sign in sign up
<<
Home , Arjun Reddy, Ayushmann Khurrana, Bajrangi Bhaijaan, Chandni Bar, Chennai Express, Darr

Towards a Self-Reflected Romantic Hero Representations of the romantic protagonist and his approach to women in films of the 2010s

Sofie Vega Wollbraaten

Master's Thesis in South Asia Culture and Society SAS4691 South Asian Studies 30 credits

Department of Culture Studies and Oriental Languages (IKOS) University of Oslo Spring 2020

Abstract This thesis concerns the courtship practices seen in contemporary, romantic Hindi films, with an emphasis on the romantic agency of the male protagonist. In this qualitative study, I examine eleven films with dominant romantic narratives released in the 2010s. As films and society have changed in the past 20-30 years in , there are elements in courtship practices in these films that have changed, such as the development of close friendships between the hero and heroine before a romantic relationship is formed. Some elements in these films remain surprisingly unchanged since the 1990s, such as dominant male agency. This thesis claims that one of the most defining traits of the protagonists in contemporary films, is that they often improve themselves by the climax of the film. This shows an increased self- reflection of the romantic hero. In the films studied in this thesis, the couples often become friends before marriage, where love and respect grow. Here, there is a notable change from the films of the 1990s and earlier, where immediate physical attraction often laid the sole foundation for a romantic relationship and eventual marriage. The aim of this thesis is to give an insight into modern courtship practices in Hindi films, with a focus on how men behave towards women. I argue the importance of studying male romantic approaches to women in films, as these can inspire actions in life off-screen. With this thesis, I contribute to the yet uncharted and narrow field of male agency in forming romantic relationships in Hindi films of the 2010s.

ii

Acknowledgments I would like to thank my supervisor, professor Kathinka Frøystad, for giving constructive and always inspiring feedback, and who has been encouraging from the start, not only while writing this thesis but from the beginning of studying for a bachelor’s degree in India-studies.

I am grateful for the relentless support and uncompromising encouragement from my parents: my step-mother Eva Tønnessen, who goes out of her way to help me, whether it concerns car- trouble or proofreading, and my mother Trudy Wollbraaten, who has been my emotional pillar during this project. I also want to thank Alexander Nystrøm, for his support as well as for useful distractions, helping me stay focused while also taking time for breaks.

I am thankful to the Department of Culture Studies and Oriental Languages for awarding me with the Storm, Bugge and Sydnes scholarship, which allowed me to stay in for a valuable semester at the School of Oriental and African Studies.

iii

List of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgments iii Introduction 1 1. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH 4 Film selection and analytical approach 4 Research Challenges 9 Summary 10 2. RESEARCHING HINDI FILMS: APPROACHES TO 1990S FILMS 12 Love and Marriage 12 Reception Studies 21 Summary 24 3. EMPIRICAL FINDINGS: FILM SUMMARIES 25 (2019) 25 Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela (2013) 28 (2013) 29 (2018) 32 (2017) 32 Tanu Weds Manu Returns (2015) 34 2 States (2014) 34 (2016) 35 (2012) 36 (2013) 37 Dream Girl (2019) 38 Summary 39 4. CHANGING ROMANTIC HEROES IN THE 2010S 41 Contemporary Courtship 41 The Romantic Hero of the 2010s 46 Complications to the Romantic Narrative 53 Summary 55 5. CONCLUSION 57 LIST OF REFERENCES 59

iv

Introduction The year 2019 saw the release of two popular Hindi films portraying two opposite male roles in their relations to women. On the one side is Kabir Singh (Khetani, Kumar, Varde & Vanga, 2019), the hypermasculine protagonist who is portrayed as a sex-addicted, violent alcoholic. On the other side is the milder and friendlier, goddess Sita-imitating protagonist in the light- hearted comedy Dream Girl (Kapoor, Kapoor & Shaandilyaa, 2019). While Kabir Singh embodies a hyper-masculinized male protagonist, one that can be associated with the muscular Hindutva ideology in India (Banerjee, 2017), Dream Girl points to a softer masculinity where traditional gender roles have become more fluid. While discussing the protagonists in these and other films, the thesis can be a window through which one can look at the present-day romantic hero and his agency in the formation of romantic relationships1. In a larger context, I find that this can reflect and inspire romantic aspirations and reinforce or challenge gender expectations in the films’ audience.

To do this, I will look at how the male protagonist2 in recent, mainstream Hindi films, with a dominating romantic narrative, is represented and how he flirts and interacts with the female protagonist. I will point to 1990s romantic films, mainly through literature on these, as a point of reference, in order to survey changes and continuities in the last 20-30 years within my topic. In my thesis, then, I will examine the following research questions:

• What defines the modern, romantic hero? o How has he changed from the 1990s? • In which manner does the hero pursue the heroine? o Does he pursue her despite her initial objections? • Which complications arise during courtships3? o Which role do the friends and families of the characters play in the forming of romantic relationships?

As I was writing this thesis during the outbreak of the Covid-19 virus, two of India’s most popular actors, and , passed away (due to non-virus-related

1 In the spirit of Mikhail Bakthin (1984) and Walter Benjamin (1936), who used works of literature to respectively capture the essence of the “aesthetics of the medieval carnival” and “the cultural milieu of nineteenth-century ” (Smith & Riley, 2009) 2 I will use the terms hero and protagonist interchangeably, despite the subtle differences between them. 3 In this text I use the term ‘courtship’ to describe the way the hero approaches the heroine with a romantic intention. While the traditional use of the term is usually applied for the courting that leads to marriage, I use the term in a modern context where the goal might be a romantic relationship, and not necessarily marriage. However, in all my selected films, marriage is in fact the goal of the hero when he pursues a girl. 1 diseases). Despite the severity of the virus outbreak in India (and worldwide) at this time, the death of these actors still headlined most of the online Indian newspapers and were among the most-read stories at the time. This indicates the strong connection the general public feel for actors, and with it, the importance of films in many peoples’ lives. Hindi cinema is amongst the largest film industries in the world (Mazumdar, 2007; Dudrah & Desai, 2008), consumed by millions of people daily (Virdi, 2003; Dudrah & Desai, 2008; Banerjee, 2017). Hindi film scholar Rachel Dwyer sees Hindi cinema as “the major source of India’s dreaming” (2014, p. 35) and as Hindi cinema is the primary consumed art form in India, it is a form that lucidly reflects the major populations’ fantasies and desires. The representations of men and the way men treat women in films may inspire real-life actions (Derné, 2000), as romance on the screen also shape the ideas of romance in viewers’ minds (Dwyer, 2014).

Many Hindi films assert men’s hegemonic use of violence or physical force towards women. This use of force may be mild, simply holding the heroine’s hand or touching her against her wishes (as in Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, (Chopra & Chopra, 1995)), or more violent, as in kidnapping and threating her (Dil, 1990; Badrinath Ki Dulhania, 2017) or slapping her (Kabir Singh, 2019). However, I will show in this thesis a growing trend of a milder protagonist, who often befriends the heroine and starts a romantic relationship after trust and respect has been established. In our post-#metoo-times, I find it worthwhile to examine how men, who are often the ones in power, are portrayed in Hindi films, rather than women. While women have been subject to much study in the past (for instance Gopalan, 1997; Virdi, 1999), the male protagonist as a gendered figure, has not.

Whereas films are not a mirror image of reality, Hindi films are said to reflect the society’s fantasies (Derné, 2000; Joshi, 2015) and many film theorists have found that these films have an important function and influence in people’s lives (Dickey, 1993; Derné, 2000; Dwyer, 2014). In a wider context, the discourse and language of love in films can inspire how love and romance reproduced in real life (Dwyer, 2014, p. 192). In a few short interviews with Hindi cinema consumers in Norway and England in 2019, I found that most of my interviewees found some inspiration from romantic Hindi films when it came to flirting and to shaping ideas of romance4. While Hindi films can be said to be representations of the public’s fantasies rather than reality itself, I also believe that life imitates art, as Oscar Wilde (1909 [1891]) famously said. As I will illustrate in chapter 2, reception studies on Hindi cinema

4 These short interviews took place in August and September 2019 in Oslo and London, and does not form a part of this thesis, which is rather based on film content. 2 show that young people take ideas from film and implement them in their own lives. This, I believe, underlines the importance of studying the messages that films communicate through, amongst other elements, their dialogues and narratives.

Literary theorist Mishra notes that while the 1970s were defined and dominated by -starring films such as Deewar (1975) and (1975), some of the most influential films of the 1990s were films starring and , namely (1989), Hum Aapke Hain Kaun (1994), Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (1995), (1997) and (1998) (Mishra, 2002, p. 146). What the defining films of the 2010s are remains to be seen, but judging by box office numbers Bahubali 2 (2017), Dangal (2016) and PK (2014) have been the highest grossers, while Sultan (2016) and Kabir Singh (2019) are amongst the most popular films with a driving, modern romantic narrative. Films of the latter genre are the focus in this thesis, and I will refer to films and literature about films of the 1990s for comparison.

Chapter Outline In chapter 1, I will present the methodology used to select and examine films. In the second chapter, I will present the secondary sources which gives a relevant background and gives a brief introduction to some of the most popular romantic films of the 1990s, which I will use for comparison to the 2010s films. In chapter 3, I present my empirical data, summaries of the eleven selected films with a focus on relevant details of the forming of the couple’s relationships as well a focus on the romantic hero. In the analytical part of this thesis, chapter 4, I will discuss common themes that surface in the selected eleven films, before I present my conclusions in the last chapter. In this part of this thesis, I will examine the way in which the romantic hero is presented, his physical body as well as his behaviour towards the heroine. I will look at how he courts or flirts with the heroine, whether he pursues her despite her initial objections and look at the complications which arise from objecting family members. Through the theoretical chapter and the discussion, I will compare these approaches to courtship to those of the 1990s, to trace changes and continuities.

3

1. Methodological Approach This qualitative study is based on an analysis of eleven methodologically selected Hindi films from the last decade (2010-2019) with a romantic story as its prominent narrative. I have chosen these popular romantic films based on a set of criteria that I will outline below. In describing these films in chapter 3, I will focus on the relevant narratives, dialogues and actions of the characters in the films and as such, read the films as texts. As I am not a student of film studies, I will not analyse the applied film techniques in the films. I will not analyse the mise-en-scènes, which includes visual and audible choices made by the directors, such as camera movements, scenography, lighting and editing. Rather, I will study the social and gendered aspects of the films’ narratives, an interdisciplinary approach which is common in South Asia studies.

Since the day I was first introduced to Hindi films in 2014, I have been fascinated by the romantic aspect in these films, which struck me as enjoyably different from the American and European films I was used to. As I gradually immersed myself in Hindi (as well as Tamil and Telugu) films since 2014, I realized that comparing these to American films made little sense, considering their vastly different ways of presenting stories and characters. Watching films is a matter of great personal interest, and while I would have loved to exclusively write about films that are personal favourites, this would be challenging to justify in a master thesis. This exercise in systematically choosing films for analysis has been a useful experience and will present the reader with an objective and in-depth discussion and a useful look into the present-day romantic approaches and practices in recent Hindi films. While I have methodologically and objectively selected the films for this study, as I will show shortly, in choosing the topic of my thesis and genre for analysis I have chosen something that personally greatly interests me. While I strive to remain objective in my analysis, it is unavoidable that thematic choices are guided by a personal bias.

Film selection and analytical approach

I have selected films for this study based on the following criteria:

• Having grossed more than 100 crores5 rupees in the box office in India.

5 One equals 10 000 000 4

• Having a user rating of 6.0 or higher in IMDb (Internet Movie Database) at the time of data collection. • Released between 2010 and 2019. • The dominant and driving narrative in the film is the love story. • Originally made in Hindi, not dubbed (such as Bahubali 2, the highest grossing Indian film of all time (, 2020)).6 • The film falls within the genres of rom-com, romantic drama or “masala”7. Historical and mythological films as well as biopics, action films and films focused on religion are excluded.

My selected films have been available through online streaming services such as Prime Video, and , making them easily accessible for this study. I have operationalized this study by approaching the content analysis of the films by viewing them several times, looking for different topics on each viewing. On the first viewing, I aim to understand the full story, take note of my first impression of the characters, and of what I feel is the gist of the story. On the second viewing I have looked at the actions and dialogues of the male protagonist with the female protagonist. I have then gone back several times to look at features such as violence, camera angles (which defines the gaze, which I will return to in the next chapter), the role of the family and friends, etc. Repeated and concentrated viewing is a highly time-consuming task, which, along with the brevity of my thesis, explains the limited number of films selected for this study.

I have chosen to select films based on both box office numbers as well as popular user rating on IMDb, as these two combined will give a good indication of which films are the most popular in our day and age. IMDb is an internet database where most information about millions of worldwide films are available to any user, and where users can rate films from 1- 10 stars. An average of the user ratings (stars) is presented next to the title of the film on each film’s individual page.8 Box office numbers can be counted in two different ways. One is as footfalls, the number of people buying tickets to see a film in the cinema, and the second as revenue, the total amount of money that comes in from ticket sales. Here, I have chosen to use

6 Kabir Singh is a Hindi remake of a Telugu film, , but is not dubbed. 7 The masala-genre mixes genres, mainly comedy, tragedy, action and romance, freely and has been the dominant film genre since the 1970s in India 8 By personal experience, many young people check the rating on IMDb before deciding to see a movie online.

5 the latter. The following films were selected for this study based on the mentioned criteria, ranked here by IMDb-rating (to the left) and by box office numbers (to the right).

Rated by IMDb-rating IMDb- Box office Rated by Box office numbers Box office (India) (retrieved 25/3) rating rating Top (retrieved 25/3) in rupees India Grossers All Time 1 Tanu Weds Manu 7.6 7 1 Sultan (2016) 4 141 400 000 Returns (2015) 2 Kabir Singh (2019) 7.1 11 2 Kabir Singh (2019) 3 253 700 000 3 Yeh Jawaani Hai 7.1 14 3 Chennai Express (2013) 2 781 300 000 Deewani (2013) 4 Dream Girl (2019) 7.1 24 4 Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani 2 367 400 000 (2013) 5 Sonu Ke Titu Ki 7.1 31 5 Tanu Weds Manu Returns 1 978 600 000 Sweety (2018) (2015) 6 Sultan (2016) 7.0 52 6 Dream Girl (2019) 1 635 800 000 7 2 States (2014) 6.9 54 7 Badrinath Ki Dulhania (2017) 1 585 700 000 8 Jab Tak Hai Jaan 6.7 61 8 Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram- 1 522 930 000 (2012) Leela (2013) 9 Goliyon Ki Raasleela 6.4 72 9 Jab Tak Hai Jaan (2012) 1 378 300 000 Ram-Leela (2013) 10 Badrinath Ki 6.2 73 10 2 States (2014) 1 377 100 000 Dulhania (2017) 11 Chennai Express 6.0 78 11 Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety (2018) 1 288 500 000 (2013) Table 1: Film selection with IMDb rating and Box Office figures. Data retrieved from “Internet Movie Database” (n.d., a-k)9, “Top Hits 2010-2019” (n.d.) and “Top India Grossers All Time” (n.d.).

Criteria for Film Selection As many, especially young, people now see films online rather than going to the cinema, I believe that box office numbers alone are not representative of revealing the most popular films of the past decade10. The box office numbers do not always appear to be representative of the most popular films, as for films with popular actors may attract audiences regardless of the films’ reviews. Films with superstars such as Shah Rukh Khan or Salman Khan might draw their huge, loyal fan bases to the cinema, producing great revenue for the film. It’s noteworthy to juxtapose the box office numbers to IMDb-ratings, where, for example, one can see that the 14th highest grossing Hindi film of all time (Chennai Express, 2014) has a low rating in IMDb, and is the least popular film out of my selected films based on IMDb-rating. The main reason for choosing films that have been rated 6.0 or over on IMDb, is mainly in order to limit the number of films, as this study is restricted in terms of space. This criterion

9 All individual references are found in the list of references. 10 This certainly proved relevant during the Covid19-oubreak, where cinema halls were closed. 6 poses a question about who the audience is, as it limits viewers to those who have internet access. As more and more people have access to internet in India, be it only on smartphones with small screens, films are widely available to the general public. This further emphasises that box office numbers are not as representative as they were in the time before the internet (Dwyer, 2014). A point of speculation is the collapse of dominant ‘Plato’s cave-like’ cinema experience of films, as we no longer see films exclusively in the cinema hall, but increasingly on our laptops and even smartphones. This alters the experience of the ‘dream chamber’ as it is known within film theory (Gopalan, 2002), and reimagines the way we experience films. This ‘distracted’ (in the spirit of Benjamin) way of watching films has come about as we watch films on our laptops during dinner, pausing and rewinding at will, stopping to discuss scenes with partners and friends11. While some of the reception studies that I refer to in chapter 2 is now somewhat outdated, as they exclusively refer to a cinema-going audience (rather than those who watch films at home), the content of their reflections is mostly still relevant today.

As I am most interested in how men approach and interact with women in premarital relationships on the screen, most of the selected films are about unmarried couples who are united towards the end of the film. There are a few exceptions to this in my film selection. In Tanu Weds Manu Returns (2015), the story revolves around about the separation and reunion of a married couple, which I have chosen to include as the film ends with their romantic re- union. In Sultan (2016), the couple is married, separates, but is reunited at the end of the film. In Dream Girl (2019), the couple is married around the middle of the film where their romantic story peaks, but this main love story is backed up by complications when several people have fallen in love with the protagonist.

When starting this project, I initially had other films in mind for comparison, personal favourites or films that I found interesting for analysis, but the selection of which I quickly realized would be problematic to defend academically. The conclusions produced would have been influenced by this selective approach. Therefore, a great deal of time has been spent systematically choosing and reviewing films for this thesis. Some of the films which I have

11 Gopalan quotes Timothy Corrigan who finds that “At both the operatic spectacles of the theatres and the home spectacles of the VCRs, audiences now watch movies according to a glance aesthetic rather than a gaze aesthetic: movies and spectators are indeed ‘closer’ than ever before (in Benjamin’s sense) but it is a closeness that encourages viewers to casually test and measure a film as part of a domestic or public environment rather than become part of a concentrated reading” (as quoted in Gopalan, 2002, p. 26) 7 wished to write about, but which do not meet with the criteria include: Raanjhana (2013), a popular film on IMDb, but which earned less than 100 in the box office, a film about the extreme lengths a man goes to, to get the girl he loves, who does not love him back. Unlike most of the films I have selected for discussion (except, arguably, Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety (2018), it has an unhappy ending. (2013) was an internationally very popular film with an unusual love story of a young housewife and a middle-aged man who fall in love without meeting. The film grossed more than 100 crores worldwide, but only a third of the income came from India. (2017) would have been interesting to look at as it shows a similar love story to that in Chennai Express (2013). Although the former is set in and showing more liberal types of romantic relationships, it still has a timeline that is not dissimilar to those in popular 1990s films, where the hero only shows up to get the girl on her wedding day. Jab Harry Met Sejal did well at the box office but scored less than 6.0 on IMDb. As mentioned earlier, I believe this imbalance between the box office numbers and IMDb-rating is explained by the enormous fan base of the most popular actors, which immediately draws crowds to the cinema.

Another important selection criterion was choosing films set in the modern day. This condition was important as I felt it would be less relevant to my research question to look at how film makers imagine historical or mythological love stories, but rather in looking at how they imagine modern love stories we might be able to say something about modern views on romance. Therefore, I chose not to include films such as (2018), Bajirao Mastaani (2015) and Barfi! (2012) which are all set in the past, be it the thirteenth century or the 1970s.

Dismissed Films Here I will briefly consider films that could have been relevant to analyse, but which are not included as they do not have both a 6 or higher rating in IMDb and accumulated more than 100 crores rupees in the box office. There are films that have grossed more or had higher ratings in IMDb than the films in my selection but in which the driving narrative is not a dominantly romantic one. These include Dangal (2016), the second highest grosser of all time in India which made almost 500 crores (4 952 500 000) rupees in the box office and a rating of 8.3 in IMDb; and (2019) with similar numbers. (2015) was one of the most popular films of all time in India and has a prominent love story, and so I considered using this film in the analysis. However, as the dominant story of the film is neighbourly love (between India and ) and compassion, the love story between the

8 hero and heroine is not the most prominent story. Some of the most popular films of the decade have been action films (like Tiger Zinda Hai (2017), (2013) and War (2019)) which I also exclude in this research. While these films may be interesting to look at when examining masculinity (see Gopalan, 2002), and although romantic relationships are often present in these films, romance is not typically the driving narrative.

Doubts and Hesitations In including Tanu Weds Manu Returns (2015) and Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela (2013), I was slightly uncertain whether they were relevant for this thesis or met with my chosen criteria. The former is a comedy which does not show the forming of a new romantic relationship like the others do, and the latter is based on a medieval story (Romeo and Juliet), although set in the modern day (subtly revealed by the characters’ use of smartphones) with a fantastical story and sets. While Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety has a prominent love story, it is not the protagonist’s love story, and nor do we really see the story from the couple’s point of view. I initially hesitated in choosing Sultan (2016), which is referred to as a sports film, but I found that the driving story in the film is a romantic story. I ultimately concluded that all these films met with my criteria and could contribute to an interesting discussion on modern love stories in films and relationships between men and women.

Research Challenges While not a huge personal concern while writing this thesis, the outbreak of Covid-19 in the spring of 2020 led to some challenges for my research. While I was fortunate to have access to all my chosen films via online streaming services, not all library sources were available in the time of writing. During my write-up period the libraries closed, and some of my planned secondary sources were difficult, if not impossible, to attain. While many journals and other sources were fortunately freely available online, several sources that I had intended to use were sadly unavailable during this time.

The severity of the Covid-19 outbreak briefly, but brutally, made me lose motivation for this thesis, as writing a thesis about such a seemingly trivial matter as films suddenly seemed highly inconsequential in the grand scheme of things. In chapter 2, I will explain why studying films is important, not only to ground this thesis in reality, but also to justify my choice of topic for the sake of my own conscience. Additionally, on a lighter note, watching

9 films have proved a relief in these times, at least for those fortunate enough to access them, as films provide us with a momentary escape from the worries of real life.

A Note on Terminology I have chosen to largely avoid the term in this thesis when referring to Hindi cinema. Bollywood is a term which was coined on the production of Hindi films since it expanded into a large industry in the 1990s (Dwyer, 2014) but is not favoured by all actors and film makers. One of the reasons for this is that the name’s association with Hollywood can be seen as Eurocentric, which is misleading, as Indian cinema has a long independent history (Dudrah & Desai, 2008). The name Bollywood might be useful in seeing its audience as an ‘imagined community’ (Anderson in Dwyer, 2014), however, as Hindi films may be studied as “a collective imagined text, as both art and culture and also as part of the everyday world of ordinary people” (Dwyer, 2014, p. 30). While I avoid the term Bollywood in this text, it can nevertheless be useful as a term which presents an immediately recognizable discourse in a larger context.

While I sometimes refer to ‘Indian culture’ or ‘Indian tradition’ in this text, I am aware of the difference between cinematic imaginations of the nation, and the vast myriad of tangible regional differences. Hindi cinema tends to favour North Indian Hindu traditions and appropriates these onto the whole nation.

Summary I have repeatedly watched the selected films to find common themes which could communicate aspects about romantic relationships and characteristics of the modern, romantic hero. As in Wittgenstein’s idea of ‘family likeness’ (Wittgenstein, 1953), I have found elements that are repeated in most of the films, but none that are common to all. For example, most of the films show the hero falling for the girl at first sight or couples that have love marriages (rather than arranged ones), but there are exceptions to both. I have found themes that run through most of the films, but which might not seem immediately relevant to the forming of the couple in the film, including advanced dance choreographies, narrative- changing consumption of alcohol and strong male friendships. I will only briefly touch upon these subjects.

10

In the following chapter, I will examine the existing analytical perspectives on Hindi cinema, which includes reception studies and representation of gender and romantic relationships; a brief look at portrayal of gender in films; and a review of some of the most popular romantic Hindi films of the 1990s. This will provide a framework which I will use to present my own empirical data in chapter 3.

11

2. Researching Hindi Films: Approaches to 1990s Films This chapter will be divided into three parts, in which I will show how relevant themes have been represented in past scholarship on Hindi films and in films of the 1990s. I will also briefly look at some general theories related to gender and romance. In the first part, I will look at how courtship has been presented; in the second part I will examine the representation of the romantic hero and in the third I will introduce reception studies on Hindi film. These parts will provide a backdrop which I will use in discussing films of the 2010s in chapter 4.

Love and Marriage

Hindi films have since its beginning been preoccupied with love, but earlier films have not always had a love story as its main narrative. Film scholar Jyotika Virdi notes that while a love story has usually been one of the sub-plots of popular Hindi cinema for decades, the 1990s was different in that the love story was now the main plot (2003, p. 179). The decade started off with the romantic blockbuster which clearly illustrates Virdi’s argument, Maine Pyar Kiya (Barjatya & Barjatya) (released 29th December 1989), one of the defining films of the 1990s. In this film, the couple has a so-called arranged love marriage, which I will explain shortly.

Love Marriages and Arranged Marriages Arranged marriage, where two families introduce a couple and arrange their marriage, is still the normative formation of a couple in many parts of India, especially outside the cities. Marriages are arranged within religious subgroups, class and caste. Love marriages (where the couple meet and form a relationship without the involvement of their families), although increasingly common, is still frowned upon in many places in India today, as they often happen across caste or religious boundaries. Marriages which are not sanctioned by the couple’s families may have violent and even fatal outcomes (Mody, 2008). Rachel Dwyer states that while the normative marriage form in India is typically an arranged marriage, most films celebrate ‘love marriages’, where the hero and heroine independently meet and fall in love before marriage (2014, p. 192). Anthropologist Perveez Mody finds that, during her fieldwork in in the 1990s, her interviewees felt that Hindi films, produced in Bombay, may “corrupt” the inhabitants in Bombay with the glamorous idea of a love marriage, while “amongst the Delhi public, […] love-marriages must be condemned as shameful and illegitimate” (2008, p. 44). This shows that even within an urban discourse, there are regional differences.

12

Despite the almost exclusive preference of love marriages in Hindi films, this neither reflects reality nor does it reflect most people’s desires (Mody, 2008). A study in the 1990s suggested that while most young urban people in the middle and upper classes had arranged marriages, unmarried people in the cities more frequently desired a love marriage than those in rural areas, but this was still limited to a very small percentage of people (Mody, 2008, p. 43). Sociologist Steve Derné found that many of the men he interviewed in the 1990s had negative feelings against women who choose to marry out of love, as these men thought that she would be less likely to be faithful (2000, p. 156). Even though many of the men he spoke to admitted to lusting after the bodies of the women on the screen, he makes a clear distinction between lust and love, finding that the men he spoke to differentiated between women suitable for marriage and women as desirable objects. This, taken together with Mody’s findings that most young people do not want love-marriages, indicate that the love marriages seen in films remain mostly a fantasy.

Love marriage remains, however, the main goal of romantic Hindi films. It is interesting to note that Dwyer finds that, “Hindi films are one of the best sources of ideas about romance and how it should be” (2014: 193). Some scholars (for instance, Derné, 2000) have noted that many people will find the love on screen an inspiration to improve their relationships to their partner (from an arranged marriage), rather than for unmarried people taking inspiration to have a love marriage.

Family is almost always an issue in Hindi films, where their primary role tends to be as an obstacle between the lovers. Hindi films often demonize the parents, who tend to object to their child’s choice of partner. Even after marriage, family can come in the way of love between husband and wife, because of the traditional hierarchical status of familial love over romantic love (Dwyer, 2000). Because Indian men may have strong connections to their families, “they often deemphasize love for their wives, which could tempt them away from their attachment to their parents” (Derné p. 96). With this perspective, one can see how Hindi films counter reality, but might be a positive influence in the romantic relationship between couples, as Derné further points out that “While cinematic presentations are counter to most men’s day-to-day understanding, filmgoing is nevertheless part of the process that helps some men come to value love.” (2000, p. 97). As such, films may assist in promoting love between a married couple, but not necessarily inspire young people to counter social norms and have love marriages. While I argue at the end of this chapter for the direct effects which films may have on its audience, films are by most people seen as entertainment rather than something

13 that has an educational value. This counters Benjamin’s idea of films’ emancipatory potential (Smith & Riley, 2009), as I will show later in this chapter.

There exists a compromise between love and arranged marriage. Uberoi refers to the 1990s hit film Maine Pyar Kiya’s protagonist Prem where she finds that there is a conflict “between the freedom to choose one’s own partner, and the need to conform to social expectations or to the force of a higher destiny. When asked by his sister-in-law what sort of marriage he want – an arranged or a ‘love’ marriage – Prem replies without hesitation: ‘an arranged love marriage’.” (Uberoi in Dudrah and Desai, p. 181). This form, an arranged love marriage, is a sort of compromise – the man will choose a girl of his own and then present her to his family, who will meet the girl’s parents and arrange their marriage, so that all parts are satisfied.

Force and Love While Hindi film might be seen escapist and removed from reality, they nevertheless help shape ideas and fantasies. Derné is worried about the influence that certain films may have on young men. His concern comes from the looming “rape threat” which he finds is always present in Hindi films (2000, p. 151). Derné finds that “Films seems to say […] that harassment and force are the way to a woman’s heart, and that women’s resistance is what excites men.” (p. 152). In the main part of this thesis I will discuss the fact that many recent films uphold the idea that when a woman refuses a man, ‘no’ is taken to mean ‘yes’. Although the presence of the rape threat seems to have partly lessened in films in recent years, the use or threat of force is still almost always present. Derné refers to ethnomusicologist Peter Manuel who notes how men may heckle women on the street with “suggestive film songs” 12 (2000, p. 156). Similarly, Osella and Osella find that young men are inspired by films, memorizing song lyrics and scenes, and that “groups of young men make a sport of verbally and physically harassing girls and women” in public spaces (2006, p. 101). This clearly shows a direct link between an aggressive masculinity promoted by films and reality.

While the 1990s romantic hero less often had to fight villains as was common in the 1970s, the inherent anger and forceful behaviour towards women, as was typical in Amitabh Bachchan’s films, remained. Film theorist Ravi Vasudevan finds that violent men typically dominate mainstream Hindi cinema (2010, p. 325) and Osella and Osella find that in both Western and in Indian film, aggression is part of the romancing narrative (2006, p. 101). The heroes in the 1990s continued the use of physical force on a woman which could lead to love.

12 I personally experienced this in Varanasi in 2017, and have heard similar reports from other women 14

Derné explains that while it is typically the villains in films who attempt rape, “there is often substantial force even in the consenting relationships of the hero and heroine. By presenting force as leading to legitimate love, films equate love and force.” (Derné, 2000, p. 152). Films such as the 1990 blockbuster Dil (Kumar & Thakeria) suggests that “a man’s violent harassment will make a woman love him, and men in film theatres sometimes act as if they believe that message.” (Derné, 2000, p. 156). In this film, the hero aggressively follows the irritated heroine around her school campus, as he is backed by a pack of men. Shortly after this scene, the heroine plays a trick back on the hero, falsely announcing that he tried to rape her. He violently carries her away and aggressively says that he could easily rape her if he wanted to but doesn’t. Following this, the heroine falls in love with him, which, as Derné points out, “seems to assert […] that it is the threat of force that prompts [the heroine’s] love” (2000, p. 153). A similar pattern is seen in Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (Chopra & Chopra, 1995), where, the protagonist constantly touches the heroine against her wishes, making her uncomfortable. After the heroine blacks out the night before after sharing a bottle of whiskey, the protagonist makes the heroine believe that they had sex. She is very upset, and when he tells her it was a joke, she childishly hits him and tries to get him to go away. Instead, he forcibly holds her head while threateningly tells her to listen to him. He tells her that, being a decent and proper Indian man who knows how important honour is to an Indian woman, he didn’t touch her. Upon learning this, she hugs him in relief and soon falls in love with him. Derné found that the men he interviewed enjoy films in which traditional gender roles are maintained, reinforcing male dominance and power (2002, p. 8). As I will show later, a similar sentiment, where force eventually leads to love, is also shown in Kabir Singh (2019) and Badrinath Ki Dulhania (2017).

The theme of appropriate clothing for women which may lead to unwanted male attention is discussed in Banaji’s Gender Discourse in (2002), where she reviews a scene in Raja Hindustani (Morani et.al., 1996) where the protagonist disapproves of the heroine’s short red dress. Banaji describes this scene as “what can be seen as either an elaborate set piece of moralizing or an invitation to take sides in a debate over a significant aspect of women’s autonomy: their right to dress as they please” (2002, p. 184). This discussion is a long-standing one but one that remains important. In Banaji’s fieldwork, she found that eight out of ten young men found that women who wore short, revealing clothes could put them at risk and make them targets of harassment (2002, p. 185). This discussion is

15 continued in Pink (2016), where statements like this are problematized in the connection to rape.

While strongly disagreeing with a Western notion that India is a ‘rape-culture’, one might speculate about the normalized presence of the rape threat in Hindi films. Antonio Gramsci posited that once an idea is naturalized as common sense within a culture, that idea reproduces itself and becomes a hegemonized norm or moral, which often subordinates groups of people (Smith & Riley, 2009). Thus, if the rape threat is presented as such a normalized issue in Hindi films as Derné would have it (2000), this could also reflect its real presence in the Indian society, and as something that subordinates women. Conversely, as I have argued earlier, films tend to reflect fantasies rather than real occurrences, so the rape threat or use of force could be contained within (men’s) fantasies. This is of course speculation, and outside the scope of this thesis. In this text, I use films to question the current status quo, as Gramsci would have it (Smith & Riley, 2009).

Development of the Romantic Hero

Men as normative people In this thesis, I address the role of the male romantic protagonist as a gendered character, rather than seeing him as a normalized person in a patriarchal hegemonic discourse. While women in films and in other fields have often been discussed in gender discourses, men have typically not been discussed as a gender, as men have until recently been considered the normative person (Beauvoir 1953; Brod & Kaufman, 1994). Rachel Dwyer is even hesitant to discuss women as goddesses within a mythological discourse, because “no one discusses gods to analyse Indian masculinity” (2000, p. 18).

In this study, the notion of gender is, amongst other things, visible in the representations of the social roles of men. I will here briefly look at how masculinity is represented in these romantic films, focusing on how masculinities are presented in men’s relationships to women. I will not attempt to approach the field of masculinity in any other sense than in the narrow way of seeing men in these contemporary films in relation to women. It's important to note that in this thesis, I have chosen to look at the role the hero plays in the forming of romantic relationships. I will not cover the role of the women in these films, as that would be an extensive task, and a theme that has already been covered widely (for instance, Chatterji 2013; Virdi, 2003; Uberoi, 1998) in the past, although this is of course not to say that further

16 study is not needed. While there has been a rise in so called woman-centred13 films in this century (for instance, Chandni Bar (2001), (2012), Queen (2013), Pink (2016)), Hindi films are dominantly hero-centred, giving much agency to the heroes and more passive roles to women.

In their ground-breaking work on masculinity, Harry Brod and Michael Kaufman place themselves within a feminist discourse and emphasizes the need to be careful when studying men and masculinities, asking “How does one really go about placing men and their institutions at the center of an analysis without replicating the patriarchal biases of previous studies of men?” (1994). In this thesis, then, I follow their feminist outlook, and place male figures at the centre of my discussion, while avoiding a patriarchal bias by referring to men as the normative discourse.

From Angry Young Man to the New Liberalised Hero As the Indian markets opened to international financing in the 1990s, Hindi cinema escalated together with the economy and went from the single screen cinema hall (available to the lower classes) to the multiplex (aimed at the middle and upper classes), and the growing industry soon became known as Bollywood. Amitabh Bachchan’s almost God-like status had started to fade and given way to younger male leads such as Shah Rukh Khan, , Salman Khan, and . Of films such as the Salman Khan-starring hit Hum Aapke Hain Kaun (Barjatya et.al., 1994), sociologist Patricia Uberoi found that these created an upswing in cinema audiences, like never before in Indian cinema history (2008, p. 172).

The films of the 1990s showed a new tendency where the hero was no longer suffering from memories of partition or traumas afflicted by the state, but rather from matters of the heart. Deshpande finds that one of the most significant changes in Hindi cinema in the 1990s from the 1970s, which was dominated by a hero who would “bash a truckful of goondas” (Shah Rukh Khan in Deshpande, 2005, p. 186), was the “new liberalised hero” who was less angry than the former (Deshpande, 2005, p. 187). The 1970s hero, a type of protagonist first personified by Amitabh Bachchan in films such as Deewar (Rai & Chopra, 1975) and Zanjeer (Mehra, 1973), was known as ‘the angry young man’. The protagonist in these films showed a tendency of ‘vigilante masculinity’ (Ganesh and Mahadevan, 2015, pp. 105-106). While the hero in the 1970s film was of a more “mature, contemplative type [who was] able to control his emotions”, the post-90s hero was “expressive, loquacious and often vulnerable, emoting

13 It’s ironic that these films are known as a separate discourse; we don’t refer to films with a male protagonist as male-centred films. 17 and weeping openly, the prime example being Shah Rukh Khan.” (Dwyer, 2014, p. 190). The heroes in these films were most often clearly of the higher classes, lived in mansions or modern apartments, sometimes abroad, and economic aspects were no longer a concern. Poverty was often the triggering factor in Amitabh Bachchan’s most popular roles in the 1970s where he showed a “stoic, sullen pain” (Gopinath, 2018, p. 308f). The new, emerging hero in the 90s was typically “Punjabi, rich and upper caste” (Deshpande, 2005, p. 194). This hero is often seen as a symbol of a newly liberalised, globalised India with a focus on consumerism. With a more comfortable lifestyle, unhindered by outwardly enemies, the film hero of the liberalised India in the 1990s could shift his focus to his love life. Here, he would have to perform heroic deeds to win the girl, rather than to achieve some higher goal.

While pre-1990s heroes were more concerned with outwardly issues, what we see in the post 1990s is an internalization of their problems. Gopinath finds that while earlier film heroes also displayed a range of emotions and empathy, “Shah Rukh Khan shifted the focus from anger (Amitabh Bachchan’s Angry Young Man) to vulnerability, sensitivity, and the ability to feel and endure pain.” (2018, p. 307), thus tilting towards characteristics that is stereotypically seen as feminine. Gopinath further finds that the new hero, who is typically an upper-class Hindu, appeals to the neoliberal Indian “ideal of romantic family man” (2018, p. 308). Dwyer explains this trend by considering that the younger generations has not known the hardships of those who had lived through the 1947 partition or the years immediately following it (2014). Conversely, rather, young people of the middle classes “have known little else other than success” (2014, p. 31). The hero of the 1990s, less considered with national tragedy and more with his own inner life, tended towards a softer masculinity, as in Shah Rukh Khan’s popular roles in films such as Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (1995) and Dil To Pagal Hai (Chopra & Chopra, 1997). Here, the hero must prove himself in some way to the girl or the girl’s parents.

In the beginning of the 2000s, Osella and Osella found that the male ideal was being “aggressively active, hypermasculine” and the female ideal was a girl who was “hyper- feminine, a passive victim” (Osella & Osella, 2006, p. 102). These gender expectations are now becoming less fixed.

Representations of Masculinity A few general gender expectations are useful to look at in this thesis. While the modern romantic hero in Hindi films may exhibit more fluid gender traits, as I will show while discussing the metrosexual hero later, they nevertheless tend to exhibit a few masculine

18 stereotypical traits. These include concepts such as being strong, hardness, bravery and muscularity. As can be expected, we find that the opposite connote femininity – weakness, softness, etc. (Reeser, 2010). While gender expectations differ depending on time and place, the masculine ideal described above for Indian men is very similar to what has been common in the West in recent times. This reflects the now commonly held belief that gender is socially constructed (de Beauvoir, 1953). While sociologist Rawyn Connell (1995) discusses several dominant types of masculinity (viz., hegemonic, subordinated, complicit and marginalized), the films in my study tend to point to one type, namely hegemonic masculinity, the dominant type of masculinity in a society. This hegemonic masculinity is reinforced in films by the male gaze.

The Controlling Male Gaze in Hindi Cinema The feminist film theorist Laura Mulvey describes gender relations in Hollywood films by defining the male spectator and the male protagonist’s gaze as the dominant one, while women are represented as spectacle, passive objects to be looked at. Mulvey saw men as the active bearer of the gaze, “the representative of power” (1975, p. 63) and argued that through filming techniques, men are positioned to look, and women positioned to be looked at (Mulvey, 1975). Derné empathically argues that in the gender discourse of films, oppression of women is maintained by maintaining patriarchy (2000). The male gaze in cinema allows the viewer’s gaze to not only look at the female character through the camera, but also through his gaze as he looks at her, as he projects himself on the screen. In this way, the “determining male gaze” clearly “projects its phantasy” (Mulvey, 1975, p. 62) onto the female object. As many theorists on Hindi film have shown, this narrative of the male gaze can most fittingly be applied to Hindi cinema as well (Mishra, 2002; Vasudevan 2010; Gopalan, 2002; Banaji, 2002). Basing his work heavily upon the idea of the male gaze, Derné agrees with and expands on Mulvey’s theory of the male gaze in Hindi cinema. He describes how the controlling gaze is not limited to the screen, but also defines the lives of real women in India. The patriarchal controlling gaze limits a woman’s opportunities and her chances of contributing in society, being thus always dependent on men (2000, p. 149).

Male viewers may also find that they are watching themselves, imagining themselves in the place of the star on the screen (in Derné, 2000, p. 162). Derné (2000) explains how male cinemagoers gaze at male bodies on the screen, allowing the body of the hero to be the centre of attention, rather than only being the one who casts a controlling gaze on the female body. This resonates with Mulvey who argues that Lacan’s theory of the mirror stage explains the

19 self-identification need in cinematic viewing (1975, pp. 60-61). One might speculate if this is an early indication of the lessening tight grip of male hegemonic agency, as presenting the male body as the object of the gaze might give more power to the female spectator.

The Metrosexual Male as the New Ideal Representations of bodies can reflect larger societal fantasies and imaginings. While heroes of earlier Hindi films could be chubbier and seemingly less concerned with personal grooming, the post-1990s hero is the opposite. Christine Brosius finds that “the beautiful and the fit body have moved to the centre stage in the feel-good ideology promoted in neo-liberal urban India” (as cited in Gehlawat, 2012, p. 65). Together with a rising middle class and a consumer culture comes the increasing focus on the well-groomed self, which is no longer restricted to women. Film and theatre scholar Ajay Gehlawat refers to the new hero of the 2010s as a reflection of this and calls him the metrosexual hero (2012).

Osella and Osella found at the end of the 1990s that although young men might aggressively pursue girls, heroism and idealized romance were their greatest aspirations (2006). These young men “appreciate and respect the culturally recognized figure of 'The Artist', envisaged as a romantic individual. To be artistic is admired as indicative of refined sensibilities and of specialness.” (Osella & Osella, 2006, p. 102). This suggests that the creative, romantic figure seen in films such as Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge and Maine Pyar Kiya of the 1990s was a replacement of the angry young man of the 1970s. This ‘creative young man’ as anthropologist Nitin Dechka (in Gehlawat, 2012) sees him, was by 2010 replaced by what Gehlawat calls the “metrosexual male protagonist”, one that is “largely defined by his physical fitness, grooming and cosmopolitanism” (2012, p. 61). While mainly linked with consumerism (through grooming and efforts for personal improvement), Gehlawat also sees metrosexuality as “a shift away from what may be labeled a hegemonic masculinity, one largely informed by characteristics such as violence and physical aggressiveness” (2015, p. 89). The metrosexual hero of the beginning of this century, then, have appropriated traits that have until recently been seen as effeminate – a hero whose body show an increased focus on grooming and who is more inward-looking than earlier.

Sculpted Bodies Meraj Ahmed Mubarki (2020) explores the ideal of the male body in Hindi films, noting that the physique of the male hero has been exposed to limited academic consideration. He finds that by the end of the 1990s, we saw the emergence of “The well chiselled, voluminous, well- endowed male body” (2020, p. 239). This “post-liberalization Hindi film hero” with his

20 sculpted physique is, according to Mubarki, informed by an American-inspired global ideal of masculinity as well as “the Hindutva need for machismo.” (2020, p. 247). The development of the voluminous male body and a hyper-masculine ideal on the screen can be seen to reflect the rise of the majoritarian politics of (Mubarki, 2020, p. 239). In India, there is a strong link between cinema and politics14. This, however, is beyond the scope of this thesis to examine, but relevant to point out as an explanation of this development.

The modern male body on screen, then, should adhere to certain ideals. Dwyer states that although the modern hero should have “a natural attractiveness based on charm and beauty”, this look is paradoxically “constructed, fashioned through exercise, surgical and cosmetic intervention, prosthetics, hair dye and wigs and a great deal of grooming” (2014, p. 187). This is interesting, considering that many of the male stars today, such as Shah Rukh Khan, Salman Khan and Akshay Kumar have been acting in films for the past two or three decades, but as Dwyer points out, is possible since they are so “well preserved” (2014, p. 187). Deshpande finds that while the physique of earlier heroes did not matter in making them stars, this seemed to change in the 1990s, where the male physique started receiving more attention (2005). This change is notable with Salman Khan (who, as Rachel Dwyer (2014) points out, must always appear shirtless in some point of his films), Akshay Kumar and (2005), and (famously in Kaho Na Pyar Hai (2000), where he reveals a painstakingly sculpted body), idealized for their bodies. This is undoubtably related to the growing presence of a female audience in the same decade.

Reception Studies

The Presence of Cinema in Real Life Cinema has an important function in shaping ideas and expectations in life. Films may influence us in small ways, inspiring clothing choices, or in larger ways, as in teaching us what to expect from love. Scholars working on Indian reception studies, like Sara Dickey (1993), Steve Derné (2000) and Filippo Osella & Caroline Osella (2006), have looked at the effects that films may have on its audience, asserting that films may be important in inspiring ideas of love in young people. The strong presence of films in many Indians’ lives, is illustrated in Dickey’s fieldwork amongst underprivileged city-dwellers in the state of Tamil

14 In my bachelor thesis, Hindu nationalism seen through film controversies (2018), I examined how identity representation in Hindi films, such as Padmaavat (2018), could stir up communal violence. 21

Nadu in 1990. Dickey found that more than 85% of the adults she interviewed went to the cinema several times a month (1993). Media and film scholar Shakuntala Banaji similarly argues that cinema is important even to those living below the poverty line, and that films are important in shaping ideas (2002, p. 180). Revealing the direct impact films may have on its audience, Osella & Osella says of Malayali15 movie fans that “Young men may repeat dialogue and copy hairstyles, follow fillum fashions and modify their walk” (2004, p. 256) and suggest that these fans take selective inspiration of manliness from their film heroes. Dickey has similarly found that young people in are greatly inspired by hair and dress styles from films (1993, p. 3).

Construction of romantic expectations and gender roles can start in childhood, with for instance the Disney films of previous generations (especially in the West) have grown up watching. Although representations of gender and romantic expectations in recent Disney films have changed, girls of past generations will have been indoctrinated with the ideal that a perfect prince will come riding on a white horse to save them from a difficult situation, after which they will live happily ever after. Cultural theorist Theodor Adorno was highly sceptical of such films as the unrealistic and unachievable commodified dreams created by them kept us eternally unhappy. Adorno posited that mass media manipulatively promotes capitalism, through “Messages about the need to conform, to consume, to work hard, and to achieve individually” (Smith & Riley, 2009, p. 43). However, despite Adornos dismissal of the public’s inability to be critical of the mass media which they consumed, reception studies of mass culture suggest the opposite (Smith & Riley, 2009, p. 43), exemplified earlier by Dernés fieldwork which showed that men differentiate between ideals on the screen and real-life desires.

While Adorno was highly cynical of what he saw as mass deception that emerged with the growing presence of mass media, another cultural theorist, Walter Benjamin, found that popular culture rather had emancipatory potential, through its opening up to creativity through consumerism (Banerjea, 2005, p. 165). According to Mishra, Benjamin experienced film as a form that “politicized art and drew attention to the social” (Mishra, 2002, p. 33). As such, one of cinema’s tasks is to point to social issues. What I discuss in this thesis is the issue of men’s relation to women as it is represented in films. Films do not mirror reality, but what makes looking at these filmic romantic relationships relevant, is how Foucauldian epistemes,

15 Although cinema (based in the southern state of Kerala) is smaller than other Indian cinemas, such as Hindi and Tamil, it is still amongst the five largest film industries in India, of which there are many. 22 temporally accepted truths about the culture we live in (Foucault, 1970), are manifested and reproduced through films.

Derné describes men’s filmgoing habits in North India in the late 1980s and early 1990s in his book Movies, Masculinity, and Modernity (2000). He found at the time that since the cinema audiences were predominantly male (although social films drew somewhat larger female audiences), films provided “a fertile arena for men’s construction of sexuality” (2000, p. 144). Derné claims that one of the most striking messages about sexuality in cinema is that “women exist for men’s pleasure.” (2000, p. 149). He compares the male-focused role of pornography in the USA to Indian cinema, finding that “popular films in India appear to be a privileged arena for the construction of sexuality” (2000, p. 143). The way that pornography typically addresses a male audience in the then, so has Hindi cinema until rather recently mainly addressed a male audience. This has changed recently, especially as films are now easily accessible even outside the cinema halls. As the audiences changed in the 1990s, so did the films. Women wanted more social dramas with a romantic narrative, unlike men who preferred action films (Derné, 2000) and these increased in the 1990s. Banaji reports that there was a growing middle-class female audience that have started appearing in the cinema halls during the same decade (2002, p. 192). While the increasing female viewership is interesting and no doubt relevant for looking at film content, this lies outside the scope of this thesis.

I will, however, briefly look at the role of the growing middle class. While films of the early 1990s “showed fantasies of rich lifestyles, […] the super-rich seen in contemporary films are now living out these dreams in India.” (Dwyer, 2014, p. 29). Hence, Hindi cinema no longer portrays the ‘slum’s eye view’ (Nandy as cited in Dwyer, 2014, p. 28) but are now rather focused on the middle and upper middle classes. The poor are rarely (realistically or otherwise) represented in modern films. Although Derné emphasizes the very real presence of films in young men’s lives, he points out that for those of a lower economic status, films can do no more than provide an imaginary wish fulfilment (2000, p. 103).

Speaking of the rise of the middle classes, Dwyer refers to Foucault’s significant historical study of sexuality and argues that the modern Western notion of sexuality is “the product of the nineteenth-century bourgeois subject” (Dwyer, 2000, p. 9). She argues, reminiscent of Adorno, that “Romance and consumption-leisure-pleasure have become integral to a middle- class lifestyle”, and as such, post-modern love has become commodified, assisted by mass media. (Dwyer, 2000, p. 13)

23

While not basing her work on reception studies, I find it suitable to quote Rachel Dwyer here, for a clear definition of why studying films is important: “Although there is a huge market in self-help books in India, film remains a guide to life and lifestyle, from what to wear and how to speak to how to fall in love and live a family life” (2014, p. 31). This reflects ideas from researchers working on reception studies and shows how important films may be in shaping ideas in its audience.

Summary In this chapter, I have pointed to relevant concepts and earlier literature on the topics I explore in this thesis. These topics include marriage on and off screen, the development of the male hero, as well as reception studies, which ground my study in reality and show the presence of films in people’s quotidian lives.

Having summarized what film studies scholars have said about masculinity and courtship in Hindi films of the 1990s, I will now turn to our present decade. What has changed and what remains pretty much the same? To begin my examination, I will first have to present in more detail the films I have selected for in-depth analysis.

24

3. Empirical findings: Film Summaries In this thesis I look at similarities in courtship practices and representations of the male protagonist in the most popular Hindi films released between 2010 and 2019 with a prominent love story, to see how the protagonist interacts and flirts with the heroine in these films. I will also look at how the modern romantic hero is presented and consider if the term ‘hero’ is no longer appropriate. I have chosen to focus on pre-marital love stories, as it is courtship and forming of relationships which I’m most interested in looking at.

I will first give short summaries of the stories of the eleven films I have chosen for analysis. As I showed in the first chapter, I have methodologically chosen films that have been the most popular romantic films of the 2010s with a dominant romantic and contemporary narrative. Rather than going through the films chronologically, I will present them with thematical transitions, indicating common themes, similarities and differences that I will discuss in the next chapter. I will start this chapter with looking at Kabir Singh, which shows the most violent (followed by Badrinath Ki Dulhania) and non-conformist protagonist of all my selected films. I will end this chapter with the film with one of the most diverging male protagonists from Kabir Singh, namely Dream Girl, in which the gentle hero displays a very different masculinity.

Kabir Singh (2019) In Kabir Singh (Khetani et al., 2019), the protagonist, Kabir (), is a topper in his medical college and is treated with great reverence and even fear by his fellow students, where the latter is helped by his tendency to be violent. When he sees Preeti () on her first day of college, he immediately falls in love with her and lays claims on her, warning all the other students to leave her alone. He even decides who she should be friends with, going into Preeti’s classroom and moving her to the first bench, and moving a chubby girl next to her. He announces that they will now be friends, because pretty girls are better off with ‘fat girls’ as friends, as they are more reliable than pretty girls are. The first time he speaks with her, her father tells him that he should take care of his daughter like a sister, which Kabir immediately refuses, but says that he can take care of her like a senior, saying jokingly that since he wouldn’t know how to behave like a brother, he may slap her if she doesn’t study. During their first conversation alone, he asks her about her first day, to which she gives quiet, short answers, before he suddenly kisses her cheek, making the onlooking college girls giggle. In their following courtship, studying together, Preeti is quiet and her

25 face emotionless, while Kabir drives her around on his motorbike, and moves her into his flat when she hurts her foot, taking decisions on her behalf.

Preeti is quiet throughout most of the film, and only says her first proper line an hour into the film, where she asks him (in English), “what do you like about me?”, to which he answers, “I like the way you breathe”. Their relationship lasts for a few years, until her family aggressively puts a stop to it after her father sees Kabir kissing Preeti on their terrace. Kabir is angry with Preeti and says that he curses her “to get married to your father’s choice”. When she clings to him and tells him to calm down and not leave her, she asks him,

Preeti: You think I can survive without You think I can survive without you? you?16 Kabir: कौन है तू? कℂपस मᴂ कौन जनता है तुझे? Who do you think you are? Who even दी है तू, that’s it. knows who you are in the campus? You areﴂह की बﴂकबीर रजधीर सस Kabir Rajdheer’s girl, that’s it.

You’re right. I’m nobody without you. हँ तेरे सबना। ﴂPreeti: सच कहा तूने। मℂ कोई नही Baby, please calm down. Baby, please calm down. (Kabir Singh, 2019, 01:22:30)

In my opinion, this dialogue clearly illustrates Kabir’s approach to women. Preeti is presented in the film as a passive object who is only animated when Kabir engages with her. Being a typical hero-centred film, Preeti is not featured in the film unless Kabir occupies himself with her, illustrating that she is, in fact, ‘nobody without him’. This moment is a turning point in the film - after this dialogue, he slaps her before leaving in anger.

Kabir starts drinking heavily and taking drugs at the same time Preeti’s marriage is arranged to a man of her father’s choice. Kabir starts works as a doctor, and even here he is feared and respected by co-workers, despite his now increasing drinking problem. After a lawsuit caused by his performing surgery while drunk and high on drugs, he is forced to leave his job, and thus also loses contact with his family, who are shook by his actions. However, after the death of his grandmother, he becomes sober and calms down. Eight months after their breakup, he one day sees Preeti again by chance, heavily pregnant.

16 Recent Hindi films often uses “Hinglish”, a mix of English and Hindi in dialogue. Therefore, some of the dialogues are left in their original form, in English. 26

Kabir tearfully tells Preeti that, “You know we can’t be happy without each other, I’ve come to take you, let’s go.” Preeti is understandably angry,

Preeti: अच्छा? तुमने कैसे decide कर सिया सक Is that so? How do you know whether I am ,हँ? वैसे भी तो वो कौन? unhappy or not? And, who are you to ask ﴂमℂ खुश नही anyway?

I’m nobody. I’m nobody. .हँ। I’m nobody ﴂKabir: मℂ कोई नही

‘I curse you you’ll get married to your Preeti: ‘I curse you you’ll get married to father’s choice’. That’s what you said to me your father’s choice’. यह कहा था न तूने मुझे that day, right? This is exactly what उस सदन? जो तुमने कहा वैसे हुआ है कबीर. happened, Kabir. (Kabir Singh, 2019, 02:38:05)

Here, she refers back to their previous conversation where he pointed out that she is nobody. She points out the powerful effects of his actions upon her life. By abandoning her and getting intoxicated, he left her to an unhappy faith. Nevertheless, the story has a happy ending for Kabir. Preeti tells him that she is expecting his child, and that her marriage had broken up after a few days. They get married and receive blessings from their families.

The film was controversial because of the way Kabir speaks to and treats women, and heated debates arose in the media about what this may teach young men about how to treat women (for instance, NDTV, 2019). In an early scene in the film, he meets up with a girl to have sex. Before she has taken her clothes off, she hears her fiancé at the door, and she sharply tells Kabir to leave. He is unbothered by the presence of her fiancé and picks up a knife and threatens her to remove her trousers, claiming that ‘he only needs a few minutes’. When the radio suddenly starts playing a romantic song, he looks down at the knife in his hand and gives up his attempt. He walks shirtless, showcasing his muscled chest, past the shocked fiancé who is standing outside. The fiancé is presented as a stark contrast to the muscled- bodied, confident Kabir. While singing childishly to his fiancé that she should ‘open the door, darling’17, he is presented as a weaker man, being chubbier, wears glasses and has his arm in a sling.

17 A reference from Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (1995) 27

The all-consuming and self-destructing love between a couple seen in Kabir Singh is what marks a transition to my next selected film, Goliyon Ki Raasleela.

Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela18 (2013) The love story inspired by Romeo and Juliet in Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela (Bhansali et al., 2013) has a similar intensity and destructiveness as Kabir Singh, but as in the play by Shakespeare, it does not have a happy ending. For a Hindi film it’s also unusual in that the heroine shows romantic agency to such a high degree and directly and immediately responds to the hero’s advances. Ram () and Leela () belong to two feuding gun-dealing families in a somewhat dystopian village in . They first meet during the celebration of , on which Ram and Leela have instant connection on first seeing each other. We can see their immediate, reciprocal attraction to each other. During Holi, they smile flirtingly to each other. Without many words being spoken, she silently invites him to play Holi by seductively smearing colour on her own cheek while holding his gaze19. He mirrors her action, and soon after points at the red colour in her hand and gestures for her to take the colour into her hair, indicating the symbol of a married woman. She stares at him with wide eyes and then kisses him on the mouth to his amazement. In the sequence that follows, completely unaware of his surroundings, his gaze is dreamingly fixed on her as she dances. This visible passion continues throughout the film. Soon after, Ram appears in her garden, and climbs up to her balcony on the invitation of Leela. While she checks herself in the mirror, he quickly lays down on her bed. While she asks him how he reached her bed so quickly, she jumps on the bed and lands between his outstretched legs and grabs him smilingly by the collar of his shirt. He points to his own chest and says that he would willingly take a bullet for her. She looks at his chest and says with a surprised face:

है! Hey! You have absolutely no hair on your ﴂLeela: हाय! तेरे तो सबिकुि ही बाि नही chest! Ram: हाय! तेरे भी! Hey! Neither do you!

There is a saying where we live that you Leela: हमारे यहाँ कहते हℂ की सजस मदद के सीन shouldn’t trust a man with a hairless chest चासहए ﴂपे बाि न हो उसको भरोसा नही

18 I will henceforth refer to this as Goliyon Ki Raasleela, and similar short forms of other long titles. 19 It’s interesting to see the intertextuality between films: in a brief scene in Tanu Weds Manu Returns, described later, Tanu goes to the cinema with Raja, where they watch this scene from Goliyon Ki Raasleela. As we see Leela put colour on her face, Tanu points to the screen and mouths “hot”. 28

Then don’t trust me, just marry me Ram: मत कर भरोसा, शादी कर िे डायरेक्ट! immediately! (Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela, 2013, 00:39:42)

This dialogue shows the strong sexual tension between them from the beginning of the film, shown by mutually flirtatious looks, dialogue, music and body movements. It also shows an easiness in how they interact with each other. The sense of danger in their relationship is always present, even when they are alone together for the first time after the mentioned scene. When he asks what she would do if their families object to their union, she says cheerfully says that she’ll convince them, as if this was no major obstacle. But when he asks what she would do if he’d ever leave her, she becomes serious and points a gun at him, saying that she would kill him. This illustrates clearly the depth of their love for one another. They run away together and try to escape their families but fail and eventually cause the feud between their families to deepen and escalate. On the night they escape and intend to get married, we see Ram standing shirtless in the moonlight, his chiselled body clearly an object of the viewer’s gaze. Meanwhile he watches Leela sensuously dance on the bed. Here, the male gaze remains the dominant one, even though the viewer and the female character’s focus may rest momentarily on the male body. He puts sindoor in her hair, indicating their marriage while we hear (and briefly see the source of) the diegetic sound of chanting in the background, implying the sanctity of marriage. When their night gets interrupted by his friends, he gets drunk and is unconscious of the fact that her family comes and takes her away. Soon after, there is an attempted group rape of Leela’s sister-in-law, as she is looking for Ram on Leela’s behalf. She is saved from the six men by a man who comes in and tells them that this is no way to take revenge. On her way out she angrily comments that there are no real men in their part of town, upon which a man rushes up to her and threatens her to show her his ‘manhood’. After several scenes of fighting between their families, at the end of the film Ram and Leela tearfully embrace and kill each other with their guns. While in this film, their families, in a sense, ‘wins’, as the couple do not get a happy ending. Although nearly having fatal ending as in Goliyon, the couple in Chennai Express gets their happy, romantic ending, despite the interventions by the heroine’s mafia-boss father.

Chennai Express (2013) While Kabir Singh and Goliyon Ki Raasleela are driven by intense and intimate love stories right from the beginning, the comedy Chennai Express (2013) shows a completely different and lighter love story and, in contrast to the two mentioned films, a very different, initially

29 less brave hero. In this film, the protagonist, Rahul (Shah Rukh Khan), slowly falls in love with the heroine, Meenamma (Deepika Padukone) in the latter part of the film. In one of many references in Chennai Express to Shah Rukh Khan’s popular films, such as Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge20 (1995), he meets Meenamma as she runs after a train, which he helps her board. When running after the train, the popular song Tujhe Dekha (‘having seen you’) from Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge plays in the background, and he smiles as he sees the beautiful Meenamma and reaches out his hand to help her board the train, as he did in this film.

Meenamma: Thanks’e21

Rahul: No, no, it’s okay. मℂने पहिे भी सकये हँ ऐसे No, no, it’s okay. I’ve done such things before

(Chennai Express, 2013, 00:12:55)

These first few words between them marks the lightness of style in the film while presenting Shah Rukh Khan as a familiar star (see for instance Richard Dyer, 1979; 1986 on the star text) and meanwhile hinting to his experience in romantic matters. His attraction to her is immediately visible, although the attraction seems to decrease as he is forced to help her try to escape from her father’s goons. These goons have been sent after her as she has run away from their village in the South India to get away from an arranged marriage. In a series of humorous events, he proves to be a coward while she is undaunted by danger. One night they have to share a bed, but Meena tries to warn Rahul about a childhood problem of hers. He makes fun of her and comments her problem of not being able to control herself sexually when sleeping on a bed next to him. He wakes up by her scarily talking in her sleep (in Tamil) and kicks him off the bed, making him tremble with fear. The next morning, as he sees her outside, dressed up in traditional clothing, he gazes at her while there is a slight romantic background music, their eyes meet, and they smile.

There are a few exceptions to Rahul’s cowardness in the second half of the film, showing that he develops. The first happens after they have reached a small village in which they are kept safe from her father’s goons, by telling the villagers that they are newlyweds and want to

20 In fact, in the last line of the film is Shah Rukh Khan’s voiceover as he states that dilwale dulhania le jayenge (‘the one with the heart will get the girl’) 21 The short vowel at the end of this word indicates her Tamil accent, which, together with her clothing and the flowers in her hair, clearly marks her as a South Indian 30 hide. The villagers give them a room, believing their story. In order to keep their story believable, they must participate in a religious ritual for newlyweds, in which he must carry her up three hundred steps to a temple. Rahul is the amongst the only men amongst several couple who manages to carry his partner up all the steps to the temple. To complete the ritual, he puts vermillion on her forehead, to which she hesitates, as this symbolizes being married. After this scene, there is a song sequence (Titli), where we can see Meena admiringly looking at Rahul, indicating that she has fallen in love, something he is unaware of. When Rahul gets angry with Meena for acting like his wife, he leaves the village. However, his conscience and sense of honour tells him to come back and save her. When her fiancé and the goons turn up in the village, the villagers defend Meena and Rahul, saying that they will not let anyone hurt their honour and traditions. This latter point is interesting, as they are defending a couple who supposedly have run away from their families after having a love marriage.

He later admits to her that he has discovered that “the best way to escape your problems is to face them”. He proves this when, at the end of the film, his personal growth as a tougher and more confident man is evident. In this last, long scene of the film, Rahul surprises Meena by going to her father’s village to pick a fight. He accuses her father of having no emotions towards his daughter, and poignantly stating that India has not come a long way since independence if this is how women are treated still today. She points at Meena and says that he will fight them all, because he loves her. Her eyes fill with tears of happiness and amazement. At the end of the fight, he receives her father’s blessing to marry his daughter.

Except in the few mentioned scenes, Rahul is exceptionally non-chivalrous and shows very little interest or care for Meena. Like some of the other films I will write about, here the heroine, Meena, falls deeply for Rahul before he falls for her, although he does seem to recognize her as a potential romantic interest before this. Their coming-together as a couple is subtler than the other films. When Rahul sets off to Rameshwaram (a Southern town which is seen as holy for some ) to immerse his grandfather’s ashes, she insists that she will come with him. She puts her hand on his cheek and asks if it’s okay that she comes with him. The scene breaks to the song Main Tu Kanyakumari, where they sing about how, despite their differences, being from the South and the North, their love has nevertheless brought them together.

While Chennai Express, like all my other selected films, shows the couple having a love marriage rather than an arranged one, Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety is here the only exception. The

31 film initially seems to show how an arranged marriage can be modern and romantic, but rather concludes that even an arranged marriage can go wrong.

Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety (2018) While the two latter films are about love marriages where the families oppose their unions, Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety (Garg et al., 2018) depicts an arranged marriage, which, unusually, does not have a romantic ending. Here, the romantic hero of the film (but not the main protagonist), the sensitive Titu ( Nijjar), chooses to keep his friendship with his best friend, the romantic protagonist Sonu () instead of getting married. By his own wish, Titu meets Sweety (Nushrat Bharucha) through an arranged, formal meeting between the potential groom and the bride’s families. They seem to have an instant connection, and they get engaged. The have a close relationship which becomes a physical one, despite Titu claiming that ‘he didn’t intend’ for it to be so. Sonu is suspicious of Sweety from the onset, believing that she is too perfect and therefore must be a gold-digger. This turns out to be true, as she herself admits to Sonu, who then spends most of the film trying to convince Titu to cancel the wedding. In the end, Sonu makes Titu choose between Sweety and him, where he chooses Titu. This unusual film, then, celebrates strong male friendship over romantic relationships. This strong friendship is also seen in Badrinath Ki Dulhania, although in this case, the protagonist will ‘have his cake and eat it too’: he gets the girl while keeping his close relationship to his best friend.

Badrinath Ki Dulhania (2017) Strong male friendships are seen in several films of the last decade. In Badrinath Ki Dulhania (Johar et al., 2017), the “bromance” between the hero and the best friend, Somdev (Sahil Vaid) is so close that we rarely see them apart. The uneducated but street-smart Badrinath () sees Vaidehi () for the first time in a wedding, where they dance together after having had a sharp exchange of words when Badri thinks that Vaidehi comes to interrupt a meeting where dowry is exchanged. The discussion of arranged marriage is continued throughout the film. Badri immediately fall for Vaidehi and asks his brother to help him persuade their father to arrange his marriage to her. His brother suggests rather that Badri should try to talk to Vaidehi first, as he feels she doesn’t seem like an ‘obedient’ type of girl, having realized that she is educated and smart. Badri’s view on women is made clear in the first part of the film where he says that he wants a wife just like his brother’s, one that can cook and bring lunch for him at work every day. Badri becomes obsessed with Vaidehi and outright announces that she will marry him the first time he approaches her, which she

32 laughingly refuses. One day he follows her on a bus and shows anger with her second proposal rejection. She mocks his lack of education and general knowledge and says clearly that a marriage should be between two equals. He ignores her rejections and says proudly that he would be willing to marry her even though she is only middle class (having earlier bragged about his father’s successful family business). After Vaidehi’s father puts pressure on her to get her older sister married, she reluctantly gets help from Badri and Somdev. They ask the sister, Kartika, to describe the man of her dreams so they can help her find a husband, which Somdev will try to draw on a whiteboard while she describes. At first, she starts to describe her dream man by saying what his personality should be like, by which Somdev shakes his head and asks how he can draw a man’s personality? Badri tells her to forget about such things but rather focus on what he should look like, implying that looks are more important than personality.

Kritika: िम्बा सफ़ेद सटीक चेहरा, घुँघरािे A long, fair-skinned handsome face, curly धे मज़बूत। और नन्ही कमर। hair, brown eyes, strong shoulders. And aﴂखे, कﴂबाि, भूरे आ slim waist. And he should come for me और वह घोड़ी पे आएगा मेरे िेने। while riding a horse.

Somdev’s drawing is a perfect depiction of the film star Hrithik Roshan, famous for his sculpted body, curly hair and fair skin.

Badri: तुमको हृसथक रोशन जैसे पसत चासहए? You want your husband to be like Hrithik

Kritika: सबिकुि वैसा! Roshan? Exactly like him!

(Badrinath Ki Dulhania, 2017, 00:36:10)

This is an unusual presentation of female agency and sexuality in Hindi films and can be juxtaposed to the common Hindi male protagonist’s exclusive focus on the heroine’s body rather than on her personality, which Badri is a good example of. Furthermore, it is an usually blunt description of the contemporary ideal male body.

Having fallen for her at first sight, Badri pursues Vaidehi despite her disinclination towards him and their conflicting personalities. Eventually she gives in, and hurriedly accepts to marry him. However, she runs away on the day of their wedding to take a job as an air hostess. Badri’s family is so angry with Vaidehi that they want her dead, which Badri is sent by his father to take care of. Badri kidnaps Vaidehi by throwing her in the boot of his car and

33 threatens her violently by half-choking her. Vaidehi later tells her colleague that the whole thing was her fault. After Badri realizes how smart and successful Vaidehi is, he treats her better and she starts to like him. Badri is a changed man, and in the end Vaidehi comes to him and tells him she loves him. As in Kabir Singh, this film shows the protagonist’s love/desire at first sight, and where he persistently pursues the girl. The protagonist’s sometimes violent actions towards the heroine are not problematized, but rather rewarded, as he ‘gets’ the girl in the end of the film. However, the heroine has some romantic agency in Badrinath, as the heroine of the next film. In Tanu Weds Manu Returns, in an upside-down take on the typical 1990s romantic narrative, the heroine, rather than the hero, turns up at the eleventh hour and pronounces her love for the hero, thus uniting the couple.

Tanu Weds Manu Returns (2015) In Tanu Weds Manu Returns (Lulla, Rai & Rai, 2015), we see Tanu (Kangana Ranaut) and Manu (Madhavan) as a married couple in the sequal to Tanu Weds Manu. In this first film, Tanu and Manu were introduced by their families to have an arranged marriage, but Tanu reveals that she has a boyfriend. However, in the end of the film she has fallen in love and marries Manu. In the sequel, they are re-introduced to the audience as a couple with deep marital problems, so much so that the spiteful Tanu gets Manu forcibly admitted to a mental asylum in the beginning of the film. They both become bitter and vengeful and eventually file for a divorce. One day the now middle-aged Manu sees a young girl, an athlete, Datto, who looks exactly like Tanu (played by the same actress) but who speaks and acts completely differently, being of a lower, rural class. He falls in love with her despite her boyish style and nature, being different from Tanu in every way, except their physical resemblance. Meanwhile Tanu meets her ex-fiancé, Raja (), who she had almost married in the first film, and starts going out with him. In a typical Hindi film style, chance has it that Raja is engaged to Datto. When Raja realizes that Manu is in love with Datto, he tells Tanu that either she or Datto must marry him, and that it doesn’t matter which one it is, implying that it’s their appearances he likes, ignoring their vastly different personalities. Tanu becomes jealous of Datto and wants Manu back, and crashes their wedding day, and drunkenly announcing her love for Manu. While Manu remains passive, Datto meets Tanu’s gaze as she is about to marry Manu, and stops the wedding, reuniting them.

2 States (2014) In 2 States (Johar, Nadiadwala & Varman 2014) the couple is also reunited at the end thanks to a third person, in this case the hero’s suddenly kind-hearted father. Here, we are presented

34 with a modern love story between two young people from affluent backgrounds but from two different parts of India. The quiet protagonist Krish () and the outgoing heroine Ananya (Alia Bhatt) meet while lining up for lunch at their college, and after a short exchange of words in the queue she sits down at his table, and then insisting they go out for lunch as she doesn’t like the food in the canteen. Ananya was a topper in economics in her college, and is initially insulted when Krish, an engineer, proposes to help her out with mathematics. He is insulted, on the other hand, when she tells him on their first meeting that she only wants to be friends. They become friends as they start studying together. She points out that he takes studying seriously, and it is hinted at that he is ignorant of the fact that she may have wanted a relationship from the start. He soon falls for her and tells her one day that they cannot be friends any longer because he is attracted to her. She kisses him and they start a physical, romantic relationship. One day he interrupts her during a job interview to ask her to marry him, which is presumably meant as a romantic gesture because he just can’t wait to ask her.

As in Chennai Express, she is from the South and he from the North, and their families do not like each other. The story is told to us while Krish is talking to a therapist, to whom he reveals that their break-up, caused by their disagreeing families, made him want to kill himself. Krish’s father, a drunkard who had been the one most opposed to the marriage and kept out of meetings, eventually realizes his son’s grief and reunites the couple and the families.

Sultan (2016) In Sultan (Chopra & Zafar, 2016), the protagonist (Salman Khan) by the same name has a similar temporary sad love story which eventually has a happy ending. Sultan is first introduced as a celebrated, extremely popular wrestler with extreme strength and a beefy, muscular body. We are told his story in flashbacks. Sultan begins his profession as a wrestler after he one day bumps into and immediately falls in love with Aarfa () who was herself an established wrestler with Olympic ambitions and initially has no interest in Sultan, until he takes up wrestling and does well. After a long courtship, where he must prove his worth to her, they marry, and she drops her plans of trying for an Olympic medal in wrestling. When she gets pregnant and asks him to stay home instead of competing in the World Championships, she tells him that he has become arrogant. While he wins a medal, she gives birth. Their child dies before he gets back, having needed a blood transfusion of a rare blood group that Sultan had, but of which there was no other donor. Aarfa tells Sultan that she never wants to see him again. Sultan stops wrestling and starts collecting money for a blood bank in his village. Some years later he is approached by someone who offers him a

35 substantial amount of money to take up wrestling again, which he accepts in order to fund the blood bank. After an intense wrestling match where he is nearly killed, Aarfa comes to see him, and they cry together, revealing that they still love each other.

As in Sultan, the couple in the next film is split by a tragic accident. However, while the main reason for dividing the couple in Sultan was based on pride, in Jab Tak Hai Jaan, it is religion that takes the blame, although similarly, love wins in the end.

Jab Tak Hai Jaan (2012) Another complicated and non-linear love story is that of the London-based Samar and Meera in Jab Tak Hai Jaan (Chopra & Chopra, 2012). It is love at first sight for Samar (Shah Rukh Khan) when he sees Meera (), and she eventually falls for him too despite being engaged to an Englishman. There is a clear class difference between them, as Samar does odd jobs around the city, working hand to mouth, while Meera is a rich and successful businesswoman. One day he invites her to a party, where she dresses up daringly, with a short skirt and exposed midriff. When she finds him in the crowd, he starts a role-playing game, introducing himself as Raj, and she as Tina. When he asks if she is Italian, she says no, she is Indian.

िगता। You don’t seem the least bit Indian ﴂSamar: ज़रा भी देसी नही Meera: तुम पुरे देसी िगते हो। You seem completely Indian. You don’t like Indian men? Samar: You don’t like desi men? They are very boring. I like a bit of… ...ग होते हℂ। I like a bit ofﴂMeera: बहुत बॉरर danger in a man. danger in a man. (Jab Tak Hai Jaan, 2012, 00:35:09)

He proceeds to say that all the men at the venue are desiring her, and that she can pick and choose among these men. She replies, while standing close to him, that she can’t see anyone who is equal to her and who could steal her heart. When he turns to walk away, she asks if he doesn’t like her. He says that he does, but that she seems to be looking for something else at that moment. However, he says confidently that she will come back to find him, as there is no one else there that fits her description. After they dance together in a sensual dance sequence (Ishq Shava) and they’re alone on the tube station, he admits that he has fallen in love with her, having seen her ‘bad ass’ personality that was hidden behind her polished appearance. When her train comes, he asks her if she will slap him if he kisses her. He slowly walks up to

36 her, takes one arm around her waist and one hand in her hair, kisses her and walks away after smiling and joyfully commenting that she did not slap him.

The next time they meet she tells him that she will marry her fiancé because that’s what her father wants. However, after he helps her reunite with her estranged mother, Meera sees how happy her mother is with her current husband and realizes that she loves Samar. They start a relationship, but after a motorcycle accident, Meera prays to God that if he keeps Samar safe and alive, she promises to never meet him again. Samar recovers and Meera tells him that she will marry the Englishman. He then joins the , daring God to keep him alive while he diffuses bombs. Akira, a young journalist (Alia Bhatt) who falls in love with Samar while making a story on him, eventually reunites Samar and Meera after he has another road accident in London. After Samar diffuses his last bomb in Kashmir, he asks her to marry him. Thus, we see another story where love marriage is preferred over arranged marriage, and a hero which does not make active choices in the end of the film to obtain the girl, but one in which the heroine shows agency and reunites the couple. In Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani, we see an opposite tendency – the hero remains romantically passive towards the heroine for most of the film, as in Chennai Express, but as he matures and gradually realizes his true feelings for the heroine, he insistently but lovingly pursues her at the end of the film.

Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani (2013) In Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani (Johar, Johar & Mukerji, 2013) the heroine falls for the hero without her love being reciprocated until the end of the film. Naina (Deepika Padukone) is a topper in her college and spontaneously decides to go on a trek. Kabir () is introduced as a stubborn, adventurous, and sometimes unchivalrous22, young man. Naina meets Kabir at the train station and they have an instant connection. Kabir is presented as a flirtatious, and somewhat immature young man, working as a journalist. Naina feels insecure in the group they’re travelling with as she is less adventurous than Kabir and the others, who have had relationships, gone to parties and seen more of the world than she has. One day as they are going up a mountain, Kabir tells Naina that girls like her are made for love, not for flirting, but that he finds that the excitement of flirting keeps him going. They become close, but just as she is about to tell him she loves her, he announces that he’s going to America to study. When they meet again some years later at their friends’ wedding (which covers the second half of the film), they find that they want different things from life and decide it’s best to not start a relationship. This is a very unusual event in Hindi films, where the male and

22 Except when he helps Naina board the train, reminiscent of Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (1995). 37 female protagonists are clearly attracted to one another, but where they have a mature conversation about their different views and goals in life. In addition, they learn things from each other, she learns to let go and have fun, and he learns to slow down and enjoy the smaller things in life. When Kabir realizes he loves Naina, and she has told him that she is in love with him, he kisses her and tells her he loves her. She reciprocates his feelings but tells him that love is not enough. She describes how she sees their future together, and how it would not work out. After some self-reflection, Kabir realizes that he is not as excited about travelling as he was before. He remembers his late father telling him to live his life exactly how he wants to live. When he goes back to his parents’ house, his stepmother tells him how proud his father was of him, and that he should follow his dreams and listen to his heart. This marks another unusual twist in Hindi films – progressive, supportive parents. On New Year’s Eve, Kabir goes to Naina’s house and kisses her as she opens her door. He asks Naina to marry him, but when she tells him that marriage is serious and that she thinks he can’t take it, he says that he can’t live without her. He says that he still wants the same things in life, such as travel, but now he wants to do these things together with her. In saying this he convinces her, she hugs him, and the viewer assumes that she accepts his marriage proposal.

In Yeh Jawaani then, we see a fun-loving, rootless protagonist develop into a contemplative, romantic hero. As we saw in Sultan, this protagonist considers his previous actions and strives to treat the heroine in a more considerate way. The protagonist in the last film of this analysis strives for openness and a loving relationship to his wife, who accepts him for who he is. Although somewhat more briefly than in Yeh Jawaani, Dream Girl shows the hero and heroine becoming friends before getting married.

Dream Girl (2019) In the comedy Dream Girl (Kapoor, Kapoor & Shaandilyaa, 2019) the hero, Karamveer (), plays Hindu goddesses in religious plays in his hometown and gets a job as a call girl because of his skill at imitating a woman’s voice. Meanwhile he meets and befriends Mahi (Nushrat Bharucha), who soon becomes his wife. Their love story is a simple one, while complications arise when the men in town, including Karam’s own father, falls in love with “Pooja”, the girl that Karam pretends to be in the call centre. Most of the men in this film are being ridiculed as different stereotypes. Karam is the only sensible one despite his job. His friend Smiley is portrayed as a simple, alcohol-selling Sikh, the policeman is a drunkard and a poet who cannot pronounce Urdu properly, Karam’s father is a religious old man who tries to look young for Pooja and changes his religion easily for her, Mahinder,

38

Mahi’s brother, is a simpleton who has no experience with women. Chandu is a short, childish but pretending to be tough, guy who looks like Justin Bieber, and has a gang. The film is a social commentary on loneliness in a digital world.

Karam first sees the heroine Mahi as she is angry for not being allowed to come to her grandfather’s funeral. He stares at her admiringly and supports her as she argues that in their town, women were always before men, like Radha is mentioned before Krishna, and Sita before Ram. After this first meeting Karam tells his father that he wants to marry her. On their second meeting he tells her that he wants to marry her (specifically that he wants her to live with him). Rather than immediately refusing, she says that they should get to know each other first, and they get married after a song sequence where we see them dating.

Karam, as is typical of Ayushman Khurrana’s films, shows a so-called softer masculinity which is not aggressive or violent, although he may sometimes take on a traditional approach to women23.

Summary In this chapter I have summarized the selected films with respect to masculinity and courtship, in which some common themes have begun to surface. However, the most striking discovery here seems to rather be the diversity of results, and no one common theme is seen throughout. The protagonists are typically upper middle class, mostly Hindu men. Their wishes and desires centre around romantic love rather than being concerned with societal issues. In Badrinath Ki Dulhania, Chennai Express and Sultan, the male protagonists start out as being idle or insignificant (in the eyes of the heroines) or afraid of confrontation. In the course of the film however, they slowly improve, either their personality (Badrinath Ki Dulhania), their status (Sultan) or their courage (Chennai Express). Thus, we see an increased inward-looking strive for change, which marks a change from the 1990s.

I have shown how the hero typically pursues the heroine, although in some films this is a less important issue: In Sonu Ke Titu, the couple have an arranged marriage; in Chennai Express and 2 States the hero makes no direct, serious romantic advances towards the heroine; and in Goliyon the heroine is rather the one who makes a bold move for the hero. In the other selected films, however, the hero is attracted to the heroine at first sight and makes direct

23 In discussing masculinity, there are a few other interesting films starring Khurrana which are worth mentioning. (2017) considers erectile dysfunction; (2012) takes up the topic of ; Bala (2019) concerns the shame of balding for young men; and most recently, Shubh Mangal Zyada Saavdhan (2020) presents the stigma of homosexuality in contemporary India. 39 approaches to woo her. Traditional gender roles are also typically maintained in these films. In Kabir Singh, 2 States and Jab Tak Hai Jaan there are comments from the hero about the clothing choices of the heroine, suggesting that men feel some responsibility in women’s modesty. The family remains, as in throughout Hindi cinema history, the main obstacle of the getting-together of the couple in most of these films, such as in 2 States, Kabir Singh and Goliyon Ki Raasleela. However, in Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewaani, the protagonists’ family, although not very important for the narrative of the film, is unusually supportive.

The romantic hero that we typically found in the romantic hit films of the 1990s, such as Maine Pyar Kiya, Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge and Dil, has changed, and rarely performs a ‘heroic’ gesture at the end of the film to seal the fate of the couple’s relationship. The couple is often saved by a random action performed by a third person or fortunate turn of events.

In the following chapter I will go through the key features that the selected films have in common in connection with courtship and with the forming of the couples. I will then look briefly at other commonalities in these films, such as the physical characteristics of the modern hero, male friendships and the presence of violence, while comparing these features to the films of the 1990s.

40

4. Changing Romantic Heroes in the 2010s

Having introduced the selected films in the last chapter, here I will present an analytical approach to the content of these films, to outline the most prominent common features of the heroes and their romantic relationships. As I will show, it is typically the hero who first approaches and flirts with the heroine, showing a continuation of a dominant male agency. In most of these films, the hero (and often the heroine) fall in love with or is attracted to the other at first sight, indicated by extradiegetic music, slow motion filming and the focus on the protagonists’ gazes, facial expressions and bodily movements. The lovers are often hindered by their families, but sometimes assisted by the hero’s best friend. While the romantic advances of the hero are the focus in this thesis, it is also necessary to examine the romantic hero himself in order to understand what may motivate him. Lastly, I want to touch upon the sensitive subject of the rape threat in Hindi films. I find that this latter part is strongly connected to an oft-repeated notion that ‘no means yes’ in Hindi films.

Contemporary Courtship

The typical romantic narrative of 1990s films often followed a similar pattern: the hero falls for the girl, the girl resists, the hero pursues her until she falls for him; and they have a ‘love marriage’ or even an ‘arranged love marriage’24. Oftentimes the hero comes and “rescues” the girl as she is about to have an arranged marriage to a man she doesn’t like. But is this still the case? The complexities of courtships in Hindi films seem to have increased in the last decade or so, and the love stories are often less linear. The films’ climaxes remain the same, however, as ten out my selected eleven films end with the couple having (or indicating a promise of) a love marriage. The only exception is Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety (2018) which initially seems to show how an arranged marriage can be modern and romantic but concludes with the couple breaking before marriage. I earlier found that Steve Derné (2000) pointed out that many men did not think that women who had love marriages (on film) seemed reliable. Paradoxically, Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety is the only film which shows a woman who cannot be trusted, despite coming from a respected, rich family who arranges her marriage.

In this section, I will look at whether and how the hero pursues the heroine in recent films. Rachel Dwyer finds that the forming of the romantic couple in Hindi films “highlights gender

24 The mentioned typical love story is the main storyline in some of Shah Rukh Khan’s most popular films in the 1990s, like Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, Yes Boss (1997) and Dil Se (1998), but it was far from always the storyline, as seen in Kuch Kuch Hota Hai (1998) and Dil To Pagal Hai (1997). 41 roles, in particular male and female ideals as represented by the lovers, as well as setting a style of romantic behaviour.” (2014, p. 187). Is the hero always the active pursuer, and is the heroine always initially inclined to not accept the hero’s romantic advances, as has been common in earlier films and which reflects traditional gender roles? Is the contemporary protagonist always represented as a traditional hero, a savior, who performs a heroic deed at the end of the film?

Varying Contemporary Courtship I first saw Kabir Singh (2019) a few months after its release, after being reluctant to see it for a long time due to the unappealing critiques about the negative way the hero treats women in the film. After seeing it, a question came to mind. Is Kabir Singh representative of how men treat women in newer films? Kabir Singh became so popular that, even within a year of its release, it has become one of the highest grossing Hindi films of all time (Box Office India, 2020). In this film, after his first glimpse of the heroine, the hero rather possessively announces to the college that she belongs to him and continues to treat her as his property. Although the protagonist in this film must be called an anti-hero – he drinks heavily, takes drugs and is constantly violent and bad-mannered to most people around him - the film has become very popular, mostly because of the passionate love story. In the rather different Dream Girl, which released almost simultaneously as Kabir Singh, we see a hero who problematizes traditional gender roles, as he portrays a stage actor who often takes the role of goddess Sita and who works in a call centre under the name of Pooja. In 2 States, we see an insecure protagonist who is approached by a confident, tough girl. In Yeh Jawaani, a relationship forms after a friendship develops and the couple has an unusually reflected discussion about their compatibility. While Kabir Singh has been immensely popular, this film marks an exception in how men treat women in modern films. As the variety in how men treat women in the films in this thesis have shown, I find that this approach is not defining for the decade.

Nevertheless, is the combination of using force, however mild, and love, such as is presented in Kabir Singh and Badrinath Ki Dulhania, a hegemonic discourse in Hindi film? In the following pages, I will look at what makes the couple come together, in which force sometimes plays a part. What is typical of most of these films is that there is a physical attraction on first sight, most often from the male protagonist’s side.

Desire at First Sight The most striking common feature in my selected films is that they often show ‘love at first

42 sight’ as the hero first sees the heroine. While ‘love at first sight’ is a standard phrase to use for the instant connection between a couple in films, I would argue that rather than this being necessarily love, it is more appropriate to call it desire at first sight. I would argue that it is the latter because the hero bases his first impression solely on the physical appearance of the heroine. The heroes in Jab Tak Hai Jaan, Sultan, Badrinath Ki Dulhania, Kabir Singh, Goliyon Ki Raasleela and Dream Girl are expressive in their desire for the heroine from the beginning of the film and do not hesitate to make their feelings clear to the heroines. While most of the heroines in my selected films reciprocate the feelings of the hero only after they have got to know each other, the hero bases his first impressions on the physical appearance of the heroine. In an unusual twist, Tanu Weds Manu Returns makes a point of the fact that physical attraction is not all-important, while Kabir Singh seems to say that immediate physical attraction is, in fact, the deciding factor in wanting to start a romantic relationship. In a similar fashion, Badrinath is smitten by Vaidehi after first meeting her, staring intensely at her while she speaks to him, as a romantic melody sounds in the background. However, it can be argued that he only falls for her after having heard her speak. This, I believe, makes a significant difference, as his admiration is not only based on her appearance. However, as he later ignores all her personal characteristics, I believe that appearances matter more in this case too. In the rather extreme case of Kabir Singh, the protagonist falls head over heels in love with Preeti at first sight, before having spoken to her or know anything about her. Kabir Singh, rather worryingly, also gives the impression that women should be passive receivers of the man’s love, as she remains quiet throughout the film. In Goliyon Ki Raasleela, there is a similar immediate attraction, but here it is visible mutual attraction. The hero insistently pursues the heroine, blindly in love, but unlike Kabir Singh, we see the heroine being immediately and passionately reciprocally in love with the hero. In earlier films, the norm seemed to be love at first sight when the hero sees the heroine. In many of the films I’ve looked at, this is still the case (Dream Girl, Kabir Singh, Badrinath Ki Dulhania, Jab Tak Hai Jaan), but it now appears increasingly common that the girl may fall for the hero first (Chennai Express) and may even make the first move (Goliyon).

Considering my selected films, the aggressive and dominating style of Kabir Singh marks an exception in how he approaches and treats women. While the notion that “no means yes” still seems relevant today, the female characters show slightly more agency that what was common in the 1990s, and in over half of my selected films they immediately reciprocate the feelings of the hero or even make the first move. However, considering that this pattern,

43 where the heroine initially dismisses the hero, but the hero’s persuasion wins her over, continues today, it is worth examining further.

No means... Yes? In the recent film Shubh Zyada Mangal Saavdhan (Rai & Kewalya, 2020)25, a gay couple tries to convince their parents of accepting their relationship. When a girl suddenly suggests she can marry the protagonist, in order to please his traditional parents, she rushes him for an answer. He shakes his head and refuses her proposal, to which she happily takes as a ‘yes’. She explains that ‘no’ means ‘yes’, because every time a girl says ‘no’ to a boy, it’s understood as a ‘yes’. In this comedy, gender roles are suddenly reversed, and hints to the absurdity of this pattern.

The films of the 1990s and earlier often had a pattern of initial hostility or dislike from the heroine’s side, and a hero who would often spend the first part of the movie trying, successfully, to change her mind about him. As we see in Kabir Singh, Sultan, Goliyon Ki Raasleela and Badrinath Ki Dulhania, “the emotional hero may not have any objective assessment of his own behaviour, being focused only on his goal, his passion being strong enough to blind him to rejection” (Dwyer, 2014, p. 190), which often means that the hero outrightly stalks the heroine, despite her disapproval.

Hindi film scholars have noted the initial hostility between the couple before they form a relationship in Hindi films (Dwyer, 2014; Osella & Osella, 2006). In Badrinath Ki Dulhania and Sultan, the hero pursues an initially very dismissive heroine, who only reciprocates the hero’s feelings after his relentless persuasion and personal development. The heroine in Sultan is not immediately impressed by Sultan, as he knocks her off her bike on their first meeting and follows her against her will during a dance sequence on their second. In the dance sequence, he follows her while she stares at him angrily, to which he ‘sings’ (lip-syncs) that he likes her face when it’s red with anger. This communicates he likes that the girl turns him down, rather than driving him away. I find that this represents the traditional Indian (certainly Hindu and Muslim) ideal of female modesty (Derné, 2000), in which shyness and dismissiveness towards a strange man’s advances towards her is seen as a virtue.

25 Unfortunately, this film is too recent and not popular (based on both IMDb-rating and Box Office numbers) enough to be a part of the main body of this text, but this excerpt is highly appropriate. 44

In the mentioned films, as well as partly in Tanu Weds Manu Returns, the hero rather obsessively follows the girl. Hindi cinema fans26 often indicate that this approach can be romantic, as they find that the relentless and uncompromising affection which the heroes display, shows a deep commitment and passionate love for the heroine. However, if this affection for the heroine is unreciprocated and even met with hostility, it can be associated with rape.

Derné finds that the concept of rape or rape threat is always present and is often a vital part of the story in Hindi films (2000, p. 151). He argues that there is a strong connection with romantic relationships and the use of force, and that while (attempted) rape is usually performed by the villains, “there is often substantial force even in the consenting relationships of the hero and heroine.” (p. 152). In Kabir Singh, Kabir is portrayed as a highly sexualized, Don Juan-character27, as well as violent, man who uses unquestioned force to get what he wants. Films like Kabir Singh has been criticized in the media, because viewers learn that “sexuality involves men using violence to force women into a sexuality that exists solely for men’s pleasure.” (Derné, 2000, p. 164). Cultural theorist Stuart Hall claimed that films and media promote ideologies by creating false representations of reality. In doing so, issues in film are naturalized rather than problematized (Smith & Riley, 2009, p. 147), which is the case in Kabir Singh.

As mentioned earlier, the hero may claim that not raping or physically abusing the heroine is a virtue, often in the connection of being a virtuous Indian man. When Badri in Badrinath Ki Dulhania tries to convince Vaidehi that he is a good man, one of his arguments is that he has never misbehaved with her or tried to hurt her. Rather than focusing on the positive qualities he possesses; it is interesting that Badri points out his absence of abuse towards her as a virtue. This seems to manifest a repeated notion that male sexuality is an innate, overpowering characteristic, which men must constantly restrain (Herz & Johansson, 2011, p. 28; 30), a theme which also surfaces when the hero consumes alcohol, which I will return to later.

26 This is based on personal communications with Hindi cinema fans from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, in Oslo in 2019. 27 Kabir Singh fits in well with Foucault’s description on Don Juan: “Underneath the great violator of the rules of marriage – stealer of wives, seducer of virgins, the shame of families, and an insult to husbands and fathers – another personage can be glimpsed: the individual driven, in spite of himself, by the somber madness of sex” (1978, p. 39) 45

I believe that the model of ‘no means yes’ points to expectations of traditional female modesty where a decent girl is expected to be shy and unresponsive to men’s approaches. This further reflects the role of the family as the deciding agent, rather than the individuals (especially the female) of the potential couple themselves. On a serious note, then, it is concerning if young men are inspired by this model of ‘no means yes’ in real life, as discussed in chapter 2.28

The Romantic Hero of the 2010s How has the current romantic hero changed from the 1990s? The contemporary romantic hero is a man of the middle or upper classes, who may have a culturally defined ‘insignificant’ job (i.e. not professions considered to be of higher status, such as doctor, lawyer or engineer) but rather as for example a car workshop assistant or journalist, however, a job which often places him in a cosmopolitan setting. This marks a transition from the earlier Nehruvian hero, who was concerned with building the nation (Mubarki, 2020, p. 234). While Dwyer finds that Hindi film’s heroines have typically been “interested mostly in their private world of romance and family” (2014, p. 191), the modern hero in romantic films now share this interest. Instead of setting out to save the nation, their primary life goal seems to be romantic love, where factors such as career is only a minor issue.

Of all the films I’ve analysed, the protagonist in 2 States is the one who is furthest away from Kabir Singh, being Kabir’s direct opposite in many ways. This protagonist, Krish, lacks confidence and even admits to being awkward when talking to girls, both in stark contrast to Kabir. The film’s narrative is mostly given in flashbacks as he talks to a therapist, something which is quite novel in Hindi films. Through his visits to a therapist, he reveals that he wanted to commit suicide after his breakup with his girlfriend, although they get back together eventually. Praseeda Gopinath, who works on masculinity in and outside South Asia, examines how the highly popular and influential Shah Rukh Khan displays a vulnerable masculinity, which consequently shows a “sexual availability, reconfiguring ‘hero’ masculinity in Hindi cinema” (2018, p. 308). This vulnerable masculinity is seen in Khan’s role in Chennai Express, where he is not a ‘macho man’ type hero, but easily scared and vulnerable, yet manages to attract the heroine by no deliberate effort. This shows an unusual

28 Issues about girls’ consent is sharply raised in the drama Pink (Sharma & Chowdury, 2016), which is critical of patriarchal structures in contemporary India. 46 open vulnerability, one which is quite different from the vulnerability displayed by the 1990s hero.

Coming back to the protagonists’ personal characteristics later, I will first examine the physical qualities that define the modern romantic hero. The contemporary hero most often has the body of a physical labourer (Mubarki, 2020), despite rarely doing physical work. Even in dramas or rom coms, the hero has a body that would undoubtably be more natural and unquestionable on a hero in an (Dwyer, 2000; Mubarki 2020).

The Physical Protagonist Since the beginning of this century, Hindi film heroes have normalized the muscular body, showing defined abs and beefy arms. The contemporary hero most often has a shaved chest, usually revealing ripped six-pack abs (Dwyer, 2014). This striking physique, being slim and muscled, adheres to modern masculine bodily ideals. This increased focus on the male body allows the male body to become the object of the gaze, addressing the increased presence of a female audience. The increased focus seems to partly shift the dominantly male ‘controlling’ gaze (Mulvey, 1975) from the female to the male body, giving an interesting complication to Mulvey’s contention that women are the passive objects of the active male gaze in cinema. Now, the male body is also ‘on display’ for all to see. Vivid illustrations of this are seen in Goliyon Ki Raasleela, where the shirtless Ram passively remains the focus of the camera’s gaze for several moments in a sensual scene; and in Sultan and Kabir Singh we often see the shirtless heroes on display. The modern protagonist is thus presented as a desirable object (Dwyer, 2014, p. 187). Dwyer points to Salman Khan as the most illustrative example of the chiselled body that started appearing in the late 1990s, however, the relatively more average body of Ranbir Kapoor (in Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewaani) shows an opposite trend (2014). Dwyer points out that as Hindi film heroines become thinner and heroes more muscled, gender ideals are reinforced, in which the male is physically larger than the female (Dwyer, 2014, p. 188).

The heroes in most of my selected films have bodies that fit in with what Mubarki (2020) defines as the modern Hindutva masculine ideal, while there are also bodies that fit in with the description of “fluid male identities” (Mubarki, 2020, p. 229), such as Karam in Dream Girl. Many of the heroes discussed here, however, fit it with the description of the metrosexual body, whose focus is on personal grooming and body building (Gehlawat, 2012).

47

While the body of the 1990s hero became increasingly the focus of attention, and whose muscular body became even more defined in the 2010s, an even more defining difference is seen in the personality of the contemporary romantic hero.

Personal Development The major difference that has surfaced while examining these films and comparing them to those of the 1990s, is that the contemporary romantic hero has to show personal development in order to win the girl, rather than perform a grand romantic gesture, such as in Dilwale, Kuch Kuch Hota Hai, Maine Pyar Kiya etc. In fact, in several of the 2010s films discussed here, the hero may be may rather passive towards the heroine, and still ‘get’ her in the end. In Badrinath Ki Dulhania and Chennai Express, for instance, it is only when the hero has improved himself in a manner relevant in the context, that the girl either finally accepts him or expresses her feelings towards him. In Kabir Singh, the hero ruins their relationship because of his anger problem, but reunites them when he has sobered up and calmed down. In Yeh Jawaani, the hero and heroine have an open, honest discussion about whether they are suited for each other or not, as their lifestyles and life goals differ vastly. At the end of the film, however, rather than coming to a compromise, it is the hero who has changed his ways in order to ‘get’ the girl. While earlier films have had the girl fall in love with the hero through his deliberate attempts, what now seems more common is that she falls for him after he has unconsciously improved (in her eyes), as in Badrinath and Chennai.

Most of the heroes in the films I have analysed display behavioural traits that are presented as weaknesses, which are all improved by the end of the film. In Chennai Express, Rahul is presented as a cowardly protagonist who constantly runs away from confrontations and is constantly annoyed with the heroine. Krish in 2 States is gloomy and lacks confidence. In Tanu Weds Manu Returns, the hero pursues a 19-year old girl who looks just like his wife, while still being married. In Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani, the hero is fun-loving, flirtatious and does not want to settle down, which is presented as something negative in the context of the film. In Badrinath Ki Dulhania, Badri, just like Kabir Singh, is rude, chauvinistic, violent and irritable. He disrespects women to such an extent that he kidnaps and threatens the girl he is in love with, by his father’s orders. He is naïve about relationships and marriage, expressing the view that women are best suited to be housewives. In Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety, Titu is also naïve and gets conned by a woman who only marries him for his money. Kabir Singh is violent, disrespectful to his girlfriend, his friends, his parents and to authorities. After the death of his grandmother he improves his behaviour, sobers up to be a better son to his father,

48 but does not apologize for his mistakes and bad behaviour. This is different in 2 States and Badrinath Ki Dulhania, where the hero regrets his actions and admits his mistakes. Similarly, in Sultan, the hero realizes and regrets his mistake and spends half of the film trying to make amends to his wife.

In Badrinath, the heroine only develops feelings for the hero once she gets to know him better and sees that his behaviour changes from rather childish and obsessive to that of a responsible adult. Similarly, in Sultan, the heroine only gives in when the hero has started training as a wrestler and had some success. In Kabir Singh and Badrinath Ki Dulhania, the heroes become kinder and more patient with people around them. As we move in to the 2010s, the modern-day hero seems to struggle mostly with personal development as well as with romantic relationships, but who is mostly content with life in general (Dwyer, 2014).

Some heroes are less forward, confident and strong-willed than others. The protagonists in Chennai Express, 2 States and Tanu Weds Manu Returns, show less agency and bravery than for example those in Kabir Singh, Goliyon Ki Raasleela and Badrinath Ki Dulhania, until the end of the films when they realize they must up their games. However, it is rarely a grand romantic gesture that ultimately unites the couple, but rather the hero’s self-realization process and attempts to improve himself, consciously or not. There are exceptions to this, however. The protagonist in Tanu Weds Manu Returns makes little or no change to himself but remains proud and indignant towards Tanu until the end of the film, and it is she who reunites them. In Goliyon, the hero does not have to make any effort to win the girl, as she is equally passionate about him from the beginning. These two endings are as innovative as the majority that I have mentioned, marking clear differences from the 1990s. I interpret these endings in two ways. Firstly, these films express that internal conditions are as important for a relationship to work as external ones. I find that this reflects the modern idea that one should work on improving oneself before one can help others. Secondly, these films often show a stronger female agency, where women have influence over men’s lives, and where their decisions and opinions make a difference in the narrative.

There has also been a shift of focus towards men’s emotional lives, A clear example of the this is illustrated by the protagonist in 2 States. While the girl is forward and tough (as also seen in Sultan, Badrinath and Chennai), the hero is shy, vague and gloomy. Krish is on the first glance a continuation of the 1990s hero – he is from a rich family and he has no post- partition trauma that haunts him. However, he is traumatized by internal conflict, by his

49 violent, alcoholic father, and later of his parents’ disapproval of his girlfriend. When Krish one day tells Vaidehi that he wants to write stories, he says that his stories may not even have a hero in them. This seems self-reflexive of his own story in the film, where he is never really a typical hero-figure at all. In fact, the hero in the end of the film is his father, who softens and unites the couple’s families. Thoughts of suicide after unhappy romances has not been uncommon in earlier Hindi films, however, the narrative in 2 States, where the protagonists relates his problems to a therapist, discussing his negative feelings in an undramatic way (not accompanied by a song and dance routine, for instance), is unique and might be reflexive of a recent progressive approach to discussions about mental health in India, at least in the middle and upper classes29.

The internalization of pain is most vividly illustrated in Kabir Singh, who starts abusing drugs and alcohol because of his pain caused by the argument with Preeti. While the pain is caused by social relations, he deals with his problems in the style of Bachchan’s ‘angry young man’, although he is not angry with the state, but by individuals around him. While the pain of the 1970s hero was defined by physical trauma and violence, Ranjani Mazumdar finds that the internal pain of psychotic protagonist of the 1990s (such as Shah Rukh Khan in , 1993) was separated from the physical, and was more often inflicted upon himself. This hero was driven by pain and guided by a heightened experience of interiority (Mazumdar, 2000, p. 242). This idea seems to have continued into the 2010s, embodied by many of the protagonists in my selected films – notably by the heroes in Kabir Singh, Badrinath Ki Dulhania and Goliyon Ki Raasleela, where there are no initial external factors that trouble them, except for the pain they inflict upon themselves in pursuing their heroines. This pain motivates a strive for personal development, such as in Sultan, Badrinath Ki Dulhania and Yeh Jawaani.

Whereas earlier films, then, often ended after the hero performs a heroic deed (such as Dilwale Dulhanhia Le Jayenge, Maine Pyar Kiya), in the romantic films of the 2010s the hero rather has to prove that he can improve himself, showing an internalization of heroism by the hero’s inward-scrutinizing gaze by the time of the film’s climactic moment.

Men as Defenders of Women’s Modesty While, as shown above, it is mostly the male protagonists who must correct their conduct in the romantic films of the 2010s, there is some sense of moralizing and upholding of female

29 This discussion was the focus in Shah Rukh Khan-starring (2016). 50 modesty by men in some of my selected films. In 2 States, when Ananya is dressed in very short shorts, Krish consequently refuses to go out with her. The next time they meet, the camera shows the whole length of her body, being completely covered from top to toe with loose, shapeless clothes. He smiles approvingly. In Badrinath Ki Dulhania, Badri tries on a few occasions to tell Vaidehi what right behaviour is for a woman but fails as she talks smartly back. Banaji points out a gender discourse in Raja Hindustani (1996) which marks a difference since the 1990s: “real/Indian men protect women regardless of the folly displayed by the women; real/Indian women understand the error of their ways and alter their behaviour to suit accepted patriarchal dictates” (2002, p. 192). This seems to be partly true of Kabir Singh, although more discreetly. However, in most of the selected films, it is in fact the male protagonists who realize their mistakes and attempts to correct them.

In chapter two, I referred to discussions about women’s modesty (Banaji, 2002). Is it young women’s responsibility to dress modestly or does the problem lie in a patriarchal society? In the otherwise progressive (in the context of romantic relationships before marriage) film 2 States, Krish criticizes Ananya for her revealing clothes. This is not problematized, and there is no discussion. She simply has to adjust to his controlling gaze.

Positive and Negative Physical Violence While none of my selected films are action films, in which the display of violence is expected, the heroes in some of the selected films are nevertheless not afraid of getting into fights. Perhaps the most violent hero of all the films that I have looked at is Kabir Singh, who uses violence on several occasions: he slaps his girlfriend, beats up fellow students and threatens to hit a servant. Badri in Badrinath Ki Dulhania does not shy away from violence either - not only does he slap his best friend, but after he kidnaps the heroine, he fumingly threatens her while holding a choking grip around her neck. In Sultan, when Sultan first meets Aarfa, he hits her on her helmet-covered face, as he thought she was a man (which seemingly makes the use of violence acceptable).

The director of Kabir Singh, , said in an interview (Film Companion, 2019) that the audience and the critics who disapproved of how Kabir slaps Preeti, have never been truly in love. In his opinion, such physical expressions of emotions are normal in romantic relationships30. Contrary to Vanga’s statement, in an interview about the recent film

30 This comment did not go unnoticed, receiving heavy criticism (“Kabir Singh director Sandeep Reddy Vanga”, 2019) 51

Thappad31 (2020), actress comments that a slap in a romantic relationship is a strong sign of disrespect. She finds that the slap is normalized in the Indian society and conditioned since childhood. Pannu further said that while there were other important issues in Kabir Singh, its enormous popularity indicates that there are audiences who celebrate what is known as “toxic masculinity” towards women (“Taapsee Pannu on ”, 2020).

What I referred to in the previous pages as the personal developments in these films, can also refer to instances where the hero becomes more violent, if this is expected of him in the context. It can be presented as a positive development, as it shows an increased confidence in the hero, and simultaneously has him conform to masculine ideals. In Chennai Express, the hero goes from shying away from all confrontations in the early part of the film, to willingly picking a fight with an army of goons at the end of it. In Goliyon Ki Raasleela, the hero who lives in a gun-dealing family only starts to use a gun towards the end of the film, having consciously avoided it until that point. In these films, the celebration of violence can point to what Pannu (“Taapsee Pannu on Thappad”, 2020) referred to as toxic masculinity. This form emphasizes hypermasculinity, an accentuation of stereotypical masculine traits, bordering on the extreme.

What we see in the 2010s romantic hero then, is a hero with a muscled body, who may act irresponsibly or rashly towards the heroine at the beginning of the film, but who often matures or develops towards the end of the film. We also see a hero who may suffer, but almost exclusively because of self-inflicted issues, which arguably includes love. In almost all the selected films, the hero suffers deeply due to some complication in his love life.

The heroes in the films discussed here mostly fit in with what Gehlawat (2012) described as the metrosexual hero, but many of them are not only ‘hard’ on the outside, but also on the inside, displaying violence and as such, applies a “bullying masculinity” (Gehlawat, 2012, p. 77). In some films (Chennai Express, Jab Tak Hai Jaan, Kabir Singh and Badrinath Ki Dulhania) the male character appear to have to assert his masculinity, which can seem threatened in meeting with strong female characters. Although violence is visible in some of these films, some of it towards women, the hero no longer ‘fights a group of goons’ at the end of the film, as Shah Rukh Khan would have it. In other films, like Dream Girl and 2 States.,

31 «The slap». The film is about an upper middle-class woman who is slapped once by her husband, and who consequently divorces him. In the film, the female protagonist is constantly asked if she is divorcing the husband just because of one slap. The film argues that not even one slap should be accepted, as it normalizes violence. The film discreetly hints to other important themes such as marital rape, a theme that is yet to be discussed in Bollywood. 52 the heroes possess the physical abilities to be violent, but who rather exhibit “soft power” (Gehlawat, 2012, p. 77) when asserting themselves. Thus, we see an ambiguity here, where there is a split down the middle of the selected films in the use of violence.

Complications to the Romantic Narrative Here I will discuss some complicating factors to the romantic stories of my selected films. The disapproving family has been a theme in Hindi films since its early days, as Hindi films celebrate love marriages, rather than the conventional arranged marriage. This marks a conflict between the dominating authority of the family in the Indian society and the individual romantic desires celebrated on screen. In only a few of the selected films, such as Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani, is the presence of family limited. In most of the films, however, the families play a prominent part in the forming of the couple, and parents are always present in these films, to a larger or lesser degree. I want to examine how complications arise with the objections of family members, but also the positive impact of the hero’s best friend. Lastly, I will briefly look at the complicating factor that alcohol consumption can play in the film’s narratives.

Negative Family Presence While the importance of the role of the family in Hindi films have changed since the 1990s, it is nevertheless almost always present as a factor in the stories. In most of my selected films, the families play a dominant role in deciding the fate of the lovers. The families strongly oppose and nearly split the couples in 2 States, Kabir Singh and Goliyon Ki Raasleela and they make complications in Chennai Express and Jab Tak Hai Jaan. In Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety the families have an opposite role, as they arrange an initially happy union between their respective son and daughter.

Father figures in romantic Hindi films as characters who are usually presented as frightening (Derné, 2000, p. 94), as they tend to be symbols of absolute power, being second only to a divine power. The looming figure of the father remains present in many of my selected films. In Kabir Singh, 2 States, Chennai Express and Badrinath Ki Dulhania, the boy or the girl’s fathers are dominating and even dangerous figures, who are provoked by what he sees as the couple’s inappropriate union. In Jab Tak, there is a sense of Foucauldian internalized loyalty to family, as it is the girl’s sense of loyalty to her father (and to God) which works as a barrier.

53

The almost constant presence of the family in these films point to the ever-important role of the family in the Indian society. As mentioned earlier, arranged marriages remain the norm in India today, in which the families guide their children to suitable marriages within religious, class and caste groups.

Yeh Dosti32 By contrast to the obstructing role of the family, the most helpful element in films of the 2010s seems to often be the hero’s best friend. In most of these films, we see strong male bonds between friends. In most cases, the hero has a best friend who is with him through thick and thin and who often helps the hero “win” the girl. Only in Sultan, Goliyon Ki Raasleela and 2 States there are no (prominent) male friendships. In Chennai Express, there is only a short presence of friends and family of the hero in the beginning of the film. In Badrinath Ki Dulhania and Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety, I would argue that the male friendships are as close as that of Amitabh Bachchan and Dharmendra’s characters in the popular film Sholay (1975). In Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety this bond is so strong that Titu stops his wedding when Sonu forces him to choose between his bride and his best friend. In Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani, Tanu Weds Manu Returns and Kabir Singh the male friendships are also extremely strong, and in the latter, there is almost no limit to what Kabir’s best friends puts up with.

The presence of the best friend, as well as the family, may indicate that, although the hero is often a strong individual (by the end of the film), individualism is not preferred over dividualism, showing his dependence on other people. Whenever present, male friendships are invariably involved in the forming of romantic relationships in my chosen films. Although not discussed in this thesis, what often seems to mark a contrast between Western films and Indian films is the former’s celebration of individuality and the latter of strong inter-social bonds.

Alcohol and Hypermasculinity Consumption of alcohol is seen in most of the selected films and it often has a deciding and complicating role in the narrative. As drinking alcohol in India is usually restricted to men, I would argue that alcohol consumption in these films is gendered. It is also interesting to note that drinking alcohol is traditionally not connected to religion in India, certainly not to Islam or Brahmanical . Film scholar Anustap Basu argues that alcohol is often used in

32 Yeh (Ham Nahin Todenge) “(We will never ruin) this friendship”, an iconic song about the two male protagonists’ close friendship in Sholay (1975). 54 films as an excuse which reinvents him as “a beastly automaton – a grossly naturalistic body of masculine robustness completely devoid of ethical consciousness and therefor capable of a primal patriarchal appropriation of women” (Basu, 2010, p. 21) and that the character which appears is not an Indian self, “but the body as instrument, under the spell of alcohol as the sole, demonic agent of perception as well as desire” (2010, p. 22) The heroes in Jab Tak Hai Jaan, Sonu Ke Titu Ke Sweety, Badrinath Ki Dulhania, 2 States and Goliyon Ki Raasleela and most prominently in Kabir Singh, all consume alcohol. In the latter two, the story makes the hero and heroine’s situation worse due to the hero passing out in drunkenness. In Tanu Weds Manu Returns, in which the hero and heroine can arguably be said to have equal roles, it is the heroine who gets drunk at the end of the film, in her desperation to get Manu back and stop his wedding to another girl. The fact that it is here the girl who consumes alcohol is consistent with the untraditional gender roles in the film and is a rare exception.

The male ‘beast’ that sometimes appears in these films after having consumed alcohol is illuminating, as it can indicate the film makers’ ideas of the masculinity that loom beneath the surface. This masculinity is unhindered by social conventions, is aggressive and can self- destruct the protagonist, as Kabir Singh and Goliyon Ki Raasleela.

Summary In this chapter I have looked at some common themes, as well as what I interpret as moral messages about romancing in these films. Several of these films (Jab Tak, Kabir Singh, Goliyon) map out passionate, limitless and painful love stories in which their families cannot break the couple apart. What I found most interesting in many of these films, is the concept that love may develop after friendship, respect and patience grows. The hero consciously or otherwise improves himself by the end of the film, becoming more patient, respectful or caring towards the heroine, or more aggressive and confident if the context requires it. In most of these films the hero falls for the heroine based on her appearance, but she usually does not reciprocate his feelings until she trusts and respects him, leading to friendship and appreciation of the other. In many of these films, as well as earlier popular films such as Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, the hero often matures along the way. In both Sultan and Badrinath Ki Dulhania, the hero takes for granted that the heroine will accept his unceremonious advances. However, only after he matures does she accept him.

By far, the decidedly biggest obstruction to the film couple’s romantic union in the romantic films of the 2010s is the opposing family. There is only one film which proves an exception to

55 this. In 2 States, the families eventually succeed in wearing the couple down and pitting them against each other. On the other hand, in this story it is also by the help of a family member (a patriarch) who finally approves of the union and who bring the couple back together. I interpret this in the sense that, although the couple may be independent and progressive, the approval of the family is still a necessary component in the forming of the couple.

While the narrative and social content of the films have been the focus in this thesis, I would like to note another fascinating aspect. One can see a gradual diversification not only within the films themselves, but also in representations of actors. While the 1970s were generally dominated by Amitabh Bachchan, the 1990s and early 2000s were dominated by the ‘three Khans’ – Shah Rukh, Aamir and Salman33 (as well as a few others). What is interesting to note then, is the lack of dominance by any few numbers of male actors in this decade – in the eleven selected films for this thesis, there are ten different male actors.

33 Shah Rukh, Salman and Aamir Khan starred in 13 of the highest grossing 20 films of the 1990s (Box Office India, https://boxofficeindia.com/hit-down.php?txtYearlyData=1990-1999). 56

5. Conclusion While many have pointed to Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge as the defining romantic Hindi film of the 1990s (amongst others, Dwyer, 2014), one might speculate which film will be referred to as the defining romantic film of our present period. Will it be the passionate, all- consuming love stories seen in the two highest grossing romantic films of the 2010s, Sultan and Kabir Singh? Or will it be the IMDb-favourite, Tanu Weds Manu Returns, the comedy in which traditional gender roles of Hindi film have turned?

In this thesis, certain shared themes of romantic films of the past decade have surfaced. In most films, we see a dominating male agency in forming romantic relationships, often challenging the conflicting role of the family. While there might be immediate physical attraction between the couple in these films, a romantic relationship usually forms after the hero and heroine have become friends. In looking at the romantic hero, I have found that in most cases, the hero develops or matures in the course of the film, often inspired by the heroine. While the hero might actively pursue the heroine, he may also be a more passive receiver or show little agency in the forming of the relationship. Here we see a distinct separation from the ideal of the arranged marriage, where the bride and groom might only have a restricted and supervised relationship before marriage.

However, as illustrated by the variations in the selected eleven films in this thesis, it is difficult to conclude with any dominating pattern in romancing in recent films. Dwyer (2014), focusing on films released in the 1990s and 2000s, noted that it was similarly hard to say anything conclusive about romance in films of the previous two decades. Equivocally then, the hero may actively pursue the heroine (Badrinath Ki Dulhania, Sultan) as was common in the 1990s films, or he may gain her romantic interest through no effort of his own (2 States, Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewaani). Kabir Singh has proved an exception to how men in recent Hindi films treat women, as his dominating style is not the defining one in the films discussed in this thesis.

What defines the contemporary hero in Hindi films? While there is yet little literature on this topic, I have found that the romantic protagonist of the 2010s films no longer ‘wins the girl’ by performing a dramatic gesture such as travelling halfway across the world to tell her he loves her and save her from an unhappy marriage. Stereotypical masculine traits, such as hardness, bravery and muscularity, are typically reproduced in these films, although there are exceptions, shown by films such as Dream Girl. The contemporary hero must often work on

57 his personality or status, showing strength by exhibiting self-discipline. The strong will to become a ‘better’ person is usually inspired by the heroine, who herself is a strong character, often of higher status than the hero, being higher educated, having higher ambitions or being of higher social standing. The hero might start out as a lazy or rootless character, who gradually realizes he must improve himself for the girl to accept him. In my opinion, this sends a positive and constructive message to young boys, and one that reflects the times we live in. This communicates that being a kinder and more respectful person will increase your chances of a happy romantic relationship. However, on a less positive note, the bodily ideals shown in these films, for both genders, can give young people unrealistic and at times, unhealthy, body goals. This reflects Adorno’s rather pessimistic take on the influence of popular culture (Smith & Riley, 2009).

I believe that ideas which we are exposed to through recurring themes in films play a part in and reinforce the shaping of our ideas and aspirations. Agreeing with Mulvey (1975), I also find the dominating male gaze sometimes worrying, as it manifests hegemonic patriarchal ideas which subordinates women, including in India. Foucault has claimed that discourses are never free of power relations, and rather than being objective, discourses may “create, reproduce, and mask relations of power and control” (Smith & Riley, 2009, p 116). As such, films may be a discourse which reproduces power relations. While I have in this thesis argued the importance of the content of film, based on its influence over its audience, it is clear that it is a two-way conversation. Film makers cater to their audiences for greater profit, and in this way, films reflect fantasies. In preferring individualistic love marriages or individually chosen romantic relationships, these films shift the locus of power to the two individuals within a couple, rather than to the hegemonic power status that Indian families are seen to have. What I have shown in this thesis is how the contemporary protagonist in romantic Hindi films must earn the respect of the girl. This discourse might not represent reality, but it can certainly provide us with a representation of the society’s fantasies.

58

List of References Filmography Barjatya, T. (Producer) & Barjatya, S. (Director). (1989). Maine Pyar Kiya [Motion Picture]. India: Barjatya, A., Barjatya, K., Barjatya, R. (Producers), & Barjatya, S. (Director). (1994). Hum Aapke Hain Kaun [Motion Picture]. India: Rajshri Productions Bhansali, S., Deolekar, C., Lulla, K. & Singh, S. (Producers) & Bhansali, S. (Director). (2013). Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela [Motion Picture]. India: Bhansali Productions/ Chopra, A. (Producer) & Chopra, Y. (Director). (2012). Jab Tak Hai Jaan [Motion Picture]. India: Chopra, A. (Producer) & Zafar, A. (Director). (2016). Sultan [Motion Picture]. India: Yash Raj Films Chopra, Y. (Producer), & Chopra, A. (Director). (1995). Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge [Motion Picture]. India: Yash Raj Films Garg, A., Kumar, B. & K., Ranjan, L. (Producers), Ranjan, L. (Director). (2018). Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety [Motion Picture]. India: T-Series/ Johar, H. & K. (Producers), Mukerji, A. (Director). (2013). Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani [Motion Picture]. India: Johar, H. & K., Mehta, A. (Producers), & Khaitan, S. (Director). (2017). Badrinath Ki Dulhania [Motion Picture]. India: Dharma Productions Johar, K. & Nadiadwala, S. (Producers), & Varman, A. (Director). (2014). 2 States [Motion Picture]. India: Dharma Productions/Nadiadwala Grandson Entertainment Johar, Y. (Producer), & Johar, K. (Director). (1998). Kuch Kuch Hota Hai [Motion Picture]. India: Dharma Productions Kapoor E. & S. (Producers), & Shaandilyaa, R. (Director). (2019). Dream Girl [Motion Picture]. India: /ALT Entertainment Khan, G., Screwvala, R., Roy Kapur, S., and Morani, K. (Producers), & Shetty, R. (Director). (2013). Chennai Express [Motion Picture]. India: Red Chillies Entertainment Khetani, M., Kumar, B. & K., Varde, A. (Producers), & Vanga, S. (Director). (2019). Kabir Singh [Motion Picture]. India: Cine1 Studios/T-Series Kumar, I. & Thakeria, A. (Producers), & Kumar, I. (Director). (1990). Dil [Motion Picture]. India: Maruti International Lulla, K. & Rai, A. (Producers), & Rai, A. (Director). (2015). Tanu Weds Manu: Returns [Motion Picture]. India: Colour Yellow Productions

Mehra, P. (Producer & Director). (1973). Zanjeer [Motion Picture]. India: Prakash Mehra Productions

Morani, A., Morani, K., & Soorma, B. (Producers), & Darshan, D. (Director). (1996). Raja Hindustani [Motion Picture]. India: Tips Films

59

Rai, G. (Producer) & Chopra, Y. (Director). (1975). Deewar [Motion Picture]. India: Trimurti Films Pvt. Ltd.

Books, articles and internet resources Banaji, S. (2002). Private Lives and Public Spaces: The Precarious Pleasures of Gender Discourse in Raja Hindustani. Women: A Cultural Review, 13(2), 179-194. Banerjea, K. (2005). ‘Fight Club’: Aesthetics, Hybridisation and the Construction of Rogue Masculinites in Sholay and Deewar. In A. Sinha, & R. Kaur (Eds.), Bollyworld: Popular Indian cinema through a transnational lens (pp. 163-185). : Sage. Banerjee, S. (2017). Gender, Nation and Popular Film in India: Globalizing Muscular Nationalism. Routledge. de Beauvoir, S. (1953). The second sex. London: Jonathan Cape.

Brod, H., & Kaufman, M. (1994). Theorizing masculinities (Vol. 5, SAGE Series on Men and Masculinity). Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE. Chatterji, S. (2013). The evolution of representing female sexuality in Hindi cinema 1991– 2010. In K, Gokulsing, & W. Dissanayake (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Indian Cinemas (pp. 195-208). London: Routledge. Chopra, R., Osella, C., & Osella, F. (2004). South Asian masculinities: context of change, sites of continuity. New Delhi: Kali for Women. Derné, S. (2000). Movies, masculinity, and modernity: An ethnography of men's filmgoing in India (Vol. 129, Contributions in sociology). Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. Deshpande, S. (2005). The Consumable Hero of Globalised India. In A. Sinha & R. Kaur (Eds.), Bollyworld: Popular Indian cinema through a transnational lens (pp. 186- 203). New Delhi: Sage. Dudrah, R., & Desai, J. (2008). The Bollywood reader. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Dwyer, R. (2014). Bollywood's India: Hindi cinema as a guide to contemporary India. London: Reaktion Books Dyer, Richard (1979). Stars. London: British Film Institute. Dyer, Richard (1986). Heavenly bodies: film stars and society. London: British Film Institute Film Companion. (2019, July 5). Kabir Singh | Sandeep Reddy Vanga Interview | FC Postmortem | | Spoilers Ahead [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MIRLo6kpuHI Foucault, M. (1970). The order of things: An archaeology of the human sciences. London: Tavistock Publications. Foucault, M. (1978). The History of Sexuality, vol. 1: An Introduction. New York, NY: Pantheon Books. Ganesh, K. & Mahadevan, M. (2015). Beyond Diasporic Boundaries – New Masculinities in Global Bollywood. In R. Dudrah, E. Mader, & B. Fuchs (Eds.), Shah Rukh Khan and Global Bollywood (pp. 98-122). New Delhi: Oxford University Press

60

Gehlawat, A. (2012). ‘Aadat Se Majboor’/’Helpless By Habit’: Metrosexual masculinity in contemporary Bollywood. Studies in South Asian Film & Media, 4(1), 61-79. Gehlawat, A. (2015). Twenty-First Century Bollywood. Routledge. Gopalan, L. (1997). Avenging women in Indian cinema: Violence, film, gender studies. Screen, 38(1), 42-59. Gopalan, L. (2002). Cinema of Interruptions: Action genres in contemporary Indian cinema. London: BFI Publishing. Gopinath, P. (2018). 'A feeling you cannot resist': Shah Rukh Khan, affect, and the re- scripting of male stardom in Hindi cinema. Celebrity Studies: Special Issue, 9(3), 307- 325. Herz, M., & Johansson, T. (2011). Maskuliniteter: Kritik, tendenser, trender. Malmø: Liber. I just hate using the word 'Bollywood': Amitabh Bachchan (2013, December 4). Times of India. Retrieved from https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/I-just-hate- using-the-word-Bollywood-Amitabh-Bachchan/articleshow/26799372.cms Internet Movie Database. (n.d.-a). Tanu Weds Manu Returns. Retrieved March 25, 2020, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2140465/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0 Internet Movie Database. (n.d.-b). Kabir Singh. Retrieved March 25, 2020, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt8983202/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0 Internet Movie Database. (n.d.-c). Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela. Retrieved March 25, 2020, https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2215477/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0 Internet Movie Database. (n.d.-d). Chennai Express. Retrieved March 25, 2020, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2112124/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0 Internet Movie Database. (n.d.-e). Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety. Retrieved March 25, 2020, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7581902/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0 Internet Movie Database. (n.d.-f). Badrinath Ki Dulhania. Retrieved March 25, 2020, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt6277440/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0 Internet Movie Database. (n.d.-g). 2 States. Retrieved March 25, 2020, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2372678/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0 Internet Movie Database. (n.d.-h). Sultan. Retrieved March 25, 2020, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4832640/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0 Internet Movie Database. (n.d.-i). Jab Tak Hai Jaan. Retrieved March 25, 2020, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2176013/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0 Internet Movie Database. (n.d.-j). Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani. Retrieved March 25, 2020, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2178470/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0 Internet Movie Database. (n.d.-k). Dream Girl. Retrieved March 25, 2020, from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt9248940/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0 Joshi, P. (2015). Bollywood’s India: A public fantasy. New York: Columbia University Press. Kabir Singh director Sandeep Reddy Vanga savaged on for controversial comments: ‘What an arrogant, sexist man’ (2019, July 7). . Retrieved from https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/kabir-singh-director-sandeep-reddy- vanga-savaged-on-twitter-for-controversial-comments-what-an-arrogant-sexist- man/story-T8z1kBM1NYbYOL4kR1zKFP.html Mazumdar, R. (2000). From Subjectification to Schizophrenia: The ‘Angry Man’ and the ‘Psychotic’ Hero of Bombay Cinema. In Vasudevan, R. (Ed.), The Melodramatic

61

public: Film form and spectatorship in Indian cinema (pp. 238-264). Ranikhet: Permanent Black. Mishra, V. (2002). Bollywood cinema: Temples of desire. New York: Routledge. Mody, P. (2008). The Intimate State: Love-Marriage and the Law in Delhi. Routledge India. Mulvey, L. (1975). Visual pleasure and narrative cinema. Screen, 16(3), 6–18. https://doi.org/10.1093/screen/16.3.6 Mubarki, M.A. (2020). Body, masculinity and the male hero in Hindi cinema. Social Semiotics, 30(2), 225-253. DOI: 10.1080/10350330.2018.1547497 NDTV. (2019, June 27) Left, Right & Centre | Kabir Singh Controversy: Has Bollywood Normalised Misogyny? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IKweAOST0Zs Osella, C., & Osella, F. (2006). Men and Masculinities in South India. London: Anthem Press

Pinkvilla (2020, Feb 1) Taapsee Pannu on Thappad, Kabir Singh controversy, Sandeep Vanga's 'slap' comment & nepotism debate [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q3-ZzZkLQp0&t=607s Reeser, T. W. (2010). Masculinities in Theory. An Introduction. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Smith, P., & Riley, A. (2009). Cultural Theory: An Introduction (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Top Hits 1990-1999. (n.d.). Retrieved June 14, 2020, from Box Office India https://boxofficeindia.com/hit-down.php?txtYearlyData=1990-1999 Top Hits 2010-2019. (n.d.). Retrieved March 25, 2020, from Box Office India https://boxofficeindia.com/hit-down.php?txtYearlyData=2010-2019 Top India Grossers All Time. (n.d.). Retrieved March 25, 2020, from Box Office India https://www.boxofficeindia.com/india-total-gross.php Uberoi, P. (1998). The diaspora comes home: Disciplining desire in DDLJ. Contributions to Indian Sociology, 32(2), 305-336. Vasudevan, R. (2010). The Melodramatic public: Film form and spectatorship in Indian cinema. Ranikhet: Permanent Black. Virdi, J. (1999). Reverence, Rape-And Then Revenge: Popular Hindi Cinema's 'Woman's Film'. Screen, 40(1), 17-37.

Virdi, J. (2003). The Cinematic Imagination: Indian popular films as social history. New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press. Whitaker, K. (2013). Performing Masculinity/Masculinity in Performance. In P. Purvis (Ed.), Masculinity in Opera (pp. 17-38). New York: Routledge. Wilde, O. (1909). Intentions (4.th ed., Uniform edition). London: Methuen. Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophische Untersuchungen = Philosophical investigations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

62