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ILLICIT DRUGS in the ENVIRONMENT Occurrence, Analysis, and Fate Using Mass Spectrometry

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ILLICIT DRUGS in the ENVIRONMENT Occurrence, Analysis, and Fate Using Mass Spectrometry P1: OSO FM JWBS057-Castiglioni January 5, 2011 13:58 Printer Name: Yet to Come ILLICIT DRUGS IN THE ENVIRONMENT Occurrence, Analysis, and Fate Using Mass Spectrometry Edited by SARA CASTIGLIONI ETTORE ZUCCATO ROBERTO FANELLI Department of Environmental Health Sciences Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research Milan, Italy A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION iii P1: OSO FM JWBS057-Castiglioni January 5, 2011 13:58 Printer Name: Yet to Come P1: OSO FM JWBS057-Castiglioni January 5, 2011 13:58 Printer Name: Yet to Come ILLICIT DRUGS IN THE ENVIRONMENT i P1: OSO FM JWBS057-Castiglioni January 5, 2011 13:58 Printer Name: Yet to Come WILEY-INTERSCIENCE SERIES IN MASS SPECTROMETRY Series Editors Dominic M. Desiderio Departments of Neurology and Biochemistry University of Tennessee Health Science Center Nico M. M. Nibbering Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands A complete list of the titles in this series appears at the end of this volume. ii P1: OSO FM JWBS057-Castiglioni January 5, 2011 13:58 Printer Name: Yet to Come ILLICIT DRUGS IN THE ENVIRONMENT Occurrence, Analysis, and Fate Using Mass Spectrometry Edited by SARA CASTIGLIONI ETTORE ZUCCATO ROBERTO FANELLI Department of Environmental Health Sciences Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research Milan, Italy A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION iii P1: OSO FM JWBS057-Castiglioni January 5, 2011 13:58 Printer Name: Yet to Come Copyright C 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Illicit drugs in the environment : occurrence, analysis, and fate using mass spectrometry / edited by Sara Castiglioni, Ettore Zuccato, Roberto Fanelli. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-470-52954-6 (cloth) 1. Drugs of abuse–Analysis. 2. Drugs of abuse–Environmental aspects. 3. Drugs of abuse–Spectra. 4. Water–Analysis. 5. Organic water pollutants. 6. mass spectrometry. I. Castiglioni, Sara, 1976– II. Zuccato, Ettore, 1952– III. Fanelli, Roberto, 1944– RS190.D77I65 2011 363.7394–dc22 2010036825 Printed in Singapore 10987654321 iv P1: OSO FM JWBS057-Castiglioni January 5, 2011 13:58 Printer Name: Yet to Come CONTENTS PREFACE ix CONTRIBUTORS xv I INTRODUCTION 1 1 ILLICIT DRUGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 3 Christian G. Daughton II THE PHYSIOLOGY OF ILLICIT DRUGS 29 2 METABOLISM AND EXCRETION OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN HUMANS 31 Manuela Melis, Sara Castiglioni, and Ettore Zuccato III MASS SPECTROMETRY IN ILLICIT DRUGS DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT – CURRENT AND NOVEL ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS 53 3 ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR THE DETECTION OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN WASTEWATERS AND SURFACE WATERS 55 Renzo Bagnati and Enrico Davoli v P1: OSO FM JWBS057-Castiglioni January 5, 2011 13:58 Printer Name: Yet to Come vi CONTENTS 4 WIDE-SCOPE SCREENING OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN URBAN WASTEWATER BY UHPLC-QTOF MS 69 Felix´ Hernandez,´ Juan V. Sancho, and Lubertus Bijlsma 5 DETERMINATION OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN THE WATER CYCLE BY LC–ORBITRAP MS 87 Pim de Voogt, Erik Emke, Rick Helmus, Pavlos Panteliadis, and Jan A. van Leerdam IVA MASS SPECTROMETRIC ANALYSIS OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN THE ENVIRONMENT: OCCURRENCE AND FATE IN WASTEWATER AND SURFACE WATER 115 6 OCCURRENCE OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN WASTEWATER IN SPAIN 117 Cristina Postigo, Miren Lopez´ de Alda, and Damia Barcelo` 7 OCCURRENCE OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN WASTEWATER AND SURFACE WATER IN ITALY 137 Sara Castiglioni and Ettore Zuccato 8 OCCURRENCE OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN SURFACE WATER AND WASTEWATER IN THE UK 153 Barbara Kasprzyk-Hordern 9 ON THE FRONTIER: ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY AND THE OCCURRENCE OF ILLICIT DRUGS INTO SURFACE WATERS IN THE UNITED STATES 171 Tammy Jones-Lepp, David Alvarez, and Bommanna Loganathan 10 MONITORING NONPRESCRIPTION DRUGS IN SURFACE WATER IN NEBRASKA (USA) 189 Shannon Bartelt-Hunt, and Daniel D. Snow IVB MASS SPECTROMETRIC ANALYSIS OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN THE ENVIRONMENT: ILLICIT DRUGS IN DRINKING WATER 203 11 PRESENCE AND REMOVAL OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN CONVENTIONAL DRINKING WATER TREATMENT PLANTS 205 Maria Huerta-Fontela, Maria Teresa Galceran, and Francesc Ventura P1: OSO FM JWBS057-Castiglioni January 5, 2011 13:58 Printer Name: Yet to Come CONTENTS vii 12 ANALYSIS OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN WATER USING DIRECT-INJECTION LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY-TANDEM MASS SPECTROMETRY 223 Rebecca A. Trenholm and Shane A. Snyder IVC MASS SPECTROMETRIC ANALYSIS OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN THE ENVIRONMENT: PRESENCE IN AIR AND SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER 233 13 PSYCHOTROPIC SUBSTANCES IN URBAN AIRBORNE PARTICULATES 235 Angelo Cecinato and Catia Balducci V APPLICATIONS OF ILLICIT DRUG ANALYSIS IN THE ENVIRONMENT 251 14 ILLICIT DRUGS IN THE ENVIRONMENT: IMPLICATION FOR ECOTOXICOLOGY 253 Guido Domingo, Kristin Schirmer, Marcella Bracale, and Francesco Pomati 15 DRUG ADDICTION–POTENTIAL OF A NEW APPROACH TO MONITORING DRUG CONSUMPTION 275 Norbert Frost 16 ASSESSING ILLICIT DRUG CONSUMPTION BY WASTEWATER ANALYSIS: HISTORY, POTENTIAL, AND LIMITATION OF A NOVEL APPROACH 291 Ettore Zuccato and Sara Castiglioni 17 COCAINE AND METABOLITES IN WASTEWATER AS A TOOL TO CALCULATE LOCAL AND NATIONAL COCAINE CONSUMPTION PREVALENCE IN BELGIUM 305 Alexander L.N. van Nuijs, Lieven Bervoets, Philippe G. Jorens, Ronny Blust, Hugo Neels, and Adrian Covaci 18 MEASUREMENT OF ILLICIT DRUG CONSUMPTION IN SMALL POPULATIONS: PROGNOSIS FOR NONINVASIVE DRUG TESTING OF STUDENT POPULATIONS 321 Deepika Panawennage, Sara Castiglioni, Ettore Zuccato, Enrico Davoli, and M. Paul Chiarelli P1: OSO FM JWBS057-Castiglioni January 5, 2011 13:58 Printer Name: Yet to Come viii CONTENTS VI CONCLUSIONS 333 19 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 335 Roberto Fanelli INDEX 339 P1: OSO FM JWBS057-Castiglioni January 5, 2011 13:58 Printer Name: Yet to Come PREFACE PRESENTATION OF THE BOOK Following the preliminary observation that traces of illicit drugs could be found in the aqueous environment, there was an obvious request for a better characterization of these novel contaminants to assess possible risks for the environment and human health. A less obvious consequence of this finding was the discovery that the residues of illicit drugs in wastewater, and sometimes in surface water receiving untreated wastes, could be used to estimate drug consumption in the group of individuals producing the waste itself. In particular, the potential applications linked to this second issue reinforced the need for a specific, sensitive, and accurate measurement of these substances. Environmental scientists, on the one hand, and social scientists and persons involved in the phenomenon of drug addiction, on the other, have sought analytical methods for the detection and quantification of illicit drugs and metabolites in environmental media, particularly, wastewater. Illicit drugs and their metabolites are commonly measured in forensic sciences, but concentrations in urine, blood, and other fluids or in hair, are much higher and interference much lower than in wastewater. Wastewater is a complex milieu of thousands of different substances, dissolved, mixed, or suspended in water. The list of compounds in wastewater, and by extension, in the downstream environment, is long. Chemicals from industrial or agricultural activities are well known contributors to this milieu, but pharmaceuticals are a recent acquisition, and the same is true for the thousands of products we use daily for personal care. Remnants derived from an enormous number of production and household activities end up in wastewater and contribute to an increase in the
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