Appendix Chronology of Landscape Allegory

Appendix

Chronology of Landscape Allegory

Note: This chronology covers paintings, literary works, photographs, and films mentioned in the course of this study. At the end of each entry, in parentheses, is the chapter in which it is mentioned. It is not intended to be comprehensive or even definitive. Rather, it is only one among infinite versions of such a vast cultural legacy.

8 ad: Ovid’s Metamorphoses With its conflation of human beings and natural phenomena, Greco- Roman mythology set a complex precedent for landscape allegory. In Ovid’s Metamorphoses, for example, human characters transform into trees, stones, or other features of the landscape. (Introduction) circa 1237: Roman de la Rose A primary example of medieval allegory, revealing a sophisticated system of figurative innuendoes borrowed from the natural universe. In its depiction of garden scenes, this poem uses the image of a rose- bud to refer to love and sexual copulation. (Introduction)

1321: Dante’s Inferno The consummate political allegory wherein the author encounters individuals from his political life in a subterranean landscape of tor- ment and penance. (Introduction)

1383: Parliament of Fowls by Geoffrey Chaucer This later example of medieval allegory portrays an array of birds seeking idealized mates within a garden scene, akin to Roman de la Rose. (Introduction) circa 1504: The Garden of Earthly Delights by Hieronymus Bosch Bosch’s fantastical living topographies, like this one, anticipate psychological approaches to the depiction of landscape. At the same time, they are still basically anthropocentric. (Chapter one) 164 Landscape Allegory in Cinema

1562: The Death of Actaeon by Titian Painters during the sixteenth century sought to portray an esoteric harmony between human figures and the natural landscape, especially with the assimilation of Ovidian subjects as in this painting. (Chapter one)

1590: The Faerie Queen by Edmund Spenser Christian epics of Giangiorgio Trissino (1478–1550), Torquato Tasso (1544–1595), and others assimilated the notion of the “deceptive” garden to reflect Christian morality, which can be traced to Spenser’s “Bower of Bliss” appearing in this work. (Chapter one)

1623: Winter Landscape by Esaias van de Velde This work exemplifies the naturalistic (as opposed to the Italianate) strain of seventeenth-century Dutch landscape painting. The digres- sion from anthropocentric biblical content to portrayals of everyday experience compels a different kind of interpretation. The viewer must learn to read the landscape itself, independent of the persons included within it. (Introduction)

1630: Landscape by Hercules Seghers Anticipatory of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Romanticism and the sublime, Seghers’ sweeping, desolate landscapes, in which figures and buildings are totally subordinate, establish tension between reality and imagination. (Chapter one)

1637: River Scene with Ruined Tower by Jan van Goyen The crumbling edifice and people outside it in the foreground are treated vaguely enough to become merely elements in this painting’s composite perspective of landscape for its own sake. Its title reinforces the artist’s new investment in the natural universe. (Introduction)

1644: Landscape with Narcissus and Echo by Claude Lorrain His overtly idealized approach to landscape, especially his “sunscapes,” influenced nineteenth-century Romantic painting. In this painting, the overarching trees and undergrowth take up three quar- ters of the frame while the Ovidian subjects are hardly noticeable. (Chapter one) Chronology of Landscape Allegory 165

1645–1650: Landscape with the Judgment of Paris by Both and Poelenburgh This painting depicts a classical narrative within a naturalistic setting that resembles the local landscapes of the Haarlem painters. Naturalistic and Italianate strains of Dutch landscape painting affirm religious differences between Calvinism and Catholicism, but it is clear from this example that they can coexist, overlap, and ultimately become indistinguishable. (Chapter one)

1646–1657: Landscape with Hagar and the Angel by Claude Lorrain In this painting, a small dead tree branch extends outward across the principal branch of a tall tree, interrupting its otherwise consistent sense of upward growth. Also worth noting is the tree’s dominance of the frame, which effectively marginalizes the human subjects in the foreground. (Chapter one) circa 1657: Jewish Cemetery by Jacob van Ruisdael With its contrived sense of melancholy, this painting exemplifies the direct influence Dutch landscapes likely had on the Romantic move- ments and beyond. (Chapter one)

1667: Paradise Lost by John Milton This poem represents the culmination of the earthly paradise tradition, in which the Edenic garden allegorizes the human pursuit of philosophical truth and wisdom. (Chapter one)

1731: Epistle to Burlington by Alexander Pope Pope based this influential poem on the garden creation of architect Richard Boyle (1694–1753), which featured extensive Greco-Roman influence taken from Boyle’s personal experience of the Grand Tour. With the rise of Neoclassicism in England, gardens symbolized a complex system of ideas reminiscent of Ovid’s world. (Chapter one)

1759: Candide by Voltaire His virulent attacks on oppressive political systems and religious attitudes of the time attempted to escape censorship with the use of an indirect, allegorical mode of fiction still accessible enough to reach a wide audience. Voltaire intended this allegory as an indictment of contemporary Enlightenment thinkers such as Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646–1716), who argued that the world must be perfect since God created it. (Introduction) 166 Landscape Allegory in Cinema

1809: Monk by the Sea by Caspar David Friedrich In the context of the nineteenth-century European sublime, landscape is emphasized where the monk is a tiny figure standing on a coastline before a vast, stormy sky. Similar emphasis can be found in Flaherty’s docudrama Nanook of the North (1922). (Chapter three)

1809: Morning by Philip Otto Runge A profound influence on Caspar David Friedrich, this painting depicts what Runge intended as a “spiritual hieroglyph” or code of allegorical devices through which the spectator could interpret esoteric meanings in the natural landscape. (Chapter two)

1811: Morning in the Riesengebirge by Caspar David Friedrich Friedrich’s attempts to spiritualize various natural landscapes often included direct Christian reference. This painting portrays a vast mountainous landscape with a pronounced crag in the center from which emerges a crucifix, approached by a man and woman in middle- class attire. A bold departure from religious works of earlier periods, this painting’s Christian reference is subordinate to the surrounding landscape. (Chapter two)

1812: Snow Storm: Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps by J.M.W. Turner Like Friedrich’s Monk by the Sea (1809), this work portrays nature’s overwhelming power over humankind, anticipating Flaherty’s exploitation of a hostile environment and its indigenous peoples in Nanook of the North (1922), according to a persevering Romantic sense of futility. (Chapter three)

1818: Wanderer above the Sea of Fog by Caspar David Friedrich The lone observer with his back to the viewer is sufficient to spiritualize the surrounding landscape that undulates from within the sea of fog before him. This painting is perhaps the clearest pictorial example of landscape allegory, or, more specifically, the process through which humankind and nature appear to become one thinking entity. (Chapter two)

1818: Woman in Front of the Setting Sun by Caspar David Friedrich This painting is composed in exactly the same way as Wanderer above the Sea of Fog, except there is a female contemplating a Chronology of Landscape Allegory 167 pastoral landscape. This parallel rendition of the same transcenden- tal theme derives from a sense of the beautiful rather than the sublime. (Chapter three)

1834–1836: The Course of Empire by Thomas Cole This work portrays the evolution of a classical civilization in five stages (savage, pastoral, consummate, destructive, and desolate). In this allegorical manner, Cole conveys a notion of futility in the American impulse to conquer its own wilderness. (Chapter two)

1836: The Oxbow by Thomas Cole This work depicts what Albert Boime refers to as the “magisterial gaze” or profit-seeking attitude toward the American wilderness. (Chapter two)

1839–1840: The Journal of Julius Rodman by Edgar Allan Poe This would-be narrative of a pioneer’s exploration through the Rocky Mountains is Poe’s most ambitious treatment of landscape, and its completion was apparently beyond his power or interest, since it was left unfinished. As it stands, Julius Rodman reveals a struggle to reconcile the divergent myths of the primordial wilderness and the Edenic garden. (Chapter two)

1840: The Voyage of Life by Thomas Cole Cole allegorizes the four stages of human life—childhood, youth, man- hood, and old age—in four paintings. The cycle reflects nineteenth- century American culture’s fundamental investment in Christianity. (Chapter two)

1844: “Morning on the Wissahiccon” by Edgar Allan Poe Although it is the most realistic of Poe’s sketches, this sketch plays with a Romantic portrayal of the wilderness. The narrator’s dream vision of a “repining” elk dissipates with the arrival of humankind, domesticity, and utilitarianism. (Chapter two)

1850: “The Domain of Arnheim” by Edgar Allan Poe The river-progression of this allegorical narrative subsequently imi- tates and possibly even parodies Claude’s sunscapes, as the narrator heads into a similar “vortex” of sunlight. This climactic scene also includes a hovering castle of “semi-Gothic, semi-Saracenic architecture” whose inspiration appears to be the Youth painting from Cole’s The Voyage of Life cycle. (Chapter two) 168 Landscape Allegory in Cinema

1867: Domes of the Yosemite by Albert Bierdstadt Bierdstadt was a key figure from the Hudson River School of painting, founded by Thomas Cole. Despite their differing mediums, both painted and photographed depictions of this same Yosemite Valley landscape attempt to conjure the American myth of Manifest Destiny, reflecting a continuing cultural sensibility. (Chapter two)

1875: South Dome from Glacier Point, California by William H. Jackson Although painting would seem to be the more idealized medium to present an impression of Yosemite Valley, this photograph also attempts to capture its artist’s impression of the area. (Chapter two)

1884: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain Literary river allegories as well known as this novel, or as little known as Poe’s landscape sketches “The Elk” (1844) and “The Domain of Arnheim” (1850), depict a larger spiritual transformation through their protagonists’ experiences along a river’s meandering course. (Chapter four)

1886: Gathering Water-Lilies by Peter H. Emerson This early landscape photograph depicts a boat-rowing couple in the foreground with sharp clarity while the field of lilies and landscape beyond are blurry. These manipulations of the camera apparatus were an attempt at personal expression beyond the mechanical perspective of photography. (Chapter three)

1888: “The Man Who Would Be King” by Rudyard Kipling This short story is an allegorical indictment of British imperialism, which narrates the experience of two British confidence men, former soldiers in India, attempting to trick their way into becoming rulers of an inhospitable region of warring tribes above Afghanistan. An adaptation of this story was made into a major Hollywood film of the same title by John Huston in 1975. (Chapter eight)

1890: “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge” by Ambrose Bierce This American writer’s short story describes a condemned man’s extended river/overland odyssey through the wishful thinking of his last moment on Earth. It was adapted into an avant-garde short film La rivière du hibou (1962) by Robert Enrico. (Chapter four) Chronology of Landscape Allegory 169

1890: The Onion Field by George Davison This pinhole photograph forfeits realism in favor of a hazy sheen, similar in spirit to the emotional brushstrokes of Impressionist paintings. Like Claude Monet’s experiments with the diffusion of clarity in his pictorial “impressions” of the French countryside, the pinhole camera was used to diffuse an otherwise clear or focused image into a field of tonal values. (Chapter three)

1890: The Pool at Menil by Fernand Khnopff This picture exemplifies Tonalism in early landscape photography. These painter-photographers sought to convey intangible phenomena and spiritual manifestations in the natural world of real objects, and the pool or pond became for them a psychic boundary between dreams and reality. (Chapter three)

1896: Song of the Night by Alphonse Osbert This picture is another example of Tonalism in early photography. These bodies of water, portrayed as both isolated and reflective, were already common in the painting of the nineteenth-century American Luminists as well as the writing of Edgar Allan Poe. (Chapter three)

1898: The Pond by Edward Steichen Here is another example of early photography based on Symbolist landscape painting. Steichen’s treatment of a small body of water here was thematic in his work. (Chapter three)

1902: The Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad This turn-of-the-century novel concerned “Third World” exploitation and the characteristically “Western” psyche. The story was adapted to the context of the Vietnam conflict by Francis Ford Coppola in his film Apocalypse Now (1979). In both narratives, the protagonist jour- neys along a river that takes him deep into a jungle landscape where he ultimately confronts the darker truth of his cultural sensibility. (Chapter eight)

1904: Landscape by Robert Demachy Photographers seeking idealized landscapes adopted the gum-bichromate process, which allowed maximum control of the image’s varying tonalities. According to Symbolist theory, the aesthetic of Tonalism expressed the entire range of human emotions through contrast- ing colors. This abstract complexity of tonal contrast is evident in gum-bichromate pictures like this one. (Chapter three) 170 Landscape Allegory in Cinema

1913: The Uncertainty of the Poet by Giorgio de Chirico An abstract, psychological approach to landscape appears in the proto-Surrealist work of Giorgio de Chirico (1888–1978). In this example, his metaphysical townscapes become symbolic according to their deliberate departure from familiar perspectives. (Chapter one) circa 1914: The Cyclops by Odilon Redon A key figure from the Symbolist movement of landscape painters and painter-photographers. Redon sought to associate his fantastical subjects with the inner psyche through the use of brightly colored landscape settings as seen in this painting. (Chapter three)

1920: The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari In the same way that Robert Wiene’s German Expressionist film suggests its narrator’s insanity through contorted interior sets, certain films use outdoor locations to express their protagonists’ internal conflicts. (Introduction)

1922: Nanook of the North Robert Flaherty’s early documentary reflects a popular American taste for exoticism with his attention to this remote and brutal environment, and the Eskimo culture that dared inhabit it. To this end, Flaherty contrived the entire scenario to look as primitive as pos- sible. (Chapter three)

1925: Grass: A Nation’s Battle for Life Filmmakers Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack attempted to capitalize on the success of Nanook by pursuing the nomadic Bakhtiari tribe of Persia (modern-day Iran) as they made their sea- sonal trek through difficult mountains with their herds. This film is another example of a contrived ethnographic documentary, exoticiz- ing remote landscape and their indigenous cultures. (Chapter three)

1926: Moana After Nanook’s commercial success, Flaherty made this ethnographic documentary, a similarly contrived depiction of Samoa and its inhabitants. (Chapter three)

1928: Chang Like Flaherty’s films, Cooper and Schoedsack’s subsequent documentary Chang (1928), about a peasant family in the Siamese jungle, was also staged. (Chapter three) Chronology of Landscape Allegory 171

1928: La chute de la maison Usher Jean Epstein’s avant-garde film adapts Poe’s Gothic tale “The Fall of the House of User” (1839) by using a combination of stylized interior sets and specific outdoor locations. With Poe’s narrative as a founda- tion, the grainy quality of the film’s landscape stills is an attempt at the same psychological connotation as the Symbolist-inspired photographs of Steichen or Osbert. (Chapter three)

1931: The Persistence of Memory by Salvador Dalí Dalí’s bleak, nondescript landscapes serve merely to underscore his portrayal of a psychological wasteland. In the foreground of this landscape, for example, there are subjects out of context: giant, melting pocket watches. Dalí also constructed the dream sequence in Alfred Hitchcock’s film Spellbound (1945). (Chapters one and ten)

1933: King Kong Increasingly, American popular investment in exotic landscapes called for an accompanying fictional narrative. After the success of their ethnographic documentaries, Schoedsack and Cooper released this jungle-fantasy epic. (Chapter three)

1937: Lost Horizon The exoticized landscape fiction realized its fullest potential with the portrayal of the solipsistic Himalayan paradise “Shangri-La” in this Hollywood film, directed by Frank Capra. (Chapter three)

1939: Wuthering Heights William Wyler’s adaptation of Emily Brontë’s novel (1847) features a craggy section of the moors, which the film positions as the cata- lyst for the union of Heathcliff and Catherine. According to the two lovers’ lower-class status and “gypsy” heritage, this wilderness landscape underscores their marginalization from English social hierar- chy. Since Catherine must forfeit her relationship with Heathcliff in order to improve her class status, this film also becomes a feminist allegory of social repression. (Chapter ten)

1941: High Sierra This film exploits wilderness locations to underscore the psychological tension of the characteristic film noir narrative. As a location for the final showdown between the police and the protagonist, this film uses a steep incline of crags and perilous cliffs in the Sierras, anticipating the use of rocky locations in the climax of several Anthony Mann westerns. (Chapter ten) 172 Landscape Allegory in Cinema

1944: At Land Maya Deren’s avant-garde film uses natural landscape to depict an inward psychological odyssey. A river becomes a site of personal metamorphosis as the female protagonist (Deren) wanders alongside it and clambers over its stones. This film anticipates not only Enrico’s avant-garde film La rivière du hibou (1962), but several 1960s and ’70s mainstream river allegories of psychological transformation. (Chapter four)

1944: Clearing Winter Storm by Ansel Adams This later photograph can be linked culturally to both Albert Bierstadt’s 1867 painting Domes of the Yosemite and Jackson’s 1875 photograph South Dome from Glacier Point, California. The hard contrasts between the misty gray and white clouds against the black, snow-laden crags invoke emotions of awe and won- derment, and, like a typical Hudson River School painting, this photograph reinforced popular American celebration of frontier myths. (Chapter three)

1945: Spellbound More than any other Hitchcock film, Spellbound constructs its narrative around the ability of psychoanalysis to decode the subconscious mind. In addition to the dream sequence’s reference to downhill ski- ing, Dalí includes his familiar landscape of the mind, underscoring the larger vision of the subconscious with decidedly anthropomorphic rock formations. (Chapter ten)

1946: Duel in the Sun The rugged, craggy landscape becomes the ideal manifestation of the female half-white/half-Native American protagonist’s inner psychological turmoil. The intended symbolism is most apparent in its wide- shot depiction of an anthropomorphic “Squaw’s Head Rock,” which is actually just a painted matte drop. (Chapter five)

1948: Treasure of the Sierra Madre This film’s use of actual Mexican desert locations might otherwise function as authentic backdrop. However, the protagonist’s internal struggle with paranoia and greed juxtaposed against an increasingly hostile wilderness allows the landscape to behave as an independent character. (Chapter ten) Chronology of Landscape Allegory 173

1950: Rashomon Akira Kurosawa’s seminal Japanese film is an allegory on the sub- jectivity of human perception in which four differing accounts of a murder within a peripheral forest are depicted. Here, a dark hollow of the forest takes on a psychological dimension, becoming the core of the human psyche where truth is manufactured for selfish ends. (Conclusion)

1950: Winchester ’73 Director Anthony Mann is recognized for his psychological use of natural landscape, and this 1950 release is a good example of his approach to the western genre. As in Duel in the Sun, the protagonist and antagonist engage in their final showdown alone amidst a similar landscape. (Chapter five)

1952: Bend of the River Within a psychological framework, the wilderness landscapes become a series of obstacles to be overcome through the course of Mann’s westerns, particularly this film. These films reach their dramatic climax with an evocative landscape duel between the male protagonist and his past, personified by the principal antagonist. Bend of the River’s final duel occurs within an actual river, as if to affirm the title’s allegorical component. (Chapter five)

1954: Robinson Crusoe The landscape allegory of the “Western megalomaniac” pitted against an exotic wilderness and its native inhabitants can be found in Luis Buñuel’s adaptation of the Daniel Defoe novel (1719), but it really became prolific during the 1960s and ’70s with films such as Werner Herzog’s Aguirre: The Wrath of God (1972) and Fitzcarraldo (1982), as well as John Boorman’s Deliverance (1972). (Introduction)

1955: Pather Panchali Satyajit Ray’s Indian production transcended its national context in its universal sense of social realism and attention to human perseverance. The film’s sensitive portrayal of an impoverished family in the rural countryside of Bengal features an intimate connection between the characters and their natural surroundings. (Conclusion)

1957: The Seventh Seal Ingmar Bergman’s medieval allegory of faith, in which a knight returning from the Crusades challenges “Death” to a game of chess, 174 Landscape Allegory in Cinema features a series of natural settings, reflecting the inner struggle of the protagonist to affirm a divine presence in the universe. (Chapter ten)

1958: Vertigo More than any other Hitchcock film, Vertigo is a narrative adventure through both interior and exterior spaces, reflecting inner psychological states of the protagonist as well as the female object of his obsession. In this film, the postwar American allegory of male psychological trauma becomes more pessimistic, akin to the spiritual wasteland films appearing soon after. (Chapter ten)

1959: Castle of the Pyrenees by René Magritte In the case of Surrealist René Magritte, landscapes approach realism only to be undermined by something acutely contrary to nature, such as the hovering castle atop a rock in this painting. (Chapter one)

1959: North by Northwest It is no coincidence that Hitchcock pursued a narrative of mistaken and shifting identities from a springboard of Mount Rushmore’s anthropomorphic topography. In the film’s dramatic finale, the battle for restored national security or, rather, male identity is meted out upon the “face” of American consciousness. (Chapter ten)

1960: L’av ve ntura This film, directed by Michaelangelo Antonioni, signals the advent of a more overt, psychological approach to landscape allegory in cinema, especially in the pessimistic context of the postwar era. This film is seminal for its use of landscape, which allows the narrative to diverge radically from established conventions of storytelling. (Chapter six)

1962: Dog Star Man The incorporation of natural setting in Stan Brakhage’s avant-garde film opus informs how landscape allegory links avant-garde and mainstream practices. Brakhage establishes landscape allegory through a manipulated juxtaposition of human subject and landscape—as did many mainstream filmmakers of this period. (Chapter four)

1962: La rivière du hibou Robert Enrico’s adaptation of Ambrose Bierce’s short story “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge” vacillates between avant-garde practices and mainstream narrative conventions in order to “narra- tivize” its wilderness settings. As in Dog Star Man, the manipulation Chronology of Landscape Allegory 175 of camera perspective within the larger context of character and landscape juxtaposition in this film establishes its deeper symbolic import. (Chapter four)

1962: Lawrence of Arabia David Lean’s seminal mainstream allegory of the characteristically “Western” megalomaniac pitted against a “Third World” landscape and its native inhabitants. As in Dog Star Man and many other films of this period, the protagonist struggles against the landscape itself in an effort to conquer everything that derives from it. These narratives chastise the imperialist impulse when this character is effectively consumed by the landscape or, rather, by his own obsessive psyche. (Chapter eight)

1963: The Birds Hitchcock’s film suggests a larger threat from abroad or, more specifically, the skies above, in the form of common birds attacking the rural community of Bodega Bay in Northern California. In this latter suggestive approach, the face of American consciousness is presented through the landscape itself wherein the characters and their everyday interactions acting merely as supportive devices. (Chapter ten)

1964: Il deserto rosso Like Lisca Bianca in L’av ve ntura , the island setting in this later film by Antonioni is an objective correlative for the protagonist’s psyche. Rather than reflecting the “brute reality” of the modern psyche, the deserted island here becomes the tranquil dream necessary for the female protagonist’s perseverance. (Chapter six)

1965: Incubus Taking direct influence from Ingmar Bergman’s The Seventh Seal (1959), Leslie Stevens’ gothic landscape film features an aggressive use of natural settings to underscore the attempts at proselytizing an unknowing individual to the “God of Darkness.” (Chapter 10)

1965: Lord Jim Only three years after Lawrence of Arabia, Columbia released Richard Brooks’ Lord Jim, in which another characteristically “Western” megalomaniac ventures into the exotic indigenous landscape of a “Third World” culture, only to become its temporary ruler. This film also stars Peter O’Toole in the role of a military renegade who pursues a personal obsession both literally and figuratively into the “Third World wilderness” of his own psyche. (Chapter eight) 176 Landscape Allegory in Cinema

1966: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly Italian westerns of the 1960s and ’70s are an aggressive departure from the American westerns that came before. As with Antonioni’s films, Sergio Leone’s emphasis on desert wastelands is more accu- rately understood as a realist’s affirmation of modern society rather than a condemnation. (Chapter six)

1967: The Shooting In the defeatist cultural climate of the 1960s, the western became an ideal narrative vehicle for social critique and spiritual disillusionment. In this Monte Hellman film, the climactic duel among the rocks and other definitively western motifs serves to allegorize a more modern sensibility of existential and spiritual crisis. (Chapter five)

1968: The Girl on a Motorcycle Predating Easy Rider, Jack Cardiff’s film correlates the psychological universe of a female protagonist to accelerated movement through natural space, according to a larger allegory of existential futility. It exemplifies a potential genre of “feminist landscape” films. (Chapter ten)

1968: 2001: A Space Odyssey Stanley Kubrick’s seminal science-fiction film treats the region of outer space as another undiscovered wilderness to be navigated and controlled through human technology. Rather than manipulate ter- restrial settings, this science-fiction allegory portrays its introspective progression as an outward voyage into deep space. (Chapter nine)

1968: Planet of the Apes Where other landscape allegories use either a semi-historical past or a fictional present to assemble a critique of expansionism and exploitation, this Franklin J. Schaffner film, along with John Boorman’s Zardoz (1974), and Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), uses natural settings, including outer space, to create cautionary tales of what could happen if Western civilization continues on its present course. (Chapter nine)

1968: Teorema Pier Paolo Pasolini’s use of the arid, dark-brown slopes of Mount Etna become poignant according to his vitriolic indictments of Italian middle-class culture. Aside from their incorporation of an extremely hostile landscape, his films achieve their allegorical force through Chronology of Landscape Allegory 177

Pasolini’s assemblage of caricatures (e.g., as opposed to the more plausible characters found in Antonioni’s films). (Chapter six)

1969: Easy Rider In the same way that opposing attitudes between its two protagonists becomes thematic, this film’s emphasis on the highway’s natural surroundings sets up a dichotomy of the American landscape. It is both a representation of open possibility and an expansive space of resistance, refusing to become a final destination. In an allegory of psychological struggle between optimistic and pessimistic attitudes toward the future of American culture, the indigenous landscape itself becomes the final arbiter. (Chapter ten)

1969: Porcile Whereas Teorema’s treatment of Mount Etna preserves an abstract notion of space until the end of the film, Porcile maintains an allegorical correlation between the desolate landscape and the film’s bourgeois caricatures throughout. Only in their conclusions do these Pasolini films clearly establish this wasteland setting as the place of the modern psyche, and so retroactively justify their crosscutting approach. (Chapter six)

1970: El Topo On the surface, Alejandro Jodorowsky’s Mexican production appears to be a typical western: gunslingers, innocent townsfolk, and an expansive desert setting. But the landscape allegory becomes apparent when unfamiliar, surreal elements are juxtaposed with the landscape, resulting in a decidedly atypical film. (Chapter five)

1970: Zabriskie Point This film’s desert fantasy sequence is a telling example of Italian cinema’s obsession with desolate landscapes during the 1960s and ’70s. Like L’av ve ntura’s “adventure” to the deserted island of Lisca Bianca, this later Antonioni film suggests that such regions can be experi- enced only temporarily, if at all. (Chapter six)

1971: Vanishing Point Released only three years later, Richard C. Sarafian’s film borrows many narrative elements directly from Easy Rider. As an extension of the previous film, the allegory of anti-establishment values is sub- sumed into a larger existential allegory of futility. (Chapter ten) 178 Landscape Allegory in Cinema

1971: Walkabout Nicolas Roeg’s British production explores the marginalization of Australian Aborigine culture by way of two middle-class youths’ accidental trek through the outback’s hostile terrain. By focusing on a small set of representative characters, this film strives for a more overt allegory than other landscape-oriented films of the time. (Chapter seven)

1972: Aguirre: The Wrath of God Like Lawrence of Arabia, Werner Herzog’s film contains characters at least partly based on actual historical figures, and with plots involving a characteristically “Western” male whose personal obsession takes him deep into a “Third World” jungle wilderness. The protagonist’s descent into madness, reflected by the growing belief that he is destined for greatness, is proportional to the steadfast resistance of the river and the jungle against all attempts at being conquered. (Chapter nine)

1972: Deliverance Taking place entirely on American soil, this John Boorman film is a departure from the usual context of a “Third World” landscape and its indigenous culture. Nevertheless, it establishes a similar notion: a peripheral wilderness inhabited by a rustic culture that does not abide by urban lifestyles associated with Western society. (Chapter nine)

1973: Badlands A combination of road film and melodrama, this Terrence Malick film uses natural settings to reinforce an allegory of counterculture struggle with an unsympathetic establishment. (Chapter ten)

1973: The Holy Mountain After depicting an elaborate spiritual quest to a mountaintop, this Alejandro Jodorowsky film announces that it is “only a film” and so cannot offer any ultimate truth. Although less landscape-oriented, this film incorporates an indictment of cultural imperialism—in this case, the Spanish impact on Mexico’s indigenous peoples. (Chapter five)

1974: Zardoz This John Boorman film depicts a heroic “Western” figure within a bizarre futuristic setting: an enclosed, utopian culture existing within a mountainous landscape. The surrounding “outlands” in this film Chronology of Landscape Allegory 179 become the allegorical domain of a marginalized culture, especially in a “Third World” sense. (Chapter nine)

1975: Picnic at Hanging Rock Possibly influenced by Walkabout, Peter Weir’s film correlates an indigenous landscape with certain characters’ dream states, this time conjuring a sense of Australia’s collective cultural unconsciousness. The titular Hanging Rock’s role as a dreamscape moves beyond individual realms to the larger purpose of national mythmaking and how cultural imperialism manifests itself in the Australian context. (Chapter seven)

1975: The Man Who Would Be King This film is John Huston’s adaptation of Kipling’s turn-of-the-century indictment of British imperialist politics. Like Lawrence of Arabia, this film incorporates an extended wilderness sequence, in which the landscape presents itself to the traveling protagonists as an impassible obstacle, assuming the antagonist role in the narrative’s allegorical assemblage. (Chapter eight)

1977: Sorcerer As in Deliverance, this William Friedkin film’s landscape allegory of Western politics places four men in the protagonist role and pits them collectively against a hostile wilderness. Beyond its many depictions of struggle against the jungle itself, this film also associates the troubled psyche of its protagonist with the exotic setting through an atypical superimposition sequence. (Chapter nine)

1978: Days of Heaven Terrence Malick’s film interpolates extended shots of indigenous American landscape into its love-triangle narrative, suggesting a potential genre of “landscape melodrama” films. Its emerging sense of futility echoes Malick’s earlier film Badlands, as well as so many other landscape allegories of this period. (Chapter ten)

1979: Apocalypse Now Like Lord Jim, Francis Ford Coppola’s major Hollywood production is an adaptation of a turn-of-the-century Joseph Conrad story about “Third World” exploitation and the characteristically “Western” psyche. This film’s protagonist navigates a serpentine river through various jungle obstacles until he reaches the “heart” of the landscape or, rather, the core of his inner psychological universe. (Chapter eight) 180 Landscape Allegory in Cinema

1982: Fitzcarraldo Essentially a remake of Aguirre: The Wrath of God, this later Herzog film pits a “Western megalomaniac” against a “Third World” jungle in order to critique Western politics. The historical setting is much later, however, occurring in the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century context of South American rubber exploitation. (Chapter nine)

1984: Yellow Earth Chen Kaige’s film depicts the story of a peasant girl who attempts to defy her traditional existence by leaving to join the rapidly spread- ing communist party. The vast barren terrain plays a central role by not only dictating the protagonist’s desperate existence, but also by ultimately drowning her in the river coursing through it. This natural setting, in turn, establishes a larger political allegory that points to communism’s inability to improve the lives of China’s rural farmers. (Conclusion)

1985: Vagabond This Agnès Varda film reflects notions of female repression through its juxtaposition of a homeless female protagonist with desolate French rural landscapes. This is another example of a “feminist landscape” film. (Chapter ten)

1986: Mosquito Coast Pessimistic landscape allegories of the “Western megalomaniac,” like this Peter Weir film, surfaced occasionally in the 1980s, but such films never carried the same impact, and the cultural impulse of the previous two decades mostly subsided. This film depicts an American family attempting to exist in a jungle, where the patriarch assumes an imperialist function by exploiting native laborers to construct a mas- sive icemaker. (Chapter nine)

1990: The Sheltering Sky Bernardo Bertolucci makes spectacular use of African desert locations in this film. While its use of desert landscape underscores the female protagonist’s search for identity, the film’s “sexistential” narrative does not mobilize these inhabited spaces with the same allegorical impact as previous films. (Chapter six)

2000: El Valley Centro The underground filmmaker James Benning draws upon the same aesthetic heritage of landscape allegory in his work, continuing its tradition of communicating a universal message through natural Chronology of Landscape Allegory 181 landscapes. In this film trilogy, each 2½-minute landscape vignette of California’s Central Valley includes manifestations of industrial exploitation. (Conclusion)

2002: Gerry Occasionally, a landscape-oriented film still appears in the mainstream context, which seems to draw on the allegorical framework of films from the 1960s and ’70s. However, this Gus Van Sant film, like Zabriskie Point, demonstrates an ineffective juxtaposition of psychological struggle with a scenic but inhospitable wasteland. (Conclusion)

2007: Into the Wild Sean Penn’s film exploits the true account of Christopher McCandless‘s failed attempt to survive alone in the Alaskan wilderness for several months—toward a universal message of socialization and forgiveness. While the film spends much of its duration in societal contexts before McCandless’s exodus into inhospitable Alaskan terrains, Penn incorporates natural settings to underscore key moments of the youth’s psychological transformation. (Conclusion)

2007: No Country for Old Men This Coen Brothers film weaves a good deal of its narrative around an expansive desert location to confer a human dimension upon it. However, it does not allow its desert settings to remain fluid enough throughout its duration, nor does it spend enough time with the aging sheriff’s psychological struggle to make sense of the amoral universe he sees unfolding around him. In this way, it is closer to the escapist form of entertainment found in most Hollywood releases of its time than the heavy-handed landscape allegories of the 1960s and ’70s. (Conclusion) Notes

Introduction Defining Landscape Allegory

1. Gilles Deleuze, Cinema 2: The Time-Image (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989), p. 204. 2. Donald Meinig, Interpretations of the Ordinary Landscape (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 6. 3. Angus Fletcher, Allegory: The Theory of a Symbolic Mode (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1964), p. 2. 4. Craig Owens, “The Allegorical Impulse: Toward a Theory of Postmodernism,” October, 12 (Spring 1980): 67–86. 5. Angus Fletcher, Allegory: The Theory of a Symbolic Mode (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1964), p. 22. 6. Gilles Deleuze, Cinema 2: The Time-Image (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989), p. xi. 7. Frederic Jameson, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), pp. 1–54. 8. Scott MacDonald, The Garden in the Machine: A Field Guide to Independent Films about Place (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), p. 4.

One Landscape Depiction before Cinema

1. John M. Howe, “The Conversion of the Physical World: The Creation of a Christian Landscape,” in Varieties of Religious Conversion in the Middle Ages, ed. James Muldoon (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997), pp. 63–78. 2. A. Bartlett Giamatti, The Earthly Paradise and the Renaissance Epic (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966), p. 32. 3. Ibid., p. 84. 4. Ibid., p. 164. 5. Ibid., p. 351. 6. Ibid. 7. Peter Sutton, Masters of 17th Century Dutch Landscape Painting (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987), p. 1. 184 Notes

8. Josua Bruyn, “Toward a Scriptural Reading of Seventeenth Century Dutch Landscape Paintings” in Masters of 17th Century Dutch Landscape Painting, ed. Sutton, p. 100. 9. Peter Sutton, Masters of 17th Century Dutch Landscape Painting (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987), p. 1. 10. Humphrey Wine, Claude: The Poetic Landscape (London: National Gallery Publications, 1994), pp. 36–37. 11. Maynard Mack, The Garden and the City: Retirement and Politics in the Later Poetry of Pope, 1731–1743 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969), p. 21.

Two Spiritualized Landscapes of the Nineteenth Century

1. Thomas Weiskel, The Romantic Sublime (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), p. 4. 2. Angus Fletcher, Allegory: The Theory of a Symbolic Mode (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1964), p. 243. 3. Edward Casey, The Fate of Place: A Philosophical History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), p. 3. 4. Charles Sala, Caspar David Friedrich: The Spirit of Romantic Painting (Paris: Baya Presse S.A., 1994), p. 133. 5. Ibid., p. 79. 6. Ibid., p. 80. 7. Ibid., p. 81. 8. Barbara Novak, Nature and Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 22. 9. Martin Christadler, “American Romanticism and the Meanings of Landscape” in Myth and Enlightenment in American Literature, ed. Dieter Meindl and Friedrich W. Horlacher (Erlangen: Universitatsbund, 1985), p. 72. 10. Albert Boime, The Magisterial Gaze: Manifest Destiny and the American Landscape Painting (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1991), pp. 21–22. 11. Ibid., pp. 21–22. 12. Ibid., p. 8. 13. Thomas Cole, “Essay on American Scenery,” American Monthly Magazine 1 (January 1836): 1–12. 14. Boime, The Magisterial Gaze, p. 8. 15. Gene Edward Veith, Painters of Faith: The Spiritual Landscape in Nineteenth Century America (Washington, DC: Regnery Publishers, 2001), p. 17. 16. Martin Christadler, “American Romanticism and the Meanings of Landscape” in Myth and Enlightenment in American Literature, ed. Meindl and Horlacher, p. 98. Notes 185

17. Edgar Allan Poe, “The Domain of Arnheim” in The Short Fiction of Edgar Allan Poe: An Annotated Edition, ed. Stuart Levine and Susan F. Levine (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1976), p. 7. 18. Kent Ljungquist, The Grand and the Fair: Poe’s Landscape Aesthetics and Pictorial Techniques (Potomac: Scripta Humanistica, 1984), p. 139.

Three Advent of Filming Landscape Allegory

1. Friedrich Nietzsche, Twilight of the Idols/The Anti-Christ (London: Penguin Books, 1968), p. 89. 2. Albert Boime, The Magisterial Gaze: Manifest Destiny and the American Landscape Painting, 1830–1865 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1991), p. 151. 3. Jonathan Spaulding, Ansel Adams and the American Landscape: A Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), pp. 26–27. 4. Ibid., p. 50.

Four Depiction of Landscape in Avant-Garde Films

1. P. Adams Sitney, Visionary Film: The American-Garde, 1943–1978 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. xii. 2. R. Bruce Elder, The Films of Stan Brakhage in the American Tradition of Ezra Pound, Gertrude Stein, and Charles Olson (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1998), p. 144. 3. Sitney, Visionary Film, p. 190. 4. Ibid., p. 190. 5. Stan Brakhage, “Metaphors on Vision/by Brakhage,” Film Culture 30 (Autumn 1963, reprinted 1976), p. 5. 6. P. Adams Sitney, Visionary Film: The American-Garde, 1943–1978 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 190. 7. Elder, Films of Stan Brakhage, p. 144. 8. David James, Allegories of Cinema (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), p. 40. 9. Sitney, Visionary Film, p. 41. 10. Alejandro Jodorowsky, El Topo: A Book of the Film (London: Calder & Boyars, 1974), p. 97. 11. Ambrose Bierce, Tales of Soldiers and Civilians (Kent: Kent State University Press, 2004), p. 13. 12. Ibid., p. 16. 13. Ibid., p. 13. 186 Notes

14. Germaine Dulac, “The Essence of the Cinema: The Visual Idea,” The Avant-Garde Film (New York: New York University Press, 1978), p. 43. 15. Ibid., p. 45. 16. Sitney, Visionary Film, p. 14. 17. Ibid., p. 11. 18. Maya Deren, “Cinematography: The Creative Use of Reality,” Daedalus, vol. 89, no. 1: The Visual Arts Today (Winter 1960): 150–167. 19. Ibid.

Five Spiritual Wasteland Films

1. Philip French, Westerns (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 106. 2. Scott Simmon, The Invention of the Western Film (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 53. 3. French, Westerns, p. 107. 4. Ibid., p. 104. 5. David Lusted, The Western (Harlow: Pearson Longman, 2003), p. 153. 6. Ibid., p. 126. 7. R. Philip Loy, Westerns in a Changing America, 1955–2000 (Jefferson: McFarland, 2004), pp. 40–41. 8. Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), p. 6. 9. Ibid., p. 10. 10. Ibid., p. 86. 11. Alejandro Jodorowsky, El Topo: A Book of the Film (London: Calder & Boyars, 1974), p. 130.

Six Italian Wasteland Allegory

1. Edward Relph, Place and Placelessness (London: Pion Limited, 1976), p. 22. 2. Ibid., p. 23. 3. Edward Casey, The Fate of Place: A Philosophical History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), p. 78. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid. 6. Seymour Chatman, Antonioni, or, The Surface of the World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 46–47. 7. Marcia Landy, Italian Film (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 296. Notes 187

8. Harry Trosman, “L’av ventura and the Presentation of Emptiness” in Contemporary Psychoanalysis and Masterworks of Art and Film (New York: New York University Press, 1996), p. 135. 9. David Forgacs, “Antonioni, Space, Sexuality” in Spaces in European Cinema, ed. Myrto Konstantarakos (Exeter: Intellect Books, 2000), p. 104. 10. Peter Bondanella, Italian Cinema: From Neorealism to the Present (New York: Continuum International, 2001), p. 212. 11. Seymour Chatman, Antonioni, or, The Surface of the World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), p. 51. 12. Ibid., p. 55. 13. Ibid., pp. 90–91. 14. Ibid., p. 90. 15. Bondanella, Italian Cinema, p. 221. 16. Maurizio Viano, A Certain Realism: Making Use of Pasolini’s Film Theory and Practice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 205. 17. Ibid., pp. 201–206. 18. Chatman, Antonioni, p. 55. 19. Viano, A Certain Realism, p. 224. 20. Ibid., p. 234. 21. Ibid., p. 217. 22. Marcia Landy, Italian Film (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 188. 23. Bondanella, Italian Cinema, p. 255. 24. Chatman, Antonioni, p. 164. 25. Ibid., p. 166. 26. Casey, The Fate of Place, p. 182. 27. Ibid., p. 201. 28. Ibid., p. 207.

Seven Australian Outback Allegory

1. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory (Bath: Harper Collins, 1976), pp. 6–7. 2. Ibid., p. 13. 3. Ibid., p. 191. 4. Michael Bliss, Dreams within a Dream: The Films of Peter Weir (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2000), p. 57. 5. Gerard Genette, Figures of Literary Discourse (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), pp. 96–97. 6. J. Allan Hobson, The Dreaming Brain (New York: Basic Books, 1988), p. 230. 188 Notes

7. Kay Schaffer, Women and the Bush (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 49. 8. Ibid., p. 55. 9. Jonathan Rayner, The Films of Peter Weir (London: Cassell, 1998), p. 69. 10. Ibid., p. 71. 11. Schaffer, Women and the Bush, p. 55. 12. Ibid., p. 52. 13. Ibid., p. 56. 14. Ibid., p. 110. Bibliography

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Academy Award, 63, 157 Il grido, 87 Adams, Ansel, 48–50, 54–55, 74, L’av ventura , 5, 87–91, 93, 96–97, 117, 172 113, 151, 174–175, 177 Clearing Winter Storm, 49, 172 L’eclisse, 89 Adorno, Theodor W., 6 La notte, 89 Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Passenger, The, 15, 95, 97 The, 67, 168 Zabriskie Point, 15, 79, 93, Affleck, Casey, 156 95–97, 136, 157, 177, 181 Aguirre, Lope de, 124 Apocalypse Now, 7, 13, 17, 67, 112, Aguirre: The Wrath of God, 7, 17, 118–120, 125–126, 128, 67, 112, 122–128, 130, 143, 130, 134, 169, 179 154–155, 173, 178, 180 Apocalypse Now Redux, 120–121, Alabama Hills, 12 127 Allegory, 3–7, 8, 10, 13–17, 22, 28, Argenti, Filippo, 4 30, 32–33, 35–36, 43, 44, Ariosto, 26 47, 56, 61, 64, 66–68, Arnaud, Georges, 131 70–71, 73, 77–78, 81–82, Wages of Fear, The, 131 85, 87–97, 99–109, 111, At Land, 66–69, 71, 172 113–121, 127, 131, 135, 140, Augustine, Saint, 86 142–148, 150–151, 156–159, Avercamp, Hendrick, 28 163, 165, 171, 173–178, 180 Landscape, 1–5, 7–19, 21–22, 24, Badlands, 151, 178–179 26–28, 30–32, 36–38, 40, Banerjee, Kanu, 160 42, 44–60, 62, 64, 66, 68, Banerjee, Subir, 160 70–71, 73–76, 78, 80–83, Barbizon School, 51 86–87, 111–121, 123–124, Bardem, Javier, 157 126, 128, 130, 132, Bartram, William, 39–40 134–136, 139–161, 163–181 Travels, 39 Alpers, Svetlana, 21 Bastien–Lepage, Jules, 51 Alte Pinakothek, 9 Beatty, Ned, 129 Amidou, 131 Ben Hur, 1 Andrews, Malcolm, 21 Bend of the River, 14, 76–77, 173 Angelopoulos, Theo, 151 Beneath the Planet of the Apes, 133 Anger, Kenneth, 59 Benning, James, 18, 154–156, 180 Antonioni, Michelangelo, 5–6, 15, California Trilogy, 154 59, 79, 82, 85, 87–91, 95, 97, El Valley Centro, 18, 155, 180 102, 106, 113, 174–177 Los, 18 Il deserto rosso, 89, 91, 95, 97, Sogobi, 18, 155 102, 175 Berchem, Nicolaes, 28 198 Index

Bergman, Ingmar, 151, 175 British National Gallery, 9 Seventh Seal, The, 151, 173, 175 Brolin, Josh, 157 Bergman, Ingrid, 145, 147 Brooks, Richard, 7, 116 Bertolucci, Bernardo, 97, 152, 180 Lord Jim, 7, 116, 118–119, Sheltering Sky, The, 97, 152, 180 127, 175, 179 Bierce, Ambrose, 64–66, 68–70, Brown, Charles Brockden, 42 168, 174 Browning, Todd, 82 “Occurrence at Owl Creek Freaks, 82 Bridge, An,” 63, 66–67, 168 Bruegel, Jan, 27 Bierstadt, Albert, 40, 49, 172 Bruyn, Josua, 29, 30 Domes of the Yosemite, 49, Buñuel, Luis, 7, 17 168, 172 Robinson Crusoe, 7, 17, 173 Birds, The, 144, 175 Burke, Edmund, 35 Blake, William, 33 Bussieres, Jean de, 31 Bliss, Michael, 103–104 Descriptions poétiques, 31 Bloemaert, Abraham, 28 Bodega Bay, 144, 175 Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, The, 1, 12, Boetticher, Burt, 2, 12 18, 53, 140, 170 Tall T, The, 2 Caine, Michael, 117 Bogart, Humphrey, 141–142 California Trilogy, 154 Boime, Albert, 40–42, 48, 50, 167 Cameron, James, 136 Bondanella, Peter, 89, 91, 94 Terminator, The, 136, 154 Boorman, John, 17, 67, 128, 132, Camus, Albert, 71 136, 173, 176, 178 The Myth of Sisyphus, 71 Deliverance, 17, 67, 128–131, Cannes Film Festival, 63 155, 173, 178–179 Palme d’Or, 63 Zardoz, 132–135, 176, 178 Capra, Frank, 56 Border Incident, 141 Lost Horizon, 56, 171 Bordwell, David, 53 Cardiff, Jack, 152, 176 Bosch, Hieronymus, 9, 21, 24, Girl on a Motorcycle, The, 26, 163 152, 176 Garden of Earthly Delights, The, Carracci, Annibale, 28 9, 24, 26, 163 Casey, Edward S., 36, 79, 80, 86, Last Judgment, The, 24 88, 96–97, 136 Both, Jan, 28, 165 Fate of Place, The, 86 Landscape with the Judgment of Castle of the Pyrenees, 24, 174 Paris, 28 Chahulawassee River, 129 “Bower of Bliss,” 26, 164 Chang, 56, 170 Boyle, Richard, 32, 165 Chatman, Seymour, 87, 89–90, Brakhage, Stan, 13–14, 18, 58–63, 92, 94–95 71, 128, 174 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 4, 163 Dog Star Man: Part 1, 58–61, 63, Parliament of Fowls, 4, 163 66, 70–71, 75, 105, 113, 128, Chekhov, Michael, 145 130, 158, 174–175 Christadler, Martin, Brando, Marlon, 119 39, 44 Index 199

Christianity, 4, 6, 9, 22, 23, 25, 26, Coppola, Francis Ford, 7, 13, 17, 67, 36, 37, 38, 42, 44, 59, 86, 112, 118–121, 123, 127, 136, 94, 100, 126, 164, 169, 179 166, 167 Apocalypse Now, 7, 13, 17, 67, Church, Frederic, 40 112, 118–20, 125–126, 128, Clearing Winter Storm, 49, 172 130, 134, 169, 179 Clementi, Pierre, 92 Apocalypse Now Redux, Clouzot, Henri, 131 120–121, 127 Wages of Fear, The, 131 Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille, 51 Coen, Ethan, 157 Couer fidèle, 53 Coen, Joel, 157 Course of Empire, The, 11, 41–42, Coen, Joel and Ethan, 157 60, 136, 153, 167 No Country for Old Men, Cox, Ronny, 129 157, 181 Cremer, Bruno, 131 Cole, Thomas, 11, 31–32, 40–45, Cyclops, The, 51, 170 48, 60, 67, 120, 136, 153, 158, 167–168 Dalí, Salvador, 24, 52, 83, 145–146, Course of Empire, The, 11, 171–172 41–42, 60, 136, 153, 167 Persistence of Memory, The, 24, “Essay on American Scenery,” 41 145, 171 View from Mount Holyoke, Sun Table, 24 Northampton, Damon, Matt, 156 Massachusetts, after a Dante, 86, 163 Thunder Storm (The Inferno, 4, 163 Oxbow), 11, 40, 167 Davison, George, 51, 169 Voyage of Life, The, 42–43, Onion Field, The, 51, 169 67, 120, 153, Days of Heaven, 151, 179 158, 167 De Chirico, Giorgio, 24, 170 Youth, 43, 167 Uncertainty of the Poet, The, Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 33 24, 170 Confessions, 86 De Crèvecœur, Hector St. John, Coninxloo, Gillis van, 28 39 Connery, Sean, 117, 133 Letters from an American Conrad, Joseph, 45, 118–119, Farmer, 39 169, 179 De Meun, Jean, 4 Heart of Darkness, The, 45, Roman de la Rose, 4, 163 119, 169 De Sica, Vittorio, 86, 88 Constable, John, 33 Ladri di biciclette, 86 Cooper, James Fenimore, 41–43 Umberto D, 86 Pioneers, The, 41 Death of Actaeon, The, 25, 164 Cooper, Merian C., 56, 170–171 Death Valley, 6, 79, 95 Chang, 56, 170 Defoe, Daniel, 173 Grass: A Nation’s Battle for Life, Deleuze, Gilles, 1, 5–6 56, 170 Deliverance, 17, 67, 128–131, 155, King Kong, 56, 171 173, 178–179 200 Index

Demachy, Robert, 52, 169 La chute de la maison Usher, 53, Landscape, 52, 169 71, 103, 171 Deren, Maya, 13–14, 18, 59, 62–63, “Essay on American Scenery,” 41 66–68, 71, 172 “Eureka,” 44, 108 At Land, 66–69, 71, 172 Expressionism, 140 Meshes of the Afternoon, 66 German, 1, 53, 140, 170 Descriptions poétiques, 31 Dog Star Man: Part 1, 58–61, 63, Far Country, The, 14 66, 70–71, 75, 105, 113, 128, Fate of Place, The, 86 130, 158, 174–175 Fitzcarraldo, 7, 17, 67, 123, “Domain of Arnheim, The,” 43–44, 126–129, 158, 173, 180 67, 167–168 Flaherty, Robert, 3, 12, 55–57, Domenichino, 28 166, 170 Domes of the Yosemite, 49, Moana, 56, 170 168, 172 Nanook of the North, 3, 12, Double Indemnity, 140 55–56, 71, 166, 170 “Dream within a Dream, A,” 103 Fleischer, Richard, 1 Duel in the Sun, 72–73, 75–77, 111, Vikings, The, 1 172–173 Fletcher, Angus, 3, 4, 35 Dulac, Germaine, 64–66 Fonda, Peter, 149 Dullea, Keir, 135 Ford, John, 2, 12, 14, 74, 94 Searchers, The, 75 E .T.: The Extraterrestrial, 136 Stagecoach, 2, 14, 74 Easy Rider, 148–151, 176–177 Forgacs, David, 88 El Norte, 70 Frankfurt School, 6 El Topo, 15, 62–63, 81, 83, Freaks, 82 99–100, 109, 111, 177 Frechette, Mark, 95 El Valley Centro, 18, 155, 180 French, Philip, 73–74 Elder, R. Bruce, 60–62, 70 Friedkin, William, 17, 59, 128, Eliot, T.S., 89 130–132, 136, 179 “Elk, The,” 43, 67, 168 Sorcerer, 17, 63, 128, 130–131, Elysium, 25, 26, 44 135–136, 179 Emerson, Peter H., 51, 168 Friedrich, Caspar David, 10, 13, 34, Gathering Water-Lilies, 51, 168 36–41, 55, 60, 102, 114, Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 11, 39, 42 120, 153, 166 Nature, 39 Monk by the Sea, 55, 166 Enrico, Robert, 63–71, 102, Morning in the Riesengebirge, 37, 119–120, 125, 168, 166 172, 174 Wanderer above the Sea of Fog, La rivière du hibou, 63–66, 10, 13, 34, 38, 102, 166 68–71, 73, 75, 102, 119, 125, Woman in Front of the Setting 168, 172, 174 Sun, 38, 166 Epistle to Burlington, 32, 165 Epstein, Jean, 53–54, 56–57, 64, Galatea, 51 66, 103, 171 Garden of Earthly Delights, The, 9, Couer fidèle, 53 24, 26, 163 Index 201

Gathering Water-Lilies, 51, 168 Hitchcock, Alfred, 144–146, 151, Geddes, Barbara Belle, 147 171, 172, 174–175 Genette, Gerard, 103 Birds, The, 144, 175 Genghis Khan, 1 North by Northwest, 144, 174 Giamatti, A. Bartlett, 21, 25–26, Spellbound, 144–46, 148, 33, 44 171–172 Girl on a Motorcycle, The, 152, 176 Vertigo, 144, 146–147, 149, 174 Girotti, Massimo, 92 Hitch-Hiker, The, 141 Godeau, Antoine, 31 Hobson, J. Allan, 104 Poésies chrétiennes, 31 Holbrook, Hal, 158 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 33, Holy Mountain, The, 83, 178 38 Homer, Winslow, 44 Gone with the Wind, 75 Hopper, Dennis, 149 Good, the Bad, and the Ugly, The, Easy Rider, 148–151, 4, 94, 176 176, 177 Grass: A Nation’s Battle for Life, Horkheimer, Max, 6 56, 170 Hudson River School, 11, 22, 39, Grand Tour, The, 28, 32, 165 42, 48–49, 55, 168, 172 Gray, Vivean, 107 Huston, John, 7, 13, 17, 59, 116, Guard, Dominic, 105 133, 135, 141, 168 Man Who Would Be King, The, Haarlem, 28, 165 7, 13, 17, 63, 116–119, 128, Halprin, Daria, 95 153, 179 Hawks, Howard, 94 Treasure of the Sierra Madre, Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 11, 42 141–142 Heade, Martin Johnson, 44 Huyssen, Andreas, 5, 60 Heart of Darkness, The, 45, 119, 169 Idealism, 11, 44 Hellman, Monte, 14, 63, 77, 176 Il buono, il brutto, il cattivo, see Shooting, The, 15, 63, 77–78, 94, Good, the Bad, and the Ugly, 119, 176 The Il deserto rosso, 89, 91, Helmore, Tom, 146 95, 97, 102, 175 Hermitage, The, 9 Il grido, 87 Herzog, Werner, 7, 17, 67, 112, Il vangelo secondo Matteo, 91 122–124, 126–130, 136, Impressionism, 44, 51–53, 143, 154–155, 173, 178, 180 56–57, 169 Aguirre: The Wrath of God, 7, 17, French, 54 67, 112, 122–128, 130, 143, Incubus, 151, 175 154–155, 173, 178, 180 Indiana Jones, 154 Fitzcarraldo, 7, 17, 67, 123, Inferno, 141 126–129, 158, 173, 180 Inglourious Basterds, 139 My Best Fiend, 124 Interpretations of the Ordinary Heston, Charlton, 132, 133 Landscape, 2 High Noon, 76 Into the Wild, 158, 181 High Sierra, 141, 142, 171 Italianate School, 28–30, 48, Hirsch, Emile, 158 164–165 202 Index

Jackson, J.B., 2 Ladri di biciclette, 86 Jackson, William H., 46, 48–49, Lambert, Anne, 104 168, 172 Landau, Martin, 144 South Dome from Glacier Point, Landscape, 30, 52, 164, 169 California, 46, 49, 168, 172 Landscape and Memory, 99 Jagger, Mick, 127 Landscape Garden, The, 43 James, David, 61–62 Landscape with Hagar and the Jameson, Fredric, 5–6 Angel, 20, 31, 165 Jarratt, John, 105 Landscape with Narcissus and Jefferson, Thomas, 39 Echo, 32, 164 Notes on Virginia, 39 Landscape with the Judgment of Jewish Cemetery, 30, 165 Paris, 28 Jodorowsky, Alejandro, 15, 62, 81, Landy, Marcia, 88, 94 83, 177, 178 Lane, Fitz Hugh, 44 El Topo, 15, 62–63, 81, 83, Lang, Fritz, 140 99–100, 109, 111, 177 Woman in the Window, The, 140 Holy Mountain, The, 83, 178 Lawrence of Arabia, 7, 13, 16, 110, Jones, Jennifer, 75 112–114, 116–119, 123, 127, Jones, Tommy Lee, 157 175, 178–179 Journal of Julius Rodman, The, Lawrence, T.E., 17, 113 43, 167 Lean, David, 7, 13, 16, 110, 112–113, 117, 135, 175 Kaige, Chen, 160, 180 Lawrence of Arabia, 7, 13, 16, Yellow Earth, 160, 180 110, 112–114, 116–119, 123, Kant, Immanuel, 35, 38, 86, 96 127, 175, 178–179 Khnopff, Fernand, 52, 169 Leaud, Jean-Pierre, 92 Pool at Menil, The, 52, 169 L’eclisse, 89 King Kong, 56, 171 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, 5 Kinski, Klaus, 123–124, 127–128 Leone, Sergio, 4, 15, 85, 94, Kipling, Rudyard, 45, 116, 168, 179 96–97, 176 Man Who Would Be King, The, Good, the Bad, and the Ugly, 45, 116, 168, 179 The, 4, 94, 176 Kubrick, Stanley, 132, 134, 176 Il buono, il brutto, il cattivo, 94 2001: A Space Odyssey, 132, Leslie, Joan, 141 134–135, 176 Letters from an American Farmer, 39 Kurosawa, Akira, 159–160, 173 Levin, Henry, 1 Rashomon, 159, 173 Genghis Khan, 1 Lindsay, Joan, 106, 108 L’av ventura , 5, 87–91, 93, 96–97, Picnic at Hanging Rock, 106 113, 151, 174–175, 177 Lisca Bianca, 88, 91, 93, 96, La chute de la maison Usher, 53, 175, 177 71, 103, 171 Little, Cleavon, 151 La notte, 89 Ljungquist, Kent, 44–45 La rivière du hibou, 63–66, 68–71, London, Jack, 158 73, 75, 102, 119, 125, 168, Lord Jim, 7, 116, 118–119, 127, 172, 174 175, 179 Index 203

Lorrain, Claude, 20–22, 28, 30–32, Metamorphoses, 4, 90, 163 43, 51, 164–165, 167, 169 Millet, Jean-Francis, 51 Landscape with Hagar and the Milton, John, 26, 33, 35, 165 Angel, 20, 31, 165 Paradise Lost, 26, 35, 165 Landscape with Narcissus and Moana, 56, 170 Echo, 32, 164 Modernism, 5, 44, 56, 96 Los, 18 Monk by the Sea, 55, 166 Lost Horizon, 56, 171 Monty Python and the Holy Grail, Louvre, The, 9 70 Loy, R. Philip, 76 Monument Valley, 74 Lucas, George, 17, 136 Moreau, Gustave, 51 Star Wars, 17, 154 Galatea, 51 Luminism, 22, 44, 43, 52, 169 Morning, 38, 166 Lupino, Ida, 141 Morning in the Riesengebirge, 37, Lusted, David, 74, 75 166 Lyotard, Jean-Francois, 5 “Morning on the Wissahiccon,” 43, 167 MacDonald, Scott, 11, 12 Morricone, Ennio, 94 Mack, Maynard, 32–33 Mosquito Coast, 136, 180 Magritte, René, 24, 83, 174 Mount Etna, 91–94, 176, 177 Castle of the Pyrenees, 24, 174 Mount Rushmore, 144, 174 Malick, Terrence, 151, 178 Muir, John, 50 Badlands, 151, 178–179 Muir Woods National Monument, Days of Heaven, 151, 179 147 Man of the West, 76 Murphy, Richard, 5, 60 Man Who Would Be King, The, 7, My Best Fiend, 124 13, 17, 45, 63, 116, 118–119, Naked Spur, The, 14, 76 128, 153, 168, 179 Nanook of the North, 3, 12, Manifest Destiny, 22, 36, 37, 55–56, 71, 166, 170 41–42, 48, 50, 136, 168 Myth of Sisyphus, The, 71 Mann, Anthony, 12, 14, 76, 89, 142, 171, 173 Naturalism, 8, 25, 30, 31, 44, Bend of the River, 14, 76, 77, 173 50–51, 54–56, 59, 164, 165 Far Country, The, 14 Dutch, 18, 28–30, 33, 48, 165 Man of the West, 76 Nature, 39 Naked Spur, The, 14, 76 Nature and Culture, 39 Winchester ‘73, 13, 14, Nefud desert, 114 76–77, 173 Nelson, Margaret, 104 Marx, Leo, 21 Neoclassicism, 32–33, 165 McCandless, Christopher, 158, 181 Neorealism, 86, 88 McNally, Stephen, 76 Newman, Barry, 150 Meinig, Donald, 2 Nicholson, Jack, 97 Interpretations of the Ordinary Nietzsche, Friedrich, 47 Landscape, 2 No Country for Old Men, 157, 181 Melville, Herman, 11, 42 North by Northwest, 144, 174 Meshes of the Afternoon, 66 Notes on Virginia, 39 204 Index

Novak, Barbara, 21, 39 “Domain of Arnheim, The,” Nature and Culture, 39 43–44, 67, 167–168 Novak, Kim, 146 “Dream within a Dream, A,” 103 “Elk, The,” 43, 67, 168 O’Sullivan, Timothy H., 48 “Eureka,” 44, 108 O’Toole, Peter, 113, 116, 118–119, “Fall of the House of Usher, 123–124, 127, 132, 175 The,” 53, 171 Oates, Warren, 77 Journal of Julius Rodman, The, Objectism, 61 43, 167 “Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge, “Morning on the Wissahiccon,” An,” 63, 66–67, 168 43, 167 Odyssey, The, 67 “William Wilson,” 77 Olson, Charles, 61 Poelenburgh, Cornelius van, 28, On Dangerous Ground, 141 165 Onion Field, The, 51, 169 Landscape with the Judgment of Osbert, Alphonse, 52, 53, 169, 171 Paris, 28 Song of the Night, 52, 169 Poésies chrétiennes, 31 Out of the Past, 140 Poliziano, 26 Ovid, 4, 25, 31–32, 90, 163–165 Pond, The, 52, 169 Metamorphoses, 4, 90, 163 Pool at Menil, The 52, 169 Pope, Alexander, 32–33, 37, 165 Paisan, 87 Epistle to Burlington, 32, 165 Paradise Lost, 26, 35, 165 Porcile, 15, 91–93, 177 Parliament of Fowls, 4, 163 Postmodernism, 5, 45 Pasolini, Pier Paolo, 15, 82, 84–85, Poussin, Nicolas, 33 91, 103, 106, 176–177 Prado, The, 9 Porcile, 15, 91–93, 177 Pursued, 141 Teorema, 15, 84, 91–93, 176–177 Passenger, The, 15, 95, 97 Rabal, Francisco, 131 Pather Panchali, 160, 173 Rafelson, Bob, 59 Peck, Gregory, 75, 145 Raiders of the Lost Ark, 136 Peckinpah, Sam, 59 Rampling, Charlotte, 134 Penn, Sean, 158, 181 Rashomon, 159, 173 Into the Wild, 158, 181 Ray, Satyajit, 159–160 Persistence of Memory, The, 24, Pather Panchali, 160, 173 145, 171 Rayner, Jonathan, 107–108 Petrarch, 26 Redon, Odilon, 51, 170 Picnic at Hanging Rock, 15, 90, 98, Cyclops, The, 51, 170 100, 103–109, 111, 124–125, Relph, Edward, 85, 87 130, 155, 159, 179 Remington, Frederic, 74 Pinhole Camera, 51, 52, 169 Reynolds, Burt, 129 Pioneers, The, 41 Ride the Pink Horse, 141 Planet of the Apes, 132–134, 176 Rijksmuseum, 9 Poe, Edgar Allan, 11, 42–45, River Scene with Ruined Tower, 10, 52–54, 64, 66–67, 77, 103, 164 105, 108, 167–169, 171 Robards, Jason, 127 Index 205

Robinson Crusoe, 7, 17, 173 Landscape, 30, 164 Robson, Karen, 107 Selznick, David O., 72, 75 Roeg, Nicolas, 15, 79, 100, 103, Duel in the Sun, 72–73, 75–77, 155, 178 111, 172–173 Walkabout, 15, 79, 100–104, Gone with the Wind, 75 106–108, 111, 155, 178–179 Seventh Seal, The, 151, 173, 175 Roman de la Rose, 4, 163 Shane, 75 Romanticism, 7, 28, 33, 48, 60–62, Sheen, Martin, 119 71, 164 Sheltering Sky, The, 97, 152, 180 American, 44 Shooting, The, 15, 63, 77–78, 94, German, 10, 60 119, 176 Rossellini, Roberto, 5, 87, 88 Simmon, Scott, 74 Paisan, 87 Sistine Chapel, The, 23 Stromboli, 5, 87 Sitney, P. Adams, 59, 60, 62, 65–66 Voyage to Italy, 87 Snow Storm: Hannibal and his Ruckenfigur, 10, 11, 41, 114 Army Crossing the Alps, 56, Ruisdael, Jacob van, 30, 165 166 Jewish Cemetery, 30, 165 Sogobi, 18, 155 Runge, Philip Otto, 38–39, 166 Song of the Night, 52, 169 Morning, 38, 166 Sorcerer, 17, 63, 128, 130–131, Ruysdael, Salomon van, 29 135–136, 179 South Dome from Glacier Point, Sahara Desert, 6, 97 California, 46, 49, 168, 172 Saint-Amant, 31 Space and Place, 78 Sala, Charles, 37–39, 102 Spaulding, Jonathan, 50 Sarafian, Richard C., 138, 150, 177 Spellbound, 144–146, 148, 171–172 Vanishing Point, 138, 150, 177 Spenser, Edmund, 26, 164 Savery, Roelandt, 28 “Bower of Bliss,” 26, 164 Schaffer, Kay, 106, 108 Faerie Queen, The 26, 164 Women in the Bush, 106 Spielberg, Steven, 136 Schaffner, Franklin J., 132, 176 E. T.: The Extraterrestrial, 136 Planet of the Apes, 132–134, 176 Indiana Jones, 154 Schama, Simon, 80, 99–101, 136 Raiders of the Lost Ark, 136 Landscape and Memory, 99 Stagecoach, 2, 14, 74 Scheider, Roy, 132 Star Wars, 17, 136, 154 Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Steichen, Edward, 52–53, 169, 171 Joseph, 38 Pond, The, 52, 169 Schoedsack, Ernest B., 56, 170–171 Stevens, Leslie, 151 Chang, 56, 170 Incubus, 151, 175 Grass: A Nation’s Battle for Life, Stewart, James, 13, 76, 146 56, 170 Stromboli, 5, 87 King Kong, 56, 171 Sublime, The, 10, 28, 35–40, Schuler, Christine, 107 43–44, 49, 125, 153, Scrovegni Chapel, 23 164, 167 Searchers, The, 75 American, 21, 30, 39–40 Seghers, Hercules, 28–30, 164 European, 15, 21, 37, 40, 166 206 Index

Sublime—Continued Vagabond, 152, 180 Romantic, 21, 35, 120 Vallis, Jane, 107 Sun Table, 24 Van de Velde, Esaias, 9, 28, 164 Surrealism, 24, 52, 62, 66, 170, 174 Van Goyen, Jan, 10, 29, 164 Sutton, Peter, 29, 30 River Scene with Ruined Tower, Masters of 17th Century Dutch 10, 164 Landscape Painting, 29 Van Sant, Gus, 156–157, 181 Symbolism, 51–54, 169, 170–171 Drugstore Cowboy, 156 Finding Forrester, 156 Tall T, The, 2 Gerry, 156, 196 Tarantino, Quentin, 139 Good Will Hunting, 156 Inglourious Basterds, 139 Vanishing Point, 138, 150, 177 Tarkovsky, Andrei, 151 Varda, Agnès, 152 Tasso, Torquato, 26, 164 Vagabond, 152, 180 Teorema, 15, 84, 91–93, 176–177 Vasquez Rocks, 12 Terminator, The, 136, 154 Veith, Gene Edward, 42 Thoreau, Henry David, 11, 42, 158 Vertigo, 144, 146–147, 149, 174 Titian, 25, 164 Viano, Maurizio, 91–93 Death of Actaeon, The, 25, 164 View from Mount Holyoke, Tonalism, 52, 169 Northampton, Topaz, 144 Massachusetts, after a Torn Curtain, 144 Thunder Storm (The Treasure of the Sierra Madre, Oxbow), 11, 40, 167 141–142, 172 Vikings, The, 1 Trissino, Giangiorgio, 26, 164 Vinckboons, David, 28 Trosman, Harry, 88 Vitti, Monica, 90 Tuan, Yi-Fu, 2, 78–80, 86, 97, Voight, Jon, 129 99, 136 Voltaire, 5 Space and Place, 78 Candide, 5 Turner, J.M.W., 31–33, 44, 55, 166 Zadig, 5 Snow Storm: Hannibal and his Voyage of Life, The, 42–43, 67, Army Crossing the Alps, 56, 120, 153, 158, 167 166 Voyage to Italy, 87 Twain, Mark, 67 Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Wages of Fear, The, 131 The, 67, 168 Walkabout, 15, 79, 100–104, Twilight Zone, The, 63, 73 106–108, 111, 155, 178–179 2001: A Space Odyssey, 132–135, Wallach, Eli, 94 176 Walsh, Raoul, 141 High Sierra, 141, 142, 171 Umberto D, 86 Wanderer above the Sea of Fog, 10, Un chien Andalou, 66 13, 34, 38, 102, 166 Uncertainty of the Poet, The, 24, Watkins, Carleton, 48, 74 170 Weir, Peter, 15, 90, 98, 100, 103, Urubamba River, 124 136, 179, 180 Utrecht, 28 Mosquito Coast, 136, 180 Index 207

Picnic at Hanging Rock, 15, 90, Wuthering Heights, 152, 171 98, 100, 103–109, 111, Wyler, William, 1, 152, 171 124–125, 130, 155, 159, 179 Ben Hur, 1 Weiskel, Thomas, 35 Wuthering Heights, 152, 171 Wiene, Robert, 1, 170 Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, The, 1, Xue, Bai, 160 12, 18, 53, 140, 170 “William Wilson,” 77 Yellow Earth, 160, 180 Winchester ‘73, 13–14, 76–77, 173 Yosemite Valley, 48, 49, 54, 74, Wine, Humphrey, 31 117, 168 Winter Landscape, 9, 10, 164 Youth, 43, 167 Woman in Front of the Setting Sun, 38, 166 Zabriskie Point, 15, 79, 93, 95–97, Woman in the Window, The, 140 136, 157, 177 Women in the Bush, 106 Zadig, 5 Wordsworth, William, 33 Zardoz, 132–135, 176, 178