The Evolution and Application of Digital Divide Research

112 The Evolution and Application of Digital Divide Research: Building a Digital Community in Illinois By Thomas Prudhomme, Allison Clark & Damian Duffy

ven after more than a decade of re - gram managed by the Illinois Department search, the digital divide remains an of Commerce and Economic Opportunity Eenigma. The definition, cause, and meas - (DCEO). urement of the digital divide are all open Negotiating the Digital Divide to debate among changing social condi - tions, political imperatives, and technol - ogy. Shifting priorities have prevented The U.S. Department of Commerce re - development of a national framework for ported in 2005 that 56 percent of working addressing the digital divide, but many adults used a computer at work and 42 states have developed their own programs percent used the Internet. The transforma - to increase socio-economic equity through tive effects of information and communica - information and communication technol - tion technology on work force ogy (ICT). For example, more than 100 demographics are everywhere, including community technology centers established Illinois, which ranks seventh nationally in in Illinois since 2000 continue to serve the number of high-tech workers, and communities across the state. where 42 out of every 1,000 private sector 1 workers are employed by high-tech firms. In this chapter, we look into the national debate about the meaning of digital divide ICT provides multifaceted tools that can and the research and policy goals concern - improve the capacity and effectiveness of ing it. We also examine what the research local, state, national, and international so - literature says about using a community- cial and economic networks. It has the po - oriented approach to address digital di - tential to improve both education and 2 vide objectives, with a particular focus on employment. On the other hand, ICT can the role of community technology centers reproduce or reinforce pre-existing social 3 (CTCs). Finally, we discuss the effort to inequalities. These conflicting issues relat - eliminate the digital divide in Illinois, in - ing to the digital divide have characterized cluding an overview of the current pro - ICT research and policy since the mid-1990s.

1 Children’s Partnership. Illinois Youth and Technology Factsheet (2008) . Retrieved Oct ober 1, 2008, from http://www.techpolicybank.org/AM/ Template.cfm?Section=State_Fact_Sheets&Template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=11765 .

2 P. DiMaggio and E. Hargittai . From the ‘Digital Divide’ to ‘Digital Inequality’: Studying Internet Use As Penetration Increases . (CACPS working paper 15) (Princeton, NJ: Center for Arts and Cultural Policy Studies, 2001). Retrieved September 20, 2008, from http://www.princeton.edu/~artspol/ workpap15.html ; Community Technology Centers’ Network (CTCNet) of the Washington Metropolitan Area . From Policy to Action: Profiles of Washington Area Programs Making Progress on the Digital Divide (2002) [Electronic version]. Retrieved September 12, 2008, from http://web.archive.org/web/20030321141621/ http://ctcnet.org/ frompolicytoaction_v1.pdf .

3 E. Green and L. Keeble . “The Technological Story of a Women’s Centre,” in L. Keeble and B. D. Loader (eds.), Community Informatics: Shaping Com - puter-Mediated Social Relations (London: Routledge , 2001): 53-70; K. Williams and A. Alkalimat . “A Census of Public Computing in Toledo, Ohio,” in Douglas Schuler and Peter Day (eds.), Shaping the Network Society: The New Role of Civic Society in CyberSpace [Electronic version] (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press , 2002): 85-110 . Retrieved September 19, 2008, from http://www.communitytechnology.org/ toledo/toledo.pdf ; M. Warschauer . “Reconceptualizing the Digital Divide,” First Monday, 7 (7) (2002). Retrieved September 21, 2008, from http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue7_7/ warschauer/index.html ; L. Kvasny and M. Keil .“ The Challenges of Redressing the Digital Divide: A Tale of Two US Cities,” Information Systems Journal 16(1) (2006): 23- 53; and P. Gamage and E.F. Halpin .“ E-Sri Lanka: Bridging the Digital Divide,” The Electronic Library, 25 (6) (2007): 698-710. 113 The Illinois Report 2009

In general, research and practice dedicated nots.” This concept has resulted in less ef - to understanding and implementing pro - fective policy and there are two intercon - grams to address the digital divide have nected reasons for this. First, the sole focus evolved over the past two decades in an on access limits discussion to a single di - organic manner characteristic of social is - mension of a multifaceted issue. Second, sues. Unfortunately, each study is an inde - focusing solely on access incorrectly im - pendent view into a particular set of plies that technological solutions alone can circumstances, so there is no coordinated fully address what is, in fact, part of a The 6 theme to the research or even agreement larger social problem. transformative on a framework within which to evaluate effects of the results. Therefore, it is not surprising This misunderstanding of the digital di - information that the perspectives of researchers and vide as a binary issue of access is based in and communi- policymakers have continued to evolve. the historical traditions of telecommunica - 7 cation Defining and Re-Defining the Digital Divide tions policy. The first “Falling Through the technology on Net” report, released in 1995, describes the work force goal of universal service in American demographics The exact origin of the term “digital di - telecommunications policy in terms origi - vide” has been attributed to both govern - nally used in the 1934 Communications are 4 ment and the media. It is widely everywhere, Act regarding use of the telephone. The acknowledged that the term was popular - idea that the telephone and ICT are analo - including ized in the U.S. by the Clinton administra - gous technologies is an artifact of the tradi - Illinois, which tion and the “Falling Through the Net” tional view of the digital divide as a ranks seventh series of reports released between 1995 and question of access. However, research sug - nationally in 2000 by the National Telecommunications gests that the have/don’t have view of ac - the number of and Information Administration (NTIA), cess makes sense for the telephone, but not high-tech an agency of the Department of Com - for ICT. The quality and quantity of ICT 5 workers, and merce. The third “Falling Through the access can vary greatly depending on the where 42 out Net” report, released in 1999, defines the location and capability of the technology. of every 1,000 digital divide as a gap in access to ICT be - Moreover, technological access exists on a private sector tween information “haves” and “have- continuum of digital inequalities that also workers are employed by 4 D. J. Gunkel . (2003).“ Second Thoughts: Toward a Critique of the Digital Divide ,” New Media & Society , 5(4) (2003): high-tech 499-522. firms. 5 K. Williams.“What Is the Digital Divide?” in K. Williams (ed.), d3: Proceedings of the Digital Divide Doctoral Students Workshop (Ann Arbor, MI: Alliance for Community Technology , 2001) ; CTCnet of the Washington Metropolitan Area, 2002; L.J. Servon . Bridging the Digital Divide: Technology, Community and Public Policy (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2002); D.J. Gunkel. “Second Thoughts: Toward a Critique of the Digital Divide ,” New Media & Society , 5(4) (2003): 499-522.

6 A. Alkalimat and K. Williams. (2001).“ Social Capital and Cyberpower in the African-American Community,” in L. Kee - ble and B. D. Loader (eds. ), Community Informatics: Shaping Computer-Mediated Social Relations (London: Sage , 2001): 177-204; L. J. Servon . Bridging the Digital Divide: Technology, Community and Public Policy (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing , 2002); M. Gurstein.“Effective Use: A Community Informatics Strategy beyond the Ditital Di - vide,” [Electronic version] First Monday, 8(12) (2003) . Retrieved October 1, 2008 , from http://firstmonday.org/is - sues/issue8_12/gurstein/index.html ; M. Warschauer . Technology and Social Inclusion (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press , 2003); S. Strover , G. Chapman, and J. Waters .“ Beyond Community Networking and CTCs: Access, Development, and Public Policy,” Telecommunications Policy 28 (2004): 465-485; J. van Dijk . The Deepening Divide: Inequality in the Information Society (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 2005); K. Barzilai-Nahon. “Gaps and Bits: Concep - tualizing Measurements for Digital Divide/s,” The Information Society , 22 (5) (2006): 269-278.

7 P. DiMaggio and E. Hargittai . From the ‘Digital Divide’ to ‘Digital Inequality’: Studying Internet Use as Penetration In - creases (CACPS working paper 15) (Princeton, NJ: Center for Arts and Cultural Policy Studies, 2001). Retrieved Sep - tember 20, 2008, from http://www.princeton.edu/~artspol/workpap15.html; K. Barzilai-Nahon .“ Gaps and Bits: 114 Conceptualizing Measurements for Digital Divide/s,” The Information Society , 22 (5) (2006): 269-278. Institute of Government & Public Affairs

include access to ICT literacy, social sup - port, and autonomy of ICT use. All of Figure 1 these issues must be addressed for a per - 8 Relationship of Causal Factors of the Digital Divide son to make effective use of ICT.

Characteristics Although recent digital divide research has of ICTs begun to frame the issue as more multifac - eted than the binary notion of physical ac - Personal and cess, research methods continue to be Distribution Access Participation Positional of to in focused on single factors. A 2005 study by Categorical Resources ICTs Society Jan A.G.M. van Dijk contends that most Inequalities digital divide research focuses on “individ - ualistic notions of inequality.” These indi - Soruce van Dijk, J. (2005). The Deepening Divide: Inequality in the Information Society. Thousand vidual- istic notions result in research that Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. generalizes the digital divide based on in - vestigating a single topic. Such studies fail to address the nuances of the issue. Studies focused on the relationship between ICT ing how business is conducted, the Internet Unfortunately, use and individual demographic character - has changed education, government, com - while istics (e.g., income, education, race, age and munication and even the concept of “com - descriptive 10 gender) typically treat all these demo - munity.” The diffusion of ICT throughout statistics graphics as independent variables, yielding society presents more opportunities for a focused only results that are more descriptive than ex - person to improve socio-economic standing 11 on access are planatory. It is more useful, in terms of un - and overcome social inequality. In effect, prevalent in derstanding the digital divide, to study the the Internet has the potential to level the the digital interrelationships among causal factors, as playing field in an environment where in - divide shown in Figure 1. Studying the relation - herent inequalities exist. The digital divide literature, they ships among factors has the advantage of can be viewed as the space between the re - allowing distinctions between independent ality of persistent social, political and eco - tend to give a and dependent variables when evaluating nomic inequality at one end, and the ideal superficial how interactions among interconnected so - of full participation in a networked demo - view of a cietal factors contribute to inequalities in cratic society at the other. Between these deeply 9 ICT access and use. two points exists a spectrum of inequalities complex issue. formed by complex interactions between As the role of ICT in the economy increases, longstanding socio-economic disparities technological literacy becomes a necessity that widen the gap and the emergent tech - in the labor market. In addition to reinvent - nologies that close it.

8 Ibid; and M. Gurstein. Effective Use: A Community Informatics Strategy beyond the Digital Divide [Electronic ver - sion], First Monday, 8(12) (2003) . Retrieved October 1, 2008 , from http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue8_12/gurstein/index.html .

9 J. van Dijk . The Deepening Divide: Inequality in the Information Society (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc ., 2005): 17.

10 Community Technology Centers’ Network (CTCNet) of the Washington Metropolitan Area . From Policy to Action: Profiles of Washington Area Programs Making Progress on the Digital Divide [Electronic version] (2002). Retrieved September 12, 2008, from http://web.archive.org/web/20030321141621/ http://ctcnet.org/ frompolicytoac - tion_v1.pdf .

11 J.J. Rennie . (2007).“ ICTs and Educational Benefits in a Regional Development,” in H. Rahman (ed.), Information and Communication Technologies for Economic and Regional Developments (Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing , 2007): 1-21. 115 The Illinois Report 2009

Table 1 Persistent Gaps in the Digital Divide

Attribute 12 Showing a online. However, despite the rapid Persistent growth of ICT adoption and Internet usage Digital Gap Direction of Inequality over the past decade, gaps highlighted in Age Younger people use the Internet more and older people use earlier digital divide research persist. the Internet less Recent data from Pew Internet & American Educational Higher levels of education correlate with higher levels of Attainment Internet use Life Project surveys, as reported by Lee Rainie (2006), identify nine persistent digi - Disability Status Persons with disabilities use the Internet less tal gaps. These gaps and the direction of Language Internet usage is largely skewed towards English speakers inequality for each are shown in Table 1. Preference The most recent statistics collected by the Race and White- and Asian-Americans use the Internet more and Pew Internet & American Life Project Ethnicity African-Americans use the Internet less (2008a) show that these gaps still exist. For example, the survey shows that 75 percent Income Higher income levels correlate with higher Internet use of white American adults are online, but Parental Status households with younger children use the Internet more only 59 percent of African-American than households without members under the age of 18 adults report using the Internet. In addi - Employment Internet use is highest among students, lowest among the tion, the 2003 update to the U.S. census re - Status retired and widows ported that an average of 55 percent of Community Type Urban and suburban communities have higher rates of American households included a com - Internet use and rural communities have lower rates puter. However, there were computers in only 35 percent of households with mem - Source: Rainie, L. (2006, July 28). Life online: The growth and impact of the internet (and related technologies). Presented at the 2006 CTCNet Confernece in Washington, D.C. bers aged 65 and older, and computers were in only 45 percent of black or Latino households and 28 percent of households with adults having less than a high school Persistent Gaps and Shifting Federal Policy 13 education. These basic measurements of ICT and Internet access indicate increased Statistics describing levels of access to tech - usage in the U.S., but they also indicate nology are widely dismissed by researchers that differences along social and economic as simplistic and incomplete measures of the lines remain, and that the policy goal of digital divide. However, they are a useful universal and equitable access has not yet starting point as an easily measurable indi - been attained. cator of broad trends in basic technology adoption. In 2003, it was reported that 62 Unfortunately, while descriptive statistics percent of American households had a com - focused only on access are prevalent in the puter and 55 percent had Internet access. As digital divide literature, they tend to give a of May 2008, 73 percent of adults in the U.S. superficial view of a deeply complex issue. use the Internet. In contrast, during May- For example, descriptive statistics clearly June 1995 less than 20 percent of adults were identify digital divides along racial and

12 U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration . Computer Use and Internet Use in the United States: 2003 (Report number 23—208) [Electronic version] (2005). Retrieved October 1, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/p23-208.pdf; Pew Internet & American Life Project . Demographics of Inter - net users (2008a) . Retrieved October 1, 2008, from http://www.pewinternet.org/trends/User_Demo_7.22.08.htm ; Pew Internet & American Life Project . Percentage of U.S. adults online (2008b) . Retrieved October 1, 2008, from http://www.pewinternet.org/trends/Internet_Adoption_7.22.08.pdf .

13 U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration . Computer Use and Internet Use in the United States: 2003 (Report number 23—208) [Electronic version] (2005): 3 . Retrieved October 1, 2008 , from 116 http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/p23-208.pdf . Institute of Government & Public Affairs

ethnic lines. On the other hand, survey ment, commercial, not-for-profit), location data also indicates that African-Americans (e.g. dedicated buildings, cafés, schools, and Latinos without ICT access at home churches), function (e.g. individual com - are more likely to have a positive view of puter access, computer skills training, so - technology, and are more likely to access cial services, community building), relation technology in a public setting compared to to other centers (e.g. individually operated, whites from similar socio-economic situa - part of a network, multiple locations under tions. Further, there are less well under - one administration), programming, and tar - 17 15 D. Schuler . New stood impacts of economics and ethnic or get populations. Community Net - cultural dimensions that can affect access works: Wired for Change (New York: to and use of ICT by underserved popula - The terms “public computing” and “com - ACM Press , 1996); tions. For example, concentrated poverty munity technology” are used relatively in - Community Tech - limits social network development, which terchangeably, and usually refer to both nology Centers’ Network (CTCNet) has a greater correlation than race to per - virtual community computing networks of the Washington sistent technological gaps highlighted in (CCNs) and geographically located com - Metropolitan Area. 14 ”From Policy to Ac - descriptive statistical data. Therefore, munity technology centers (CTCs). How - tion: Profiles of socio-economic demographics may be in - ever, the literature on community Washington Area dicators of unequal social networking op - technology tends to focus more on the con - Programs Making Progress on the portunities, rather than measures of the tributions of community-based organiza - Digital Divide” digital divide. These results support the tions. In recent years, the efforts of [Electronic version] notion that the emerging field of commu - community-based organizations have been (2002). Retrieved September 12, nity informatics may offer some benefits as concentrated on creating and operating 2008 , from an approach to studying the digital divide, physical CTCs that provide public access http://web.archive. and may lead to more effective policy ap - to computers and the Internet, as well as org/web/20030321 16 141621/ http://ctc - proaches, precisely because it studies the technical instruction and support. net.org/ frompoli - role of social networking in the adoption cytoaction_v1.pdf ; Defining Community Technology Centers L.J. Servon. Bridging and use of ICT. the Digital Divide: Community Technology Centers and the Technology, Com - In large part, the focus among researchers munity and Public Digital Divide Policy (Malden, MA: of community technology centers is on Blackwell Publish - CTCs founded through the grassroots ac - ing , 2002); M. Public computing, broadly defined, refers tions of community-based non-profit or - Warschauer . Tech - nology and Social to ICT access and use outside of home ganizations (NPOs). One such Inclusion (Cam - and/or work. Public computing access organization is Playing to Win. It was bridge, MA: MIT centers are highly heterogeneous across Press, 2003); CTC - founded in New York City by Antonia net . About the Net - several dimensions, including name (e.g. Stone in 1980 and is widely cited as the work (2007a). cyber café, telecenter, community technol - first CTC. With the aid of the National Sci - Retrieved October administration 6, 2008 , from ogy center), (e.g. govern - ence Foundation, Stone’s organization http://ctcnet.org/w ho/network.htm; CTCnet . Members (2007b) . Retrieved 14 K. Mossberger , C.J. Tolbert, and M.A. Gilbert . (2006) “Race, Place, and Information Technology,” Urban Affairs Re - October 6, 2008 , view, 41 (2006): 583-620; K. Mossberger , D. Kaplan, and M.A. Gilbert .“ How Concentrated Poverty Matters for the from http://ctc - “Digital Divide”: Motivation, Social Networks, and Institutions,” in K. Williams (ed.), eChicago 2007, Dominican Uni - net.org/who/mem - versity (River Forest, IL: Dominican University Graduate School of Library and Information Science and University bers.htm . of Illinois Graduate School of Library and Information Science , 2007): 158-192.

15 S. Davies et al. Community Technology Centers As Catalysts for Community Change (2003) . Retrieved September 30, 2008 , from http://www.bctpartners.com/resources/CTCs_as_Catalysts.pdf ; M. Warschauer . Technology and Social Inclusion (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003); S. Kaiser .“ Community Technology Centers and Bridging the Digital Di - vide,” Knowledge, Technology, & Policy 18 (2) (2005): 83-100.

16 D. Schuler . New Community Networks: Wired for Change (New York: ACM Press , 1996) ; Alkalimat & Williams, 2001; Servon, 2002; Davies, Wiley-Schwartz, Pinkett and Servon, 2003; Warshauer, 2003; Pinkett, 2002. 117 The Illinois Report 2009

grew into a national coordinating body for institutions that fall under the broad defi - CTCs, and was renamed the Community nition of CTCs. First, the majority of CTCs Technology Centers Network (CTCnet) in serve urban areas. In a 1999 survey, 65 per - 17 the early-1990s. cent of CTCs in the U.S. were in urban areas, while 14 percent were in rural areas 19 CTCnet serves a membership that includes and 7 percent were in suburban areas. community technology centers and capac - These trends appear to be holding, based ity-building organizations representing all on data from a 2007 survey of 127 CTCnet 50 states, as well as countries in the Ameri - members that indicated 72 percent of CTCs cas, Africa, Asia, and Europe. The network were located in urban areas, 15 percent in provides online resources including best rural areas, and 12 percent in suburban 20 practices, evaluation materials, a CTC start- areas. up guide, a searchable membership direc - tory, and a list of regional networks. A second trend is that most CTCs target CTCnet also sponsors a semiannual confer - low-income populations, particularly fami - ence for CTC organizers. CTCnet defines lies. In the 1999 survey, 76 percent of re - its members as centers or programs that spondents said their CTCs targeted low- provide community access to ICT along income populations and parents/adults. with the training necessary to meet the so - However, there was a general trend to cial, economic, educational, and cultural focus on all age groups in a family. In the needs of community residents. Unfortu - same survey, 74 percent of the CTCs re - nately, that definition is broad and can be ported targeting children ages 5 to 17, and applied to a wide variety of organizations 73 percent listed young adults ages 18 to and service models. This presents a major 24 as their target population. When asked challenge when trying to count public com - what populations they expect to serve in 18 puting resources and quantify their use. the next two years, the top answers from the 2007 survey respondents were “at-risk Despite this high degree of heterogeneity, youth, immigrants, and unemployed or there are some general data applicable to underemployed adults.”

18 See K. Williams and A. Alkalimat .“ A Census of Public Computing in Toledo, Ohio ,” in Douglas Schuler and Peter Day (eds.), Shaping the Network Society: The New Role of Civic Society in Cyberspace [Electronic version] (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press , 2002): 85-110 . Retrieved September 19, 2008, from http://www. communitytechnology.org/toledo/toledo.pdf ; K. Williams .“ Research Note: Across the United States, 85,000 to 144,000 Public Computing Sites,” First Monday 8(4) (2003) .Retrieved September 19, 2008, from http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/viewArticle/1046/967.

19 L.J. Servon . Bridging the Digital Divide: Technology, Community and Public Policy (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2002): 60.

20 CTCnet .“2007 CTCNet Member Demographics Survey” (2007c). Retrieved October 1, 2008 , from http://ctcnet.org/who/2007%20CTCNet%20Member%20Demographics%20Survey%20Summary_082307.pdf .

21 S. Davies et al . Community Technology Centers As Catalysts for Community Change (2003) . Retrieved September 30, 2008 , from http://www.bctpartners.com/resources/CTCs_as_Catalysts.pdf ; K. Williams . “Research Note: Across the United States, 85,000 to 144,000 Public Computing Sites ,” First Monday, 8 (4) (2003) .Retrieved September 19, 2008, from http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/viewArticle/1046/967; Illinois Department of Commerce and Economic Opportunity (DCEO) . Bridging the Digital Divide Grant Program Fiscal Year 2008 Request for Applications (2008); K. Williams and A. Alkalimat . (2002).“ A Census of Public Computing in Toledo, Ohio,” in Douglas Schuler and Peter Day (eds.), Shaping the Network Society: The New Role of Civic Society in Cyberspace [Elec - tronic version] (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press , 2002): 85-110 . Retrieved September 19, 2008, from http://www.com - munitytechnology.org/ toledo/toledo.pdf ; L. Estabrook , E. Witt, and L. Rainie . How People Use the Internet, Libraries, and Government Agenices when They Need Help (Washington, D.C.: Pew Internet & American Life Project/Graduate School of Library and Information Science , 2007) . Retrieved September 9, 2008 , from http://www.pewinternet. org/pdfs/Pew_UI_LibrariesReport.pdf ; L.J. Servon . Bridging the Digital Divide: Technology, Community and Public 118 Policy (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing , 2002). Institute of Government & Public Affairs

The third finding is that the majority of shows promise as an integrative frame - CTCs are embedded within other commu - work for digital-divide research because it nity organizations. In 1999, 61 percent of focuses explicitly on the interaction be - respondents reported operating ICT pro - tween socio-cultural contexts and ICT de - grams within a pre-existing community- velopment initiatives. Informatics research based organization. In 2007, the figure does not attempt to impose rigid concep - was 72 percent. This finding underscores tual frameworks upon diverse socio-cul - that, much like the definition of the digi - tural contexts, but instead provides flexible Community tal divide, the identity of CTCs exists methodologies that value local interests, 22 within a variety of social and institutional objectives, and responsibilities. informatics contexts. This is illustrated by the role of shows promise public libraries in CTC research. Public li - One widespread finding resulting from in - as an braries are often included under the blan - formatics research is that community partic - integrative ket definition of CTCs. Conversely, ipation in CTC implementation is framework for research of Internet use in libraries is paramount to its success. In a study of the digital-divide often presented as an area of inquiry sep - failure of six South African CTCs, the pri - research arate from analysis of both standalone mary reason was due to an ignorance of because it CTCs and CTCs embedded in commu - local conditions with respect to infrastruc - focuses nity-based organizations. For example, ture, legal requirements, and access to com - explicitly on some studies discuss libraries and CTCs munication and the Internet. On the other the interaction under different headings, while others hand, the successful implementation of 14 look at public Internet use only in terms CTCs in Atlanta, Ga., hinged upon a ‘bot - between socio- of public libraries. To add to the confu - tom-up’ approach that drew on the assets of cultural sion, public libraries do not always define the community. In this case, direct partici - contexts and 21 themselves as CTCs. pation by different stakeholders was both ICT CTC Research and Community Informatics accepted and actively solicited. From these development studies, it is clear that both individual and initiatives. community development can be enhanced Community informatics is an emerging, by social settings that relate learning to the 23 multidisciplinary field of research. It inves - specific culture of the community. tigates the social and cultural factors shap - ing the development and diffusion of new The most persistent challenge facing CTCs ICT, and explores the impact of ICT on is sustainability. In general, they tend to be community development, regeneration lacking in sufficient funding, qualified staff and sustainability. Community informatics and up-to-date technology. However,

22 L. Keeble and B.D. Loader .“ Community Informatics: : Themes and Issues,” in L. Keeble and B.D. Loader (eds.), Com - munity Informatics: Shaping Computer-Mediated Social Relations (London: Routledge): 1-10 ; M. Gurstein . (2001). “Community Informatics for Flexible Networking,” in L. Keeble and B. D. Loader (eds.), Community Informatics: Shaping Computer-Mediated Social Relations . (London: Routledge, 2001): 263-283.

23 A. Alkalimat and K. Williams. (2001). Social Capital and Cyberpower in the African-American Community,” in L. Kee - ble and B.D. Loader (eds. ), Community Informatics: Shaping Computer-Mediated Social Relations (London: Sage, 2001): 177-204 ; L.S. Clark . (2003).“ Challenges of Social Good in the World of Grand Theft Auto and Barbie: A Case Study of a Community Computer Center for Youth,” New Media Society, 5 (2) (2003): 95—116; L. Kvasny and M. Keil. The Challenges of Redressing the Digital Divide: A Tale of Two US Cities,” Information Systems Journal. Vol. 16 , (1) (2006): 23-53. ; D. Hulbert and M. Snyman .“ Determining the Reasons Why ICT Centres Fail: Six South African Case Studies ,” Mousaion 25 (2) (2007):1-20; D.V. O’Neil and P.M.A. Baker .“ The Role of Institutional Motivations in Techno - logical Adoption: Implementation of DeKalb County’s Family Technology Resource Centers ,” The Information Soci - ety, 19 (2003): 305-314; R. Pinkett and R. O’Bryant .“ Building Community, Empowerment and Self-Sufficiency, ” Information, Communication & Society, 6 (2) (2003): 187-210; N. Turner-Lee and R. Pinkett . (2004).“ Asset-Based Ap - proach to Community Building,” in P. Day and D. Schuler (eds.), Community Practice in the Network Society (London: Routledge , 2004): 170-185. 119 The Illinois Report 2009

because CTCs exist within different social address these differences through a variety contexts and programmatic goals, it is dif - of organizational structures and programs. ficult to develop a single set of standards Despite the widely diverse set of issues for what makes a community-based proj - and approaches to the digital divide, one ect sustainable or successful. One compo - theme seems to stand out in all of the liter - nent that does seem to work for all is a ature: technology exists as a secondary project champion or coordinator willing to issue to longstanding social and cultural commit significant amounts of time and ef - inequalities. While technology can enable In Illinois, as fort. ICT projects also require a certain successful programs, the best practices for with the rest of level of technological literacy among the research into and partnerships with CTCs 24 the world, management and coordination team. are all centered on the community and not descriptive on the technology. Programs that seek to data on basic Evaluation criteria are especially important redress socio-technical inequities must first access to potential funding sponsors, which in turn be created in collaboration with the target indicates that are essential for sustaining CTC programs. community so they will be relevant to the digital divides There are five key areas covered in commu - context and interests of that community. continue to nity informatics evaluations of community Informatics-based research methodologies persist along networks and CTCs: strong democracy (i.e., suggest that the best way to achieve these socio- increasing democratic participation in poli - goals is to engage the communities as tics and advocacy among community mem - peers, make sure all projects are commu - economic lines. bers), social capital (e.g., thriving social nity driven, identify pre-existing social as - institutions within the community, collabora - sets, and find ways to build on them. tion among community members), individual The Digital Divide in Illinois empowerment (i.e., issues of information liter - acy and ICT access), sense of community (i.e., increasing community involvement and In Illinois, as with the rest of the world, de - commitment to a geographic community), scriptive data on basic access indicates that 25 and economic development opportunities. Like digital divides continue to persist along all other aspects of CTC implementation and socio-economic lines. According to a study 26 administration, community stakeholders by the Children’s Partnership, based on also should be involved in the design and U.S. census data, 70 percent of households implementation of evaluations in order to in Illinois earning less than $15,000 per ensure success. year do not own a computer. This is com - pared to 40 percent of all Illinois’ house - The Importance of Collaboration holds and 38 percent of all households nationally that do not own a computer. The term “digital divide” means different Further, 79 percent of households in Illi - things to different people. CTCs attempt to nois earning less than $15,000 per year do

24 L.J. Servon . Bridging the Digital Divide: Technology, Community and Public Policy (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2002); Mayor’s Advisory Council on Closing the Digital Divide . The City that Networks [Electronic version] (2007). http://egov.cityofchicago.org/webportal/COCWebPortal/ COC_EDITORIAL/DigitalDivide.pdf ; M. Wolske . Issues in Setting up CTCs . Presented in LIS 490: The Digital Divide: Policy, Research, and Community Empowerment at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (2008, October 1) ; L. Hopkins (2005).“ Making a Community Network Sustainable: The Future of the Wired High Rise,” The Information Society, 21 (2005): 379-384.

25 D. O’Neil .“ Assessing Community Informatics: A Review of Methodological Approaches for Evaluating Community Networks and Community Technology Centers,” Internet Research , 12 (1) (2002): 76-102.

26 Children’s Partnership . Illinois Youth and Technology Factsheet (2008) . Retrieved October 1, 2008, from http://www.techpolicybank.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=State_Fact_Sheets&Template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cf 120 m&ContentID=11765. Institute of Government & Public Affairs

not use the Internet at home, compared to The Illinois Digital Divide program is ad - 49 percent of all Illinois households and 45 ministered by the Department of Com - percent of all households nationally. Based merce and Economic Opportunity. The rd on these statistics, Illinois is ranked 33 in program provides public access to technol - the U.S. for household computer access ogy along with training in the use of spe - th and 38 in terms of Internet access. The cific applications that are important to data would support the notion that there is learning for younger participants and that a great deal of room for improvement in are essential for employment for older par - It is clear that serving lower socio-economic communi - ticipants. The Illinois CTCs are connected expanding CTC ties in Illinois. with the Illinois Worknet project, a com - prehensive job-finding resource that also is coverage is The legislative strategy for addressing the funded and administered by the DCEO. At difficult when digital divide in Illinois has been to appro - present, the program issues an annual re - state-based priate funds annually for most of the past quest for proposals for funding new and programs are decade. The Illinois Eliminate the Digital existing CTCs. The 2008 solicitation re - the only source Divide Law (30 ILCS 780) was put into ef - ceived more than 300 applications, and 104 of funding. fect on May 17, 2000. The law’s intent was CTCs were awarded funds. to address certain findings by the General Assembly, including: Three features of the current Illinois pro - • The growth of high technology industry, gram differentiate it from many other state- including computers, the Internet and based initiatives and reflect a keen advanced telecommunications, has understanding of the community informat - created a division in society. ics view of the digital divide and the nature • Those who are able to master the tools of of successful community-based programs. the new digital technology and have The first is that the DCEO encourages exist - access to the technology have benefited ing CTCs with strong records of funding in the form of improved employment and success to collaborate directly with possibilities and a higher standard of life. newer, less-experienced CTCs. This collab - • Those who are unfamiliar with the new oration could include sharing information technologies, or do not have access to about structure and governance, market - them, are increasingly constrained to ing, staffing, and management. In addition, marginal employment and a standard of CTCs also can collaborate by pointing living near the poverty level. clients to existing training programs in • This “digital divide” parallels existing nearby CTCs or by sharing training materi - economic, racial and gender divisions in als and trainers to bring a successful pro - society, with the more privileged gram to a new audience. members of society having much greater opportunity to benefit from the The second unique aspect of the Illinois new technologies than those who are program is that it has defined “under - less favorably situated. served” in a broad way to include both urban and rural communities. In the 2008 The purpose of the Illinois Eliminate the competition, several awards were given to Digital Divide Law was “to establish edu - relatively new, rural CTCs. The focus on cational and economic development initia - collaboration can also help these awardees tives that will bridge the digital divide, by putting them in contact with more ex - making possible a society in which all indi - perienced CTCs elsewhere in the state. viduals can benefit from the opportunities provided by the new technologies.” The third aspect is incorporated into how the program is addressing sustainability. 121 The Illinois Report 2009

The authors of a study conducted by the tives, through a focus on supporting and University of Illinois Institute of Govern - developing CTCs. Among its neighboring ment and Public Affairs (IGPA) concluded states, Illinois appears to be at the forefront that the probability of long-term success of CTC implementation. The CTCnet for individual CTCs and for the overall membership directory lists 133 members in program would improve if there was a Illinois, compared to three in Indiana, four mechanism supporting statewide coordi - in Iowa, 10 in Wisconsin, four in Kentucky, 27 nation and collaboration. It is clear that and seven in Missouri. Minnesota has 22 27 T. Prudhomme and R. Rich . Review of expanding CTC coverage is difficult when CTCnet members and Michigan has 16. Grant Programs state-based programs are the only source The question facing policy makers in Illi - (2007) . A report submitted to the of funding. To support collaboration nois is, “What has been accomplished with Illinois Department among CTCs on operations, program de - the funding provided, and how has the of Commerce and velopment and fund raising, the DCEO state of the digital divide in Illinois im - Economic Opportu - nity on April 15, asked IGPA, through its Center for Tech - proved?” Table 2 represents a subset of na - 2007. nology and Public Policy (CTPP), to de - tional survey data from obtained from velop a web-based information resource self-administered Internet speed tests 28 See http://illinois - digitalcommu - called the Illinois Digital Community Net - taken through Speedmatters.org between 28 nity.net . work. This resource will provide informa - September 2006 and May 2007. Among its

29 International tion to the public about CTCs and their neighbors, Illinois ranks first in download Telecommunica - program offerings across the state. It also speeds but fourth in upload speeds. At the th tions Union (ITU) . will share information among the mem - national level, the U.S. ranks 16 among ITU’s New Broad - band Statistics for 1 bers of the CTC network, and share search - industrialized nations in high speed Inter - 29 January 2005 [Elec - able information about best practices, net access. Speed is important when com - tronic version] funding opportunities and success stories puter use is oriented toward media, (2005) . Retrieved November 15, from around the United States and interna - especially video or animation, or when a 2008 , from tionally. high level of interactivity is needed. http://www.itu.int/ osg/spu/newslog/I TUs+New+Broad - Illinois policy has followed the path of Tables 3-5 represent data taken from calcula - band+Statistics+Fo other state governments in directing fund - tions made by the Children’s Partnership r+1+January+2005. aspx . ing toward community technology initia - (2008) based on 2003 US Census Data. Illi -

Table 2 Internet Speed Test Results for Illinois and Neighboring States

State Number of Median Median National Naional Internet Download Upload Download Upload Speed Speed Speed Speed Speed Tests (kbps) (kbps) Ranking Ranking

United States 79,876 1,973 371 Iowa 706 1,262 489 47 10 Illinois 2,518 2,184 365 17 33 Indiana 1,739 1,955 434 24 16 Kentucky 1,126 1,607 363 32 37 Michigan 2,677 2,042 364 19 36 Minnesota 1,186 1,771 376 26 22 Missouri 2,075 1,432 327 38 44 Wisconsin 1,652 1,551 326 34 45

Source: CWA. (2007). Speed matters: A report on internet speeds for all 50 states. [Electronic version]. Retrieved November 15, 2008 from http://files.cwa-union.org/speedmatters/CWA_APT_StateBroadbandInitiatives.pdf, p. 57. 122 Institute of Government & Public Affairs

Table 3 Households with a Computer in Illinois and Neighboring States Households National Earning Less Ranking than $15,000 Total by Percent Per Year Households of Total State (by Percent) (by Percent) Households

United States -- 62% -- Thomas I. Prudhomme is senior Iowa 32% 65% 18% research scientist and director of Illinois 30% 60% 17% the Center for Technology and Indiana 27% 60% 36% Public Policy (CTPP) at the Institute Kentucky 28% 58% 41% of Government and Public Affairs. Michigan 29% 60% 35% The CTPP is focused on enabling Minnesota 36% 28% 8% Missouri 31% 61% 30% the use of advanced information Wisconsin 25% 64% 23% systems delivering scientific data, models and analytical tools in pub - Source: The Children’s Partnership (2008). Illinois youth and technology factsheet. Retrieved October 1, 2008, from http://www.techpolicybank.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section= State_Fact_Sheets&Template lic policy research and practice. Dr. =/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=11765. Prudhomme’s current research ad - dresses the use of predictive mod - eling and textual analysis to study incentive and support programs assisting persons with disabilities to return to work. Before joining the IGPA, Prudhomme served in Table 4 senior management positions at Household Internet Access in Illinois and Neighboring States the National Center for Supercom - puting Applications . Households Earning Less Percent National than $15,000 of Total Ranking Per Year Households by Percent % that Use that Use of Total State the Internet the Internet Households

United States - 55 - nois ranks second among its neighbors be - Iowa 24 57 18 hind Minnesota in percentage of total Illinois 21 51 38 households with a computer, but sixth in Indiana 17 51 40 Kentucky 19 50 42 total households with Internet access. How - Michigan 19 52 36 ever, Illinois ranks fourth among its neigh - Minnesota 28 62 8 Missouri 23 53 34 bors in computer ownership and Internet Wisconsin 17 57 17 access in households earning less than Source: The Children’s Partnership (2008). Illinois youth and technology factsheet. Retrieved October 1, $15,000 per year. Compared to surrounding 2008, from http://www.techpolicybank.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section= State_Fact_Sheets&Template states, Illinois ranks fifth in the percentage of =/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=11765. households with broadband Internet access. Illinois is similar to other Midwest states in its performance on various measures of the digital divide and, along with neighboring states, still lags behind the national aver - age by most measures. However, the infor - matics-based approach to supporting the CTC network in Illinois just began in 2007- 123 The Illinois Report 2009

Table 5 Percentage of Households with Broadband Internet in Illinois and Neighboring States Allison Clark is a research scientist Perhaps the Percent of National at the University of Illinois at Ur - most daunting Households Ranking bana-Champaign. Dr. Clark ex - with by Percent plores the feasibility of using barrier to Broadband of Total State Internet Households technology to create self-sustained bridging the interdisciplinary communities of digital divide in United States 20 - collaboration involving technolo - Illinois is in the Iowa 17 33 gists, social scientists, artists, and Illinois 17 36 humanists from around the world. disparity of Indiana 10 47 Her research interests include ex - network Kentucky 12 45 amining culturally specific ap - Michigan 20 18 proaches, particularly the service Minnesota 20 20 Missouri 15 40 combination of information tech - availability to Wisconsin 20 22 nology with hip-hop culture, as an citizens in rural intervention strategy to aide in the and urban Source: The Children’s Partnership, 2008 creation of digital equity. parts of the state. 2008, so it is too soon to see definitive re - sults. The longer-term strategy for the cur - rent program is to define a workable local community. The belief underlying community-based sustainability model this strategy is that families will invest in that uses modern informatics approaches computer and Internet technology only if to support a social network of CTCs. The they see a direct benefit in their daily lives. model should be responsive to the needs of communities by being aware of how It will be interesting to monitor the out - they operate and share information. It comes from this program over the coming needs to be collaborative to support effec - years. The challenge to the Illinois Depart - tive leveraging of social, technical and pro - ment of Commerce and Economic Oppor - grammatic assets shared by the entire tunity is to maintain the program’s focus network of CTCs and their partners in long enough to realize the benefits of the state government and the university re - approach. It is vital to the program moving search community. Finally, it needs to de - forward that the focus on informatics, not velop into a scalable approach that can still just access, is maintained. The challenge focus on local needs. In this way, it can be for the Illinois General Assembly is to con - applied nationally, expanding the collabo - tinue funding the new effort until it can be rative network of participants, their infor - sustained or augmented with additional mation and other assets, while still funding sources. Despite its longevity, supporting quality program delivery to the state government’s commitment to the 124 Institute of Government & Public Affairs

Damian Duffy is a doctoral candi - date in the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Graduate School of Library and Information Science. He is co-curator of the art exhibition “Out of Sequence: Un - derrepresented voices in American comics, ” and is a published graphic novelist (The Hole: Consumer Cul - ture, v. 1, Front Forty Press, 2008). His research interests include Illinois is similar to other Midwest comics in education and critical states in its performance on race theory, and he has presented various measures of the digital at such conferences as the Interna - tional Comic Arts Festival at the Li - divide and, along with neighboring brary of Congress and the states, still lags behind the national Symposium on African American average by most measures. Culture and Philosophy at Purdue University.

growth. Opening broadband access and client-oriented services in these areas would bring the possibility of participating in the “Internet economy” to the people program is still determined on a year-by- who live there. Illinois has the CTC pro - year basis. Perhaps the most daunting bar - gram and social network to provide the ex - rier to bridging the digital divide in Illinois pertise and training to enable these st is in the disparity of network service avail - communities to partcipate in 21 century ability to citizens in rural and urban parts society and commerce. Yet it remains to be of the state. Although attempts have been seen if improvements to the digital infra - made over the years to create equity in net - structure and investment of the needed po - work and Internet services throughout the litical capital are possible. state, for example the Illinois Century Net - work, the inequity remains. As long as service availability and quality is based upon the willingness of commercial carri - ers to provide broadband services, it will be market driven. The market is not likely to incentivize the provision of broadband to areas of low-income population and 125