australia . Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation.
May, R. 2008. Draft Report on the Condition of Agricultural Land in the Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Region . DWLBC Report 2008. Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Adelaide.
Morgan, SJ, Nichols, CW and Payne RA. 2005. Soil Conservation and Land Management Directions for the Agricultural Lands of South Australia . Soil Conservation Council.
Western Eyre Peninsula Soil Conservation Board. 2002. Land Management Guidelines and Three Year Program of Activities . Western Eyre Peninsula Soil Conservation Board.
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6. Water Relevant legislation
Natural Resources Eyre Peninsula does not have abundant water resources. For much of the Management Act Peninsula, the relatively low (less than 500 mm) rainfall, high evaporation, 2004 (SA) permeable soils and flat landscape dictates that there will be little surface run off and few surface waters. The Peninsula’s stream tend to originate in the harder, higher c ountry of Cleve, and Koppio
Hills, and are generally ephemeral, with variable flow and salinity. The Tod River, (in the cooler, wetter south) is the only permanent stream. Dryland salinity, which has increased following clearance of land for primary production has already degradaded some of these stream systems (including Tod) and will have more effect on streams, wetlands and some ground waters in decades to come, especially if inadequately managed.
Increasingly, Eyre Peninsula relies on ground water resources from along the western and southern coasts, where rainfall is higher and readily infiltrates the limestone country after heavy rains. These aquifers are often within four meters of the surface and area generally fed by specific rainfall events in the vicinity of the resources – although some do receive waters from surface flows. Being quite shallow, the aquifer could easily be damaged by unsustainable water use due to over extraction and cointaminated by inappropriate land use in their vicinity, e.g irrigation, intensive animal keeping or light industries.
Groundwater supplied from the Southern Basins Prescribed Wells Area (PWA) and Musgrave PWA, which are managed with water allocation plans under the Natural Resources Management Act 2004 , (NRM Act), is the major sources of potable (drinkable) water for Eyre Peninsula. In recent years the entire reticulated water supply for the peninsula, has come from groundwater basins located along the western and southern coasts, where rainfall is higher and readily infiltrates the limestone country after heavy rains. These shallow aquifers are vulnerable to low rainfall, over extraction, seawater incursions and contaminations.
The numerous wetlands of the Peninsula provide important habitat for a variety of plants and animals some with unique adaptation to their valuable environment. They also act as a refuge from drought and dry summer periods, and provide feeding and breeding grounds for migratory birds and shore birds. There is often a balance (or interaction) bet ween the surface and ground waters that generates the wetland environements and a change in one will affect the other.
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6.1 Climatic influence on water resources
Eyre Peninsula has a characteristic Mediterranean climate, with warm to dry summers and cool, wet winters. It enjoys a mild, moist, coastal climate in the south and southwest, with a warmer, drier climate inland to the north. For much of the region, in most years, only limited surface water runs off and recharges groundwater. Water resource in semi arid areas of the region depends on extreme years to provide the significant runoff and recharge that will support both environmental and human uses until the next such year.
Mean annual rainfall ranges from 250 millimetres (mm) in the north and northwest to more than 500 mm in the south (Figure 5.2). On average, 50% of the rain falls between May and August when maritime frontal systems move over the region from the southern ocean bringing moist air masses that can generate reliable rainfall in relatively large volumes.
Evaporation is high throughout the region with mean monthly evaporation exceeding median monthly rainfall throughout the year, other than in the south during winter. Consequently, heavy rainfall events are required to generate any significant runoff in most parts of the peninsula. Mean annual evaporation varies between 1550 mm at the Tod River reservoir and 2300 mm at Ceduna (Bureau of Meteorology data).
Rainfall in the usually wetter months has been significantly below average in recent years (Table 6.1).
TABLE 6.1 April to September rainfall (mm) – Prescribed Wells Areas
Rainfall Long-term 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 station average
Port Lincoln # # # # # 365 309 413* 340* 364* 234* 314* PO Sleaford 437 363 438 # 400 # 412 # 276 # 358 # Big Swamp 423 358 418 # 425 # 380 # 278 # 332 # Streaky Bay 280 216 283 321 311 152 171 PO Elliston PO 322 249 327 301 305 156 245 Terre Station 262 211 261 # 225 # 227 127 # 177 # Penong PO 200 126 203 257 177 150 161 * adjusted from Port Lincoln Airport readings ± preferred station for Lincoln Basin analysis # not current Bureau of Meteorology rainfall stations, Polda Basin Station not currently read Source: DWLBC Knowledge and Information Division
DWLBC analysis of monitored groundwater level data in the prescribed areas demonstrates that groundwater resources are matching well with the monthly average rainfall trends.
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This relationship is understood to indicate that these groundwater resources are being managed sustainably (DWLBC 2008). The significant dry winter period of 2007, which continued from 2006, resulted in a poor recharge year (limited response in rising groundwater levels) for inland groundwater resources.
The semi arid climate of Eyre Peninsula has large spatial and temporal variability in water resource availability. The extremes of annual rainfall vary greatly across the region (Table 6.2).
TABLE 6.2 Annual rainfall extremes, Eyre Peninsula locations
Port Location Whyalla Kimba Ceduna Elliston Lincoln Highest annual rainfall (mm) 510.3 697.1 533.6 674.0 807.3 (1979) (1992) (1968) (1920) (1968) Lowest annual rainfall (mm) 146.8 173.8 153.6 183.8 290.5 (2002) (1994) (1994) (1959) (1959) Mean annual rainfall (mm) 268.1 345 297.9 425.4 490.9 Period of record (years) 63 88 69 127 136 Note: All records continue to 2008 Source: Bureau of Meteorology
This variation in rainfall extremes, and the distinct variations between seasons, makes the preparation of water budgets, water resource management and the development of water dependent enterprises in the region difficult. Safety margins must be built into any plans for water use to allow for low rainfall years.
Most predictions of global climate change suggest that temperatures will increase in southern Australia and that seasons will become more variable, with more extreme episodic events (i.e. droughts and storms) accompanied by more hot days, with increased evaporation, and lower average rainfall. The prospect of increased variability and potentially more, hotter droughts suggests that an increased safety margin may be needed in the management of water resources to ensure they are not exhausted by a combination of increased seasonal demand and decreased availability.
6.2 Surface water
Surface water on Eyre Peninsula is scarce. Streams lie mainly in the eastern and southern ranges where the relatively flat landscape and dominant winter rainfall result in surface flows predominately during the winter months. Small, well defined catchments are found across eastern and lower Eyre Peninsula (Figure 6.1), particularly the Koppio and Cleve hills. Granite rocks and outcrops across upper Eyre Peninsula form unique localised surface water catchments. Most stream systems are ephemeral or seasonal with minimal connection to the ocean.
The low rainfall, high evaporation rate, permeable soils and relatively flat landscape that typify much of the region generate little surface runoff and few surface water South Australian Surface Water Archive has a wide 144 variety of water
data: enrims.dwlbc.sa.gov .au/swa/ STATE OF OUR RESOURCES – STATE OF NATURAL RESOURCES OF EYRE PENINSULA
resources. In these regions the rainfall either evaporates or contributes to groundwater recharge.
Surface water quality has been impacted significantly since European settlement by the clearance of native vegetation and agricultural practices. Salinity is now a major threat to the health of the regional ecosystems and the viability of agriculture in many areas as surface water flows have become saline to hypersaline.
Stream ecosystems and wetlands are integral components of the surface water resource in the region. A number of fresh water swamps and wetlands (Big Swamp, Little Swamp and the Lake Malata Complex) have significant cultural and environmental value to the regional communities. These are discussed in further detail in Section 6.4.
6.2.1 Tod catchment
The Tod River is the only permanent flowing river system in the catchment with reliable flow. The river, with a catchment area of approximately 400 km 2, rises in the Koppio Hills in the relatively cooler, wetter south and its estuary is the only surface water system with a permanent connection to the ocean.
A reservoir constructed on the Tod River captures the total flow from the Toolillie Gully and diverts flow from Upper Tod and Pillowarta. Catchment yield is estimated to be 11,000 megalitres (ML)/annum and the Tod River reservoir capacity is 11.3 gigalitres (GL).
Continuous stream flow records at the gauging station AW512500, 5 km northwest of Poonindie, are available from 1972 to 1989 when the station was closed. This station was reopened in 2000. Annual flows at Lower Tod show a high degree of variability, for example in 1977 stream flow was 1606 ML and 22,910 ML in 1978.
Historically, most water was harvested to the Tod reservoir during winter but the continuous increase in salinity (exceeding 5500 mg/L in 2001) means water can no longer be taken for potable uses from the reservoir. Desalination of this water was being considered but recent assessments have shown that it was not a viable option (SA Water 2008).
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6.2.2 Surface water quality
For more Since European settlement, surface water quality has been significantly affected by information on the AusRivAs System clearance of native vegetation and intensive agricultural practices, such as grazing, go to: stocking and application of pesticides across the catchment. ausrivas.canberra.e du.au/ To access water surface quality data The ecological health of stream and river systems is monitored at 25 sites on Eyre from sites across Peninsula using the AusRivAs System (Australian River Assessment System), a the Eyre Peninsula see the Environment rapid prediction system used to assess the biological health of Australian rivers Protection Authority website: through biological and physical assessment. Significant changes have been www.epa.sa.gov.au/ observed in the water chemistry on Eyre Peninsula between autumn and spring. At nrm_map_ep.html this stage the data cannot show trends in catchment water quality but it provides a good understanding of the range and nature of catchment health. Early monitoring showed that the region is not very diverse: fewer than 250 types of aquatic macroinverterbrates were recorded in 1994–1999 (EPA undated). The high salinity of most streams in the region excludes many species that prefer freshwater environments (EPA undated).
The EPA monitoring program collects water samples to identify trends in water quality, monitoring water chemistry as well as turbidity and macroinvertebrate health. The program monitors three sites on Eyre Peninsula:
Dutton River: A small highly saline stream draining cleared agricultural land where high salt concentration (about 36,000 mg/L, equivalent to seawater) limits the fauna to a range of dipteran (fly) larvae and hydrophilid beetles that are
tolerant of saline waters and able to feed on the filamentous algae and other invertebrates present in such waters.
Tod River at White Flat downstream from the Tod reservoir, is regularly rated in good condition with small flows almost always in autumn and most spring periods.
Tod River at Koppio, upstream from the reservoir, is consistently rated in a good ecological condition. Despite the brackish salinity (about 7000 mg/L) of the stream, the complex habitat supports a wide range of tolerant macroinvertebrates inhabiting the Tod River.
Figure 6.2 gives an overview of stream salinity in the Eyre Peninsula region.
6.3 Groundwater
The groundwater systems of Eyre Peninsula are unique. Recharge rates and groundwater quality are, in some parts, higher than those normally associated with similar semi arid environments (SA Water 2008).
Most of the groundwater of the Eyre Peninsula region is saline to brackish. Across the western area of Eyre Peninsula, salinity levels tend to increase toward the ocean with the Quaternary limestone lenses providing fresh water (Figure 6.6).
Majority of reticulated water for the peninsula comes from groundwater basins located along the western and southern coasts, where rainfall is relatively higher 147
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and readily infiltrates the limestone country after heavy rains. These aquifers are generally recharged by annual rainfall (DWLBC 2008). The integrity of the groundwater system is generally maintained by natural discharge to the sea.
Low rainfall will affect these aquifers and care is required to ensure that over extraction for use does not coincide with low rainfall periods. If watertables are lowered too much, and the pressure within aquifers reduced, there is the potential for saline water incursions from the sea or adjacent saline groundwater, which may degrade the resource for an extended period. The shallow nature of the aquifers also exposes them to being easily contaminated by inappropriate land use in their vicinity, such as practices that concentrate salts or involve high loads of nutrients, chemicals or pathogens.
6.3.1 Services provided by groundwater
Groundwater supplies have been investigated on local and regional scales in the Eyre Peninsula NRM region since the early to mid 1900s. Subsequent resource development resulted in groundwater sources supplying the majority of the current water supply network for Eyre Peninsula, as well as individual domestic and stock supplies.
Groundwater extraction has increased over time across the region to match rural and urban demands (SA Water 2008).
The reticulated water supply for much of the region comes from a number of well fields within the Southern Basins PWA including Lincoln A, B, C and Coffin Bay A, Uley Wanilla and Uley South well fields. Other groundwater resources, found throughout Eyre Peninsula, are used to supply coastal townships, particularly along the western side of the peninsula.
In addition to meeting domestic and other demands, groundwater plays an important role in sustaining ecosystems by supplying water to groundwater dependent ecosystems (GDEs) in the form of lakes, streams, wetlands, coastal zones, estuaries, and vegetation. Calcrete aquifers, such as those found on Eyre Peninsula, are often important habitats for groundwater fauna, such as stygofauna which are affected by changes in water levels. However, there is limited information available, on the presence of stygofauna on Eyre Peninsula.
6.3.2 Overview of geology and hydrogeology
Most of Eyre Peninsula is underlain by hard rock basement with limited and generally brackish to saline groundwater. Groundwater availability and quality is generally better in the south and along the west coast. Current supplies in these areas are sourced from Tertiary sediments and Quaternary formations, especially limestone, with Jurassic deposits and the basement rock acting as minor aquifers (see Figure 5.1 for geology of the region).
The Quaternary Bridgewater Formation consists of calcareous sands and fine to medium grained, cross bedded, weakly to moderately cemented limestone and has high recharge rates and thus significantly lower salinity levels than that expected in similar semi arid regions. This aquifer is regionally extensive and is unconfined,
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occurring where the underlying formations are either confining in nature or are saturated by continuous moisture. The Quaternary Limestone aquifer has been primarily used for reticulated public water supply in specific locations. Due to the mineralogy of the Bridgewater Formation, high water quality hardness is a characteristic of groundwater on Eyre Peninsula. The groundwater flow direction within the Quaternary Limestone aquifer is predominantly in southwesterly towards the Southern Ocean (ERWRPC 2001).
The main source of recharge to the Quaternary aquifers on Eyre Peninsula is is believed to be intense rainfall between May and October, causing runoff that is directed into dissolution features into the Quaternary limestone, and promotes rapid and significant recharge. Strong correlation has been observed between groundwater level responses and rainfall events, with the average age of groundwater in the order of one to two decades (Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003).
The Tertiary sand aquifer consists of unconsolidated fine quartz sand; it stores significant volumes of fresh to saline water but has poor to moderate yields (ERWRPC 2001). The Tertiary aquifer is generally present throughout Eyre Peninsula, except where there are underlying basement rock outcrops. It is confined in those areas where it is overlain by the Quaternary Bridgestone Formation; elsewhere it is unconfined. Recharge to the Tertiary sand aquifer in the PWAs is considered to be irregular and limited; it comes from lateral flow and downward leakage from the Quaternary formation. There is some direct recharge from rainfall in areas where the watertable lies within the Tertiary sands. However, the response to rainfall is minimal and significantly less than in the Quaternary aquifer.
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The recharge is subject to a lag response time. The groundwater flow direction is predominantly in southwesterly towards the Southern Ocean (Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003).
Sand and alluvium deposited during the Jurassic period may store some water but salinity levels tend to be high and yields tend to be low. The Jurassic aquifer lies predominantly in the east of the Musgrave PWA, in the deeper part of the Polda basin (Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003).
There is limited understanding of the basement aquifer but it is thought to be fractured rock, with irregular occurrence, yield and salinity (EPCWMB 2004). Recharge to this aquifer is thought to be localised and irregular, with most recharge in areas where the bedrock outcrops or is close to the surface. Some recharge may also come from vertical leakage from the overlying aquifers. Discharge from the basement aquifers is thought to be to the sea, although local minor springs may also occur (Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003).
Eyre Peninsula contains unique and significant inland wetlands, the majority of which are saline lake systems with characteristic tea trees forming circular bands around them. These lake systems contain high biodiversity within the aquatic zone and terrestrial vegetation, and therefore important ecosystems. The wetlands are generally underlain by the Bridgewater Formation and are mainly recharged from surface water. Information is limited on the role of groundwater in recharging the wetlands. However, the Polda Basin, a significant groundwater source, in the Musgrave PWA may have groundwater discharge to the wetlands. Increased abstraction from Polda Basin may have impacts on wetlands (Figure 6.3). Big and Little swamps are located on the northern edge of the Uley East and Lincoln Basin lenses, respectively, and are therefore thought to discharge to the Bridgestone Formation where it is unconfined (Figure 6.4).
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FIGURE 6.4 Diagrammatic representation of a portion of Southern Basins PWA underground water system
6.3.3 Management of groundwater resources
Prescribed well areas (PWA)
The Eyre Peninsula NRM region contains the Southern Basins PWA and Musgrave PWA (Figure 6.4) which hold most of the higher quality groundwater. Following The Drillhole prescription of a water resource under the NRM Act the resource is managed in Enquiry System provides online line with a Water Allocation Plan (WAP) prepared for the resource and is regulated access to South Australian drillhole by a licensing system. data http://info.pir.sa.gov. au/des/desHome.ht Water is sourced from the Quaternary and Tertiary aquifers in the PWAs. The total ml volume of water allocated from the two PWAs is 11,234 ML/annum. Of this, 10,825 ML/annum (or 96%) is allocated to the local water supply authority, SA Water (DWLBC undated).
The nine allocations from the Musgrave PWA total 2349 ML/annum (DWLBC). SA Water holds the largest allocation (2173 ML/annum) and uses an average of 220 ML/annum or 12.5% of the annual allocated volume (EPNRMB 2006a). Allocations for purposes other than reticulated supply account for 175 ML/annum (DWLBC) of the annual allocated volume and use less than 10 ML/annum (EPNRMB 2006a).
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The 17 allocations from the Southern Basins PWA have an annual total volume of 8885 ML. SA Water holds the largest allocation of 8651 ML/annum, which is used for public reticulated water supply. Allocations for purposes other than reticulated supply account for 233 ML/annum (DWLBC) of the annual allocated volume and use less than 10 ML/annum (EPNRMB 2006a). Based on 2002–03 data, these private users consume on average of 46 ML/annum, mainly for irrigation (EPNRMB 2006b).
Water Protection Areas (WPA)
Other locally and regionally significant groundwater resources in Eyre Peninsula are protected under the Environment Protection Act 1993 for the protection of water quality of the water resources. They are designated as Water Protection Areas (WPAs). They are prescribed under the Natural Resources Management Act 2004 (Southern Basin and County Musgrave) and other smaller non prescribed aquifers (Figure 6.5). Major resources outside Southern Basins and Musgrave prescribed resources are:
Robinson Lens (Robinson WPA)
Port Kenny Lens (Port Kenny WPA)
Penong Lenses (Penong WPA) The management and condition of these resources varies (see Section 6.3.6 for further discussion).
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Water Protection Zones (WPZ)
Water protection areas are further protected from future development by the Local Government Authority under the Development Act 1993 through the Development Plan. They are known as Water Protection Zones (WPZ). The purpose of such control (land use controls) is to prohibit activities that may have potential to pollute the water resource and also ensure that future development is not sited in areas to avoid pollution. Such activity for example include intensive animal keeping, waste disposal depots which are categorised as non complying under the Development Plan. Water protection zones in the EPNRM Board region are;
Southern Basin Water Protection Zone (District Council of Lower Eyre Peninsula)
County Musgrave Water Protection Zone (District Council of Elliston)
Tod river Water Protection Zone (District Council of Tumby Bay)
6.3.4 Musgrave Prescribed Wells Area
Musgrave PWA is located around the townships of Elliston, Sheringa, Colton and Bramfield, and covers an area of approximately 3595 km 2. It contains most of the good quality and adequate yielding groundwater in central Eyre Peninsula. The Musgrave basin supplies part of the reticulated water for the upper Eyre Peninsula via the Tod–Ceduna pipeline and for the town of Elliston, as well as farm supplies and some irrigated agriculture (Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003) (Figure 6.3).
Groundwater in the Musgrave PWA is contained mainly in the Quaternary Bridgewater Formation limestone and underlying Tertiary sand of the Polda Basin. The Quaternary limestone and Tertiary sand aquifers are generally separated by a confining clay layer of Tertiary age. Unlike the Southern Basins, the basement rocks do not interrupt the overlying aquifer in this area (EPCWMB 2004).
The Quaternary aquifers occur as lenses of good quality water, hosted in limestone (in this context the term ‘lens’ refers to the water quality/quantity not the lithology). The main lenses in the Musgrave area are Bramfield, Kappawanta, Polda, Polda North, Polda East, Sheringa A B, Talia and Tinline. They are also covered by WPAs (Figure 6.3). The extent of the larger lenses is commonly taken as the 1000 mg/L total dissolved solids (TDS) isohaline (PIRSA 2002). Figure 6.6 shows groundwater salinity and Table 6.3 summarises the salinity and yields of the aquifers in this area.
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TABLE 6.3 Musgrave Basin aquifer summary
Aquifer Salinity (mg/L, TDS) Yield (L/s) Quaternary limestone <1000 5–50 Tertiary sands 500–5,500 1–10 Jurassic 30,000–50,000 Low Precambrian basement Varied (but typically high) Varied (but typically low) Source: EPCWMB 2004
Various Quaternary limestone lenses in the Musgrave PWA discharge to each other, the underlying Tertiary sands, or to the surface (mainly the lakes near the shoreline). Groundwater flow within the Tertiary sands system is predominantly towards the ocean and is thought to be in hydraulic continuity with the sea, as observed oscillations in groundwater levels coincide with tidal fluctuations (EPCWMB 2004).
Condition and trend
The majority of the water in this area is sourced from the Bramfield and Polda lenses and is used mainly for town water supplies. There are nine allocations from the Musgrave PWA with a total allocation of 2349 ML/annum (DWLBC). SA Water holds the largest allocation (2173 ML/annum) and uses an average of 220 ML/annum or 12.5% of the annual allocated volume (EPNRMB 2006a). Allocations for purposes other than reticulated supply account for 175 ML/annum (DWLBC) of the annual allocated volume and use less than 10 ML/annum (EPNRMB 2006a).
Table 6.5 summarises the assessment of the capacity of the resource to meet existing and possible future demands for water from the prescribed source in the Musgrave PWA. Water taken from wells in the Quaternary limestone aquifers are allocated by the percentage of the annual recharge of the lens in the aquifer that may be taken and used in a water use year. Water taken from wells in the Tertiary sands aquifer is allocated by the volume of water that may be taken and used in a water use year. Therefore, water taken from the Quaternary limestone aquifer is represented as a percentage; water taken from the Tertiary sands aquifer is represented as a volume (Table 6.5) (ERWRPC 2001).
Groundwater monitoring in the Musgrave PWA began in the 1960s. More than 600 observation wells have been installed and constructed since this time. By 2005 only 132 observation wells were being monitored on a monthly basis for water level Of these wells (DWLBC 2005):
56 monitor the shallow Quaternary Bridgewater Formation limestone aquifer
67 monitor the Tertiary sand aquifer
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1 monitors the Jurassic Formation sand aquifer
2 monitor the basement aquifer system
6 wells have undetermined depth completion.
The Obswell network location is shown in Figure 6.5.
Groundwater monitoring has shown seasonal variation in water levels within the Bridgewater Formation and identified correlation between water level responses and rainfall events. Monitoring has also shown that water levels in the area have declined by 1–5 metres in recent years. This is likely a result of consecutive seasons of poor rainfall, leading to reduced recharge, which in turn causes water levels to decline (ERWRPC 2001). The aquifer continues its natural discharge processes (from one aquifer to another or to the surface) and thus exacerbates the decline. Recharge rates in recent years for the lenses of the Quaternary limestone aquifers within the Musgrave PWA are shown in Table 6.4.
Since monitoring began, groundwater quality has fluctuated within a small range for each monitoring site (although there are large spatial variations), despite some large groundwater extractions from different aquifer lenses. Most of these lenses are separated from saline waters that could mix under the stress of excess pumping (Department of Water Resources 2001a). However, groundwater salinity levels are generally less than 5500 mg/L in the shallow aquifer systems.
TABLE 6.4 Recharge rates for the lenses of the Quaternary limestone aquifers within the Musgrave Prescribed Wells Areas (ML/annum)
Quaternary 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 aquifer –03 –04 –05 –06 –07 –08 –09 Bramfield 22 25 25 25 25 25 25 Kappawanta 22 25 22 22 22 22 22 Polda 20 20 20 20 20 20 17 Polda North 18 18 18 18 18 18 16 Polda East 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 Sheringa A 20 21 20 20 20 20 17 Sheringa B 20 21 20 20 20 20 17 Talia 20 21 21 21 21 21 21 Tinline 22 23 23 23 23 23 23 Minor lenses 18 19 19 19 19 19 19 Source: DWLBC, Knowledge and Information Division TDS are monitored less frequently than groundwater levels, due to slower rates of variation. Currently, 134 observation wells make up the DWLBC monitoring
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network (salinity was measured approximately every six months from 1992 to 1997; monitoring recommenced in 2005). Of these wells (DWLBC 2005):
56 monitor the shallow Quaternary Bridgewater Formation limestone aquifer
67 monitor the Tertiary sand aquifer
1 monitors the Jurassic Polda Formation
2 monitor the Basement aquifer system
7 wells have undetermined depth completion.
Groundwater salinity in the Musgrave PWA ranges from approximately 200 to 32,000 mg/L TDS (1992 to 2007) (DWLBC 2007).
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TABLE 6.5 Assessment of capacity and demands for Musgrave Prescribed Wells Area
Water resource Capacity for Groundwater Long-term annual yield* recharge) average annual dependent Water available for allocation Recharge area Recharge rate Stock and Aquifer 2 2 recharge ecosystems km km (ML/a) requirement* domestic Existing Public water Unallocated licences supply water Quaternary limestone aquifer Bramfield 147 31 4,500 60% 4% 1% 31% 4% Kappawanta 62 32 1,980 60% 2% 0% 35% 3% Polda 48 28 1,350 60% 3% 3% 34% 0% Polda North 40 25 1,000 60% 3% 0% 37% 0% Polda East 4 11 44 60% 5% 35% 0% 0% Sheringa A 43 29 1,230 60% 3% 6% 0% 31% Sheringa B 62 28 1,730 60% 3% 0% 0% 37% Talia 55 28 1,520 60% 4% 0% 0% 36% Tinline 13 31 400 60% 2% 8% 0% 30% Minor lenses 80 25 2,000 60% 3% 0% 0% 37% Total 15,753 60% 3% 1% 19% 17% Tertiary sand aquifer** 33,900 30,500 ML/a 1,020 ML/a n.a. 0 ML/a 2,380 ML/a * % = percentage of annual recharge ** The Jurassic and basement aquifers contain water considered too saline to use. Source: EPCWMB 2004; ERWRPC 2001
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6.3.5 Southern Basins Prescribed Wells Area
The Southern Basins PWA is located around Coffin Bay and Tulka, west to southwest of Port Lincoln and covers an area of 870 km 2 (Figure 6.3). The Southern Basins PWA contains the majority of the good quality and adequate yielding aquifers in the southern part of Eyre Peninsula (Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003).
Groundwater in the Southern Basins area is contained mainly in Bridgewater Formation limestone and Tertiary sands. These aquifers are generally separated by a clayey aquitard of Tertiary age. The main lenses are Coffin Bay, Uley South, Uley East and Lincoln A D (Figure 6.3). The aquifers vary from approximately 3 m deep in the Uley South lens to 18 m in the Uley Wanilla lens. These lenses are separate, geologically controlled structures that can be treated as discrete (‘independent’) aquifers. Groundwater moves freely in the aquifers to provide good yields and salinities generally less than 700 mg/L TDS (EPCWMB 2004).
Table 6.6 summarises typical salinity and yields in the aquifers of the Southern Basins area.
TABLE 6.6 Southern Basins aquifer summary
Aquifer Salinity (mg/L, TDS) Yield (L/s) Quaternary limestone <700 5–60 Tertiary sands 500–50,000 1–10 Basement 30,000–50,000 Varied (but typically low) Source: EPCWMB 2004
The Bridgewater Formation limestone in the Southern Basins PWA consists of fine shell fragments, which in some areas has developed solution features, as well as secondary cementation.
Average annual recharge rates have been estimated at 80–160 mm/annum for Uley Wanilla/Uley East and Uley South, respectively (Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003).
Uley South, the southern most part of the Coffin Bay Basin, and most of the Lincoln Basin, discharge into the sea. The main discharge mechanism for Uley Wanilla and Uley East is thought to be through leakage to the underlying Tertiary sands aquifer.
Condition and trend
Most of the reticulated water supply use on Eyre Peninsula is sourced from the Uley South lens. The Southern Basins PWA has 16 licensed water users with an average allocated volume of 9267 ML/annum in 2002–03 (EPNRMB 2007). SA Water holds the largest allocation, taking an average of 8857 ML/annum (based on 2002–03 values). Other major users were golf courses, and vegetable and lucerne growers. Additional use includes stock and domestic purposes (ERWRPC 2000).
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All licensed water supplies are metered; however private users do little reporting or monitoring of water use. Meters are read periodically (EPNRMB 2006).
The quantity of water required by GDEs accessing the Quaternary aquifer, is thought to be approximately 60% of the average annual recharge. The quantity of water required in the Tertiary aquifer is thought to be approximately 90% of the average annual recharge to the system (EPWRPC 2000).
Table 6.7 summarises the assessment of the capacity of the resource to meet existing and possible future demands for water from the prescribed source in the Southern Basins PWA. Water taken from wells in the Quaternary limestone aquifers are allocated by the percentage of the annual recharge of the lens in the aquifer that may be taken and used in a water use year. Water taken from wells in the Tertiary sands aquifer is allocated by the volume of water that may be taken and used in a water use year. Therefore, water taken from the Quaternary limestone aquifer is represented as a percentage; water taken from the Tertiary sands aquifer is represented as a volume (Table 6.7) (ERWRPC 2000).
For more Groundwater monitoring in the Southern Basins PWA began in the late 1930s with information on 409 observation wells being installed and constructed over time. In 2005, groundwater level and salinity trends in 134 observation wells were monitored monthly for groundwater levels (Figure 6.7). the Southern Basins PWA, contact the Of these wells (DWLBC 2005): Department of Water, Land and 77 monitor the shallow Quaternary Bridgewater Formation limestone aquifer Biodiversity Conservation 4 monitor the Tertiary Uley Formation clay (BWLBC) or visit info.pir.sa.gov.au/ob swell 20 monitor the Tertiary Wanilla Formation sand aquifer
2 monitor the basement aquifer system.
Groundwater monitoring networks are present around Cummins, Tod River Catchment, County Flinders and Wanilla.
The following trends were observed in Southern Basins PWA:
Uley South lens hydrographs show a decline in groundwater levels since about 1990.
Uley Wanilla and Coffin Bay lenses present a decline in groundwater levels since approximately 1985.
Uley East shows a decline in groundwater levels from about 1985 to 1990.
Lincoln Basin hydrographs present a decline from about 1990 to 1995.
The decline in groundwater level responses in these areas can most likely be attributed to consecutive low rainfall seasons and continued groundwater extraction. Monitoring data shows a strong relationship between groundwater level responses and rainfall events. Since the last major rainfall event in 1992, groundwater levels have been declining due to the reduced aquifer recharge, (Table 6.8) continued extraction and continued natural discharge to the sea and/or other aquifers (Department for Water Resources 2001b).
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Table 6.7 Assessment of capacity and demands for Southern Basins PWA
Water resource Long term annual yield* Capacity for Groundwater average annual dependent Water available for allocation Recharge area Recharge rate recharge ecosystems Stock and Aquifer 2 2 km km (ML/a) requirement* domestic Existing Public water Unallocated licences supply water Quaternary limestone aquifer Coffin Bay A 11 34 375 60% 2% 8% 29% 1% Coffin Bay B 7 16 110 60% 11% 21% 0% 8% Coffin Bay C 7 18 125 60% 6% 32% 0% 2% Uley Wanilla 37 54 2,000 60% 1% 0% 39% 0% Wanilla 1 20 20 60% 5% 30% 0% 5% Uley East 19 69 1,310 60% 2% 4% 34% 1% Uley South 129 155 20,000 60% 0% 0% 40% 0% Lincoln A Lincoln B 45 56 2,520 60% 0% 0% 40% 0% Lincoln C Lincoln D 30 32 960 60% 3% 10% 0% 27% Lincoln D West 9 32 290 60% 4% 36% 0% 0% Minor Lenses 150 40 6,000 60% 3% 0% 0% 37% Total 33,710 60% 1% 1% 31% 7%
Tertiary sand 3,240 2,915 ML/a 140 ML/a n.a. 80 ML/a 105 ML/a aquifer
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Basement 1,000 500 ML/a 50 ML/a n.a. 15 ML/a 435 ML/a aquifer * % = percentage of annual recharge Source: EPCWMB 2004; ERWRPC 2000
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TABLE 6.8 Recharge rates for the lenses of the Quaternary limestone aquifers within the Southern Basins Prescribed Wells Areas (ML/annum)
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Quaternary Aquifer –03 –04 –05 –06 –07 –08 –09 Coffin Bay A (West) 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 Coffin Bay B (Central) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 Coffin Bay C (East) 9 12 12 12 12 12 12 Coffin Bay C 9 12 12 12 12 12 12 (extension) Uley Wanilla 16 16 16 16 16 16 14 Wanilla 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 Uley East 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 Uley South 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 Lincoln A, B & C 50 52 52 52 52 52 52 Lincoln D 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Lincoln D West 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Lincoln Minor 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Minor Lenses 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 Source: DWLBC, Knowledge and Information Division
Despite large extractions from some aquifer lenses, groundwater quality has only fluctuated within a small range for individual monitoring wells (although there can be large spatial variations) since monitoring began. This is because most of these lenses are hydraulically separated from saline waters that could mix under the stress of excess pumping. The Lincoln Basin is the most susceptible to increased salinity due to over extraction causing mixing between fresh groundwater and adjacent seawater (Department of Water Resources 2001b).
Currently 63 observation wells are monitored for salinity (every six months from 1992 to 1997; monitoring recommenced in 2002–03). Of these wells (DWLBC 2005):
48 monitor the shallow Quaternary Bridgewater Formation limestone aquifer
3 monitor the Tertiary Uley Formation clay
11 monitor the Tertiary Wanilla Formation sand aquifer
1 monitors the basement aquifer system.
The monitoring network at the Uley South lens was recently upgraded following a review by DWLBC. Historical observation wells have been rehabilitated for inclusion in the monitoring network and new wells installed in areas where there were hydrogeological knowledge gaps (DWLBC 2005).
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6.3.6 Other groundwater sources
Other groundwater resources in Eyre Peninsula include various WPA and other smaller non prescribed aquifers. The following aquifers are the major resources outside the Musgrave and Southern Basins PWAs (Figure 6.5).
Robinson lens (Robinson WPA)
The largest of the independent groundwater supplies, Robinson lens is located approximately 9 km southeast of the township of Streaky Bay.
The hydrogeology of the Robinson lens reflects, on a smaller scale, that of the basins in the Musgrave PWA. Groundwater is contained mainly in the Quaternary Bridgewater Formation limestone and underlying Tertiary sands, which are up to 65 m thick and overlying eroded basement rocks. The Quaternary limestone and Tertiary sands are generally separated by a clayey aquitard. The extent of the Robinson lens is generally taken as the 1500 mg/L TDS isohaline (current salinity levels are averaging above 1600 mg/L) (Figure 6.6).
Salinity in the Tertiary sand aquifer is generally in the range 5000–25,000 mg/L TDS. The limited extent and thickness of the Robinson lens is reflected in its sensitivity to recharge from rainfall and pumping, which is evident in groundwater level responses (Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003). Recharge processes in this area are thought to be similar to those in the Musgrave PWA.
The estimated long term sustainable yield of the Robinson lens for water with less than 1000 mg/L salinity is approximately 200 ML/a. This estimate is greater than the estimate made for the Musgrave and Southern Basins PWA. If the same level of conservation was applied to the Robinson lens, long term water availability would reduce to approximately 132 ML/a ((Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003). Abstraction from the Robinson lens was estimated to be 240 ML/a in 1990 and 160 ML/a during 2001 or 80% of the sustainable yield (200 ML/a) ((Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003).
The Robinson lens has salinity values in the Quaternary Bridgewater Formation limestone of generally less than 1500 mg/L TDS; levels in the Tertiary sands aquifer are generally in the range 5000–25,000 mg/L TDS.
Port Kenny lens (Port Kenny WPA)
The Port Kenny lens is located immediately north of the Musgrave PWA, near Venus Bay. Investigations into this lens have been limited and the full extent is not well defined. It is thought that its hydrogeology reflects that of the basins in the Musgrave PWA, albeit on a smaller scale ((Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003).
PIRSA estimated a recharge of approximately 910 ML/a in 1998 for the Port Kenny lens, which allows for a conservative estimate of 360 ML/a being available for use, after allowing for GDE requirements ((Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003).
The Port Kenny Quaternary limestone lens has a salinity of generally less than 1000 mg/L TDS ((Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003)
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Penong lenses (Penong WPA)
Lenses in the Penong area were first noted in 1985 as small areas of low salinity groundwater in the Quaternary limestone in the Penong–Bookabie area west of Ceduna.
In a large depression east of Penong, numerous wells tapped good quality groundwater for use in the town. However, salinity increases suggest that the aquifer may be over used. Further investigation in the early 1990s could not identify significant low salinity lenses ((Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003).
Observation wells in the Penong area have recorded salinities of approximately 400–10,000 mg/L. The last measurement was recorded in 1996 (DWLBC 2007).
Cowell Basin
Groundwater in the Cowell Basin, located near the town of Cowell, mainly resides in Tertiary deposits, at generally high salinity levels, with only one locality on its margin used for stock watering. Other similar, but smaller, Tertiary basins are known near Caralue, Kimba and Rudall, and generally contain highly saline groundwater.
Groundwater can also lie in the basement rock, near the surface across the peninsula. The few wells of good quality water are generally low yielding. Groundwater quality can range from saline to hypersaline (one well measured salinity over four times higher than seawater, at approximately 140,000 mg/L TDS).
There is limited groundwater use in the eastern area of Eyre Peninsula, due to high levels of salinity and low yields. The groundwater available is sourced from the Cowell Basin and is mainly used for stock purposes. It is not currently licensed.
Approximately 48 observation wells are currently being monitored for groundwater levels in the Cowell area. The wells, monitored by DWLBC approximately annually, show that there has been a general decline in groundwater levels since 1993 (DWLBC 2007).
Groundwater salinity is monitored in approximately 14 observation wells in the Cowell area; the last measurement was recorded in 2003. At that time the concentration of salinity in the observation well network ranged from approximately 1200 mg/L to 64,000 mg/L TDS (DWLBC 2007). This large range is probably due to the proximity of the observation wells to the sea and the variation in aquifer type and depth.
Northwest Eyre Peninsula
The dunes along the coastal margin of northwest Eyre Peninsula, between Streaky Bay and the Head of the Bight, may have the potential for minor sources of fresh groundwater. Saturated thicknesses of approximately 2 metres are considered typical, although they may reach 5 metres. Generally, the dune groundwater quality is marginal with salinity of up to 3000 mg/L TDS; isolated occurrences of less than 1000 mg/L TDS are known ((Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003).
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6.4 Aquatic habitats
The habitat and biodiversity of all parts of the landscape are closely related and there are many overlaps between the biodiversity of different parts of the landscape. This section describes the physical nature of the aquatic habitats of the region, but should be read with section 4 (biodiversity) and section 7, which describes the coast and marine flora and fauna of the region.
The quantity and quality of water in the region impacts on water dependent ecosystems in streams, coastal and inland wetland communities, as well as on terrestrial fauna. The quantity, timing, duration and frequency of flows in watercourses, coupled with the maintenance of base flows from groundwater, are critical to these ecosystems.
Most of the rivers and streams on Eyre Peninsula are located on the east (Goonan et al. 2003; cited in Boggon and Evans 2006). The Tod River is the only permanently flowing stream in the region. The remaining rivers and streams are ephemeral or seasonal and are saline or brackish. The riparian/aquatic vegetation along the Tod River includes Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Typha spp., Juncus spp., Cyperus spp., Hydrocotyle spp. and Ruppia spp. (Lloyd and Balla 1986 cited in DEH 2002).
River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis ) Woodland is often associated with rivers or streams on lower Eyre Peninsula (Mowling 1979; cited in Boggon and Evans 2006) but it also grows in shallow soils over limestone. It is predominantly confined to the Talia Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation of Australia (IBRA) Subregion but there are also small areas in the Koppio Hills (Eyre Hills IBRA Subregion).
There are very few freshwater lakes on Eyre Peninsula. Big Swamp, northwest of Port Lincoln, has been identified as a wetland of National Significance (Australian Nature Conservation Agency 1996). Marginal/aquatic vegetation of Big Swamp includes Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Juncus spp., Myriophyllum spp., Ruppia spp. and Crassula spp.
A large number of saline lakes are scattered throughout Eyre Peninsula, a number of which have been identified as wetlands of national significance. Several marine and estuarine wetlands are also present on Eyre Peninsula.
Primary threats to wetland vegetation are grazing, salinisation, weeds, nutrient load, and water extraction.
Wetlands are important habitats because of the diversity and conservation significance of aquatic and fringing vegetation associated with them and the resources available for a range of terrestrial and aquatic fauna. Many birds of conservation significance (e.g. Latham’s Snipe, Musk Duck and Baillon’s Crake) are associated with wetlands of Eyre Peninsula.
The approximately 64,000 ha of wetlands on Eyre Peninsula (Seaman 2002 cited in Boggons and Evans 2007) are predominantly salt lakes and coastal wetlands. Less common are freshwater wetlands and streams, many of which are affected by dryland salinity. Most of the region is characterised by low relief, relatively low 169
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rainfall (generally less than 500 mm per year) and high evaporation. These conditions and geology result in a variety of wetland types with contrasting salinity, water regimes and dependencies on rainfall and groundwater.
6.4.1 Wetland types on Eyre Peninsula
Boggon and Evans (2006) identified and described the wetlands types of Eyre Peninsula including coastal wetlands and inland wetland communities(Table 6.9).
TABLE 6. Wetland types on Eyre Peninsula
Occurrence on Eyre Wetland types Values Peninsula Coastal wetlands Occur in bays and estuaries that are sheltered from wave action, and are influenced by oceanic water and in some cases freshwater runoff and groundwater Mangroves – group of trees Davenport Creek near High productivity; feeding and shrubs that grow in the Ceduna; Franklin Harbour and breeding areas for fish, intertidal zone of sheltered Near Cowell; Tumby Bay; crustaceans, waterbirds; bays and estuaries and Coastline near Whyalla habitat for seabirds and waders in associated tidal flats; support commercial and recreational fisheries Saltmarsh – intertidal plant East and west coasts of Support a diversity of plants community found at higher Eyre Peninsula within and habitat for fauna elevation than mangroves estuaries and sheltered originating from and inundated by fewer bays surrounding marine and tides. Dominated by herbs terrestrial ecosystems, such and low shrubs that occur as insects, snails, crabs, at elevations higher than fish and migratory wading mangroves birds Coastal saline swamps – East and west coasts of Support habitat similar to occur in similar conditions Eyre Peninsula within saltmarsh and freshwater to saltmarshes but are estuaries and sheltered swamps dominated by sedges bays (mostly Cyperaceae). Marine springs or soaks – Examples include Gull Species rich with 18 areas of land not connected Lake, Lake Hamilton and in species recorded on Eyre to the sea over land where the Lake Newland wetland Peninsula. A significant sea water seeps through complex feature of salt lakes in the the rock supporting region wetlands Inland wetland communities
Are not connected to the sea over land; arise where the watertable is near or at the land surface or where shallow surface water occurs Freshwater springs – Associated with limestone Provide a source of seepage of groundwater aquifers, sink holes and permanent water, maintain can support the caves: washpool at Baird lake water level, provide development of wetlands Bay; and Weepra Spring at unique habitat Lake Newland
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Occurrence on Eyre Wetland types Values Peninsula Freshwater lakes and Big Swamp, Little Swamp Uncommon and considered swamps – fed by surface and other seasonal threatened in South waters and possibly ephemeral swamps Australia; support groundwater and including Meadow Pool and threatened ecological freshwater springs Paddie Pool communities and species Seasonal rock hole – Northern region of Eyre Often contain unique flora (gnamma holes) are a Peninsula such as Mt. and fauna because of the common feature of granite Wudinna degree of isolation from outcrops which rely solely other aquatic habitats on surface water and usually hold water only over winter Salt water lakes and Primarily in the west Support important swamps – permanent, although there are some populations of waterbirds seasonal or ephemeral scattered inland and unique faunal systems supplied by assemblages and species groundwater, springs, that may not occur runoff and occasional elsewhere in the landscape; flooding or seepage of commercial value as salt seawater and gypsum deposits Seasonal and ephemeral Most are located in the Wetland vegetation of streams – are fed mainly by east. Tod River is the only streams can reduce erosion surface waters with some permanent flowing stream and increase bank stability, groundwater input in the region; remainder are trap sediments, take up ephemeral or seasonal and excess nutrients and other are saline or brackish pollutants and contribute to groundwater recharge; flora and fauna habitat and drought refuge Source: Boggon and Evans 2006
6.4.2 Wetland functions
The wetlands on Eyre Peninsula are highly valuable ecosystems providing habitat and resources for wetland adapted plants, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, fish, some mammals and waterbirds both temporarily or permanently. Wetlands also have important habitat for migratory waterbirds and support populations of threatened species (Boggon and Evans 2006). Their other functions (Boggon and Evans 2006) include:
water purification by accumulation and/or absorption of nutrients, sediments, heavy metals and other pollutants
groundwater replenishment
water storage and flood control
refuge for wildlife during drought and fires
important breeding and nursery areas for fish and crustaceans
carbon sequestration
opportunities for education, science and research
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opportunities for recreation and tourism including boating, bird watching, fishing and camping
minimising wind erosion in drier dusty supratidal area
minimising erosion through shoreline stabilisation by providing a buffer against wave action and by holding sediments together.
6.4.3 Wetlands of National Importance
Thirteen wetlands on Eyre Peninsula are listed in the Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia (Table 6.10).
TABLE 6.10 Nationally important wetlands on Eyre Peninsula
Wetlands* Freshwaters Tod River Wetland System, Big Swamp Salt lakes Lake Hamilton, Lake Newland, Pillie Lake, Sleaford Mere Marine and estuarine Franklin Harbour, Tumby Bay, Coffin Bay coastal wetland system, Baird Bay, Point Labbatt**, Streaky Bay, Davenport Creek * Information on each wetland can be found in the Directory of Important Wetlands in South Australia (ANCA 1996), updated in the Biodiversity Plan for Eyre Peninsula (DEH 2002) ** ANCA 1996 adopted the Ramsar Convention wetland definition. Point Labbatt would not be classified as a wetland under the wetland definition applied in the NRM Act. Source: ANCA 1996
6.5 Water resource development
Water availability has always had a significant influence on the occupation of Eyre Peninsula and the use of its resources. Along with transport, it dictated the pace and direction of early European settlement and associated development on the peninsula. Water availability was a key to Aboriginal occupation of the region, defining where sustenance could be found. Water features in the dreamings of the region’s creation (Das et al. 2005). Similarly water availability would have defined where sealers (and later pastoralists) settled. Water and transport were soon recognised as the major constraints to further development of the peninsula. Railways overcame the transport issue and delivered water to remote communities. The steam engines’ need for water also spurred the innovative development of local water resources (e.g. harvesting water off granite outcrops and constructing water conservation reserves where tanks stored the water from roofs).
In 1922, the Tod reservoir was completed to supply water to nearby Port Lincoln as well as to northern districts (as far away as Ceduna). By the mid 1930s, it was apparent that the Tod (with its erratic inflows and salinity problems) would not sustain the needs of an expanding community. Attention turned to the region’s groundwater resources. From 1937 on, groundwater was supplied through the Tod reservoir pipeline, which was extended to Kimba in 1973.
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Across the region many communities and individual farmers had been resourceful in developing their own water harvesting schemes. Many are self sustaining in a harsh environment. With the introduction of more reliable reticulated supply these smaller schemes were abandoned. For farmers who had to pay for access to a pipeline (whether they used the water or not) there was a clear incentive to use water from the system and avoid the maintenance their own schemes required.
Today, many of the region’s water resources are being used at what is thought to be their sustainable capacity and salinity has excluded supply contributions from the Tod River. Many communities have responded to limited supplies over the years by being conservative in their use of water and, more recently, rehabilitating abandoned local supplies, often to generate water for uses such as for upkeep of parks and ovals, which do not require as high a quality water (either in salinity or microbial counts) as domestic use.
The need for self reliance in a semi arid climate has driven a history of innovation and adaptability in water resource management – in homes, on farms, at district level and across Eyre Peninsula as a whole. Generally, a conservative approach to water use is taken throughout (Das et al. 2005). As in most Australian urban areas, the peninsula’s towns have numerous opportunities for further municipal water resource development such as rainwater, stormwater, and the reuse of greywater and treated effluent (Das et al. 2005).
In addition to water sourced from within the region, River Murray water is supplied to Whyalla by a 370 km overland pipeline from Morgan. A pipeline from Iron Knob to Kimba, recently completed to increase the security of supply to the peninsula, will initially supply about 15% of Eyre Peninsula’s water needs and allow for future development and growth. Water resource management and development on Eyre Peninsula is now linked to water management in the River Murray its tributaries (SA Water 2008).
6.5.1 Alternative sources
SA Water has prepared a draft long term plan for meeting future water demand on Eyre Peninsula (SA Water 2008). This draft plan presents options for system enhancement and new water resources, as and when required, to complement demand management initiatives and community/local government water cycle initiatives already in place. It supersedes the existing Eyre Peninsula Water Supply Master Plan (Parsons Brinkerhoff 2003). In particular detailed studies uncovered additional data (not available at the time of the Master Plan) that showed insufficient water was available for consumption at Tod reservoir (SA Water 2008).
SA Water (2008) outlines five system enhancement and new water resource options:
a desalination plant on the lower west coast of Eyre Peninsula
a desalination plant on the northwest coast of Eyre Peninsula
rehabilitation of the Tod reservoir
augmentation of stage 2 of the Iron Knob to Kimba pipeline
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construction of a new trunk main from Whyalla to Cowell.
The draft report (SA Water 2008) found that Stage 2 of the Iron Knob to Kimba Pipeline is the most economically viable of the five options costed. However, in relation to the volume of water that each option can produce, the lower west coast desalination plant appears to be more favourable (SA Water 2008). The draft report recommends further investigation into seawater desalination in close proximity to the Uley South Borefield which could provide approximately 2200 ML/annum (the Stage 2 pipeline upgrade would supply 900 ML/annum.
The potential for water reuse on Eyre Peninsula, usually for brackish tolerant purposes such as irrigation and livestock watering, may reduce the pressure on groundwater resources. Water reuse requires collection, treatment and/or storage. One method is through managed aquifer recharge (MAR; previously termed aquifer storage and recovery, ASR), which stores stormwater, stream flow or wastewater in aquifers by injecting it through wells, and subsequent recovers the water for beneficial use. However, MAR may have limited potential on Eyre Peninsula due to possible loss to the ocean through natural discharge or where aquifers may already be near capacity (EPCWMB 2004).
There are 200 abandoned stormwater harvesting schemes across the region including dams, tanks and reservoirs (EPCWMB 2004). Some of them could be recommissioned, for example the Polda Rock scheme of the 1920s was reinstated in 1998 to provide township irrigation water (SA Water 2008). A preliminary investigation into extending the water reuse program to allow storage tanks and distribution to users in the rural hinterland has been undertaken (EPCWMB 2004).
Rainwater tanks are widely used across the region (SA Water 2008) but it is not known how much water is supplied from them or how much additional water could be harvested from them.
Port Lincoln has a large water reuse program, which reduces reliance on reticulated water. Treated effluent is used for purposes such as irrigation of the local racecourse and parklands.
6.6 Key threats and influences on the condition of the resources
The continued economic growth of Eyre Peninsula will be closely dependent on the management of the area’s water supplies to provide adequate water. Future developments will require consideration of the water resource implications including the protection of groundwater basins, management of the demand for water, and reuse and recycling of water in developments.
Primary threats to wetland vegetation include grazing, salinisation, weeds, nutrient load, and water withdrawal.
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6.6.1 Development
The water demands of increased urban development and associated population growth will need to be managed to minimise the pressure on the region’s limited water resources.
The incorporation of water sensitive urban design features that are becoming more commonplace will be critical in any future urban development in the region, as will retrofitting to existing areas.
Land use change and development in the region has the potential to increase the threats of over use and pollution, and cause direct damage to watercourse integrity. Inappropriate development practices may contaminate groundwater with industrial and agricultural chemical products and nutrients or may physically damage key aquatic habitat areas.
Developments likely to occur in the region, and their possible impacts, are:
urban expansion (including marina developments) leading to increased runoff, demand for domestic supply, and septic pollution
subdivision of large titles to ‘lifestyle’ properties with each new parcel requiring domestic and usually stock water supply, leading to increased dams and pumping
intensive animal keeping leading to increased water use and pollution.
6.6.2 Industrial water demand
The water demand of industrial developments and any increase in intensive agriculture or mining in the region may be limited by water availability. Any increase in industrial water demands on the native water resources has the potential to impact on local water resources.
6.6.3 Climate change
The apparent drying trend in the region of recent years, may be associated with longer term climate change. It is critical that the performance of the water resource is monitored closely so that the full impact of any permanent climate changes on water availability can be managed.
Changes may include a decrease in the predictability and change in the seasonal distribution of the resource, reduced water quality from increasing salinity, and poorer quality runoff due to increased water erosion events. Additionally water availability from the groundwater basins that supply the potable water to the region or the River Murray may be reduced.
The management actions, such as deepening wells and increased dam storages, to shield the impacts of these effects may place increased pressure on the resource.
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Improved desalination technology may lead to increased use of resources currently limited by salinity. The inherently high salinity levels in many of the region’s water resources cause the water to be unsuitable for many uses and hence limit the level of extraction. As low cost desalinisation technologies and salt tolerant crops are developed and adopted, demand on these water resources may increase. As well as the direct impact of extraction on water quantity, these can also have secondary impacts where salt is discharged or concentrated.
6.6.4 Dryland salinity
Dryland salinity has increased following clearance of catchments and has already degraded some of these resources. If unmanaged this will have more effect in the future on streams, wetlands and groundwater systems.
6.6.5 Pollution
Water quality deterioration in the region may be related to:
increasing salinity due to rising saline groundwater and extraction and surface water capture
erosion of soil from the land surface and watercourses
localised urban and industrial pollution
in some areas, stock contributing directly to watercourse pollution through faecal contamination containing harmful nutrients and bacteria
likely sources of water pollution in the region such as septic systems, intentional dumping into watercourses, and spray drift of herbicides and insecticides.
6.6.6 Threats to groundwater resources
The major threat for groundwater resources in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region comes from increasing demand for water supply including industrial, agricultural and mining use. Increased demand could lead to increased groundwater extraction unless alternative sources can be developed. Threats to groundwater resources are summarised in Table 6.11.
Groundwater quantity
Increased groundwater abstraction may lead to mixing of fresh groundwater with adjacent saline groundwater. Therefore, sufficient pressure must be maintained within the aquifers to ensure natural discharge to the sea and keep the interface between the seawater and fresh water in equilibrium to prevent salt water intrusion.
Drought and/or climate change may result in lower annual rainfall, reducing recharge to the aquifer systems and therefore groundwater levels may continue to decline. Increased extraction could lower groundwater levels causing mixing of fresh groundwater with adjacent saline groundwater. On a regional scale, increased groundwater abstraction could reduce the sustainable yield of the aquifer system. 176
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Some wells have been deepened in order to maintain supply. This may result in adjacent saline water mixing with the fresh water in the discontinuous aquifer lenses (DWLBC).
Groundwater quality
Changes in farming practices, such as varied application of herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers may affect the quality of groundwater.
Dryland salinity is a major threat in Eyre Peninsula, particularly in areas around Cowell and throughout the hills west of Cleve. This may be as a result of relatively shallow (less than 2 m) and saline (greater than 14,000 mg/L TDS) groundwater. In parts of the lower Eyre Peninsula, it was common practice to dig trenches to access groundwater for stock watering. This can increase salinity due to greater evaporation, or risk from contamination from stock or pollution.(DWLBC undated(a).
Lack of knowledge and understanding of water resources
Another risk to the groundwater resources is the lack of understanding of the aquifers outside of the PWAs which may result in an overestimate of an aquifer’s acceptable yield.
A review of groundwater level monitoring techniques and frequency within the Eyre Peninsula NRM region in 2005, identified errors, gaps and breaks in databases and the lack of information on the basement fractured rock aquifer system (DWLBC 2005).
6.6.7 Threats to wetlands
Boggon and Evans (2006) identified the threats to the wetlands of Eyre Peninsula (Table 6.11).
TABLE 6.11 Threats to wetlands of Eyre Peninsula
Wetland type* Threats Coastal wetlands Mangroves Encroachment by coastal developments such marinas, landfill, port and urban developments, and associated pollution Saltmarsh, coastal saline Grazing, weeds, coastal development such as marinas, swamps, marine springs landfill, roads, port and urban developments, and pollution and soaks associated with these developments
Inland wetland communities Freshwater springs Grazing; flow or water level reduction by extraction directly from spring or from the aquifer Freshwater lakes and Salinisation linked to high levels of land clearance, low swamps rainfall and high evaporation; weed invasion, grazing, nutrient enrichment, other pollution and erosion 177
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Wetland type* Threats Seasonal rock hole Weeds and feral goats Saltwater lakes and Diversion of surface water inflow, drainage of subsurface swamps water by channels to creeks, increased catchment salinisation, grazing and pollution; introduction of the pest brine shrimp Artemia Seasonal and ephemeral Salinisation due to clearance of native vegetation and streams associated rise in watertable; stock access; diversion of freshwater flows; and runoff of nutrients, sediments, pesticides herbicides * Wetland types are described in Section 6.4.1. Source: Boggon and Evans 2006
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TABLE 6.12 Summary of potential threats to groundwater resources on Eyre Peninsula
Aquifers affected in Musgrave PWA* Southern Basins PWA Aquifers affected Threat Impact western EP aquifers affected aquifers affected in eastern EP Declining Declining groundwater levels with continued Quaternary Formation Quaternary Formation Quaternary Formation Tertiary sand groundwater levels abstraction increases the risk of mixing with limestone limestone limestone aquifer saline water Contamination Contamination of groundwater from industrial Quaternary Formation Quaternary Formation Quaternary Formation Tertiary sand products and nutrients from stock farming and limestone limestone limestone aquifer horticulture Climate change/ Reduced recharge via rainfall, causing Quaternary & Tertiary Quaternary & Tertiary Quaternary & Tertiary Tertiary sand drought groundwater levels to decline aquifers aquifers aquifers aquifer Over abstraction Unsustainable abstraction along with natural Quaternary & Tertiary Quaternary & Tertiary Quaternary & Tertiary Tertiary sand discharge causes groundwater levels to aquifers aquifers aquifers aquifer decline Fluctuating shallow Fluctuating shallow groundwater levels have Quaternary Formation Quaternary Formation Quaternary Formation Tertiary sand groundwater levels the potential to flush salts, increasing limestone limestone limestone aquifer groundwater salinity Knowledge gaps Limited understanding and knowledge gaps Basement aquifer Quaternary Formation Basement aquifer All can result in unsustainable allocation limestone (Port Kenny, Penong lenses) & basement aquifer Importation of water Risk of producing elevated groundwater levels Quaternary Formation Quaternary Formation Quaternary Formation Tertiary in shallow aquifers, which could result in limestone limestone limestone increased salinity * also includes Port Kenny lens located north of Musgrave PWA
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6.7 Key management initiatives
The use of water resources from the Southern Basins and Musgrave Prescribed Wells Areas is managed in accordance with water allocation plans developed under the NRM Act.
The Southern Eyre Peninsula Hydrogeology Research Fellowship is a joint program between Flinders University, SA Water, DWLBC and the Board aimed at completing the modelling of Uley South.
The Groundwater Allocation, Planning and Management Project is addressing at knowledge gaps, modelling and policy development to support the water allocation planning process.
A Long Term Plan for the Water Resources of the region has been developed (SA Water 2008).
A pipeline, recently extended from Iron Knob to Kimba, supplies 1400 ML/annum of water from the River Murray to the region west of Whyalla.
Water conservation initiatives have been embraced by local communities across the peninsula. The use of reticulated water has decreased from 11.5 GL in 2000 to a present use of 9 GL.
6.8 Water indicators
Environmental indicators are used to track changes in the environment and are classed as:
state or condition indicators – of the condition of the environment
pressure indicators – of positive or negative effects of human activities on a particular component of the environment
response indicators – of the management responses that have or are being undertaken to address the pressures upon the environment.
The indicators for the water resources of Eyre Peninsula are presented in Table 6.12.
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TABLE 6.62 Water resource indicators
Type of Condition/ Issues Indicator indicator trend
Change in surface water salinity in Tod River C
Increase in groundwater salinity C
Change in groundwater nutrient levels C ??? Water quality Change in farming practices, e.g. trenches no R longer used
Volume of reticulated water used P
Groundwater levels C
Improvement in efficiency of water use – domestic, agriculture and industry R
Maintenance of water allocation licensing and R updating development plans Water quantity Introduction of alternative sources and volume of R water reused or recycled River health assessed according to the Australian C River Assessment System (AUSRIVAS) ??? Index of stream condition (including state of the riparian zone) C ??? River health
Change in management practices to adapt and mitigate impacts R ??? change Climate C = condition (state) indicator; P = pressure indicator; R = response indicator Assessment is colour coded: blue = optimal; green = good; yellow = moderate; red = poor Trends are noted with symbols: ↓ – negative; ↑ – positive; ↔ stable; ? – unknown
6.9 Information gaps
The following gaps have been identified at this stage:
recent groundwater use trends within the Musgrave PWA
surface water and groundwater interactions, specifically surface water basins feeding groundwater sources
recent groundwater use trends within the Southern Basins PWA
sustainable extraction limits of resource from Southern Basins PWA
long term yield of Port Kenny and Penong lenses and the impact of abstraction on the aquifers
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metering and further investigations into the current use trends for Robinson, Port Kenny and Penong lenses
recharge mechanisms of the Port Kenny and Penong lenses
the presence of stygofauna in calcrete aquifers on Eyre Peninsula
understanding of water dependent ecosystems, particularly in PWAs
environmental flow in the surface water catchments to maintain ecological integrity
influence of farm dams in Little and Big Swamp catchments.
6.10 Bibliography
Australian Nature Conservation Agency. 1996. A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia, 2nd ed . Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra.
Australian Water Resources Assessment. undated. National Land and Water Resource Audit . National Heritage Trust
Boggon, T and Evans, I. 2006. A Coordinated Approach to Wetland Management on Eyre Peninsula . Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Board, South Australia.
Day, P, Das, P, Hunwick, J and Clarke, K. 2004. Eyre Peninsula Catchment Report . Eyre Peninsula Catchment Water Management Board, Port Lincoln.
DEH. 2002. Biodiversity Plan for Eyre Peninsula . Department for Environment and Heritage, South Australia.
DEH. 2007a. Biodiversity Conservation Programs of Eyre Peninsula and the Far West. Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.biodiversity.sa.gov.au/west_bcp
DEH. 2007. Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Region Estuaries Information Package , Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
Department for Water Resources. 2001. Eyre Region Hydrogeology Resource Assessment . Government of South Australia.
Department for Water Resources. 2001b. Understanding the Southern Basins Prescribed Wells Area (draft) . Department for Water Resources, South Australia.
DEWHA. 2007. Biodiversity. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra. www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity
Department of Water Resources. 2001a. Understanding the Musgrave Prescribed Wells Area (draft). Department of Water Resources, South Australia.
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Dooley, T, Henschke, C, Ciganovic, P and Dowie, R. 2002. Regional Salinity Management Plan for Eyre Peninsula . Rural Solutions SA.
DWLBC. 2005. Water Monitoring Review in the Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Region. Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Adelaide, South Australia.
DWLBC. undated. Water Monitoring review in the Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Region Report . Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Adelaide.
DWLBC. undated(a) Fact Sheet 03, Groundwater Resources on Eyre Peninsula. Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Adelaide, South Australia.
Environmental Protection Agency. 2003. Environment Protection ( Water Quality) Policy 2003 and Explanatory Report . [policy]
Environmental Protection Agency. undated. River Health on Eyre Peninsula. www.epa.sa.gov.au/pdfs/river_health_eyre.pdf
Eyre Peninsula Catchment Water Management Board. 2004. Eyre Peninsula Catchment Report .
Eyre Region Water Resource Planning Committee. 2001. Water Allocation Plan – Southern Basins Prescribed Wells Area . Adelaide.
Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Board. 2006a. Musgrave Prescribed Wells Area Water Allocation Plan – Review.
Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Board. 2006b. Southern Basins Water Allocation Plan – Review.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2008. Intergovernmental Agreement on a National Water Initiative .
McMurray, D. 2006. Impacts of Farm Dams on Streamflow in the Tod River Catchment, Eyre Peninsula, South Australia . Knowledge and Information Division, Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, South Australia.
Parsons Brinkerhoff. 2003. Eyre Peninsula Water Supply Master Plan. www.sawater.com.au/NR/rdonlyres/7E2ADBDF 29BF 4BF8 A585 26FD9F81AEFB/0/EPMaster_Plan_low.pdf
PIRSA. undated. Eyre Region Hydrogeological Resource Assessment . Department of Primary Industry and Resources South Australia. [CD]
PIRSA and Soil Conservation Council of SA. undated. South Australian Dryland Salinity Strategy . Department of Primary Industry and Resources South Australia, Adelaide.
Rixon, S, Kotz, S and Thomas, D. undated. A River Management Plan for the Tod Catchment. Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide. 183
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SA Water. 2008. Meeting Future Demand. SA Water’s Draft Long Term Plan for Eyre Peninsula.
SA Water. 2008a. Meeting Future Demand. SA Water’s Long Term Plan for Eyre Peninsula. Draft Community Response Report.
Sinclair Knight Merz and Natural Heritage Trust. 2004. Eyre Peninsula Regional Natural Resource Management Plan . Government of South Australia.
V and C Semeniuk Research Group. undated. Lake Newland Baseline Survey and Literature Review , Eyre Peninsula Report.
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Relevant legislation 7. Coasts and marine Coast Protection Act 1972 (SA) Fisheries Management Act 2007 (SA) Native Vegetation Act 1993 (SA) Development Act 7.1 Overview of the region 1993 (SA)
The Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management (NRM) Region covers a significant area of the State and encompasses large areas of coastline, from the upper Spencer Gulf to west of Fowlers Bay. The coastline of more than 1800 km, excluding offshore islands, makes up a significant proportion of the State’s coastline. The region’s coastline is dominated by rocky limestone cliffs but 15% of it is sheltered waters formed by bays, such as Boston Bay, Coffin Bay, Smoky Bay, Streaky Bay, Baird Bay, Tourville Bay, Venus Bay and Franklin Harbour. While a quarter of the region’s coastline lies in the protected waters of Spencer Gulf, the west coast is exposed to high energy southern ocean swells and westerly winds.
Culturally, the coast has great significance for indigenous communities and the early European history of the region, and continues to be increasingly important for South Australians and visitors who recreate, work or live in coastal areas. Great economic value is associated with the coast, both from natural resource industries and through activities that prosper in a coastal environment. Fishing and aquaculture is one of the key industries of Eyre Peninsula. The fisheries of the coastal waters of Eyre Peninsula attract commercial and recreational fishers.
Eyre Peninsula encompasses four marine planning areas: the Far West, West Coast, Lower Spencer Gulf and Spencer Gulf, The boundaries of the marine planning areas are based on bioregions. A marine bioregion is an area within the marine environment that has distinctive biodiversity and is defined by a combination of biological, social and geographic data. Table 7.1 shows details of the 15 biounits for the Eyre Peninsula Region. Figure 7.1 shows the marine planning areas and marine biounits that fall within the Eyre Peninsula NRM region.
(Note: Majority of information collated in this section are from the published reports of J.L .Baker, S.Bryars, and K.Edyvane. See the refrence list for the published reports.)
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TABLE 7.1 Biounit details for the Eyre Peninsula Region
Biounit area Biounit Major features of inshore habitats (ha)
Wahgunyah 195,381 High energy coastline, extensive dune transgressions; mostly sand (27,971 ha 94.2%) and some reef habitats (1722 ha, 5.8%) Fowlers 146,486 High energy, rocky limestone coast; mostly reef habitats (21,666 ha, 81.9%), some sand (3134 ha, 11.9%) and seagrass (1639 ha, 6.2%) Nuyts 283,165 Offshore islands; mostly reef habitat (2483 ha, 91.6%), some seagrass (144 ha, 5.3%) and sand habitats (84 ha, 3.1%) Streaky 190,949 Sheltered embayments, rocky headlands; mangroves, large areas of seagrass (86,163 ha, 77.6%), some sand (22,466 ha, 20.2%) and reef habitats (2343 ha, 2.1%) Yanerbie 82,854 High energy coastline with rocky limestone cliffs; sand (9573 ha, 43.6%), seagrass (6602 ha, 30.0%) and reef habitats (5802 ha, 26.4%) Newland 45,238 High energy coastline, extensive dune barrier system; mostly sand (4.18 ha 57.2%) and reef habitats (3231 ha, 42.8%) Sheringa 51,156 High energy, large barrier dune systems; mostly reef habitats (4605 ha, 94.1%), some sand (224 ha, 4.6%) and seagrass (65 ha, 1.3%) Flinders 125,957 High energy, offshore islands/seamounts; mostly reef habitat (4194 ha, 26.4%) Whidbey 132,689 High energy coastline, consisting of intertidal habitats: sandy bottoms (38,489 ha) 88.1% and reefs (5221 ha) 11.9%; no known seagrass habitats Douglas 67,645 High energy coastline with low energy bays, containing intertidal habitats: sandy bottoms (18,619 ha) 50.1%, limestone reefs (9965 ha) 26.8%, and seagrass meadows (8567 ha) 23.1% Gambier 536,544 Deep water habitat; Gambier Isles: sand (15,160 ha), 68.4%, seagrass (5123 ha), 23.1% and some reef habitat (1865 ha), 8.4% Jussieu 240,439 Jussieu peninsula: large sheltered embayments, rocky headlands, offshore islands; sand (65,921 ha) 42.9%, seagrass (56,956 ha) 37.1% and reef habitats (30,649 ha) 20.0% Winninowie 423,557 Winnowie Conservation Park; very sheltered gulf waters, mostly sand (37,727 ha), 69.6% and seagrass habitat (16,484 ha), 30.4%
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Biounit area Biounit Major features of inshore habitats (ha)
Yonga 55,267 Yonga Shoal; sheltered gulf waters, shoals, large areas of seagrass (248,596 ha), 59.1% and sand (161,715 ha), 38.5% and some reef habitat (10,054 ha), 2.4% Franklin 198,588 Franklin Harbour; large sheltered embayment, mangroves, sand (87,258 ha), 61.4%, reef (39,361 ha), 27.7% and seagrass habitats (15,447 ha, 10.9%) Note: Areas and percentages refer to mapped components Source: DEH 2007
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7.2 Coastal and marine flora and fauna
The marine and coastal biota of the region is diverse and varied, with many unique species only found in southern Australian waters. Section 4 outlines the terrestrial biodiversity of the region and although there is some overlap with coastal biodiversity, the coastal flora and fauna, and habitats, are treated separately in the following sections.
The location of dominant seagrass, mangrove and saltmarsh communities, soft sediment habitats, reefs, wetlands and estuaries throughout the Eyre Peninsula NRM region is shown in Figure 7.2.
7.2.1 Seagrass
Seagrasses, which are flowering plants, are a major habitat source for crustaceans and fishes, as well as a habitat and food source for waterbirds. Seagrasses stabilise sediment and reduce the potential for coastal erosion. The leaves of seagrasses enhance water clarity by slowing water flow allowing suspended material to settle and act as a sink and buffer for nutrient and chemical inputs, Seagrasses are protected under the Native Vegetation Act 1991 and one species, Garweed, Zostera muelleri ssp. Mucronata, under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 (NPW Act).
The waters of Southern Australia include 16 of the 18 known seagrass species and have some of the largest seagrass ecosystems in the world (DEH 2007). In the Eyre Peninsula waters, the temperate seagrass meadows of Spencer Gulf cover an area of approximately 5512 km 2, 57% of the total area of seagrass recorded in the State, the most extensive seagrass meadows in the State. They are located generally within the central northern reaches of Spencer Gulf. This habitat provides vital nursery areas for a large number of fish and crustacean species in the gulf. Seagrass grows in the lower intertidal and throughout much of the subtidal zone. The intertidal zone is dominated by Zostera species , whereas Posidonia australis dominates the shallow waters below the low tide mark with a species shift to P. sinuosa and P. angustifolia with increasing depth. Other seagrass species present in the gulf are Heterozostera tasmanica, Halophila australis, Amphibolis antarctica, A. griffithii, Ruppia megacarpa, R. tuberosa, Lepilaena marina and Zostera mucronata (DEH 2007d).
At least 12 different species of seagrass have been recorded in the western part of the region and are found extensively within the protected bays and in the lee of reefs or islands providing protection from swells. Collectively, these areas represent 15% of the total area of seagrasses recorded in South Australia, covering an area of 86,160 ha in Streaky Bay and Smoky Bay alone (DEH 2007a).
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Typically the seagrass meadows found in this part of the region include intertidal species, Heterozostera muelleri and H. tasmanica and subtidal species of Amphibolis and Posidonia . Fowlers Bay has large meadows of Posidonia sinuosa and P. angustifolia, as well as Amphibolis antarctica and A. griffithii. In the embayments near Streaky Bay, large meadows of seagrass are typically dominated by species of Posidonia and Zostera tasmanica . Amphibolis antarctica and Posidonia spp. occur to depths of 22 m at St Francis Island (DEH 2007a).
Venus Bay is largely dominated by seagrass meadows of Heterozostera tasmanica and Amphibolis antarctica with other species, such as Zostera muelleri , Posidonia australis and Ruppia also present. Waterloo Bay contains Heterozostera tasmanica, Amphibolis antarctica and Posidonia spp. (DEH 2007b). Sceale Bay’s northern corner has Posidonia communities and Baird Bay consists mainly of bare sandy substrate, although Posidonia is found growing in major channels, covering 15% of the bay (DEH 2007b). Deep water seagrasses such as Posidonia and Halophila species are found near offshore islands. Sand habitats on Pearson Island also contain Heterozostera and the clear water and high light penetration allow for seagrass to subsist at depths of 30 m (DEH 2007b).
The large number of sheltered sandy embayments on the lower Spencer Gulf, including Proper Bay, Boston Bay, Louth Bay, Peak Bay and Tumby Bay, boast extensive areas of seagrass meadows estimated to cover an area of 56,956 ha. These areas are typically dominated by Posidonia australis in shallow waters, to a depth of approximately 4 m, and in deeper waters P. sinuosa and P. angustifolia dominate. Sparse meadows of Halophila australis occur as deep as 23 m in the offshore gulf waters (DEH 2007c).
Seagrass meadows throughout the Sir Joseph Banks Group generally occur in the lee of islands and in deeper waters generally greater than 10 m in depth. Seagrass species of Posidonia sinuosa, P. angustifolia and Amphibolis antarctica are found in the sandy sediments of shallower areas.
Within the sheltered embayments of Port Douglas, Kellidie Bay and Mount Dutton Bay, seagrass meadows are dominated by Posidonia angustifolia , Heterozostera nigricaulis and Halophila australis (DEH 2007c).
There have been significant losses of seagrass beds in the Spencer Gulf near Whyalla, Boston Bay and Proper Bay in Spencer Gulf and Smoky Bay and Coffin Bay on the West Coast (Resource Information, 1999b; Resource Information, 1999c in EPA 2003)
7.2.2 Mangroves
Mangroves occupy intertidal zones and have unique adaptations such as exposed breathing roots (pneumatophores) which allow them to thrive on muddy flats of protected coastal areas. The grey mangrove species, Avicennia marina , is the only species that naturally occurs in South Australia and typically grows to 5–6 m in height. Similarly to seagrass meadows, mangroves are important feeding and breeding areas for fish, crustaceans and waterbirds.
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Typically, mudflats or seagrass beds are found seaward of mangrove habitats and saltmarsh habitats are found landward of mangroves. Mangroves provide physical protection from coastal erosion. Thus mangrove habitat areas are of economic, social and environmental importance and support recreational and commercial fisheries.
Mangroves in the western part of the region typically grow on sandier substrates than in other areas of the State. A large stand of mangroves in Tourville Bay particularly along Davenport Creek, covers an area of 1336 ha. These mangroves make up the western most extent of mangroves in South Australia and are protected by a large sand dune system (DEH 2007a).
Small scattered stands of mangroves occupy the western and northern shores of Murat Bay and the northern end of Bosanquet Bay. Large stands occur on the lee of St Peter Island as well as on the northeastern side of Eyre Island. A strip of mangroves less than 100 m wide, lining Fox Creek, is located on the far western end of Laura Bay. The mangroves on the southern end of Smoky Bay cover 1134 ha and those near Blancheport cover 342 ha. Acraman Creek in northern Streaky Bay is lined with a narrow mangrove fringe (DEH 2007a). Mangroves occur on the tidally formed Germein Island located within Venus Bay, which appears to be the largest stand of mangroves in this part of the region. Mangroves are also found on the western side of the mouth of the bay and on the unnamed island (Edyvane 1999)
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On the eastern side of the peninsula there are extensive mangrove communities near Whyalla, as well as forests near Point Lowly and Franklin Harbour. A large stand of mangrove habitat, covering an area of 6000 ha, is located at Tumby Bay (DEH 2007c).
7.2.3 Saltmarsh
Saltmarsh habitats, often referred to as samphire swamps, occur on intermittently flooded or continuously flooded tidal flats. They regulate salinity and water velocity, thereby acting as a buffer between terrestrial and marine ecosystems.
Most saltmarsh habitats in protected bays usually lie on the landward side of mangroves. These tidal wetlands are areas of considerable productivity and represent significant feeding habitats for waterfowl and shorebirds. They are also key nursery, feeding and breeding areas for many economically important species of fish and crustaceans. Sclerostegia–Sarcocornia low shrublands make up the main communities. Commonly recorded samphire species include Tecticornia spp ., Sarcocornia spp . and Suaeda australis (DEH 2007a). Low shrubland supratidal communities including Tecticornia indica occur above the intertidal zone and halophyte samphire communities are replaced by saltbush shrublands within the higher areas of the supratidal zone. Saltbush communities of Atriplex spp .are also found growing along the intertidal areas (DEH 2007d).
Saltmarsh communities can be found at Davenport Creek, which terminates within a large samphire saltmarsh area in southern and western Tourville Bay. Murat and Bosanquet bays have saltmarsh habitats scattered along their northern shores. The northern reaches of Laura Bay, the offshore islands of St Peter Island and Eyre Island and the southern reaches of Smoky Bay also contain large expanses of saltmarsh. Highly diverse samphire vegetation distinguishes the saltmarsh habitats found in Streaky Bay and around Acraman Creek (DEH 2007a). The State and Nationally vulnerable Bead glasswort (Tecticornia flabelliformis ), which requires specific tidal influenced niches for its survival and is protected under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) and SA NPW Act 1972, can be found at Cape Bauer, Acraman Creek, Arno Bay, south of Smoky Bay and Tourville Bay. Saltmarsh habitats also occupy many parts of Baird Bay, and the southernmost part of Venus Bay.
The rare cushion centrolepis (Centrolepis cephaloformis ), which is protected under the SA NPW Act 1972, is present around Venus Bay, Acraman Creek, Tumby Bay and Smoky Bay.
The saltmarsh association Sclerostegia–Sarcocornia is the most common in lower Spencer Gulf. Other commonly recorded species are Tecticornia spp., Sarcocornia spp. and Suaeda australis . Supratidal communities occur above the intertidal zone, with low shrublands Tecticornia indica being particularly significant but are replaced by saltbush shrub lands in higher parts of the zone (DEH 2007c).
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Coastal saline swamps are dominated by sedges (mainly Cyperaceae ). They occur in similar conditions to saltmarsh but their habitats are similar to salt and freshwater swamps. Examples of coastal saline swamps can be found at Dutton Bay and Baird Bay (Boggon and Evans 2006).
7.2.4 Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton are unicellular algae which use light to produce energy. A by product of this energy production is oxygen; which then supplies approximately 80% of the planet’s oxygen. Phytoplankton are a food source for zooplankton (small animals such as crustaceans found in the plankton), commercial fish species and aquaculture industry.
Blooms of phytoplankton (algal blooms) refer to a natural event whereby phytoplankton grow and reproduce given the right environmental conditions, such as weather, temperature and nutrients. Phytoplankton blooms are often associated with upwelling events, which bring cool nutrient rich water to the surface where phytoplankton can thrive. However, discharges into the marine, coastal and estuarine environment from human activities, such as effluent, stormwater, agricultural runoff, fish farm waste and other industrial activities can exacerbate these blooms.
Many species of phytoplankton are potentially toxic to wildlife and humans when they bloom in large numbers. Several species of potentially toxic phytoplankton have been identified throughout the marine and estuarine environment of the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region. There is potential for an increase in harmful algal blooms in bays and areas of limited circulation such as upper Spencer Gulf, where increased nutrient levels from effluent, stormwater and fish farming activities are common.
Little is known about phytoplankton community structure, abundance and distribution in South Australian waters; however, information from studies conducted in Boston Bay, Spencer Gulf, have shown that there is a rare tropical element within the assemblages. The tropical species are thought to be transported to southern Australian waters by the Leeuwin and East Australian currents.
7.2.5 Macroalgae
Long periods of geological isolation are thought to behind the very high marine macroalgal diversity and endemism found in Southern Australia waters. This rich diversity is estimated to be three times more than that recorded in tropical regions. Distribution and zonation of macroalgae is largely regulated by wave exposure, depth and water temperature.
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7.2.6 Zooplankton
Zooplankton are animals that range in size from single celled forms, to small larvae to large jellyfish. They are some of the most abundant organisms play a crucial role in the marine food chain. Many commercially important fish species spend part of their lifecycle as zooplankton and approximately 60% of the pelagic scalefish within South Australian waters feed exclusively on plankton.
Although, the Great Australian Bight has zooplankton assemblages of small copepods and meroplanktonic larvae, zooplankton assemblages in the west of the region are extremely low when compared to gulf waters, because of the high water movement from ocean currents and minimal land runoff.
7.2.7 Invertebrates
In South Australia 90% of the more than 6440 marine invertebrates species are considered endemic. Many of them have yet to be identified. Little ecological data is current for most of these species; however, some information is available from commercial and recreational fisheries sources.
Invertebrates in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region that have been identified as being rare or endemic, and those species important to fisheries, are highlighted in the following section.
At St Francis Isles the presence of the gastropod Dermomurex (Viator) howletti has been identified, as have the endemic sponge Clathria (Dendrocia) curvichela , the cowries Zoila friendii thersites and Z. marginata orientalis , the egg cowrie Primovula verconis, the gastropod Anachis fenestrata and eight previously unknown species of jellyfish (DEH 2007). One of the smallest and rarest starfish in the world, Parvulastra parvivipara, which has a limited distribution, is found in shallow tidal pools on granite substrate at Point Brown, Point Whittlebee, Cape Vivonne, The Granites, Smooth Pool and Point Labatt, and is vulnerable to human disturbance.
The small murex shell Favartia (Murexiella) tatei is found at Smoky Bay and appears to be endemic (DEH 2007a). The marine flatworm Notoplana longicrumena , located at Streaky Bay and along the West Coast generally, contains habitat for the endemic nudibranch Aphelodoris lawsae and opisthobranch Philinopsis troubridgensis .
The pale and dark forms of the cowrie Zoila friendii thersites, as well as the giant baler shell Melo miltonis, occur in Anxious Bay and are thought to be tropical relics. The endemic gastropod Anachis fenestrate and a colonial ascidian Aplidium gastrolineatum are found only in Anxious Bay, where there are soft coral and sponge species. Razorfish Pinna bicolor are found near Port Kenny and provide hard substrate for epibiota in sandy and muddy areas. Roe’s Abalone Haliotis roei is found within a depth range of 0–1.5 m along the West Coast in limestone rock platforms and granite crevices (DEH 2007b). The limestone cliffs around the West Coast also contain the highest diversity of sea squirts in the world. The endemic nudibranch Sclerodoris trenberthi is found along the coastline from Tumby Bay to Elliston (DEH 2007b). 195
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Commercially important invertebrate species found in the western part of the region include the Rock lobster Jasus edwardsii , Southern calamary Sepioteuthis australis , Giant cuttlefish Sepia apama , Maori octopus Octopus maorum , Greenlip abalone Haliotis laevigata, Blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra , Giant crab Pseudocarcinus gigas and Purple sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus . Seagrass habitats are used by Blue swimmer crabs, Razorfish, Southern calamary, King Scallops Pecten fumatus and Queen Scallops Chlamys bifrons . Many of the bays are also habitat for bivalves such as native oysters, razorfish and scallops.
Recent benthic investigations revealed the presence of various common reef invertebrates on Pearson and Waldegrave islands, including hard coral Plesiastrea spp., soft corals Capnella spp. , gorgonian corals, hydroids, Solanderia fusca, Stereotheca elongata , sea tulips, Pyura spp., sea squirts (ascidians such as Herdmania momus) , sea cucumbers (holothurians such as Pentacta spp.) and sponges, Sycon spp. (DEH 2007b). Top Gallant Island is thought to contain the highest species diversity of ascidians, including uncommon tropical species. More than 75 species of bryozoan have been recorded around the offshore islands of the Investigator Group and many of the ascidian species recorded are only found in these areas. Hard corals of conservation concern have also been recorded in the Investigator Group Islands, which is extremely uncommon in the temperate waters of southern Australia (DEH 2007b).
Upper Spencer Gulf also has important nursery areas for several crustacean species, including king prawn. The reefs off Point Lowly are recognised as of national significance for spawning aggregations of the Giant Cuttlefish. The area also provides habitat for the many and abundant echinoderms, including sea urchins Goniocidaris tubaria , molluscs Pinna bicolor and Malleus meridianus and ascidians (sea squirts) Polycarpa pedunculata (DEH 2007d).
Offshore, the Giant crab is harvested commercially. Unvegetated soft bottom habitats found in Venus Bay, northern/southern Anxious Bay, Corvisart Bay, Sceale Bay and Searcy Bay provide habitat for the sand crab Ovalipes australiensis and southern calamary (DEH 2007b). Other commercially important invertebrates found along the West Coast include baitworms, Giant cuttlefish, Maori octopus, Purple sea urchin, Velvet crab Nectocarcinus tuberculosus , King scallop, Queen scallop, Mud cockle and specimen shells (DEH 2007b).
Coffin Bay and Avoid Bay, including the Avoid Bay Islands, are significant habitat areas for octopus, rock lobster, Greenlip Abalone, Blacklip Abalone and may also provide important habitat for larval abalone. Coffin Bay is also a nursery area for the king prawn and nursery and feeding habitat for sand crabs, mud cockles and scallops. .
Thorny Passage and surrounding islands host diverse sponge and ascidian fauna and more than 40 common taxa, including the genera Echinoclathria, Clathria, Haloclona, Tethya, Discodermia, Thorecta, Ritterella, Condomium and Polycarpa, are recorded around the southwestern Spencer Gulf islands of Taylor and Grindal. Sponges and ascidians form up to 50% of the benthic understorey at some surveyed sites on coastal reefs in the Cape Donington region indicating their high abundance in the area, with soft corals forming more than 20% of the benthic cover on reefs around Donington Island.
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An abundance of sessile invertebrates are found in cave and ledge habitats at Fishery Bay, Cape Wiles, Groper Bay, Cape Carnot, D’Anville Bay and Liguanea Island. Sponges and ascidians are abundant on macroalgal dominated reef habitats in Fishery Bay, in particular parts of Sleaford Bay. The reefs at Liguanea Island support a dense understorey of mixed hydroids and ascidians (DEH 2007c). The waters surrounding the Sir Joseph Banks Group islands support rich marine communities, some rare and uncommon species and supporting shellfish, echinoderms, hydroids and crustaceans. The Gambier Islands also have a large diversity and abundance of invertebrates (sponges, ascidians, bryozoans and hydroids), this diversity is generally unquantified.
Spencer Gulf has a rare diversity of invertebrate species that have a tropical affinity and are only found in the upper Spencer Gulf. These include a tropical soft coral species Telesto multiflora which is only recorded in the mid to upper Spencer Gulf. Similarly the gorgonian coral Echinogorgia sp. and sea pen Scytalium sp. are endemic to the upper Spencer Gulf. The cosmopolitan sea pen species Virgularia mirabilis has been recorded only in this area. The stalked ascidian Sycozoa pedunculata is also only known to occur in the upper Spencer Gulf and Investigator Strait (DEH 2007d). Other species endemic to the area include the sea cucumber Trochodota shepherdii , colonial ascidian Leptoclinides sp., ascidian Aplidiopsis mammillata , solitary hard coral Deltocyathus vincentinus and the sea anemone Edwardsia vivipara.
7.2.8 Fish
Approximately 85% of fish species in southern Australia are endemic and many of them are found within the Eyre Peninsula NRM region. Approximately 300 fish species have been identified off Eyre Peninsula, representing about 67% of all species recorded from South Australian waters. Of these around 25% are commercially fished. Most known species tend to stay inshore and are permanent residents (DEH 2007).
A reef fish survey in Nuyts Archipelago around St Francis Isle, found around 55 species, many of which had western Australian or eastern Australian affinity. These reef ecosystems are also habitats for other smaller fisheries including Australian herring Arripis georgianus , Yelloweye Mullet Aldrichetta forsteri , Leatherjacket (Monacanthidae genera), Wrasse, Snook Sphyraena novaehollandiae , Silver Drummer Kyphosus sydneyanus, Western Blue Groper Achoerodus gouldii , Flathead Platycephalidae family and Yellow fin whiting Sillago bassensis (DEH 2007a).
The waters in the far west of the region are part of the migration route for Australian Salmon and Southern Blue Fin Tuna, which follow the Leeuwin current to eastern Australia. Some uncommon fish species can also be found in this area due to the influence of the currents (DEH 2007a). Habitats such as seagrass meadows, sand flats and reefs support an abundance of commercially and recreational important fishes. More than 30 scalefish species and seven shark species are caught commercially and recreationally within the protected bays.
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The Great White Shark, Carcharodon carcharias , which is protected under the Fisheries Management Act 2007 (SA) and listed as vulnerable under the EPBC Act can also be abundant at times due to the presence of prey species. Commercially caught sharks include School, Gummy, Bronze whaler and Whiskery sharks (DEH 2007).
Reef fish surveys around the Investigator Group islands revealed a seemingly unexploited, high diversity fish assemblage with over 90 species recorded, including the overexploited Blue Groper, Achoerodus gouldii (DEH 2007b).
Gummy Sharks are thought to have nursery grounds in the semi enclosed bays on the West Coast due to the large numbers of juveniles caught in these areas. Venus Bay and Baird Bay are also nursery grounds for King George Whiting.
The southern waters of the lower Spencer Gulf are influenced by nutrient rich upwellings and result in the proliferation of pilchards due to the high productivity in phytoplankton and zooplankton that grow abundantly in the nutrient rich waters (DEH 2007c). The rocky reefs are also noted for their high abundance and diversity of reef fish. A variety of pipefish and seadragons have also been reported within the seagrass beds, as well as attached to human made structures.
Many of the bays have a high population of rays and sharks, including the Port Jackson Shark. Deeper waters provide habitat to the Shortfin Mako, Scalloped Hammerhead, School Shark, Gummy Shark and Thresher Shark. The southern Spencer Gulf area forms an important region for the protected Great White Shark, which is also found at Dangerous Reef. The School Shark stays mainly near shore to approximately 500 m offshore and although they are generally long lived they produce young only once every three years. The School Shark is overfished in Australian waters and is listed as vulnerable in Australia and New Zealand waters on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN ) Red List.
The Spencer Gulf provides habitats such as seagrass meadows, sand flats and reefs for an abundance of commercially and recreational important fishes. The Great White Shark can also be found in the Spencer Gulf at times due to the presence of prey species (DEH 2007d). Other sharks present include the Bronze Whaler and Hammerhead sharks, which feed in the upper Spencer Gulf and are thought to be attracted by finfish farms.
Blue Groper are also present in the Spencer Gulf area and there is an abundance of the Smooth Stingray, Fiddler Ray, Eagle Ray and other ray species (DEH 2007d). The Leafy Sea Dragon (Phycodurus eques) can also be found in this location.
7.2.9 Marine mammals
The largest and densest breeding aggregation of Southern right whales, Eubalaena australis, in Australia can be found near the Head of Bight from May to October. Although the Head of the Great Australian Bight is not within the Eyre Peninsula NRM region. the whales generally migrate east along the coast within the NRM region. The Southern right whale is estimated to have an Australian population of 1500–2400 and breeds and calves in close proximity to the shore. 198
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Other cetaceans in the region are resident dolphin populations, migratory, Sperm whale, and Rouqual whales including Minke, Humpback and Blue whales. Orcas, or Killer whales, have also been recorded in the area; they prey on the large pinniped populations (DEH 2007b).
Australian sea lion haul out and breeding sites are extensive in this area, with Dangerous Reef being one of the five largest breeding sites in the State. Estimates of pup production indicate that the population is increasing by approximately 1.2% per annum (DEH 2007c). The locations of sea lion and seal breeding and haul out areas within the Eyre Peninsula NRM region are shown in Figure 7.3.
The region contains many colonies of the Australian sea lion Neophoca cinerea and New Zealand fur seal Arctocephalus forsteri a nd in this part of the region approximately 10% of South Australia’s sea lion population reside. The many small breeding colonies of the Australian sea lion scattered along this area are an important genetic and geographic bridge between Western Australian and South Australian populations. The main breeding colonies for the Australian Sea Lion are located at Olive Island, which is one of the largest in the State, Fenelon Island, West Island, Lound Island, Dangerous Reef and Purdie Island (Nuyts Archipelago). Nuyts Reef is another breeding and haul out site for the sea lion as well as a breeding colony for New Zealand fur seal.
Breeding colonies for the Australian sea lion have also been identified at Dorothee Island, Pearson Island, Ward Island, West Waldergrave Island, Jones Island and Nicolas Baudin Island with many of the other offshore islands being used as haul out locations. A small number of pups are occasionally born at Point Labatt, which is one of the only mainland locations that is accessible for tourists to view. This area has now been designated as an Aquatic Reserve and Conservation Park. The New Zealand fur seal has breeding colonies at Dorothee Island, Pearson Island, Ward Island and Nicolas Baudin Island and one of the largest breeding colonies in the State is located at West Waldergrave Island.
Breeding populations and haul out sites of New Zealand fur seal are also found on the islands within the lower Spencer Gulf. The Neptune Island group supports the largest aggregation of pinnipeds in Australia. Pup numbers are estimated to have increased by as much as 53% since 1993 at the North Neptune Island, whereas pup numbers in other areas of the lower Spencer Gulf appear to have decreased by approximately 6.7% during this time. Individual adult male Australian fur seals have been sighted at North Neptune, South Neptune, Liguanea and Greenly Island, the species is typically an infrequent visitor to the area from Tasmania and Victoria.
The Spencer Gulf provides haul out locations for the Australian sea lion including Point Gibbon and the New Zealand fur seal has been recorded in this area (DEH 2007d).
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7.2.10 Reptiles
Some marine reptiles have been sighted on seasonal migration and the influence of currents but limited information is available on them. Although rare, some sightings of tropical and subtropical marine turtles, including the Loggerhead Turtle, Green Turtle and Leatherback Turtle, have been made in the Far West as the turtles follow the Leeuwin currents. Migratory turtles have also been seen in the Spencer Gulf, including the Hawksbill Turtle, Green Turtle and Loggerhead Turtle but information is limited for this area (DEH 2007).
7.2.11 Resident and migratory seabirds, and shorebirds
The Southern Eyre Peninsula coast is a major feeding area for resident and migratory seabirds, and shorebirds. The seabirds use baitfish as a major food source and the islands of Whidbey, Avoid Bay and Mount Dutton Bay Conservation Parks support breeding populations of seabirds (DEH 2004a).
White Bellied Sea Eagles Haliaeetus leucogaster breed on the undisturbed coastal cliff habitats and rocky offshore islands in Coffin Bay and Lincoln National Parks and have also been recorded on the cliffs south of Sceale Bay. These areas are known as significant breeding sites for these birds. They are moderately common in the parks but generally uncommon in South Australia and are vulnerable to human interference (DEH 2003).
The migratory Sanderling is found feeding during summer on the beaches of Coffin Bay and the Pied Oystercatcher, the Hooded Plover, Thinornis rubricollis which is listed as vulnerable under the NPW Act, and the Red Capped Dotterel all breed on the beaches of the Coffin Bay Peninsula and the Southern Eyre coastline (DEH 2007a). These three species breed on beaches in Lincoln National Park during summer (DEH 2007b).
The Peregrine Falcon and Rock Parrot occur on South Neptune Island, and both the North and South Neptune Islands are breeding and nesting areas for the Cape Barren Goose.
The Nuyts Archipelago and Franklin Islands are highly important breeding and feeding grounds of numerous seabirds that are rare or nearly extinct. A number of shorebirds of national and international significance feed along the beaches, coastal mudflats and wetlands within protected bays in the western part of the NRM region. Although 75% of the breeding seabird population (10 species) in South Australia can be found on the Nuyts Archipelago and Franklin Islands, little information is known on the ecology of coastal birds, seabirds and shorebirds in this part of the region. These breeding populations are predominantly made up of Short Tailed Shearwaters and White Faced Storm Petrels. A further 17 migratory and resident seabird species have been recorded in the Great Australian Bight and predominantly comprise shearwaters, petrels and albatross species. The mudflats of the crenulated bays and offshore islands are important habitat areas for resident and migratory shorebirds birds.
Seabird breeding locations and wader bird roosting sites within the Eyre Peninsula NRM region are shown in Figure 7.4. 201
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7.2.12 Threatened species
Several of the marine species which occur within the EP NRM Region are protected under legislation such as the Environment Protection and Bidiversity Conservation Act 1999 , Fisheries Management Act 2007 and the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 . The 2006 IUCN Red List also gives the conservation status of many of these organisms (DEH 2007):
The Great White Shark is listed in the 2006 IUCN Red List as vulnerable, and is conservation dependent under the EPBC Act 1991 and protected under the Fisheries Management Act 2007 .
The School shark is listed in the 2006 IUCN Red List as vulnerable, conservation dependent under the EPBC Act 1991 .
The Australian sea lion is listed as rare and protected under the NPW Act, and vulnerable under the EPBC Act.
The Southern Right Whale is listed as endangered under the EPBC Act, vulnerable under the NPW Act and listed in the 2006 IUCN Red List as lower risk/conservation dependent.
All South Australian seahorses, pipefish, pipehorses and seadragons are protected under the FMAct and the Leafy Sea Dragon and Weedy Sea Dragon are listed in the 2006 IUCN Red List as near threatened.
Porbeagle and basking shark are vulnerable under the 2006 IUCN Red List.
Banded Wobbegong, Dusky Shark, Bronze Whaler, Blue Shark and Smooth hammerhead are near threatened under the 2006 IUCN Red List.
Table 7.2 outlines a number of threatened coastal and marine vertebrates in the Eyre Peninsula NRM region.
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TABLE 7.2 Threatened coastal and marine vertebrates
Conservation Marine planning areas Species name Common name Fisheries SA NPW EPBC Act IUCN Red West Lower Spencer Management Far West Act 1972 1999 List 2007 Coast Spencer Gulf Act 2007 Pristiophorus spp Saw sharks X X Furgaleus macki Whiskery shark X X Carcharodon carcharias White Pointer Shark; Great White X X X X X X Shark Galeorhinus galeus School shark X X X Mustelus antarcticus Gummy shark X X Sphyrna zygaena Smooth X X Hammerhead Urolophus orarious Coastal Stingaree X X Phyllopteryx taeniolatus Common X X X X X X X Seadragon Phycodurus eques Leafy Sea Dragon X X X X X X Hippocampus abdominalis Big belly Seahorse X X X Trinorfolkia cristata Crested Triplefin X Echinophryne mitchell Anglerfish X Paratrachichithys pulsator Golden Roughy X Suezichthys bifurcates Striped Trawl X Wrasse Acanthistius serratus Western Wirrah X
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Conservation Marine planning areas Species name Common name Fisheries SA NPW EPBC Act IUCN Red West Lower Spencer Management Far West Act 1972 1999 List 2007 Coast Spencer Gulf Act 2007 Eubalichthys cyanoura Blue Tailed X Leatherjacket Cheilodactylus rubrolabiatus Red Lipped X Morwong Ophiclinus brevipinnis Short finned Snake X Blenny Brachynectes fasciatus Barred Threefin X Bodianus frenchii Western Foxfish X Arothron caeruleopunctatus Blue Spotted X Pufferfish Anoplocapros lenticularis White barred X Boxfish Notolabrus parilus Brown spotted X Wrasse Neatypus obliquus Western Footballer; X X Footballer Sweep Achoerodus gouldii Western Blue X X X Groper Wrasse spp. Wrasse X Paraplesiops bleekeri Eastern Blue Devil X Sellaginoides punctata King George X Whiting
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Conservation Marine planning areas Species name Common name Fisheries SA NPW EPBC Act IUCN Red West Lower Spencer Management Far West Act 1972 1999 List 2007 Coast Spencer Gulf Act 2007 Paraplesiops meleagris Western Blue Devil X X Notolabrus tetricus Blue throated X X Wrasse Pseudolabrus rubicundus Rosy Wrasse X X Othos dentex Harlequin Fish X Meuschenia venusta Stars and Stripes X Leatherjacket Cantheschenia longipinnis Smooth spine X Leatherjacket Eviota bimaculata Two spot Goby X Filicampus tigris Tiger Pipefish X X Epigonichthys australis Primitive chordate X Stigmatopora argus Spotted Pipefish X X Stigmatopora venusensis sp. Venus Pipefish X X Lissocampus runa Javelin Pipefish X Solegnathus robustus Robust Pipehorse X Hypselognathus rostratus Knife snout X Pipefish Hypselognathus horridus Prickly Pipefish X Arnoglossus sp. Flimsy Flounder X X
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Conservation Marine planning areas Species name Common name Fisheries SA NPW EPBC Act IUCN Red West Lower Spencer Management Far West Act 1972 1999 List 2007 Coast Spencer Gulf Act 2007 Thunnus maccoyii Southern Bluefin X Tuna Pegasus lancifer Sculptured X X Seamoth Zostera muellerii spp. Garweed X X mucronata Chelonia mydas Green Turtle X X X X Caretta caretta Loggerhead Turtle X X X X Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill Turtle X X X Deremochelys coriacea Leatherback Turtle X X X X Tursiops truncatus Bottlenose Dolphin X X X X X X Delphinus delphis Common Dolphin X X X X Arctocephalus forsteri New Zealand Fur X X X X X X Seal Arctocephalus pusillus Australian Fur Seal X X X Neophoca cinerea Australian Sea X X X X X X X Lion Eubalaena australis Southern Right X X X X X X X Whale Balaenoptera physalus Fin Whale X X X X Balaenoptera edeni Bryde’s Whale X X X X
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Conservation Marine planning areas Species name Common name Fisheries SA NPW EPBC Act IUCN Red West Lower Spencer Management Far West Act 1972 1999 List 2007 Coast Spencer Gulf Act 2007 Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback Whale X X X X Orcinus orca Killer Whale X X X X Kogia breviceps Pygmy Sperm X X X X Whale Physeter macrocephalus Sperm Whale X X X X Phalacrocorax fuscescens Black faced X X Cormorant Eudyptula minor Little Penguin X X X X Pelagodroma marina White faced Storm X X Petrel Halobaena caerulea Blue Petrel X X X X Biziura lobata Musk Duck X X X X X Sterna bergii Crested Tern X X X x Sterna caspia Caspian Tern X X X X Sterna nereis Fairy Tern X X X X X X X Sterna albifrons Little Tern X X X X Larus novaehollandiae Silver Gull X X X X Larus pacificus Pacific Gull X X X X Pandion haliaetus Osprey X X X X X X X Ardea sacra Eastern Reef Egret X X X X X
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Conservation Marine planning areas Species name Common name Fisheries SA NPW EPBC Act IUCN Red West Lower Spencer Management Far West Act 1972 1999 List 2007 Coast Spencer Gulf Act 2007 Anas rhynchotis Australasian X X X Shoveler Neophema chrysogaster Orange bellied X X X X Parrot Neophema petrophila Rock Parrot X X X X Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis X Haematopus fuliginosus Sooty X X Oystercatcher Egretta sacra Eastern Reef Egret X X Ardea alba Little Egret X X X Cereopsis novaehollandiae Cape Barren X X X X X Goose Gallirallus philippensis Buff Banded Rail X X Thinornis rubricollis Hooded Plover X X X X X X X Haliaeetus leucogaster White bellied Sea X X X X Eagle Numenius madagascariensis Eastern Curlew X X X X X Phaethon rubricauda Red tailed X X X Tropicbird Larus dominicanus Kelp Gull X X X Puffinus carneipes Flesh footed X X X Shearwater
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Conservation Marine planning areas Species name Common name Fisheries SA NPW EPBC Act IUCN Red West Lower Spencer Management Far West Act 1972 1999 List 2007 Coast Spencer Gulf Act 2007 Charadrius ruficapillus Red capped Plover X X X Recurvirostra Red necked X X X novaehollandiae Avocet Xenus cinereus Terek Sandpiper X X X Actitis hypoleucos Common X X X Sandpiper Calidris acuminata Sharp tailed X X X Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper X X X Tringa nebularia Greenshank X X X Calidris ruficollis Red necked Stint X X X Calidris canutus Red Knot X X X X Calidris alba Sanderling X X X Charadrius mongolous Lesser Sand X X X X Plover Podiceps cristatus Great Crested X X X Grebe Charadrius leschenaultii Greater Sand X X X X Plover Charadrius veredus Oriental Plover X X X Pluvialis squatarola Grey Plover X X X X
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Conservation Marine planning areas Species name Common name Fisheries SA NPW EPBC Act IUCN Red West Lower Spencer Management Far West Act 1972 1999 List 2007 Coast Spencer Gulf Act 2007 Pluvialis fulva Pacific Golden X X X Plover Tringa brevipes Grey tailed Tattler X X X Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel X X X Limosa limosa Black tailed Godwit X X X X Limosa lapponica Bar tailed Godwit X X X Arenaria interpres Ruddy Turnstone X X X Falco peregrinus Peregrine Falcon X X Procellariiformes spp. Albatross and X X X petrel Haliaeetus leucogaster White bellied sea X X X X eagle Pelecanus conspicillatus Australian Pelican X X X Himantopus himantopus Black winged Stilt X X X Calidris tenuirostris Great Knot X X X Source: DEH 2007 a, b, c and d
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7.3 Conservation areas and reserves
The Eyre Peninsula Region contains a number of protected areas, which incorporate large areas of coastal and marine waters and a number of important wetlands and estuaries (Figure 7.5).
7.3.1 Parks and reserves
For more A number of significant parks and reserves in the region are managed by the information about Department for Environment and Heritage under the NPW Act. Table 7.3 conservation areas visit www.parks summarises the key coastal parks and reserves and identifies whether they .sa.gov.au incorporate an estuary. All of the estuaries identified in the table, with the exception of Venus Bay, have been included in the Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia and a number of sites are also listed on the Register of the National Estate.
Table 7.3 Key coastal parks and reserves
Conservation Estuary Summary area/reserves Coffin Bay National Park Coffin Bay An approximately 31,000 ha park featuring dunes, surf beaches and sheltered bays Venus Bay Conservation Venus Park Bay Baird Bay Islands Baird Bay Conservation Park Tumby Island Conservation Tumby Park Bay Acraman Creek Acraman A conservation park located between Ceduna Conservation Park Creek and Streaky Bay with beach access Franklin Harbour Franklin Conservation Park Harbour Lincoln National Park and An area of approximately 32,000 ha (national Memory Cove Wilderness park 22,195 ha, wilderness protection area Protection Area 9336 ha) located on a rugged peninsula with sheltered bays and sandy beaches Nullarbor National Park and An area of over 2,000,000 ha (581,376 ha Regional Reserve national park, 2,281,244 ha regional reserve) located near the head of the Great Australian Bight Nuyts Archipelago An area of approximately 10,000 ha Conservation Park comprising 22 islands and reefs off the coast of Ceduna, including Purdie Islands, St Francis Island, Lacy Islands and Goat Island Point Labatt Conservation A 34 ha park featuring 60 m high cliffs; home Park to the largest mainland breeding colony of Australian Sea Lions
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Conservation Estuary Summary area/reserves Lake Newland Lake Newland is a natural saline lake 20 km Conservation Park in length and is the most extensive wetland on the peninsula; a wide range of waterfowl and wader birds inhabit the wetland Sir Joseph Banks Group An area of approximately 50,000 ha located Conservation Park off the coast of Tumby Bay comprising islands, islets and reefs
7.3.2 Geology and geomorphology
A number of sites of scientific or geological significance are found in the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region. Geological processes, climatic conditions and oceanography have forged the diverse physical environments of the region. These physical processes significantly impact upon the diversity and variability of local marine, coastal and estuarine habitats.
Table 7.4 outlines the major coastal geological monuments of the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region. Geological Monuments are described in greater detail in section 5.1.2 and displayed in figure 5.1.
Table 7.4 Major coastal geological monuments within the Eyre Peninsula region
Location Description Memory Cove Charnockitic rocks on the Register of the National Estate Southern Eyre Two granite gneiss coastal outcrops of Precambrian rocks Peninsula, Kirton valuable for elucidating the intrusive and metamorphic history; Point (Port Lincoln) this important reference area shows intrusive relationships between basic and acid rocks and host metasediments; not preserved therefore could be at risk from development Cape Donington Quartz gabbronorite gneiss outcrop in Lincoln National Park on the Register of the National Estate Cape Carnot Oldest known rocks in South Australia: early Proterozoic to Archaean gneiss Southern Eyre First identified Archaean rocks in South Australia: coastal Peninsula (Fishery outcrops of Precambrian rocks valuable for elucidating the Bay to Cape Carnot) intrusive and metamorphic history; an important reference area showing intrusive relationships between basic and acid rocks and host metasediments Southern Eyre Rare occurrence of charnockite; coastal outcrops of Precambrian Peninsula (Cape rocks valuable for elucidating the intrusive and metamorphic Donington to Cape history; an important reference area showing intrusive Catastrophe) relationships between basic and acid rocks and host metasediments Drummond Point Wave cut platform and degraded aeolionite cliffs; gneissic granites Port Neill (Kalinjala Lincoln complex Mylonite Zone) Arno Bay Coastal landforms
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Location Description Whyalla District (Two Beda volcanics, Backy Point Formation, Roopena volcanics Hummocks Point) Whyalla District Beda volcanics, Hiltaba Suite, Backy Point Formation, Porphyritic (Douglas Point) dacite, rhyodacite, rhyolite Whyalla District Beda volcanics, Moonabie Formation, Backy Point Formation (Backy Point) Redcliff Point Example of several coastal and marine systems with interaction of biological and geological processes in an arid/temperate climate: Hindmarsh Clay, Mambray Formation Smooth Pool Lincoln Complex Talia Caves Pandurra Formation Laura Bay Holocene beach ridge system Murat Bay Petrified wood Point Brown Dykes on the wave cut platform Point Collinson Pleistocene wave cut platform Acraman Creek Stranded tidal creek system Eyre Island Foredune ridge system, Saint Kilda Formation Clare Bay Bridgewater Formation, raised beach with wave cut shore platforms and lithified beach deposits Port LeHunte: Bridgewater Formation, Glanville Formation Pleistocene outcrops, Glanville formation exposure Port LeHunte: Bridgewater Formation Pleistocene outcrops, jetty exposure Source: DEH 2007
In the west of the region, the rocky shores and reefs reflect the coastal geology of For more information about the region. Wave exposed granite outcroppings and horizontal calcareous rock estuaries visit www.environment.s platforms derived from limestone cliffs are typical reef types in the region. a.gov.au and select Prominent areas of granite outcroppings occur along the coast at Point Westall, the Coasts & Marine section and then Searcy Bay and Point Weyland and on the offshore islands. Estuaries Management to view the Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Region, Estuaries Information Package
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7.4 Coastal and marine biodiversity and habitats
7.4.1 Estuaries and wetlands
The Natural Resources Management Act 2004 defines an estuary as: ‘A partially enclosed coastal body of water that is either permanently, periodically, intermittently or occasionally open to the sea within which there is a measurable variation in salinity due to the mixture of seawater with water derived from on or under the land’.
The Act also notes that an estuary may include any ecosystem processes or biodiversity associated with an estuary and estuarine habitats adjacent to an estuary.
Estuarine habitats are transitional environments between freshwater and saltwater, providing a conduit between the land and the sea. Their important ecological functions include breeding, spawning and nursery habitats for fishes, crustaceans and birds. Esturarine habitats also help maintain biodiversity and water quality and their health is vital for the conservation of the coastline and the ecology of many coastal plants and animals. Estuaries provide substantial environmental, economic and social values to the community
Habitats such as mangroves, saltmarshes, seagrass meadows and sand flats are all regarded as wetland habitats and are valuable for their ecological productivity, shoreline stabilisation and storm protection roles, and sediment and nutrient retention. In addition, tidal wetlands provide nursery, breeding and feeding areas for fish and crustaceans, as well as significant habitat for waterbirds and shorebirds because of the substantial food supplies.
The 16 estuaries identified in the region (Table 7.5) are primarily tide dominated systems or coastal embayments, with the exception of the Tod River that is river dominated and the only estuary to receive permanent flow throughout the year. Acraman Creek and Tourville Bay are two of three estuaries that have been identified as near pristine in the State (DEH 2007).
Table 7.5 Estuaries in region
Catchment size Estuary Classification 2 (km )
Franklin Harbour Tide dominated – coastal embayment, coastal 2,187 creek or channel Yabmana Creek 176 Arno Bay 281 Driver River 1,135 Dutton River 503 Salt Creek (Eyre) 629
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Catchment size Estuary Classification 2 (km ) Tumby Bay 193 Tod River River dominated – tide dominated delta 387 Duck Ponds Creek 178 Coffin Bay Tide dominated – coastal embayment, coastal 1,197 creek or channel Venus Bay Tide dominated – coastal embayment, coastal n/a creek or channel Baird Bay Tide dominated – coastal embayment, coastal n/a creek or channel Blanche Port Tide dominated – coastal embayment, coastal n/a creek or channel Acraman Creek n/a Smoky Bay Tide dominated – coastal embayment, coastal n/a creek or channel Tourville Bay Tide dominated – coastal embayment, coastal n/a creek or channel
The estuaries of Eyre Peninsula are of conservation significance with many important shorebird sites and nursery areas for numerous commercially and recreationally important fish, prawn and crab species. Five of the estuaries are located within protected areas, seven are included in the Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia and 11 are listed on the Register of the National Estate.
The wetlands of the region combined cover an area of approximately 64,000 ha. Several have met criteria for listing as significant wetlands, such as supporting endangered or vulnerable species, supporting waterbirds, as a food source for fish, or a spawning or nursery area for fish. The 13 nationally significant coastal wetlands are:
Baird Bay
Smoky Bay
Tourville Bay
Point Labatt
Davenport Creek
Streaky Bay
Coffin Bay coastal wetland system
Dutton River
Franklin Harbour
Tod River wetland system
Venus Bay
Tumby Bay
Acraman Creek
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Blanche Point.
In addition, there are a number of coastal saline swamps, including those found at Dutton Bay and Baird Bay.
7.4.2 Beaches
Surf and sheltered beaches are fed by the Holocene dune systems in the western part of the region. These beaches typically experience high energy wave action, except where protected by an outer reef or located in protected embayments (DEH 2007a). Surf beaches and sheltered beaches are scattered within the Fowlers Bay area due to protected embayments. There are few beaches in the Streaky Bay area as many of the embayments are dominated by mangrove and saltmarsh habitats but there are the sheltered beaches near peninsulas and on the east shore of Streaky Bay (DEH 2007a).
The many small sandy beaches in the west between the calcarenite cliffs or at bases of cliffs are open to high energy wave action, unless protected by an outer reef system or located in protected embayments. The 38 km beach dune barrier in front of Lake Newland in Anxious Bay faces directly west into the high prevailing swells of the Southern Ocean and the 10 km barrier dune transgression at Sheringa also faces high prevailing swells (DEH 2007b).
Waterloo Bay at Elliston has a more shelter from a beach/dune barrier system and relatively low wave energy due to a shallow reef at the entrance to the bay. In Sceale Bay, a substantial dune transgression feeds many beaches near Yanerbie. Most beaches have been eroded in northern Anxious Bay but there are some small cliff backed beaches and surf zones.
The beaches of the Spencer Gulf are low energy environments and are dominated by low wind waves with greater tidal ranges in the upper reaches. Eyre Peninsula beaches are predominately protected from the southwest swell and waves generally develop from onshore winds. Most beaches have wide intertidal sand flats backed by very low to moderate energy high tide beaches with extensive seagrass meadows at the front.
The beaches along the lower Spencer Gulf are generally low energy environments varying between reflective and low tide terraces. They are typically dominated by low wind waves and are commonly fronted by extensive seagrass meadows. These areas represent a substantial subtidal habitat and are important to the overall integrity of the local ecosystems. The Eyre, Jussieu and Bolingbroke Peninsula beaches are predominantly sheltered from southwesterly swells, which has helped form a series of bays and estuaries, sandy beaches and rocky shores (DEH 2007c).
7.4.3 Soft sediment habitats
Soft sediment habitats, such as sandy seabed habitats, provide important inter habitat linkages for organisms between seagrasses, mangroves and the open ocean during different lifecycle phases. They also provide permanent habitat to many benthic foraging species of fish, invertebrates and shorebirds.
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Soft sediment areas lack the dimension of depth found in reef and vegetated habitats, microalgae thrive and fuel micro organisms that feed in and on top of the soft sediment. The communities support fish and crustaceans that are important to recreational and commercial fisheries including salmon, mulloway, whiting, gummy sharks, prawns and crabs.
Sandy seabed habitats that are typically fed by dune barrier systems are located predominantly in sheltered bays but they also exist at some exposed locations in the western part of the region. Wave exposed soft sediment habitats are typically coupled with rocky reef habitats. In protected bays they are coupled with seagrass and mangrove habitats.
Soft sediment communities form the largest proportion of Spencer Gulf marine habitat and the sediment is both a refuge and a source of food for many intertidal and subtidal species. Schools of large adult pelagic fish and other species use bare sandy substrates for protection through schooling, or by camouflaging themselves against the sediment.
Soft sediment communities are found in the five large sheltered embayments north of Port Lincoln and soft sediment communities are also found intermittently throughout the various offshore islands in the lower Spencer Gulf and along the coast of the southwest Eyre Peninsula.
7.4.4 Rocky shores and reefs
The rocky shores and reefs in the west of the region are reflective of the coastal geology. Wave exposed granite outcroppings and horizontal calcareous rock platforms derived from limestone cliffs are two typical reef types. These reef types are within the subtidal and intertidal zones and are prime habitats for diverse communities of macroalgae. Prominent areas of granite outcroppings occur at Point Westall, Searcy Bay and Point Weyland as well as on the offshore islands. These granite shores are often haul out areas and breeding sites for Australian sea lions and New Zealand fur seals and also provide habitat for one of the world’s smallest and rarest sea stars, Parvulastra parvivipara . Within the intertidal and subtidal rocky reefs, the diversity of algal flora depends largely on the substrata type, tidal range, depth, wave energy, light penetration and nutrient inputs. Subtidal rocky reefs and attached macroalgal communities provide food for herbivorous animals and act as shelter for small fish and invertebrates and therefore also provide foraging grounds for carnivorous fish. Subtidal rocky reefs provide habitat for abalone and rock lobster, as well as recreationally important finfish.
Low platforms and granite reefs are typically located around headlands along both the eastern and western coastlines of the lower Spencer Gulf, as well as on some islands found in deeper, offshore waters. Habitat dynamics in rocky and reef areas are highly influenced by wave and tidal activity. They supply attachment sites for marine algae, sea urchins and herbivorous fish that feed on the algae, and for plankton feeders such as barnacles, mussels, oysters and tube worms. In addition, most of the algal species recorded in the region occur on and around reef regions.
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In the Spencer Gulf area, rocky shores are typically located around headlands in the southern part and the habitat dynamics of rocky shores are highly influenced by wave and tidal activity and provide attachment sites for marine algae, sea urchins and herbivorous fish that feed on the algae and for plankton feeders.
The intertidal and subtidal fringe of rocky shores in the region experience moderate wave action and are dominated by brown algae, whereas rocky coasts, with some wave action, are dominated by large brown algae, especially the upper sublittoral zone.
Old colonies of coral live on reefs in some areas of the central and northern Spencer Gulf and large coral colonies have been located in the Shoalwater Point to Arno Bay region.
7.5 Commercial fisheries and aquaculture
One of the main economic drivers in Eyre Peninsula NRM region is the fishery and For more information about aquaculture industry, which produces more than 60% of South Australia’s seafood. aquaculture visit The main fisheries of the region, includes rock lobster, abalone, king prawn and www.pir.sa.gov.au/a scalefish. The South Australian Fisheries Management Act 2007 and the quaculture Aquaculture Act 2001 administer the management of fishing and aquaculture activities to provide for the conservation, enhancement and management of fisheries in South Australia waters. Commonwealth fisheries are managed by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority formed under the Fisheries Management Act and the EPBC Act 1999 .
7.5.1 Aquaculture
The aquaculture industry in South Australia has developed rapidly over the last decade and is now a significant contributor to the regional economy. The main species are Southern Bluefin Tuna Thunnus maccoyii , Kingfish Seriola lalandi, Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas , greenlip abalone and blue mussels Mytilus edulis .
Aquaculture in the region includes finfish and oyster farms in Spencer Gulf, two finfish zones in the Arno Bay aquaculture management policy area, and four zones in the Fitzgerald Bay aquaculture management policy area. Franklin Harbour, Coffin Bay, Smoky Bay and Streaky Bay are significant areas for oyster farming. Mount Dutton and Kellidie Bays are used mostly as nursery sites with most leases for oyster farming in the Coffin Bay area situated 15 km from the town. 20 ha on the lee of West Waldegrave Island now containing floating abalone cages (DEH 2007b).
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7.5.2 Commercial fisheries
Marine scalefish fishery
The scale fish industry is the largest and most complex fishery in the region harvesting 70 species in the region. Due to the variety of gear types used, it is also For more the most complicated fishery to manage. The industry in the far west of the region information about commercial fisheries accounts for approximately 12% of the scale fishery in South Australia. Although visit mesh nets are used to catch sharks in State waters, there appears to be minimal www.pir.sa.gov.au/fi sheries net fishing in the area.
Major targeted species are King George whiting, Garfish, snapper, Yellow fin whiting, Australian herring and calamary. Other species include Australian salmon, sharks, ocean jackets, sand crabs and cockles.
King George Whiting
Spencer Gulf is the second most significant region for King George whiting. Coffin Bay is one of the key areas for the King George whiting fishery in the region.
In West Coast waters, King George whiting is at its maximum sustainable yield. King George whiting is the most fished scalefish species in this area and for some years has been the only commercially fished species in Venus Bay. There are a variety of restrictions, including maximum depths for netting and local net closures, extending from Point Labatt to south of Elliston (i.e. all of Anxious Bay, Venus Bay, Baird Bay and Waterloo Bay).
Snapper
Snapper are long lived and far ranging. Ages and class sizes occupy different habitats making them important features in many different ecosystems. Snapper appears to be of sustainable limit in South Australian waters. The snapper is the most susceptible species for catch and release mortality.
Sardines (Pilchards)
A small pilchard fishery is located near Flinders Island but the fishery is mostly concentrated in the Spencer Gulf and Coffin Bay areas due to the proximity of townships. This fishery is relatively small in the West Coast.
Sharks
Shark fishing within the Southern Shark fishery is a Commonwealth controlled fishery that occurs within the State waters of Victoria and South Australia. The School Shark population, which is considered to be overfished and is listed as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List. The Gummy shark, while sustainable at current levels, is considered to be fully fished. Bronze Whale shark numbers have fluctuated with no obvious trends. They are considered to be extremely vulnerable to fisheries because they are slow growing, have delayed maturity and low fertility, and bear their young live. The nursery areas of the Bronze Whale shark are also not very well known.
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The Mid West Coast is a major Gummy and School shark fishery in South Australia and there is increasing interest in Bronze and Dusty Whalers, which are being targeted more by both recreational and commercial fisheries.
Rock Lobster
The Northern Rock Lobster fishery, focused around the Investigator Island Group, Anxious Bay and Elliston regions, has high value as a fishery for the State. Legal by catch species that can be on sold include octopus, Australian salmon Arripis truttacea , Mulloway Argyosomus hololepidotus , Snapper Pagrus auratus and Giant crab.
Abalone
Greenlip abalone are typically harvested in areas around Elliston and the Investigator Island Group and nearly 50% of the Blacklip abalone fishery is harvested at the Investigator Island Group (DEH 2007b).
Within the West Zone abalone fishery, which includes the lower Spencer Gulf, there are 23 abalone licence holders who take, as their main catch, Greenlip abalone. Thorny Passage and Thistle Island are particularly important areas in the lower Spencer Gulf as are Avoid Bay, Pt Drummond, Sheringa, Pt. Sir Isaacs and Reef Head.
The central zone abalone fishery, which includes the Spencer Gulf, is focused at Tiparra Reef.
Prawns
King prawn catches have been productive in a number of areas in recent years. Varying oceanic environmental conditions suggest that the prawn fishery is prone to high temporal and spatial variability in abundance, size and distribution. The fishery also appears to broadly correlate with the El Niño, indicating that cyclic patterns that may result in the fishery declining in warmer, dryer climate conditions.
Other fisheries
Other fisheries in the region include Calamary, Australian salmon, Australian herring and mud cockles. Increased demand for mud cockles has led to significant increases in catch and effort over the years.
Water quality
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7.5.3 EPA water monitoring
Water quality in coastal, estuarine and marine areas is greatly affected by how the surrounding area is used. Major land uses in the region that affect estuaries and coastal waters include pastoralism, cropping, aquaculture and urban areas. Additionally, wastewater treatment plants and sewage treatment and effluent For more information about disposal systems discharge significant quantities of nutrients and organic matter water quality visit into estuaries and coastal waters. www.epa.sa.gov.au
Stormwater and wastewater from coastal towns have increased the amount of nutrients, heavy metals, organic matter and microbiological loads discharged into estuaries and coastal waters.
Marine activities, including shipping and fishing and aquaculture also have the potential to affect water quality if not correctly managed and through accidental spillage. Shipping and the discharge of ballast water can impact on water quality in the major ports of Whyalla, Port Lincoln and Ceduna. Ballast water is a major factor in the spread of marine pests and there are reports of approximately 49 known exotic marine species in the State (DEH 2007c). Another key threat from shipping is the risk of an oil spill and the potential impacts on the marine environment.
Water quality in the nearshore environments on the Eyre Peninsula is relatively good with the lowest nutrient levels recorded throughout the EPA’s 65 ambient water quality monitoring sites. Water quality has been classified as being good with the exception of chlorophyll at several sites. It is anticipated that chlorophyll may be elevated naturally by process such as nutrient rich, deep water upwellings near Coffin Bay, however it may also be indicating a subtle increase in nutrient levels in some regions. Boston Bay has shown reductions in ammonia, total nitrogen and turbidity levels since 2003. This trend has continued downwards since the late 1990s and may be a result of moving the majority of tuna aquaculture outside of Boston Bay at that time.
The EPA monitors water quality at a number of key sites in the region, including:
Boston Bay
Coffin Bay
Venus Bay.
Figure 7.6 outlines point source pollution locations across the region.
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7.6 South Australian marine park program
7.6.1 South Australian Representative System of Marine Protected For more information about Areas marine protected areas visit www.environment.s The Government of South Australia is committed to the development of a South a.gov.au/coasts/mar ineparks Australian Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (SARSMPA). The SARSMPA will contribute to the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA), a commitment made by the Australian, State and Territory Governments through the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment . The NRSMPA in turn meets the Australian Government’s international obligations through the International Convention on Biological Diversity to contribute to a global representative system of marine protected areas.
The government has committed to the establishment of 19 marine parks across the state 2010. The locations span the breadth of State waters and include examples of the varied environments typical of South Australia’s marine realm. The multiple use marine parks will establish core biodiversity protection areas while also achieving practical zoning arrangements that allow many of the existing activities and uses to be continued.
7.7 Coasts and community
The coast is recognised as an icon of Australian culture, providing both a principal For more information about tourist attraction and an important recreational venue for residents. The community community activities along the coast visit plays a key role in coastal management of coasts, contributing significantly to www.epnrm.sa.gov. coastal planning and management through active involvement and participation in au (then select Coasts, Marine local activities, and also through the range of services and facilities delivered by a Environments and wide variety of groups, representing life saving, conservation, water safety and Wetlands, and then Caring for our education. Coast), Coast Care at www.coast care.com.au or Reef The Board, in partnership with the community, undertakes activities on the coast Watch at www.reef watch.asn.au such as revegetation and weed control, community based monitoring programs, protection of coastal vegetation and access management.
Coastal areas contain sites of significant Aboriginal heritage on Eyre Peninsula. An archaeological survey along the Anxious Bay coast from Elliston to Fowlers Bay discovered important information about the use of coastal areas through a number of camp sites and midden finds. In the area around Lincoln National Park a number of sites of Aboriginal significance document a rich Aboriginal cultural heritage such as fish traps in Porter and Proper bays. For more information on Aboriginal heritage, see section 3.2.
There is a need to ensure the involvement of Aboriginal communities in coastal and marine planning. Aboriginal people have a strong connection to sea and country and the connectivity between coastal and marine environments and inland areas needs to be recognised and understood in planning for the coastal and marine environment. A Fishing Indigenous Land Use Agreements (ILUA) is currently being developed so traditional owners can be exempt from prohibitions against the collection of shellfish. For more information on ILUAs, see Section 3.2.4.
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Many coastal places are significant for their European heritage, closely related to early industries on Eyre Peninsula, such as sealing and whaling, that relied on the coast and marine environment. Other maritime heritage places such as lighthouses, coastal jetties and shipwrecks are also of heritage significance, representing the growth of early industries in the region.
7.8 Key threats and influences on the condition of the resources
7.8.1 Climate change
Climate change is a major threat facing coastal areas throughout Australia and a significant dynamic element that needs to be incorporated into management of the coastal environment. Southern South Australia is likely to become warmer, with an increase in the number of hot days and a decrease in the number of colder nights. Water resources are also likely to be further impacted, with a decline in annual rainfall and higher evaporation rates leading to less runoff to streams and estuaries. (Commonwealth Government 2006). Climate change predictions and impacts are presented in greater detail in section 1.6.1.
Anticipated consequences of climate change on the ocean include sea level rise, rising sea temperatures (causing thermal expansion of the upper layers of the oceans), increased seawater acidification due to the elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, altered ocean currents, changes in upwelling events and impacts to fisheries productivity. These consequences will impact marine, coastal and estuarine ecosystems.
In response to uncertainty in future sea levels, the Coast Protection Board, South Australia has recommended that a sea level rise of 0.3 m by the year 2050 be adopted for most coastal planning and design. This represents a continuation of the present rate rise (and is not additional to it). Climate change will continue beyond 2050 but projections to 2100 are less certain. Notwithstanding this uncertainty, the Coast Protection Board has recommended that a further rise of 0.7 m (i.e. 1.0 °m total) be factored in for designs to the year 2100.
Anticipated consequences of sea level rise include increased episodes of inundation from coastal flooding, coastal erosion, sedimentation, habitat change and damage as well as resource loss.
Seawater temperatures on the continental shelf and Australian Bight increased marginally (i.e. by 0.39 °C and 0.43 °C respectively) between 1950 and 2000. It is predicted that further temperature increases on the continental shelf could be 0.2– 1.2 °C by 2030 and 0.6–3.6 °C by 2070. In the deeper waters further south, smaller temperature increases are predicted (i.e. 0.1–1.2 °C to 2030 and 0.3–3.6 °C by 2070) (McInnes et al . 2003 in Government of South Australia 2007).
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The Lower Eyre Peninsula is considered to be comparatively stable and therefore may not be significantly affected by anticipated sea level rise. Venus Bay and Baird Bay are low lying areas and are likely to be affected by sea level rise. Spencer Gulf in particular has many types of sandy coasts that could be eroded to varying degrees as a consequence of sea level rise. Other coastal regions on Eyre Peninsula could be changed in many ways, including:
Sea level rise will affect coastal ecosystems such as seagrass meadows.
Biodiversity in the intertidal zones are anticipated to be at risk, with areas of mangroves and saltmarshes being particularly at risk. Mangroves and saltmarsh wetlands to retreat inland with sea level rise, other than where migration is physically prevented, in which case these communities will be inundated.
Increasing water temperature is likely to significantly alter coastal and marine biodiversity (e.g. algal recruitment, spawning and migration of marine fauna as well as impact to seagrass meadows).
Impacts to marine biota are likely to eventually impact on fisheries and aquaculture industries.
Coastal settlements are likely to be at increased risk of coastal flooding and erosion as well as the associated impacts to infrastructure/facilities including impacts to the marine environment as a result of released contaminants and sediments/foreign matter.
Increased CO 2 levels, nutrient changes and ecosystem disturbance may increase the potential for marine pests to flourish.
The geographic range and distribution of marine species are likely to be altered.
Changes in breeding cycles could impact on population dynamics and species survival.
Sea lion and fur seals breeding and haul out areas could also be affected.
The predicted impacts of climate change reinforce the need for investment in coastal infrastructure such as piers, jetties, boat ramps, safe harbours and marinas to provide safe harbours and protect maritime assets. Modifications will need to provide protection from storm conditions and ensure infrastructure can be safely accessed with sea level rises.
7.8.2 Marine pest and diseases
Marine pest plants and animals that do not occur naturally but have been introduced through human activity or by other means are being of challenge for management of open waters.
The marine environment surrounding Eyre Peninsula suffers infestations of broad range of pest species including ascidians, molluscs, bryozoans, crustaceans and microorganisms. In addition, there are some species of unknown origin that are likely to have been introduced (i.e. cryptogenic species). Most of the species that are known to have been introduced have been inadvertently transported to the region via shipping, while others have been introduced deliberately (e.g. Pacific oysters, Crassostrea gigas ).
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7.8.3 Development
The Coastal Protection Board under the statutory authority of the Coast Protection Act 1972 and the Development Act 1993 works to protect coastal areas in South Australia by encouraging sustainable development and land uses. Increasing and ad hoc development is placing increasing pressure on fragile coastal and marine environments and impacting coastal scenery and amenity. The Coast Protection (Eyre) Regulations 2000 establish definitions for what constitutes ‘coastal land’ within coastal areas of Eyre Peninsula region.
Residential developments including townships, marinas, shacks and holiday homes
The demand for residential development on the coast is increasing and a number of significant marina and residential developments are currently underway or being planned. The impacts from this type of development to the marine environment are often significant and the choice to have developments placed in wetland areas and in, around or on dune systems has numerous implications for the coast and marine environment. The environmental issues posed by these developments include loss of coastal and shoreline habitat, increased pressures from recreational boating, loss of marine habitats and pressure on infrastructure and services.
The introduction of marinas and increased coastal populations can lead to the following impacts:
seabirds and shorebirds including internationally protected migratory species;
water quality, loss of habitat, benthic flora and fauna loss associated with channel dredging;
turbidity, bilge and ballast waters, fuel spills, removal of sewage effluent, pollution from hull cleaning, painting and antifouling agents associated with increased recreational and commercial boating;
loss of marine habitats including mangroves, saltmarsh, sand flat and seagrass habitats;
introduction of marine pests;
increased pollution from waste;
increased noise; and
decreased air quality. Over the years shack developments is a growing trend all along the coast of Eyre Peninsula with significant free holding of shacks took place in early 2000 and can contribute to pollution from stormwater, effluent discharge and coastal erosion issues. Shack developments in coastal locations often rely upon on site wastewater treatment systems such as septic tanks and soakage trenches. If such systems are not designed to suit local soil and water conditions or high seasonal loads, they discharge poorly treated effluent into the marine environment. There are a number of locations in the region where septic tank discharge/overflow could threaten marine habitats.
Other issues associated with shacks include long term and short term erosion effects, long term exposure to flooding, public access issues and visual amenity impacts.
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Erosion issues can be complex and their management ongoing. The Tumby Bay township, on the Lower Spencer Gulf, is located on foredune ridges along the southern end of Tumby Bay. This section of coastline was initially considered stable but the shacks at the southern end of the township were affected by erosion at the mouth of the tidal creek and along the shoreline. A rock wall was subsequently constructed to protect the shacks. Similarly, significant sand loss from Tumby Bay beach has led to construction of a concrete slab wall to protect the township. Revegetation of the shorefront, a series of trial groynes and a beach replenishment program has been implemented to stabilise the sand on the beach.
Desalination plants and potential impacts
Desalination plants are being considered to augment current potable water supplies in the region. The desalination process removes dissolved minerals from seawater to produce freshwater. There are possible ramifications with the removal of large volumes of seawater from coastal areas including the removal of larvae and plankton, entrapment of larger marine species on intake and trampling and erosion of benthos.
Discharge from the process to the marine environment can include high quantities and concentrations of salt, chemicals used during defouling of plant and equipment and pre treatment of water, and toxic metals. This waste stream can have major impacts on the receiving environment, especially if wastes are introduced at sites of low flow that cannot flush the highly concentrated salt brine. Other impacts may include increased turbidity, reduced oxygen levels and a concentrated salt layer on the benthos.
Maritime infrastructure
The construction, operation and maintenance of wharves, landings and other maritime infrastructure impact the local marine environment through initial disturbance and pose a potential ongoing pollution threat into the future. Dredging to deepen access to the infrastructure in shallow coastal waters impacts local seagrass communities and a permanently alters sand and water movements.
These impacts can result in localised decreases in commercially and recreationally important fish populations due to dredging, turbidity and increased boat traffic. Nesting, roosting and feeding shorebirds is also be disturbed by traffic and activity in the area.
7.8.4 Industry
Tourism, visitor facilities and coastal infrastructure
Tourism based around the marine environment makes an important contribution to the economic of the region, led by a growing demand for recreational fishing, nature based activities (including swimming with sea lions, sharks and tuna) and aquaculture activities (seafood trail).
Tourism is the one of the key economic driver on Eyre Peninsula and the region attracts over 350,000 visitors per annum (SATC 2006). The coast and the region’s
STATE OF THE REGION REPORT EYRE PENSINSULA coastal parks and reserves are the major attractions. The region’s surf and sheltered beaches make it a popular destination for surfers, campers, recreational fishers and swimmers.
Nature based and culturally based tourism are a growing part of this industry and cater for those seeking more of a wilderness experience or those who have an interest in the ecological processes and history which underpin the coastal environment. The marine environment is particularly suited for nature based tourists who seek more interactive forms of activities such as swimming with dolphins and seals. The long term viability of the tourist industry is dependent upon ecologically sensitive management of the coast and marine environment.
Recreational boating and fishing are popular activities in the region and a number of boat ramps and jetties are in place for water access. The key threats from this growing activity are demand for coastal infrastructure, localised water quality issues from grey water, sewerage, and litter (e.g. plastic bags and fishing tackle).
Increased demand for facilities to service the tourism industry, such as toilets, car parks, trails, camping areas, boat ramps and moorings continues to place pressure on the coastal environment. Off road vehicles, trail bikes and bush camping also place significant pressure on the coastal and marine environment. Coastal litter beaches, at campsites and being washed ashore from fishing activities is a concern for human health and safety and a hazard to wildlife which can become entangled or suffer from ingesting plastic materials.
Aquaculture and commercial fishing operations
Commercial fishing and aquaculture industry is one of the key economic drivers in the Eyre Peninsula region. These industries require significant infrastructure in land based facilities for production and processing, which can impact on the amenity and environmental values of the coastal environment. The presence of marine debris from industry operations can harm marine animals which become entangled or suffocated by fishing line, rope, nets and plastic wrapping from feed pallets.
If not appropriately managed, potential impacts on the marine environment from the fishing and aquaculture industries include over exploitation of marine resources, accumulation of debris, rubbish, spillage of fuel, oil, black and grey water, hull seepage, anchor and propeller damage to seagrass meadows and reefs as well as human interactions with sea mammals and seabirds.
Historically, unsustainable harvests led to a significant decline in a number of species, including the rock lobster, school shark, garfish and King George whiting, and local loss of others such as oysters and mud cockles. Today, commercial fisheries are managed to sustainable limits by PIRSA Fisheries, under the Fisheries Management Act 2007 .
Light and heavy industry
Potential threats to the marine environment from industry include industrial and heavy metal discharge; shipping and potential impacts from ballast water and leakages; oil spills; dredging and mining activity.
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A key issue relating to industry and commercial shipping is the risk of marine pests introduced by the discharge of ballast water or hull fouling.
7.8.5 Other threats
Coastal acid sulphate soils
Acid sulphate soils are potentially present throughout most low lying coastal regions in South Australia. They are naturally occurring soils that contain iron sulphide, which are formed when seawater/brackish water containing dissolved sulphate covers organic rich environments such as swamps, mangroves, saltmarsh or tea tree (Coast Protection Board 2003 in Government of South Australia 2007a).
Acid sulphate soils may be classified as either actual or potential:
Actual − contains highly acidic soil horizons generally with a pH 4 or less; pale yellow mottles of jarosite often confirm the presence of these soils.
Potential − contains iron sulphides, which have not yet been oxidised or exposed to air. Their pH is generally greater than pH 4.
The major environmental impacts from acid sulphate soils are:
major habitat degradation
loss of biodiversity, favours acid tolerant plants
pulses of acidic water entering marine, coastal and estuarine environment may cause significant kills of marine organisms
localised anoxic conditions.
The key coastal development issues are:
disturbance of actual/potential acid sulphate soils
development may be under threat of deterioration from corrosion due to the release of acid
disturbance of acid sulphate sites can increase the distribution of the area contaminated.
These soil types are generally located within mangrove and intertidal habitats. In the west, areas such as Ceduna township, Murat Bay and Davenport Creek have been identified as potential coastal acid sulphate soils which could pose a threat if disturbed (Government of South Australia 2007a). The low lying areas typically associated with mangrove, intertidal and tidal stream habitats including Smoky Bay and surrounds, particularly Cape Misslessy, Laura Bay, Streaky Bay and surrounds, Baird Bay and Venus Bay have potential for further coastal acifification of soil sites.
Potential acid sulphate soil sites are thought to be widely present along the eastern coast of Eyre Peninsula particularly throughout the mangrove forests and saltmarsh areas. Cowell, Franklin Harbour and Weeroona Island have been identified as potential sites on Eyre Peninsula. Further sites are thought to be found widely throughout the Tumby Bay area, particularly within the mangrove forests and saltmarsh areas.
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A strategy for the identification and management of coastal acid sulphate soils has been developed by the Coast Protection Board, with the assistance of the CSIRO
Litter
Marine debris from land based plastics and fishing gear from recreational fishermen impact the marine environment. Seabirds get entangled in discarded fishing tackle, causing injury or often death. Under the EPBC Act 1999 ‘injury and fatality caused by the ingestion and entanglement of marine life in marine debris’ is listed as a key threatening process. The ingestion of floating plastic debris can lead to starvation in seabirds. Discarded sheet plastic smothers immobile marine flora and fauna.
7.9 Key management initiatives
7.9.1 Living Coast Strategy
The Living Coast Strategy sets out the State Government’s environmental policy directions for sustainable development of the State’s coastal, estuarine and marine environment. The plan encompasses a range of initiatives and programs to ensure coastal development is undertaken in a consistent and coordinated manner and sets out policy directions for the State Government over the next few years to protect and manage the coast and marine environment.
7.9.2 Eyre Peninsula Coastal Development Strategy
The Eyre Peninsula Coastal Development Strategy is a joint initiative of the Eyre Peninsula Local Government Association (EPLGA) and the councils of Eyre Peninsula, developed with support from the Government of South Australia (through Planning SA). The Strategy was adopted by the EPLGA and coastal councils during 2007.
The Strategy provides a vision for the future sustainable development and management of the Eyre Peninsula coast. The strategy defines coastal zones to ensure the protection of areas of environmental, cultural or natural significance and identify areas where development is acceptable. Planning controls contained in the plan ensure coastal development is undertaken in a consistent and coordinated manner across the region.
The nine guiding principles adopted in the Strategy are:
Ensuring ecologically sustainable development
Protecting cultural and heritage values
Enhancing economic development opportunities
Recognising the interdependence between land and sea
Integrating infrastructure and land use planning
Protecting biodiversity and areas of biological significance
Protecting coastal landscapes and wilderness values
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Facilitating appropriate public access to the coast
Minimising the exposure of people and property to coastal hazards
7.9.3 Marine Planning Framework for South Australia
Marine planning aims to protect the coastal, estuarine and marine environments by ensuring that development and use is compatible with the environment within which it occurs. The Marine Planning Framework is an ecosystem based planning support tool that assists coastal management agencies in planning and managing for ecologically sustainable outcomes in the marine environment (DEH 2007a).
The draft Spencer Gulf Marine Plan is the first of the State's Marine Plans; and will be used as a pilot to trial the concepts of the Marine Planning Framework for South Australia. Its aim is to maintain a healthy and productive Spencer Gulf marine environment for current and future generations. It is underpinned by the principles of ecosystem based management and ecologically sustainable development.
During the development of the draft plan the issues and potential impacts identified included the extraction of living resources, aquaculture, mining, shipping, pollution, coastal development, recreational activities and tourism. The marine planning process has identified that the cumulative impacts of these activities are currently degrading areas that are critical to the functioning on the whole Spencer Gulf
7.9.4 South Australian Marine Park Program
The Government of South Australia is committed to the development of a South Australian Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (SARSMPA). The SARSMPA will contribute to the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA), a commitment made by the Australian, State and Territory Governments through the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment. The NRSMPA in turn meets the Australian Government’s international obligations through the International Convention on Biological Diversity to contribute to a global representative system of marine protected areas.
In order to develop a representative network of marine parks for South Australia, the South Australian Government requires a set of principles on which to base marine park design. The principles are based on national guidelines and are designed to meet the objectives of the Marine Parks Act 2007 :
Primary objectives are to protect and conserve biological diversity and marine habitats by declaring and providing for the management of a comprehensive, adequate and representative system of marine parks; and to assist in the maintenance of ecological processes in the marine environment; and the adaptation to the impacts of climate change in the marine environment .
Secondary objectives are for the development of marine parks are to protect and conserve features of natural or cultural heritage significance; and to allow for ecologically sustainable development and use of marine environments; and to provide for opportunities for public appreciation, education, understanding and enjoyment of marine environments (DEH 2008).
STATE OF THE REGION REPORT EYRE PENSINSULA
7.9.5 Coast Protection Board
The Coast Protection Board, formed in 1972, is the key body in South Australia for managing coast protection issues and providing advice on coastal development. It works in partnership with community and NRM organisations to protect coastal environments from development pressures and provides funding towards approved coastal projects in conjunction with local government. The Coast Protection Board focuses funding on works that address erosion or flooding hazards along the coast, including foreshore protection, dune rehabilitation, coastal fencing, vegetation and weed control.
7.10 Coast and Marine indicators
7.10.1 National coastal, estuarine and marine indicators
The South Australian Government is trialling the application of national coastal, estuarine and marine indicators in South Australia. The objectives of the project are to: 1. prepare an overview of, coastal, estuarine and marine (CEM) monitoring in South Australia 2. undertake an analysis of the relevance and usefulness of the recommended national CEM indicators for the South Australian NRM context and recommend alternative or additional indicators that would be more relevant for South Australia 3. determine State NRM agencies and regional NRM Board interest in monitoring national indicators 4. assess the availability of data with respect to these indicators, and additional selected indicators as determined through the project 5. trial mechanisms to report on a selection of indicators 6. investigate the possibility of developing an interactive web based tool for providing information on CEM indicators within NRM regions in South Australia 7. foster collaboration and cooperation between stakeholders and identify information and data sharing opportunities, agreements and protocols.
(DEH 2007)
7.10.2 Potential indicators
Environmental indicators are used to track changes in the environment and are classed as:
state or condition indicators – of the condition of the environment
pressure indicators – of positive or negative effects of human activities on a particular component of the environment
response indicators – of the management responses that have or are being undertaken to address the pressures upon the environment.
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The indicators for the coast and marine of Eyre Peninsula are presented in Table 7.6.
TABLE 7.6 Coast and Marine Indicators
Type of Condition/ Issue Indicator indicator trend
Water quality data collected from key sites C ??? Number of known point of pollution sources P (stormwater drains, licensed sources) ??? Number of stormwater outlets to beach and Water Quality P control measures in place ??? Changes in area and distribution of seagrass at C key sites ??? Aquatic weed distributions and new incursions P
Area of dunes covered by saltmarsh vegetation C ??? Number of named marine species protected by R State or Commonwealth legislation Flora faunaand Number of introduced marine pests and new P incursions Extent of vegetation clearance P
Changes of species composition of coastal system P ??? Number of marina applications and scale of C development Number of applications received for new houses C within 500 metres of the coast
Development Tourism impacts and visitor numbers (e.g. C demand for car parking/car parking fees?) Number of active Coastcare groups and R participation in groups Coastcare grants awarded and their usage R ??? community Coasts and Number of on ground activities held per annum R
Commercial catch (in kg) for area or number of C commercial businesses for each port of landing Location, type and extent of licences C
Catchment, type, extent and number of C aquaculture initiatives Aquaculture Area per hectare of aquaculture licences granted C
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Type of Condition/ Issue Indicator indicator trend
Extent of marine protected areas R
area Marine parks established and management plans Marine R protected approved ??? Report on implementation of coastal management R plans ??? Management
C = condition (state) indicator; P = pressure indicator; R = response indicator Assessment is colour coded: blue = optimal; green = good; yellow = moderate; red = poor Trends are noted with symbols: ↓ – negative; ↑ – positive; ↔ stable; ? – unknown
7.11 Information gaps
Gaps in the information on presence and habits of several marine and coastal species include:
Resident and migratory seabirds and shorebirds – there are large numbers of birds inhabiting the Eyre Peninsula region but their population trends and abundance are generally under documented.
Fisheries – some areas regularly record some of the highest commercial catches in the State but a lack of data for recreational catches means stock assessments are unreliable.
Nutrient and chemical inputs into coastal embayments and near shore environments – little is known about nutrient cycling in estuaries or impact of land based impacts on near shore environments
Groundwater inputs to estuarine environments with little surface water some Eyre Peninsula estuaries may receive much of the freshwater input from groundwater. Groundwater inputs have never been quantified nor has the ecosystem dependence on groundwater been assessed.
Little is known about the extent of marine pests, including the displacement of native species by aquaculture escapees.
Near shore mapping and monitoring
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7.12 Bibliography
Baker, JL. 2004. Towards a system of ecologically representative marine protected areas in South Australian marine bioregion – Technical Report , Department for Environment and Heritage Adelaide, South Australia www.environment.sa.gov.au/coasts/pub.html#mconservation Boggon, T and Evans, I. 2006. A Coordinated Approach to Wetland Management on Eyre Peninsula . Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Board, South Australia.
Bryars S, 2003. An inventory of important coastal fisheries habitats in South Australia . Fish Habitat Program, Primary Industries and Resources, South Australia.
CSIRO. 2006. Climate change scenarios for initial assessment of risk in accordance with risk management guidance. Australian Government. DEH. 2004. Lincoln National Park Management Plan . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. DEH. 2007. Draft Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Region Estuaries Information Package . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. DEH. 2007a. A Regional Perspective of the Far West Marine, Coastal and Estuarine Environments – Draft. Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. DEH. 2007b. A Regional Perspective of the West Marine, Coastal and Estuarine Environments – Draft . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. DEH. 2007c. A Regional Perspective of the Lower Spencer Gulf Marine, Coastal and Estuarine Environments – Draft Report. Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. DEH. 2007d. A Regional Perspective of the Spencer Gulf Marine, Coastal and Estuarine Environments –Draft Report . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. DEH. 2005. Estuaries of South Australia: Our vision for the future (Draft) – Draft Policy and Action Plan For Public Consultation 2005, Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. DEH. 2006. Blueprint for the South Australian Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. DEH. undated. Marine Planning Framework for South Australia Policy . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. DEH. undated. The Great Australian Bight Marine Park Management Plan – Management Prescriptions . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.parks.sa.gov.au/parks/pdfs DEH & DWLBC.2003. Wetlands Strategy for South Australia Policy . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia.
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Department for Environment and Heritage. (2008). Design principles guiding the development of South Australia’s marine park boundaries. Coast and Marine Conservation Branch, Department for Environment and Heritage, South Australia. Edyvane, K. (1999). Conserving Marine Biodiversity in South Australia. Part 2 Identification of Areas of High Conservation Value in South Australia. SARDI Report No. 39. South Australian Research and Development Institute and Primary Industries and Resources, Adelaide. Edyvane K 1999b. Conserving marine biodiversity in South Australia: part 2 identification of areas of high conservation value in South Australia . SARDI Report no 39. SARDI Aquatic Sciences, PIRSA, Adelaide. Environment Protection Authority. 2003. Coasts and the Sea in State of the Environment Report for South Australia 2003. Government of South Australia Environment Protection Authority. 2008. Coasts and the Sea in State of the Environment Report for South Australia 2008. Government of South Australia Eyre Peninsula Local Government Association and Government of South Australia. 2007. Eyre Peninsula Coastal Development Strategy . Government of South Australia. Oppermann, A. (1999). A Biological Survey of the South Australian Coastal Dune and Clifftop Vegetation. 1996 1998. Coast and Marine Section, Environment Protection Agency, South Australia. Department of Planning and Local Government. (2009) URL accessed 25/2/2009 http://www.planning.sa.gov.au/go/strategy/other strategic projects/eyre peninsula coastal development strategy/eyre peninsula coastal development strategy Resource Information (1999b). Nearshore Seagrass Change between 1970s and 1996; Mapped Using Digital Orthophotography, Port Lincoln Proper and Boston Bay South Australia. Report prepared for the EPA, SA Department for Environment, Heritage and Aboriginal Affairs, Adelaide. Resource Information (1999c). Nearshore Seagrass Change between 1989 and 1997; Mapped Using Landsat TM Satellite Imagery, Spencer Gulf, South Australia. SA Department for Environment Heritage and Aboriginal Affairs, Adelaide. South Australian Government. 2007. Planning and Decision making Framework – For applying the Department for Environment and Heritages Coastal, Estuarine and Marine Programs to regional NRM initiatives – Draft. South Australian Government. V and C Semeniuk Research Group. 2007. A Baseline Survey of the Wetlands of Eyre Peninsula 2005–2007.
EYRE PENINSULA NRM BOARD 8. General references
Bardsley, D. 2006. There’s a change on the way – An initial integrated assessment of projected climate change impacts and adaptation options for Natural Resource Management in the Adelaide Mt Lofty Ranges Region . Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Adelaide, South Australia.
City of Port Lincoln. 2007. Strategic Plan 2007–2017 www.portlincoln.sa.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/draft_strategic_plan.pdf City of Whyalla. 2004. Strategic Plan 2004–2007. www.whyalla.sa.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/stratplan2004_2007.pdf DEH. Statutory plans for land managed under the National Parks Management Plans . Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide, South Australia. www.parks.sa.gov.au/parks/management_plans/MPAlphabeticalListing/index.htm District Council of Ceduna. 2007. Strategic Plan 2007. www.ceduna.net/webdata/resources/files/St__Plan_February_2007.pdf District Council of Cleve. 2005. Strategic Plan 2005 . www.cleve.sa.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/District_Council_of_Cleve_Strategic _Plan Reviewed Adopted_8th_April_2005.pdf District Council of Franklin Harbour. 2007. Strategic Plan 2007 . www.franklinharbour.sa.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/Franklin_Harbour_Strategi c_Plan_2007.pdf District Council of Lower Eyre Peninsula. 2007. Strategic Plan 2007–2011 . www.lowereyrepeninsula.sa.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/Strategic_Plan_2007 11_ADOPTED.pdf District Council of Streaky Bay. 2002. Strategic Plan 2002. www.streakybay.sa.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/Strategic_Plan_Report1.pdf District Council of Tumby Bay. 2007. Strategic Plan 2007–2011 for Public Consultation . www.tumbybay.sa.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/Tumby_Bay_Strategic_Plan_ _2007_Working_Document.pdf DWLBC. undated. Report on the condition of Agricultural Land in the Eyre Peninsula – In the Natural Resource Management Region, Draft. Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Adelaide. Eyre Peninsula Natural Heritage Trust. 2006. Investment Strategy 2006–2008 . Plan Eyre Peninsula NRM Board. Eyre Peninsula Natural Resource Management Group. undated. A background to integrated Natural Resource Management for Eyre Peninsula Report
ERDB. 2008. tcsh.inetd.com.au/~erdb/index.html Eyre Regional Development Board Accessed 28 March 2008 ERDB. undated. Eyre Peninsula – Regional Profile. Eyre Regional Development Board. McInnes, KL, Suppiah, R, Whetton, PH, Hennessy, KJ and Jones RN. 2003. Climate change in South Australia. Report on: Assessment of climate change,
STATE OF THE REGION REPORT EYRE PENSINSULA impacts and possible adaptation strategies relevant to South Australia. CSIRO Atmospheric Research. Natural Resources Management Council. 2006. State Natural Resources Management Plan 2006 . Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Adelaide. Planning SA. undated. Planning Strategy for Regional South Australia. Rebbeck, M, Dwyer, E, Bartetzko, M and Williams, A. 2007. A Guide to Climate Change and Adaptation in Agriculture in South Australia . South Australian Research and Development Institute, Primary Industries and Resources SA, and Rural Solutions SA SKM. undated. Regional Natural Resource Management Plan . Natural Heritage Trust Suppiah, R, Preston, B, Whetton, P, McInnes, K, Jones, R, Macadam, I, Bathols, J and Kirono, D. 2006. Climate change under enhanced greenhouse conditions in South Australia. An updated report on: Assessment of climate change, impacts and risk management strategies relevant to South Australia. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research a consultancy report for the South Australian Government. Whyalla Economic Development Board. 2006. Strategic Plan 2006–2010 . www.wedb.com.au/Publications/WEDB%20Strategic%20Plan%2020%20April%20 2006.pdf WWF. 2008. Australian Species and Climate Change . World Wildlife Fund.
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Abbreviations
AusRivAs Australian River Assessment System ASR aquifer storage and recovery CASS coastal acid sulphate soils COAG Council of Australian Governments CRC Cooperative Research Centre DEH Department for Environment and Heritage, South Australia DTEI Department of Transport, Energy and Infrastructure, South Australia DWLBC Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, South Australia ECM estuarine, coastal and marine EP Eyre Peninsula GDE groundwater dependent ecosystem GRDC Grains Research and Development Corporation IBRA Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia ILUA Indigenous land use agreement NRM natural resources management NRMMC Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council PIRSA Primary Industries and Resources South Australia PWA prescribed wells area SA South Australia TDS total dissolved solids Water EPI Water Erosion Protection Index Water ERI Water Erosion Risk Index Wind ERI Wind Erosion Risk Index Wind EPI Wind Erosion Protection Index WPA Water Protection Area
STATE OF OUR RESOURCES – STATE OF NATURAL RESOURCES OF EYRE PENINSULA
STATE OF OUR RESOURCES – STATE OF NATURAL RESOURCES OF EYRE PENINSULA
Glossary
aquaculture The farming of aquatic organisms for the purposes of trade or business or research aquifers Porous, water bearing layers of sand, gravel, and rock below the earth's surface; reservoirs for groundwater biological diversity or biodiversity The variety of life forms represented by plants, animals and other organisms and micro organisms, the genes that they contain, and the ecosystems and ecosystem processes of which they form a part biota All of the organisms at a particular locality catchment Extent of land where water from rain drains downhill into a body of water, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea or ocean connectivity The extent of interconnectedness between habitat units and subpopulations in a landscape conservation The protection, maintenance, management, sustainable use, restoration and enhancement of the natural environment ecological community A naturally occurring biological assemblage that occurs in a particular type of habitat. The scale at which ecological communities are defined will often depend on the level of detail in the information source, therefore no particular scale is specified. ecological processes Processes that play an essential part in maintaining ecosystem integrity. Four fundamental ecological processes are the cycling of water, the cycling of nutrients, the flow of energy, and biodiversity (as an expression of the process of evolution). ecologically sustainable The use, conservation, development and development enhancement of natural resources in a way, and at a rate, that will enable people and communities to provide for their economic, social and physical wellbeing while: sustaining the potential of natural resources to meet the reasonably foreseeable needs of future generations; safeguarding the life supporting capacities of natural resources; and avoiding, remedying or mitigating any adverse effects of activities on natural resources. ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant, animal, fungal and microorganism communities and the associated non living environment interacting as an ecological unit ecotone Transition zone between two distinct communities endemic flora and fauna species Plant and animal species that are restricted to a specified region or site estuary A partially enclosed coastal body of water that is permanently, periodically, intermittently or occasionally open to the sea within which there is a measurable variation in salinity due to the mixture of seawater with water derived from or under the land
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Eyre Peninsula NRM Region One of eight NRM regions in South Australia established under Chapter 3 Part 3 Division 1 of the Natural Resources Management Act 2004 . The region covers over 80,000 km 2 (including marine areas) and supports a population of about 55,000. extant Still in existence; not extinct feral A species that has escaped the management and control of people and is living and reproducing in the wild fire regime The intensity, frequency and extent of fire fragmentation The division or separation of natural areas by the clearance of native vegetation for human land uses, isolating remnants and species and affecting genetic flow gnamma holes Seasonal rock pools habitat The physical place or type of site where an organism, species or population naturally occurs together with the characteristics and conditions that render it suitable to meet the lifecycle needs of that organism, species or population Heritage Agreement A contract between a landholder and the State Government for the protection in perpetuity of a particular area of native vegetation indicators A measure against which some aspects of performance can be assessed Indigenous land use agreement A voluntary agreement between a native title group and others about the use and management of land and waters Interim Biogeographic A complex land area composed of a cluster of Regionalisation for Australia interacting ecosystems that are repeated in similar form. IBRA is the National Reserve System's planning framework, the fundamental tool for identifying land for conservation. introduced species A species occurring in an area outside its historically known natural range as a result of intentional or accidental dispersal by human activities (including exotic organisms, genetically modified organisms and translocated species) Land Land as a physical entity, including land under water or any legal estate or interest in, or right in respect of land and includes any building or structure fixed to land. A reference to land in the context of physical entity includes all aspects of land, including the soil, organism and other components and ecosystem that contribute to the physical state and environmental, social and economic value of land. landscape A heterogeneous area of local ecosystems and land uses that is of sufficient size to achieve long term outcomes in the maintenance and recovery of species or ecological communities, or in the protection and enhancement of ecological and evolutionary processes macroinvertebrates Invertebrate animals (without backbone) large enough to be seen without magnification mangroves Salt tolerant trees or shrubs that have their lower trunk and roots in the water microorganism Small or microscopic forms of life, including bacteria, yeasts, fungi, and moulds
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native species A plant or animal species which occurs naturally in South Australia natural resources Include soil; water resources; geological features and landscapes; native vegetation, native animals and other native organisms; and ecosystems. natural resources management Sustainable management of natural resources (land, soil, geological features, water, vegetation, animals, other organisms and ecosystems, the cultural heritage or amenity of an area) that incorporates economic, social and environmental values and involves the community, industries and governments in planning and decision making. Integrated natural resources management includes coordinating policies, programs, plans and projects, and coordination in the exercise and performance of administrative and statutory powers and functions by government agencies, statutory authorities, local government bodies, and the broader community, relevant to the management of the State’s natural resources. peri urban Land immediately adjoining an urban area; between the suburbs and the countryside pest species Any introduced plant or animal that can adversely affect native species and ecosystems pinniped Marine mammals with flippers, such as seals and sea lions. One of the two suborders of the order Carnivora, characterised by marine habitat and flippers in place of the free toes of the other terrestrial Carnivora (Fissipedia). prescribed wells area Part of South Australia declared to be a prescribed water resource area under section 125 of the Natural Resources Management Act 2004 includes groundwater to which access is obtained by prescribed wells protected area An area of land and/or sea specifically dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means recovery plans Documents that detail management and research actions necessary to stop and reverse the decline of listed threatened species or threatened ecological communities. The aim of a recovery plan is to maximise the long term survival in the wild of a threatened species or ecological community. remnant Areas (generally small) of native plant communities that are found in otherwise cleared landscapes resilience The ability of an ecosystem to withstand and recover from environmental stresses and disturbances restoration Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed riparian vegetation Vegetation that is associated with aquatic streams, river, and lakes seascape A heterogeneous area of local ecosystems and sea uses that is of sufficient size to achieve long term outcomes in the maintenance and recovery of species or ecological communities, or in the protection and enhancement of ecological and evolutionary processes
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species A taxon comprising one or more populations of individuals capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring. subspecies Set of populations within a distinct geographical range that are recognisably different from the rest of the populations that make up the species. sustainable use The use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long term decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present (Convention on Biological Diversity) terrestrial Pertaining to the land (contrast with aquatic, marine) threatened species and/or Species (at national and State levels) or ecological ecological communities community (at a national level) classified as being threatened by extinction and listed as either Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically Endangered or Presumed Extinct threatening process Processes that threaten or may threaten the survival, abundance or evolutionary development of components of native biodiversity Water Erosion Protection Index Indicates the level to which an area is protected from erosion risk each year Water Erosion Risk Index An indicator of the level of water erosion risk to which an area or region is exposed each year Wind Erosion Risk Index An indicator of the level of wind erosion risk to which an area or region is exposed each year Wind Erosion Protection Index Indicates the level to which an area is protected from erosion risk each year Water Protection Area An area that is protected from pollution, contamination or unsustainable use; proposed development may be excluded from a WPA area when it is liable to impact the water resource or aquifer recharge Wetland Wetland areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres