Notes

Introduction 1. I am not the first to study these kinds of migrations. For other examples, see Puri (2003), Grosfoguel (1994–1995), as well as the scholarship on négropolitans in the case of the French (Delsham 2000, Dibango and Rouard 1989, Burton 1995) and Nuyorícans in the case of (Flores 2008, Duany 2002). My contribution is to focus on these kinds of intracolonial displacements as a key component to rethink postcolonial cultural productions in the insular Caribbean. 2. We should keep in mind that most countries of the Anglo-Caribbean became nations between 1962 and 1983 and that British colonialism followed a differ- ent model than French and Spanish colonialism. As such, postcolonial theory produced from an Anglo perspective cannot be easily applied to the rest of the Caribbean and Latin America. 3. I review some of the main debates and limitations in postcolonial theory in Martínez-San Miguel (2009c). 4. This marginalization of the Caribbean is also noticeable in recent anthologies that do not engage with the Caribbean as a central region to interrogate Latin American postcolonial studies. For example, in Moraña, Dussel and Jáuregui (2008), the Caribbean is the central theme in only one of the 23 essays included. 5. I exclude jibarismo from the list of notions used to allude to hybridity in the Caribbean since, in the case of Puerto Rico, this term was frequently used to refer to the white peasant sectors at the expense of the mestizo or mulatto populations, as such displacing cultural or racial mixing from identity discourses in the island. 6. One of the main problems in the application of postcolonial studies to the Caribbean case is that none of the existing definitions takes into account the particular condition of countries that are not yet in a political situation that can be conceived as beyond colonialism. In the case of those countries, the study of the modes of resistance against colonialism (the alternative definition proposed by Ashcroft et al. 1995, 7) would imply the inclusion of their whole historical development under one single period, instead of referring to a particular period of time in which colonialism has been inflected differently. This lack of specificity of the postcolonial is what makes the revision proposed here useful, so we can apply this framework to the Caribbean context. 198 ● Notes

7. For a critical reflection on the limitations of Mignolo’s epistemology of coloniality, see Martín Alcoff (2007). 8. I am referring specifically to the fact that in the Caribbean the political model of colonialism-nationalism is articulated in a very different manner. First, we should keep in mind that the key dates for the decolonization processes take place much later than the first three decades of the nineteenth century—as is the case in most of Central and South America. Second, it is important to note that the consti- tution of national states is not the predominant paradigm for many islands in the Caribbean, and in the cases in which sovereign states were formed, the dates of formal independence are much later than the ones of other Latin American countries. These key differences between Caribbean and Latin American histori- cal and political processes, as well as the differences in how Caribbean and Latin American studies are conceived in the United States vs. Latin America and the Caribbean, has been the source of a heated debate among historians, social scien- tists, and cultural critics during the past two decades. For a summary of the main arguments and positions of these debate, see Escobar (2006). 9. I want to acknowledge my debt to Vicente Rafael’s scholarship on the Philippines, especially his books Contracting Colonialism (1993) and The Promise of the Foreign (2005), because in both of these texts Rafael points to the specific structure and inflection of the extended colonial experience in the Philippines. It was by reading his work that I realized that the Caribbean and the Philippines shared a similar colonial experience and that perhaps focusing on some common structures and manifestations of colonialism and coloniality could be fruitful in my own work. I shared some of my ideas with Professor Rafael during his visit to Rutgers in the Spring of 2009, when he offered a one-week graduate workshop on the case of the Philippines as part of my graduate course entitled precisely “Extended Postcolonialities.” 10. I am adopting US American to refer to the United States from Maldonado- Torres (2008). Yarimar Bonilla is researching the issue of the sovereignty in the Caribbean as part of her current book project entitled “Non-Sovereign Futures.” She has already published an article in which she describes this new project, and notes, for example, that from the 45 countries that constitute the insular and con- tinental Caribbean, only 12 are sovereign and independent states, while 12 are independent states within the British Commonwealth of Nations, 6 are overseas territories of UK, 3 are overseas departments of France, 4 are unincorporated ter- ritories of the United States, 3 are “constituent countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands,” 3 are special municipalities of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and 2 are overseas collectivities of France (2013, 209–212). 11. Glissant defines relation as “Rhizomatic thought ...in which each and every identity is extended through a relationship with the Other” (1997a, 11) and “archipelic thinking” as “it means, precisely, to be in harmony with whatever in the world is scattered through archipelagoes, these kind of diversity of extent that join shores and horizons together” (original in French in1997b, 31, translation to English in Hiepko 2003, 237). Notes ● 199

12. Grosfoguel first developed this theoretical interrogation of the exhaustion of the binary opposition between colonialism and nationalism to study the case of Puerto Rico in collaboration with Frances Negrón Muntaner, in Negrón Muntaner and Grosfoguel, eds. (1997). Ramón E. Soto-Crespo takes this same idea as the point of departure of his book Mainland Passage (2009). 13. This is the case of the radical statehood manifesto (estadidad radical), that was advanced by a group of Puerto Rican critics and scholars as a decolonizing option for Puerto Rico. The idea behind radical statehood was to transform the island into an Afro-Latino and Caribbean state of the United States, to solve the political status of the island and to achieve political equality within the United States. On radical statehood, please see the original text of the manifesto Duchesne, Juan, et al. 2007, translated into English by James Seale Collazo (Duchesne, Juan et al. 2008). 14. Buscaglia uses mulataje as the Caribbean counterpoint to the Latin American paradigm of mestizaje, because in the Caribbean, miscegenation is mostly imag- ined as taking place between European whites and African blacks, while in Mexico this same process usually refers to the offspring produced from interracial relationships between European whites and indigenous subjects. The first use of mulataje that I know of is in Gabriela Mistral’s essay entitled “El tipo del indio americano” in 1932 (Fiol-Matta 2002, 18, 25, 24–28) that she uses to differentiate the Mexican and Brazilian racial imaginaries. 15. Buscaglia-Salgado’s proposal here is similar to José Luis González’s definition of the first Puerto Rican as a black subject in “El país de cuatro pisos” (1976). 16. Klor de Alva (1992, 1995) questions the postcolonial process in Latin America, since criollos cannot be considered foreigners in these countries. 17. For more information see Roberts and Stephens (2013) and Martínez-San Miguel (2012a).

Chapter 1 1. See the Introduction for a more detailed definition of extended colonialism. 2. http://www.etymonline.com/ 3. Chapters 1 and 2 share a common argument, since they explore a similar question in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries: the place of piracy and filibusterismo in the foundation of a form of intracolonial displacement that is not necessarily protonationalist. From now on, I will refer to these two texts as Infortunios and Nouveau vogage, respectively. 4. I include a definition of “coloniality of diaspora” in the section entitled “Key- words and Debates” in the Introduction of this book. 5. Ramírez’s representation of his escape from Puerto Rico to avoid his father’s pro- fession is quite eloquent. Not only does it signal a literal lack of opportunity for the protagonist if he were to follow the tradition to learn his father’s trade, but it also points to an interesting colonial interpretation of the foundational psycho- analytical “death of the father/death of the name of the father” that serves as the 200 ● Notes

point of departure for this implicit testimony of a colonial vassal that becomes a pirate to be transformed into an imperial vassal upon his return to the New Spain. This narrative is not exceptional, as we know that Captain Henry Morgan was also a pirate who raided the insular Caribbean and was later appointed as Lieutenant Governor of (1664–1665) in recognition for all the goods he claimed for the English crown. So as we can see, in the late seventeenth century, the frontier between hero and pirate was very permeable, and as such, Ramírez represents another liminal subject that questions the logics of inclusion and exclusion of the Spanish empire during the second half of the seventeenth century. 6. For a reading of the Infortunios as a complicit text between creoles Ramírez, Sigüenza and Ayerra de Santa María, the censor and editor of the text respec- tively, that protects Ramirez’s integrity as a loyal Spanish vassal and questions the imperial motive behind the Conde de Galve’s interest in publishing this text, see Buscaglia-Salgado 2011, 77–84. 7. In From Lack to Excess I analyzed the same text in my discussion about the lim- its of the transatlantic paradigm, but I focused on the articulation of a Pacific cartography (2008, 162–164). 8. Spanish exclusivismo attempted to control all trade taking place in the Americas, by excluding commerce with vassals from other European countries, and even controlling which routes and ports were authorized for commercial exchange. This commercial practice proved to be very impractical and it ultimately pro- moted more contraband and piracy. For more information on exclusivismo, please see Fisher (1997) and Martínez and Melgar (2005). 9. Here my interpretation concides and builds on Buscaglia-Salgado’s reading of the Infortunios in his critical edition published in 2011, although in some cases I will not go as far as he does in his reinterpretation of some passages. 10. The treasure fleets sailed following two main routes: the most important one, the “Flota de Indias,” departed from the Casa de Contratación in Seville and stopped in continental ports located in Veracruz, Portobelo, and Cartagena and recon- vened in before returning to Spain. A secondary one was the “Galeón de Manila,” which linked the Philippines and México in the Pacific. Goods com- ing from Manila reached Acapulco and were transported to Veracruz, where they joined the “Flota de Indias” to return to Spain. For more information see Nettels (1931) and Walton (1994). 11. Buscaglia-Salgado 2011 followed the route described by Sigüenza and Ramírez in the Infortunios, and has concluded that Ramírez was not trying to return to a Spanish settlement, but was apparently looking for an English post to sell his booty. 12. I have preserved the original spelling from the 1722 edition. 13. In Labat’s narration, buccaneer is restored to its original meaning, that of a barbacoa in the . One of the many examples of Labat’s obsession with cooking pork appears in Labat 1722 Volume VI, Chapter II, 9–10, 1970, 52. 14. The “Bula de la Santa Cruzada,” or Bull of the Crusade, was a Papal bull that granted indulgences to those fighting in the crusades against Muslims and Notes ● 201

other communities or countries considered pagans, infidels, or heretics. For more information see Fernández Llamazares ([1859] 2011). 15. Philip V of Spain initiates the control of the House of Bourbon in Spain (1700– 1808). Since Philip V was a member of a royal family in France while he was King of Spain (1700–1724), the two countries would be considered allies, and this is why Labat’s vessel is set free.

Chapter 2 1. I am following Isaac 1998 in his use of Rizal’s own definition of filibusterismo. 2. This is not the case with pirata, which in Spanish preserves the double meaning of “2. clandestino. Edición PIRATA. ||3. Ladrón que roba en el mar” [2. clandestine. PIRATE Edition. ||3. Thief that steals in the sea] (DRAE 1992). 3. The Katipunan was a Philippine revolutionary society founded by separatist and independentist Filipinos in Manila in 1892, just after Rizal was banished to Dapitan. Initially, the Katipunan was a secret organization until its discov- ery in 1896, which led to the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution. For more information, see Ileto (1999) and Kramer (2006). 4. Obviously, Haiti remains an exception in the context of the insular Caribbean and even Latin America. Fischer (2004) argues that the modern political project represented by the Black sovereign state constituted in this former French colony is consistently denied or erased in the white Creole Spanish Caribbean imaginaries in and the . 5. This particular form of political interventionism was key for the practical articulation of the Monroe Doctrine in the 1820s and beyond. For more information, please see Dent (1999). 6. Villaverde himself mentions the political context of Cuba in the Prologue to the second part of the novel, yet his argument favors the independentist, abolitionist narratives of the novel at the expense of the other dimensions of the narrative that can be linked to his annexionist, white creole alliances (Lazo 2002). 7. The hope was to have Cuba join the union as a slave state. López was able to lead to expeditions to Cuba in 1850 and 1851, but he did not gather local support. In the second expedition López was captured and executed. For more information, please see Chaffin (1996). 8. The United States developed an economic and political interest in Cuba since the early 1800s, as the major buyer of the and coffee produced in the island, and an important provider of imports for the island. In 1826, 783 out of the 964 ships that visited the port of Havana were US vessels. Between 1845 and 1861, the United States made several offers to Spain trying to buy the island (Lazo 2002, 8–9). 9. “La primitiva Cecilia Valdés” was published in 1839 in “La siempreviva,” a serial publication dedicated to the young generation in Havana. The story is less than 25 pages long. For a reading of this initial version of this narrative see Fischer (2004). 202 ● Notes

10. Even Amistad funesta (New York 1885) by Cuban writer José Martí follows the same framework. Martí locates his novel outside the insular Caribbean, and the plot takes place in an imaginary Latin American country, where the foundational fiction represented in the narrative would make sense. “Nuestra América” was published in New York and Mexico, and it also displaces the insu- lar Caribbean, where the process of independence and political sovereignty is significantly different from the rest of Latin America. 11. Fischer (2004) studies the invention of a white Creole imaginary at the expense of the Black creole cultural and artistic traditions for the case of Cuba in Chapter 2. On the ideology of blanqueamiento in Cecilia Valdés, see Guevara (2005). 12. I describe these maroon wars in more detail in my analysis of Michelle Cliff’s novel Abeng in the fifth chapter of this book. For more information, see Murdoch (2009). 13. By saying that Cecilia Valdés is closer to naturalism than to I mean that Villaverde is showcasing the morbid aspects of a colonial slave society, more than trying to present a realist or romantic depiction of the historical experience of Cuban society in the early nineteenth century. 14. Sollors (1997) studies the link between incest and inter-racial relations in American fiction. González Echevarría (2007) links and incest with the crisis of the law produced by Napoleón Bonaparte’s take over the Spanish monar- chy in 1808 and after the establishment of the Constitution of Cadiz of 1812, that would lead to the wars of independence in the Spanish possesions in the continental Americas. One of the most interesting interpretations of incest in the novel is proposed by Fischer (2009), since she argues that the main motive of the novel is not incest itself, but the fact that this is a secret known by almost everybody in the novel except Leonardo and Cecilia and that this open secret reveals the internal fractures in the structures of power, knowledge and subalternity in the colonial slave society represented in this novel. 15. According to Watson, Rizal wrote in Spanish for a European, not Philippine, reader (2000, 288); Anderson (2007) seems to agree with this theory. 16. Watson argues that Rizal’s anomalous place in the Latin American nationalist canon may be a result of “his capacity to translate European nationalism into Asian form” (2000, 289). One of the main contributions of Rizal’s work is the production of a discursive and political practice based on European mod- els that was significantly different from the indigenous rebellions that were more common among Asian nationalists. 17. Floro C. Quibuyen advances one of the most interesting critical reflections about Rizal’s problematic nationalism. He suggests that we analyze Rizal’s political project beyond the definition of the nation in terms of the liberal concept of the nation-state, a concept that is derived from the political conceptualizations of the Enlightenment (2008, 5). He proposes a study of Rizal taking into acount Tagalog Folk tradition. This seems a very productive way of exploring the com- plex modes in which Rizal constructed his political ideas beyond the Eurocentric paradigm that is so predominant in most of the studies about his intellectual trajectory. Notes ● 203

18. This was approved as part of the Republic Act 1425, that is currently known as the “Rizal Law.” http://www.chanrobles.com/republicactno1425.html 19. An example of this US American idealization of Rizal as national hero is included in the Rizal Law of 1956, for example in passages like this one: “WHEREAS, the life, works and writing of José Rizal, particularly his novels Noli Me Tangere and El filibusterismo, are a constant and inspiring source of patriotism with which the minds of the youth, especially during their formative and decisive years in school, should be suffused” (http://www.chanrobles.com/republicactno1425. html). For more information about the American idealization of Rizal, see Espergai Pasigui and Cabalu (2006, 225–236). Howard A. DeWitt discards the US American creation of Rizal as a nationalist hero, by documenting how important he was among the creole ilustrado sectors in the Philippines (1997, 187–193). 20. Bernardo de Balbuena represents the New Spain as the imperial, administrative and financial center of the Spanish empire in his poem La grandeza mexicana (1604). For more information, see Fuchs and Martínez (2009). 21. It should be noted that while “indios” was used in the Caribbean and the Americas to refer to the , Mayas, Aztecs and Incas, among others, for the case of the Philippines the same name is used to refer to the native Southeast Asian populations found in the islands when the arrived. 22. The Catálogo alfabético de apellidos was produced and approved names were assigned to families in all towns. Civil servants assigned family names in alphabetical order causing some small towns with only a few families ending up with all names starting with the same letter. Names were also issued based on the town of origin. ‘A’ for example was issued to primary capitals, ‘B’ for secondary towns, and ‘C’ for thirtiary towns. Surnames were also based on the first letter of the town. Before the modern human migration and inter-marriages among ethnicities, one can tell the hometown origin of an individual based on their Iberian last name.

Taken from http://www.lukban.org/history-of-our-name.php 23. They also shared a similar pattern of US interventionism that began in the mid- nineteenth century, culminated with the occupation of 1898, and was followed by a gradual process of political autonomization and independence, with the derogation of the Platt Ammendment in 1934 in the case of Cuba, and the dec- laration of independence in 1946 in the case of the Philippines. There are also key similarities with Puerto Rico, since both regions are controlled through a mili- tary government that is later transformed in a civil government, and in both cases there is a gradual process of autonomization, that culminates in a commonwealth status for the Philippines in 1936, and for Puerto Rico in 1952. See Thompson (2010) for specific differences in the political trajectory of these two countries after 1898. 24. There is also a Mexican novel titled El filibustero by Justo Sierra O’Reilly, published as a “novela de folletín” in 1841 in the newspaper El museo yucateco. One could use the link of this notion of filibusterismo to explore the 204 ● Notes

Mexico-Cuba-Philippines connection that could even be related to the situado mexicano. 25. Noli Me Tangere fits the romantic paradigm for nation building fictions. Allan Punzallan Isaac notes that the conversion of Ibarra from bourgeois mestizo reformist into filibustero takes place in Noli and that the novel offers an excellent definition for this term (1998). 26. Benedict Anderson has published one of the key intellectual autobiographies of Rizal included in Under Three Flags. In this study, Anderson describes in detail how Rizal’s political formation was related to European anarquist move- ments that can and should not be conflated with nationalist, pro-independence projects. However, in his works Rizal is also concerned with the tensions between the reformist ilustrado movement and the separatist movement in Philippines. Anderson perceives this tension, and he rightly identifies Noli as a novel in which an ilustrado creole project is presented as a viable alternative. In that regard Noli can be seen as part of a foundational nationalist discourse. However, since more scholars have read Imagined Communities than Under Three Flags, Anderson’s nuanced analysis of the political development of José Rizal is not as well known among Caribbeanists and Latin Americanists. Other interesting historical and political analyses of Rizal have been done by Vicente Rafael (2005), and Ileto (1999). 27. Blumentritt was born in Prague and was a school teacher and principal. He also wrote on the Philippines, translated Rizal’s first novel to German and wrote a prologue for El filibusterismo. Rizal tried to write a history of the Philippines with Blumentritt, “that would explode many of the myths of native indolence, stupidity, savagery, unaccountability, and so forth ...” (Blanco 2009, 249). His correspondence with Rizal has been key to understand the historical and politi- cal context in which the Noli and Fili were written. On the friendship between Rizal and Blumentritt, as well as to read the correspondence between Rizal and Blumentritt, see http://www.univie.ac.at/ksa/apsis/aufi/fblumen.htm. 28. I have preserved the original ortography of the 1891 edition of the novel in the passages of the text that I am quoting in Spanish in this chapter. 29. According to Allan Punzallan Isaac, this racial, national and ethnic unreadabil- ity of Simoun goes beyond the simplistic opposition against the foreign and refers to several internal colonial networks that are relevant in the Filipino imaginary of the end of the nineteenth century: “The mestizo Simoun is a colonial cipher whom members of Manila society assumed to be from the Antilles with his ‘strange accent, half English, half Latin American’ (6). He is variously mistaken and insulted as a ‘Yankee,’ an ‘American mulatto,’ ‘a British Indian’ and a ‘white-haired Spaniard.’ Various empires are invoked here: the internal colonization of the native and black peoples in the Americas, the Raj over Southeast Asia, and of course, the Spanish empire” (Isaac 1998). 30. “Grey eminence” originally referred to François Leclerc, the right hand of in the France of the seventeenth century. It is used to refer to someone with great influence over a powerful person. Notes ● 205

31. Although I am referring here to one of the main characters in Star Wars (Lucas 1977), I am also playing here with the literal meaning of the name of this character, Dark Father. 32. The friars want to control knowledge of the Spanish to stop indios from arguing for their rights; Simoun opposes the establishment of Spanish to protect local . 33. For a feminist reading of Maria Clara’s character in this novel, see Arrizón (2006, 119–154). 34. Law of Lynch: “the punishment of presumed crimes or offenses usually by death without due process of law” (Merriam Webster Dictionary). 35. Most of the other subplots of the novel find a similar end: Capitan Tiago loses his lands to the greedy friars, Julí dies trying to save her father and her virginity at the same time, Basilio is falsely accussed of a riot that he did not organize or even participate in, Plácido Penitente is not able to receive an education, and Isagani’s “Academia de castellano” is taken over by the friars while his beloved Paula mar- ries another man who is more convenient to preserve her good place in society. 36. For literary theorizations of the formal difference between the epic and the novel, please see Lukács (1990) and Bakhtin (1983b). 37. This is precisely the topic of my next book project, entitled “Archipiélagos de ultramar: Towards Comparative Caribbean and Archipelago Studies.”

Chapter 3 1. Chapters 3 and 4 are part of a collaborative project with Jorge Duany (University of Puerto Rico) and Justin Daniel (Université des Antilles et de la Guyane) that includes a comparison of the political and migratory history of and Puerto Rico to study the colonial circuits of Caribbean diasporas. Our work is part of a broader research initiative, entitled Collaborative Writing on Translocal Flows in the Americas, which was designed by Marcial Godoy-Anativia with the support of the Rockefeller Foundation and the Latin American and Caribbean Program of the Social Science Research Council. Our research group met in Bellagio in October 2004 and in Martinique in March 2005, with financial sup- port from the Rockefeller Foundation, the Social Science Research Council, and the Centre de Recherche sur les Pouvoirs Locaux dans la Caraïbe. I would also like to thank Jorge Duany, Agustín Laó and Sylvia Alvarez Curbelo for their comments to previous versions of this chapter. 2. I am referring here to “minor literature” defined by Deleuze and Guattari as: “A minor literature doesn’t come from a minor language; it is rather that which a minority constructs within a major language” (1990, 59). Here, the major languages through which Muñoz Marín and Césaire are executing their minor literary forms (i.e. the “pamphlet” and the “notebook”) are respectively Spanish and French. 3. Zavala (1992) questions the traditional definition of modernismo as an escapist, a-political aesthetic and conceives it, instead, as a cultural ideology that manifests a project of political and social emancipation in Spanish America. 206 ● Notes

4. I am referring here to Vicente Huidobro’s famous poem Altazor o el viaje en paracaídas (1931), in which the poetic hero is in a constant process of loss and fall that contradicts the traditional model of the epic hero as the moral and historical center of the poetic narrative. Following Lukács (1990) well-known distinction between the epic as pre-modern and the novel as model genres, I am proposing avant-garde and Caribbean poetics as an alternative script—outside traditional definitions of modernity and sovereign national states—in which Latin American and Caribbean temporalities are validated. 5. I have previously explored some of the problems of applying postcolonial theory to Caribbean cultural studies in Martínez-San Miguel (2009c) and (2013). For more information, see the the section entitled “Caribbean Posctolonialities” in the introduction of this book. 6. In the case of the French Caribbean the departamentalization supposedly meant the incorporation and of Martinique and to France, although in reality the departamentalization did not eliminate the many forms of social marginalization that characterized the lives of the Antilleans living in France. The Estado Libre Asociado kept Puerto Rico under the territorial clause of the US, and extended certain rights to residing in the US (like voting rights) that were not accessible to Puerto Ricans in the island. This topic will be discussed in more detail in the next chapter, when I compare the experience of racialization depicted by and . 7. BUMIDOM refers to the “Bureau pour le développement des migrations intéres- sant les Departments d’Outre Mer,” an office that coordinated the migration between France and its overseas departments between 1963 and 1981. Approx- imately 33,000 persons migrated between the French Caribbean and France as part of this program. In 1982, another office was created to handle this migra- tion, the “Agence nationale pour l’insertion et la promotion des travailleurs d’outre-mer.” For more information about the migration programs in the French Caribbean, see Milia (2002). In the case of Puerto Rico, there was also an “Infor- mation and Documentation Office for Puerto Ricans in New York” (1930–1941) that changed its name to “Identification Service of the Department of Agri- culture and Commerce” in 1942. Later, the island’s Labor Department opened the “Bureau of Employment and Migration” (1948–1951), which subsequently became the “Division of Migration” (1951–1988) and the “Department of Puerto Rican Community Affairs” (1989–1993). For more information about the governmental organization and supervision of migration between Puerto Rico and the United States, see Duany (2002) and Lapp (1990). 8. Clara Rodríguez (1989) and Ramón Grosfoguel (1994–1995) coined the term “colonial immigrants” to refer to Puerto Ricans in the United States. It is evident that the incorporation of migrants from the French Caribbean into France shares many commonalities with Puerto Rican migration to the US (see Milia 2002, 2009, Daniel 1999), even though the migrants’ incorporation is usually not con- ceived in terms of colonialism, but in terms of assimilation (see the comparative analysis by Grosfoguel 1999). Notes ● 207

9. In Puerto Rico, the first wave of emigrants were called Nuyorícans. This term was used to refer to the massive migration of Puerto Ricans to the United States that took place during the 1940s and 1950s, many of whom established their residency in . More recently, this term has been replaced by “neor- riqueño,” Diasporican, or simply Rican, since Puerto Ricans now live in many cities in the United States besides New York (Duany 2002). Negropolitans is the term used in Martinique to refer to Martinicans who have lived in France and who return to the Caribbean. Deborah Pacini Hernández made me aware of the fact that this second term also refers to diasporic colonial subjects in the French context, since the same word is used for African immigrants in France. For more information, see the reference to Parisian negropolitans in Dibango and Rouard (1989). Négropolitan is used in recent studies by Bruno (2011), Mongo-Mboussa (2002), Moudileno (2003) and Mambenga-Ylagou (2006). It is interesting that race is central in the definition of these diasporic identities within a French metropolitan circuit, while in the case of the term nuyorícan, the racial referent is less explicit. For more information, see Delsham (2000) and Giraud (2004). 10. For more information on the debate about diaspora, identity, and citizenship in the Caribbean, see Stuart Hall (1990, 1995). 11. Quoted and translated in Figueroa (2009, 82) from an interview published by Isabelle Constant (2007). Rafael Bernabe discusses Confiant’s assertion in his co- authored book with César Ayala, Puerto Rico in the American Century: A History since 1898 (2009). 12. I use transnational paradigms to refer to studies of migration that focus on population exchanges among nations that have sovereign states and, as a con- sequence, establish legal, economic and political links and/or boundaries for the subjects crossing their borders. For a useful definition of transnationalism, please see Basch, Glick Schiller and Szanton Blanc (1994). The intracolonial migra- tions I study in this chapter do not presuppose the same kind of structures, since the Antilleans traveling to and from the metropolis are considered citizens conducting a domestic trip within the legal boundaries of the same nation. 13. “Criollo” and “creole” do not have the same meaning in the Spanish and French Caribbean. In the Spanish Caribbean “criollo” refers to Spaniards born and raised in the Americas. The term was originally coined to refer to the African slaves born in the New World, but it was later expanded to refer to the Spaniards born in the same condition (Mazzotti 2000, 11). From the end of the seventeenth century, White creoles became an intermediary sector that struggled to keep its hegemonic condition in the Americas vis-à-vis the peninsular functionaries who usually were appointed to the most prestigious and powerful positions in the colonial government. It is not until the eighteenth century that criollos produce a protonationalist discourse (Higgings 2000). “Creole” is used to refer to the synchretized culture and the local variants of French and English, that are also known as “pidgins” and papiamentos and that, in both cases, presupposes the adaptation and transformation of diverse elements from European, Asian, and 208 ● Notes

African cultures that were transplanted to the Antilles as part of the colonial and neocolonial processes. For more information see Bernabé, Chamoiseau and Confiant [1989] (1990), Clark (1991) and Glissant (1999a). The anthology Créolité and Creolization (Ed. Okwui Enwezor et al. 2003) explores the links between the Spanish, Anglo, French and Dutch Caribbean using the notion of creolization as a common ground. 14. For the constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Muñoz Marín col- laborated with Rexford Tugwell, and members of the US congress. For more information see Gerardo Navas Dávila (1980). 15. For a review of the existing critical bibliography on Muñoz’s poetry, please see Canino Salgado, especially the first chapter of La obra literaria de Luis Muñoz Marín (1999), that includes the most important publications as well as a bibliography of reviews and critical assessments of his lyrical texts. 16. This process of humanization of the lyrical voice that represents the colonized other as dispossessed workers is parallel to the process of humanization of the black Antillean subject in Césaire’s Cahier, which I discuss in the next section of this chapter. For a discussion of the articulation of humanity as the opposite of Fanon’s “damné” (wretched), see Maldonado Torres (2008). 17. The Jones Act also defined the structure of the government of Puerto Rico as parallel to the US government. The insular government was composed of the executive, judicial and legislative branches, and elections were held every four years. The President of the United States appointed the governor of the island until 1948. In 1917 citizenship also made military service compulsory for Puerto Ricans, who were drafted by the United States during the First World War. For more information see Fernando Picó (1986, 237–238) and Thompson (2010). 18. Piri Thomas and Frantz Fanon will also develop a similar argument in their respective representations of colonial Antilleans in the US and France. Thomas reflects about the unreadability of Hispanics after the US Supreme court ruled racial discrimination in public education as unconstitutional (Brown vs. Board of Education, 1954) and the US congress passed the Civil and Voting Rights Acts in the 1964 and 1965, and Fanon explores the limits of French citizenship for colonial Antilleans after the departamentalization of Martinique. I discuss their works in the next chapter. 19. This distinction between the black creole and the white criollo imaginary is cen- tral in the articulation of distinct national formation discourses in the French and Spanish Caribbean respectively (footnote 13 in this chapter). Even though both Césaire and Muñoz Marín are circumventing the national question in their poetry to focus on the human plight of the colonized Antilleans, it is interesting to see how their particular articulations of the creole/criollo at the heart of their poetics still respond to imperial and linguistic boundaries. 20. Unfortunately, I was unable to secure permissions to quote Césaire’s poem in the electronic version of my book, so in this section I have included quotes of the poem only in English. For a review of the major literary interpretations and debates about Césaire’s work please see Arnold (1981), Kubayanda (1990), and Figueroa (2009). Notes ● 209

21. The Vichy regime formed under Marshall Phillip Pétain and it constituted the French government between 1940 and 1944, after France surrendered to Germany. France was divided into the French state governed by Pétain and the French Republic lead by Charles de Gaulle (based in London and Algiers). Pétain was an ally to the Germans during the Second World War. In Martinique, Admiral Roberts ruled as the High Commissioner. He self proclaimed as the “Pétain of the Antilles.” After a blockade in 1943, and the continued resistance of the local population, Martinique aligned with the . Césaire was elected the first Major of Fort de France soon after (1945) and a year later the island became a department of France. For more information see Jennings (2001). 22. On the relationship between Césaire’s poetry and his political life see Arnold (1981), Figueroa (2009) and Hale and Véron (2010). 23. Césaire’s poetics has been studied in the intersection of the existing links between Black primitivism and the European and Latin American avant-gards (Edwards 2003), the Harlem Renaissance in the United States (Guridy 2003, 2009, Arnold 1981, Edwards 2003) and the negrista poetry in the Spanish developed by Nicolás Guillén and Luis Palés Matos (Kubayanda 1990, Branche 2006, Badiane 2010). It is also important to recover the broader Caribbean and Latin American imag- inaries of Césaire, who collaborated with the cultural journal Orígenes in Cuba between 1944 and 1956, published his “Discurso sobre el colonialismo” in the Revista de Casa de Las Américas in 1966 and participated in the Revista Afro- América from Mexico in 1942–1943. Lydia Cabrera translates the Cahier into Spanish in 1943 and Casa de las Américas published an edition of his poems in 1969. 24. I am referring here to Bakhtin’s classical definition of the chronotope: “the intrinsic connectedness of temporal and spatial relationships that are artistically expressed in literature ...it expresses the inseparability of space and time” (1983, 84). Césaire uses space and time to express his unique connection with the Caribbean. 25. With pedagodical experience I am referring to the opposition established by Homi Bhabha between the performative and the pedagogical in national dis- courses. In that context, the pedagogical is defined as “giving the discourse an authority that is based on the pregiven or constituted historical origin or event,” while the performative is based on the daily practices that enact an identity by consensual repetition (1990, 297). 26. Confiant (1993) addresses some of these contradictions in what seems to be an Eurocentric and French assimilationist posture in Césaire. I am suggesting that subverting the imperial imaginary from within could be part of an explicit poetic in Césaire that is similar to the notion of “minor literature” proposed by Deleuze and Guattari (1990). 27. The nationalistic claim will not take place until the 1980s, with the defense of creole and local Martinican culture proposed by the creolists. It would be anachronistic to expect Césaire to write in Creole, especially because Martinican creole was not recognized as a national language in the 1930s and as such it 210 ● Notes

lacked an established written system. Césaire writes his poem in a standard form of French with some neologisms that could be linked with Martinican creole. Césaire does innovate the French language in his poetry, but his linguistic and poetic project also follows some of the avant-garde and experimental European trends of the 1920s and 1930s. I study the role of creoles in the articulation of Caribbean identities in Chapter 5 of this book. Kubayanda devotes a Chapter 5 of his book The Poet’s Africa to the study of the use of language in this poem and links creoles and African languages (1990). 28. I am referring here to the difficulty faced by many Puerto Rican scholars who pre- fer not to address the problematic location of Muñoz Marín vis-à-vis the Puerto Rican diaspora. Muñoz Marin’s poetry in English has not been analyzed in detail, and most scholars who study his biography tend to diminish the importance of the time Muñoz Marín lived in the United States and its effects in his percep- tions about the island and its diaspora. In the case of Martinique the invisibility of the colony-metropolis circuit is more evident in the studies about Fanon’s oeu- vre, since many critics tend to ignore the Antillean dimension of his book Black Skins, White Masks, to privilege the African, and even French, dimensions of his other works (Williams 1999, 54–55).

Chapter 4 1. Here I use racialization to describe how an immigrant experiences a re- articulation of her/his identity when s/he is incorporated into the ethno- racial matrix of the receiving society. According to Jorge Duany (2005b), “[racialization] involves imputing a hereditary origin to certain intellectual, emo- tional, or behavioral characteristics of an individual based on group membership” (535). Ramos-Zayas (2003) and Ramos Zayas and De Genova (2003) further develop the notion of racialization in their study of colonial diasporic Puerto Ricans. Duany (1998) and (2005b) offer an excellent critical review of the racialization process of Latinos in the United States. 2. For an explanation of how I revise Aníbal Quijano’s notion of the “coloniality of power” to study the coloniality of diasporas in the Caribbean, see the Introduction of this book. 3. I offer a detailed contextualization and comparison of the problematic “postcolonial” condition of Martinique and Puerto Rico in the third chapter of this book. For more information of similar patterns of colonial immigration in these two countries, see Milia (2009) and Grosfoguel (2003). 4. For a definition and distinction between Négropolitan and Nuyorícan, see Chapter 3, note 9. 5. In the introduction I review arguments about the currency and limitations of the postcolonial debate on hybridity for the Anglo, French, and Spanish Caribbean in Puri (2004) and Torres Saillant (1997). 6. I discuss the difference between creole, criollo, and criollismo in Chapter 3, foot- note 13. The analysis of the links between racial and linguistic creolization as Notes ● 211

central for the articulation of insular Anglo, French, and Spanish Caribbean cultures is the focus of the next chapter of this book. 7. I discuss négritude and negrismo in the previous chapter of this book. For more information on these historical links, as well as distinctions among the Harlem Renaissance, “négritude,” and Spanish “negrismo,” see the studies published by Brent Edwards (2003), Guridy (2003, 2009), Kubayanda (1990), Badiane (2010), and Branche (2006). On the complex relationship between the racial debate in Puerto Rico and the “criollo” imaginary, see Roy-Féquière (2004). 8. On Latin American “mestizaje.” the foundational texts are Vasconcelos’s La raza cósmica (1925) and José Martí’s “Nuestra América” (1891). Recent stud- ies on mestizaje that complicate the debate in Latin American studies by adding Latino, comparative and queer studies are Gruzinski (2002), Pérez-Torres (2006), Baca (2008), Arrizón (2006) and Sanjinés (2004). For a comparative study of mestizaje and mulataje see M. Miller (2004) and Buscaglia-Salgado (2003). 9. Susan Kellogg uses ethnoracial “to refer to the way concepts of differentiation in the texts under discussion often fuse ideas about ethnicity and race” (2000, 83, note 1). 10. For more information on the life and writings of Fanon see Alessandrini (1999), Gordon, Sharpley-Whiting, and White (1996), Macey (2000), and Williams (1999). 11. It is interesting to note that in the study of Fanon we find a similar situation to the way in which a thinker like Arturo Schomburg has been transformed into a central figure for the African-American tradition in the United States, usually at the expense of his Puerto Rican identity. For more information on this unequal appropriation of the Antillean dimensions of Schomburg’s work, see Arroyo (2005) and Sánchez González (2001). These ethnoracial redefinitions of African-American thinkers sometimes privilege the Black tradition in the United States and Africa to constitute postcolonial projects that displace and exclude the Antillean experiences that were also crucial in the constitution of these tradi- tions. For a critical analysis of the complex relationship between Afro-American and Afro-diasporic identities, see Stephens (2005), and Negrón-Muntaner (2013). 12. The Caribbean Philosophical Association was founded in 2002 at the Center for Caribbean Thought at the University of the West Indies at Mona, Jamaica. Its mission is,

to support the free exchange of ideas and foster an intellectual commu- nity that is truly representative of the diversity of voices and perspectives that is paradigmatic of, but not limited to, the Caribbean. The Caribbean is thus understood not solely as a geopolitical region, but more generally as a trope to investigate certain dimensions of the multiple undersides of modernity. Likewise, philosophy is conceived, not as an isolated academic discipline, but as rigorous theoretical reflection about fundamental prob- lems faced by humanity. Understood in this way, Caribbean philosophy is 212 ● Notes

a transdisciplinary form of interrogation informed by scholarly knowledges as well as by practices and artistic expressions that elucidate fundamental questions that emerge in contexts of ‘discovery,’ conquest, racial, gender, and sexual domination, genocide, dependency, and exploitation as well as free- dom, emancipation, and decolonization. Reflection about these areas often appears in philosophical texts, but also in a plethora of other genres such as literature, music, and historical writings. (http://www.caribbeanphilosophicalassociation.org/)

13. Lewis R. Gordon (2005) proposes a holistic reading of Fanon’s argument in Peau Noire. 14. For an interesting comparative reading of processes of racialization in means of mass transportation in Césaire and Fanon, see Arteaga (2009). 15. , Guadeloupe, Martinique and Réunion have had Departmen- tal status since 1946. They were given regional status with greater powers of self-government and elected assemblies in 1982, and were redesignated as Overseas Regions in 2003. Their regional and Departmental status is identi- cal to that of regions and departments of metropolitan France, and they can choose to replace these with a single structure by merging their regional and Departmental assemblies. (http://www.qfinance.com/dictionary/departmentalization)

The idea behind the departamentalization was the assimilation of the overseas territories to France, but many critics have seen this political structure as another neo-colonial arrangement. 16. I am using “recognition” and “misrecognition” in their psychoanalytical sense, and I will develop this reading in more detail in the third section of this chapter. 17. I am using here Judith Butler’s notion of what is “culturally intelligible”: “ ...the ‘coherence’ and ‘continuity’ of ‘the person’ are not logical or analytic features of personhood, but, rather, socially instituted and maintained norms of intelligibil- ity” (1990, 17). Butler uses this term to refer to the social construction of gender, while Fanon and Thomas focus on the intelligibility of race in the racialization processes produced and promoted by intracolonial diasporas. 18. This scene also illustrates the aporia that makes it so difficult, although not impossible, to adapt the Anglophone postcolonial debate to the Francophone context. In the French Caribbean, it is still possible to ask similar questions to the ones explored by Stuart Hall, V. S. Naipaul, and George Lamming in their depiction of the colonial dimensions of some of the metropolitan experiences of the Antillean immigrants that are defined as postcolonial subjectivities, but the illusion of political decolonization is resolved differently in each context, since the Anglo Caribbean will become national sovereign states between 1962 and 1983, while the French Caribbbean developed in some cases political structures with France that can be conceived as necolonial, decolonial and/or assimilationist solutions to the previous colonial context. Notes ● 213

19. The S. S. Marine Tiger was built in 1945 by the Kaiser Co. Inc. in Vancouver, Washington. Originally used as a passenger ship, during the Second World War it was converted to a troop transport. Some time in early 1946 she was converted back to a passenger ship. From then on the S. S. Marine Tiger would play a major role in the Puerto Rican migration to New York. According to Miguel Meléndez, many Puerto Rican workers travelled between San Juan and New York in this vessel, and they were known as “Marine Tigers.” (2003, 27–28). In Thomas novel the name of the vessel is used by Piri to refer to Trina, the Puerto Rican born woman who becomes his utopian yet impossible love. 20. I use Agustín Laó’s notion of translocal as maintaining a double allegiance with a Puerto Rican and an US American identity (1997). 21. For more information about Piri Thomas, see his text entitled “A Neorican in Puerto Rico: or Coming Home,” as well as his webpage http://www.cheverote. com/piri.html. 22. See Luis (1997), Zimmerman (1992), and Barradas (1998) for more contextual information about Thomas and . 23. Several studies address the interaction and exchange between African-American and Puerto Rican cultures, such as Flores (2000b), Raquel Rivera (2003), and studies on the Puerto Rican community in conducted by Ramos Zayas (2003) and the special issue of Centro Journal devoted to Puerto Ricans in Chicago (Fall 2001, 13.2). Another special issue of the Centro Journal ded- icated to the study of race also includes important essays on Puerto Ricans and their relationship with other ethnic minorities (Spring 1996, 8.1–2). Vaca (2004) and Oboler and Dzidzienyo (2005) explore the tensions between the two communities. 24. I am referring to the case of racial desegregation decided in the US Supreme Courts in Brown v. Board of Education 1951–1954, and the two acts passed by congress, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. These legal decisions and acts granted basic civil rights making racial discrimination unconstitutional in public education, and protecting voting and civil rights for people of color in the United States. These legal decisions and new laws were passed after almost a decade of protests and marches, such as the 1955–1956 Montgomery bus boycott, the nation-wide, student-led sit-ins of the 1960s, and the huge March in Washington, DC in 1963. 25. Thomas resists being classified as a Nuyorícan writer and questions this denom- ination that was created after the publication of his first novel. For more information, please see the following interviews with Piri Thomas: Hernández (1997), Binder (1980), Pacifico (1977), and Stavans (1996). The intersection between different ethnic identities in the context of internal colonialism and dis- placement has been the central topic of many of the most recent studies about Puerto Ricans in the United States. For example, see, Flores (2000b), Raquel Rivera (2003), and Jorge Duany (1998), among others. 26. I am implicitly establishing a parallel between Edward Said’s autobiography of the same title (1999) and Thomas’s autobiographical narration of his sense of dislocation as a black US born Puerto Rican. 214 ● Notes

27. Piri did not have the possibility of conceiving himself as “brown,” a notion that has commonly been used since the 1990s, and that functions as that space of uncomfortable tension and conflict in Richard Rodríguez’s autobiographical texts. 28. Punzalan Isaac (2006) establishes another interesting connection between Thomas’s narrative and the representation of ethnic masculinities in the work of Carlos Bulosan’s America is in the Heart. His work suggests that Thomas’s narrative has productive intersections with other ethnic narratives beyond the US Latino and Caribbean contexts in which it has been generally analyzed. 29. A key scene in the novel is Piri’s conversation with Gerald Andrew West in the chapter entitled “Barooom sociology.” Piri is challenged by Gerald desire to claim a white identity, since he is only one-eighth black, but Piri finally chooses to claim a black identity as a more difficult experiment than the one proposed by West. For critical readings of this chapter, please see Caminero Santangelo (2004), Marta Sánchez (1998) and Sosa Velasco (2009). 30. There is another link in the conceptualization of racialization that links Martinique and Puerto Rico. In his foundational book Narciso descubre su trasero (1975), Isabelo Zenón uses Fanon to elaborate his foundational study on the representation of blackness in . For more information, see Rivera Casellas (2006). This connection between Zenón and Fanon should be explored at more length in order to further this comparative study between Puerto Rico and Martinique. 31. For a theorization of inter-racial relationships, please see Sexton (2008,153–189). 32. This attitude is summarized in the public discourses regarding the “raping” and the “lynching” of the black female and male body, respectively speaking, a matter not directly addressed by Fanon, but depicted by Thomas through the relationship of Brew and Alayce. 33. Jane Hiddleston notes that one of the main limitations in the study of Fanon’s autobiographical reflections is that there are very few discursive analyses of the construction of the narrative voice and, in particular, the constitution of the “I/we” (2008). I propose to analyze the differential representation of gender in Peau noire ...by focusing on the focalization (or perspective) and narrative voice used to represent these two instances. 34. Other critical assessments of Fanon’s misreading of Capécia’s work have been developed by Dayan (1999), Sharpley-Whiting (1996, 1999). Tinsley (2010) offers one of the best recontextualizations of Capécia’s works I have read. 35. Fanon’s central criticism is that Capécia’s novel wins a national award in France and he questions the imperial readership that recognizes in this narrative an exemplary Martinican text. Yet in his chapter this criticism is lost in his own judgements about the problematic position of the Black or mulatta woman who wants to whiten her race. 36. For useful feminist reappropriations of Fanon’s work, see Mercer (1996) and hooks 1996. 37. For an analyisis of masculinity, coming out narratives and silence in Thomas’s novel, see Sifuentes-Jáuregui (2009, 2013). Notes ● 215

38. Some critics have already explored the (Lacanian) mirroring effect of Piri’s encounter with Gerald Andrew West in the chapter entitled “Barroom Sociol- ogy” (Sosa Velasco (2009), Caminero Santangelo (2004, 217–218) but they link this specular effect with Latin American mestizaje or US American notions of miscegenation. I propose a psychoanalytical reading of his encounter with black- ness via Piri’s embodiment of a Hispanic/Mexican identity in the scene with the white prostitute in Texas because I argue that in this scene Thomas explores a similar set of questions to the ones posed by Fanon in his interrogation of the racial blindness in Lacan’s mirror stage. 39. I analyze the productive intersections between Puerto Rican and Chicano studies in a comparative reading of Piri’s experience in Texas with a scene in Richard Rodríguez’s Hunger of Memory in Martínez-San Miguel (2012b). 40. On the place of race in postcolonial debates about a new humanism, please see Wynter (2003). 41. On Fanon’s problematic relationship with his own father, see Gordon (2005). 42. By depicting the denial of blackness through the claim of an indigenous Taíno identity, Thomas refers here to a central pitfall in racial paradigms in the Spanish Caribbean’s adoption of white criollo discourse and mestizaje (Roy Féquière 2004). For more information on these debates and neo-taíno movements see Haslip-Viera (2001, 2006, 2008) and Feliciano Santos (2011). Buscaglia-Salgado (2003) and Miller (2004) adopt mulataje as an alternative to mestizaje in order to highlight African racial presence in the region. 43. I am also echoing here Ashis Nandy’s notion of the “intimate enemy” (1992) to describe the negating effect of colonialism in the articulation of a subject’s identity. 44. For more information, see the anthology edited by Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall (2001). 45. I use the term “transnational societies” to refer specifically to current migra- tion waves in which migrants maintain legal, political and economic links with more than one nation-state. Most recent studies on transnationationalism assume that the countries involved in these migratory circuits are nation- states that are both independent and sovereign. Martinique and Puerto Rico might be exceptions to the predominant paradigm in transnational studies, but these two countries still participate in massive translocal flows that could be used as case studies to interrogate current theories of globalization and postnationality.

Chapter 5 1. The linguist is Jean Bernabé. He has a doctorate in linguistics and is the author of important studies in the field of Creole syntax, as well as of many articles on sociolinguistics and literature. Patrick Chamoiseau is an important Martinican writer who has applied the principles of créolité in the creation of well known creolized narratives such as Solibo Magnifique (1988) and his prize winning novel 216 ● Notes

Te xac o (1992). Raphael Confiant has written novels in French and Creole, and has been a firm proponent of creole culture and identity in Martinique. 2. The linguistic study of pidgins and creoles is known as creolistics (Holm 2000, 9), and it is believed that the field originated in 1869 with the comparative analysis of creoles conducted by Addison Van Name. Van Name recognized the distinction between pidgins and creoles long before than Robert Hall (1966). 3. We can also see a precursor of Glissant’s “Poetics of Relation” here, which he defines as: “Rhizomatic thought is the principle behind what I call Poetics of Relation, in which each and every identity is extended through a relationship with the Other” (1990, 11). 4. Here I am referring to Taylor’s definition of archive and repertoire to include embodied practices in cultural repositories: “the archive of supposedly enduring materials (i.e., texts, documents, buildings, bones) and the so-called ephemeral repertoire of embodied practice/knowledge (i.e., spoken language, dance, sports, ritual)” (2003, 19). 5. According to Price, that is the same route followed by the notion of creolization, that emerged originally in natural history, and then moved to linguistics, anthro- pology and finally to cultural studies (2007,18). Not surprisingly, the study of creoles has also been linked to the origin of sociolinguistics with the work of Hugo Schuchardt, given the emphasis this area of linguistics assigns to the social context in the configuration of linguistic systems and structures (Holm 2000, 29). 6. Ed Morales 2002 develops this same thesis to propose as the future beyond Vasconcelos’s fifth race to take the debate on the future identity of the Americas beyond the racial paradigm. 7. Creole and creolization have a different meaning in the Anglo and French Caribbean from the most common definiton of criollo used in the Spanish Caribbean. In Éloge de la Créolité the authors note that in nineteenth century French dictionaries Creole is defined as white creoles or Béké, and they ascribe this to a mistake (121, n. 10.), but in the Spanish colonies criollo has exactly that same meaning: person of European descent that is born in the Americas. At the same time, the Spanish Caribbean does not develop linguistic creoles comparable to the native creoles spoken in the Anglo and French Caribbean (Lipski 1985a, McWhorter 1995, 2000, Holm 2000)—although some linguists would argue that a process of creolization and decreolization did take place in the region (De Granda 1994, Ortiz López 2000 and Alleyne 1974, 21). The whitening of the term does not even have a linguistic counterexample. However, I suscribe Silvio Torres Saillant’s contention that créolité is the regional term to refer to hybridity in the Caribbean (2006, 43–44). 8. I am referring here to Rorty’s book The Linguistic Turn: Essays in Philosophical Method (1967), that signals a turn of philosophy to language to include linguis- tic and discursive analysis as relevant in philosophical reflection. This same trend is later extended to the humanities in general conceiving of language as a structur- ing system that is key in textual analysis in structuralism, post-structuralism and Notes ● 217

psychoanalysis (for example in key works by Derrida and Lacan). For a thought provoking reflection of the effects of the linguistic turn in the humanities and social sciences, please see Henry (1995). I am reversing Rorty’s phrase, to empha- size the importance of recovering the linguistic foundation of the créolité debate, based on the study of the formation of creoles by Caribbean linguists as central for the articulation of cultural and political projects in the 1980s and 1990s. 9. This implicit distinction between grammar as inner structure and lexicon as an outer structure was originally established by Humboltd in his conceptualization of languages (1836, quoted in Holm 2000, 32). According to this theorization, lexical influences are superficial, and as such more acceptable than grammatical interferences. Recent studies still debate the influence of African languages in Caribbean Spanish (Figueroa 1999), (De Granda 1994), and some use as their main case to document them (de Granda 1968, 1971, Otheguy 1973, Klee and Lynch 2009, 94–96). 10. Zentella (1997) documents a similar theory that was used to explain code- switching among bilingual children in Puerto Rican communities and questions this idea, as discussed in the next section of this chapter. 11. A recent example that shows the persistence of this colonized perception of creoles is the definition of the term provided by the “Language Education Policy” pub- lished by the Ministry of Education in Jamaica: “a language developed through contact with one or more European languages and which has eventually become the first language for successive generations” (2001, 32). 12. According to Craig (1976), the link between the English Caribbean creoles and Black English in the United States has been established since the mid 1960s by Stewart and Bailey among others. 13. Some linguists consider (Creole spoken mainly in the Dutch Caribbean), Palenquero (Creole spoken in ) and Chabacano (Creole in the Philipppines) as Spanish Creoles and use them to study the development and presence of Spanish Creoles in the Caribbean (Lipski 1985, 2005, Ortiz López 2000, among others). McWhorter argues that these were originally creoles formed from a Portuguese pidgin that were later relexified due to their contact with the . Garífuna is a surviving language that was produced from the contact of Arawakan and African languages and it is spoken in Belize, Nicaragua, Honduras and Guatemala (McWhorter 2000, 6–40). 14. The issue of language education in the insular Caribbean is extremely com- plicated. One of the the main difficulties in the articulation of an effective linguistic education program in the English or French Caribbean is the def- inition of the appropriate model to approach language learning. French and English can be taught either as a foreign language or as a second language, in a context of bilingualism or diglossia. According to this argument, each country has a different level of competency in English, French and the correspondent creoles, and in this regard it is key to recognize creoles as a different native language, in order to develop adequate teaching approaches in school. Further- more, the problem of illiteracy in the Creole languages complicates the way 218 ● Notes

in which the native language can be used as a foundation to teach English or French. Finally, the actual cost of producing textbooks in Creole, as well as ade- quate materials for the contrastive teaching of English/French and Creoles has been another important difficulty in the development of effective education pro- grams in the French and Anglo Caribbean. However, some people question the use of bilingualism as a paradigm for education and propose a linguistic con- tinuum between English/French and the Caribbean creoles developed through close contact with these languages. For more information, please see Devonish and Carpenter (2007), Craig (1976), and Youssef (2002). 15. An important document to understand the process of the establishment of pro- grams of bilingual education in the Caribbean in order to validate the vernacular creoles is UNESCO’s The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education (1953). Craig (1976) traces some of the key moments in the history of bilingual and multilin- gual education in the English Caribbean. Each country has followed a different path. Haiti approves public education in Creole in 1961, while in Martinique the créolité group discusses the problematic invisibility of Creole in public education in literature at the end of the 1980s, even after the legalization of education in Creole in 1982. Jamaica recognizes Creole as mother tongue and the curricu- lum uses a foreign language teaching approach in 1980, but in 1995 the official language of education is English, although teachers can allow their students to speak Creole in schools. With some limited success a new bilingual education program was tried in a few schools in Jamaica in 2004 (Devonish and Carpen- ter 2007). The 1990s is a key decade for linguistic debates in the Caribbean, since both UNESCO and CARICOM encourage ministers of education in the Anglo and French Caribbean to review their language policies in order to improve English and French literacy levels among students. For more information, see the Language Education Policy of Jamaica released by the Ministry of Education in 2001. 16. According to Price, creolization becomes a common term among linguists and anthropologists after the conference of 1968 in the University of the West Indies that culminated in the publication of the collection Pidginization and Creolization of Languages (2007, 18). 17. Mignolo (2000, 1–44) uses this same notion of border languages and bor- der epistemologies to refer to the knowledges produced in national borders by migrant populations (like Latinos in the US) to question Eurocentric and Western epistemes. 18. Holm locates the connection between creolistics with the study of African American Vernacular English in the 1960s, and explains it as a result of the civil right movements in the United States and their effects on visibilizing ethnic identities. He includes these sort of comparative studies as part of the Creole con- tinuum that conceived post-Creole varieties of English in the Caribbean and the United States as similar processes by which English creoles become decreolized due to the continued contact with standard English (2000, 50–52). 19. For a review of written representations of Caribbean creoles, as well as a review of the first grammars prepared by European conquerors and religious functionaries, Notes ● 219

see Holm 16–24. One of the primary texts representing French Creole is precisely Père Labat’s Nouveau voyage aux isles de l’Amérique, (1693–1705), that I discuss in the first chapter. 20. Some contextualized reappropriations of linguistics can be found in works by Murdoch (2001, 2012), Stuart Hall (2003a,b) and Trouillot (1998), Richard Price (2007), among others. 21. Trouillot problematizes this transition from linguistics to cultural practices as reductive of a more complex context (14) and, instead, suggests three models to study creolization outside linguistics: (a) the plantation context, (b) an enclave context and (c) a modernist context (1998, 17). I want to use the linguistic base of Creole formation as a first step to historically ground creolization. 22. In The Development of the Creole Society in Jamaica, Brathwaite distinguishes between colonialism, creolization and creole cultures. Many critics have studied how Brathwaite’s linguistic project in the History of the Voice,aswellashishistor- ical reflection The Development of Creole Society in Jamaica 1770–1820, are used in his poetry to produce an alternative artistic language. For more information, see Chamberlin 1996. I study the link between poetics and politics on Chapter 3, when I read the poetic projects of Césaire and Muñoz and their construction of a Caribbean political imaginary. 23. Edmondson 1994 also observes the problematic privileging of African cultural legacies in Brathwaite poetic and the constitution of Creole as a paradigm that elides Asian contributions from Caribbean culture and history. 24. Some of the poets mentioned by Brathwaite are H. A. Vaughan (from and writing in the 1940s), Frank Collymore (from Barbados too, uses a conversa- tional tone in the early 1950s), John Figueroa (from the late 1960s, Jamaican of Galician descent), Edward Kamau Brathwaite, Linton Kwesi Johnson (Jamaican, mixes music and poetry using Jamaican English), Derek Walcott and Michael Smith (Jamaican dup poet), Bob Marley and Oku Onuora (Jamaican dub poet and performer). The poetic corpus presented by Brathwaite includes written poetry, performed poetry and music, in a vein quite similar to Diana Taylor’s most recent articulation of the archive as a repertoire (2003). 25. According to Ngug˜ ˜ı Wa Thiong’o:

The term orature has been used variously since the Ugandan linguist Pio Zirimu coined it in the early seventies of the last century in order to counter the tendency to see the arts communicated orally and received aurally as an inferior or a lower rung in the linear development of literature. (2007, 4)

In this regard, Brathwaite develops here a similar proposal to Mignolo’s later notion of “colonial semiosis” (1989a,b) which he proposed to question traditional definitions of literature as alphabetically written fiction linked to the production of books as we currently conceive them. 26. “Ital” is a Rastafarian concept. Usually refers to an “ital diet,” which means [natural, pure, from the earth, no salt]. 220 ● Notes

Ital food is derived from the word “vital food” (Self-determination of the black race resulted in the Rastafarians usage of the word “I” to replace the first letter of many words). Ital food means it is natural, pure and clean food. For a Rastafarian it means no salt, no chemicals, no flesh, no blood, no whites (called whiteblood), no alcohol, no cigarettes and no drugs (herbs are not considered drugs). http://www.jamaicans.com/culture/rasta/ital_food.shtml

27. For a distinction between the forward projection of the “history of ideas” vs. the backward examination of the “archeology of ideas,” see Torres-Saillant (2006, 112). I read the Éloge de la Créolité as an archeology of ideas because the authors are trying to recover an existing tradition defining a Caribbean identity that has been displaced by Eurocentric and imperial notions. 28. Ironically, the Éloge de la Créolité is not written in Creole either, but in French. Some critics have questioned the real impact of the Éloge ...on Caribbean creole cultures. However, the Creolistes could be deploying a simi- lar gesture to the one proposed by Thiong’o in his book Decolonising the Mind: the Politics of Language in African Literature (2007), by making a strategic choice of what language to use in order to guarantee a broader reading public that would have access to the creoliste manifesto. I discuss the Négritude movement in the third chapter of this book. 29. This distinction between the interior and exterior vision to propose a Caribbean identity is very simlar to DuBois’s concept of the double consicousness to describe the black experience in the US in The Souls of Black Folk (1990, originally published in 1903). 30. It is interesting to note that the Créolité collective privileges interactions and transactions of different ethnic, racial and cultural groups over what would later be known as “intersectionality” (Crenshaw 1991). Recently, some cultural and social critics are questioning intersectionality as too abstract and are proposing models that go back to interaction and transactions to underline the material and practical conditions in which intersectionality takes place. Glissant model of relationality (1990, 1997a) seems to point to the centrality of interaction over intersections, showcasing again the performative as a crucial mode to theorize cultural formations. 31. It is important to note that in its original definition, créolité included the cul- tural and social legacies of Europeans, Asians, and Africans displaced to the Americas. The reduction of creoleness with Afro-Caribbean cultural identities happens later on. This will elicit a critical response that will be contained in the notions of “coolitude” and “douglarization,” although many of the critics working with coolitude still engage with the centrality of Afro-Caribbeanness in the articulation of contemporary Caribbean identities. For more information, please see works by Khan (2004, 2007), Puri (2004) and Curtius (2010), among others. 32. It is interesting to note that Creole is described here in a similar fashion to Spanglish, particularly in Bruce-Novoa (1990) and Lipski’s (1982) notion of the Notes ● 221

“interlingual” which refers to linguistic and poetic practices among Latinos in the US. 33. This is one of the moments in which the creolistes come closer to Césaire and Muñoz in their conceptualization of poetics as politics, as I discuss it on the third chapter. For a reflection on poetics as an alternative theoretical and political discourse in the Caribbean, see Gordon (2005 and Murdoch (2010). 34. For a detailed reflection on the links between extended colonialism and anoma- lous nationalism in the insular Caribbean, please see the introduction and first chapter. I explore this questioning of the founding father in the third and fourth chapters of this book. 35. Zentella’s work has several points of contact with many other critical interven- tions about the nature, definition and function of Spanglish as conceived through literature and cultural studies, most of which were released in the 1980s and 1990s. One of the best-known defenses of Spanglish as one of the markers of a new Chicana identity is Gloria Anzaldúa’s 1987 book Borderlands/La frontera. Zentella mentions Anzaldúa’s work in Growing Up Bilingual. 36. Although Zentella makes references to Nuyorícan and US Latino poets in sev- eral of her studies (for example, 1996, 1999, 2003), it should be noted that the community she studies is located in “el Barrio” or New York East Harlem, while Nuyorícan poetry emerges and develops in the Lower East Side. What is interesting, however, is that the two developments are more or less temporally or chronologically simultaneous, since Zentella begins her study a few years after the foundation of the Nuyorícan Poets Café. This seems to suggest that in the 1970s, Spanglish in New York City reached a turning point that allowed for the articulation of solid identity projects in linguistics and cultural studies, even if these developments were apparently autonomous. 37. The issue of gender and creoles have also been studied by Anim-Addo (1996). 38. I discuss the problematic place of the Antillean mulata in my analysis of Cirilo Villaverde’s Cecilia Valdés in the second chapter, as well as in my study of mulatas who become Caribbean sexiles in the narratives by Capécia and Maryse Condé analyzed in the final chapter of this book. It seems interesting that in the texts I analyze in this chapter the mulata’s sexual desire and reproductive potential are displaced in order to consider race, language and gender as key motives that are threatening to the white creole imaginary in the Caribbean. 39. I am referring here to the debate between and Ana Lydia Vega about Vega’s short story “Pollito chicken” and the discussions on bilingualism and Puerto Rican literature in the case of and Rosario Ferré. For more information, see Mohr (1987b, 1989). In this essay, Mohr asserts: “As I have stated, the separation between myself and the majority of Puerto Rican writers in Puerto Rico goes far beyond the question of language” (Mohr 1989, 116). Vega responded to Mohr’s criticism in “En puertorriqueño ....” This controversy was revisited in “Images and Identities: The Puerto Rican Literature,” a conference held at Rutgers-Newark on April 7–9, 1983. A selection of the papers presented in this conferences were published in Rodríguez de Laguna, ed. 1987, in which 222 ● Notes

essays by Nicholasa Mohr and Margarite Fernández Olmos make reference to Vega’s short story. 40. Four studies suggest alternative readings of Vega’s short story that have been useful for the analysis I want to propose here. Mary Green proposes the story as a reflection about the tensions and shared imaginaries between insular and diasporic Puerto Ricans (2002, 137), and Ivette Romero advances a comparative reading of Vega’s story and fiction by Dany Bebel-Gisler, establishing a direct link between code-switching in Spanish and French Creole in Guadeloupe (1991). Diana Vélez identifies Suzie’s sexuality as excess that cannot be contained by the narrative voice that is using the alternative perspectives of different char- acters (1986, 72). Finally, Elías Miguel Muñoz (1986) reads the story by using Zentella’s work on code-switching and the colonial context in which Spanglish emerges, even including a quote by Juan José Osuna that presupposes the link between and Caribbean creoles that is consonant with the reading I am proposing here: “Their language is a patois almost unintelligible to the native of Barcelona and Madrid. It possesses no literature and has little value as an intellectual medium” (1949, 324). 41. As we know, Puerto Rico received a prize from the Prince of Asturias Foundation in Spain as a recognition for the island’s defense of its Spanish heritage in 1991. Yet the language debate culminated with the approval of English and Spanish as the official languages of the island in 1993. For more information see Negrón Muntaner (1997), Juan Duchesne (1997), Díaz Quiñones (1993) and Juan Flores (2000). 42. Nuyorícan characters reappear in several short stories and essays by Vega. Among the best known examples are her essay “Saludos a los nuyorricans” included in Esperando a Loló (1994), and the character of Guiomar in “Sobre tumbas y héroes,” published in Pasión de historia y otras historias de pasión (1987). 43. This story by Vega belongs to a corpus of bilingual texts that I have classified as untranslatable in Martínez-San Miguel (2007). 44. I am quoting ideas discussed with Gloria Prosper-Sánchez in a personal conversa- tion on November 10, 1997. All the translations of Vega’s short story into English are mine. 45. I propose a reading of Césaire’s poem in the context of intracolonial diasporas in the third chapter of this book. 46. I analyze an example of the Caribbean version of the tragic mulata in my close- reading of Cecilia Valdés included in the second chapter of this book. 47. This scene explores some of the feminist ethnic decolonial blindspots of Fanon’s chapter “The Man of Color and the White Woman” in Black Skin, White Masks. Instead of praising Victor Schoelcher for abolishing slavery and making possible the sexual union of a black man with a white woman, Suzie claims Puerto Rican independence in a fleeting moment of unconscious consensual nationalism. I would like to thank Ben. Sifuentes-Jáuregui for pointing out this connection. Notes ● 223

48. I am referring to René Marqués (1919–1979) one of the main Puerto Rican writers of the generation of 1940, who advances a white creole imaginary in his famous play “Los soles truncos” (1958), which was based in his short story “Purificación en la calle del Cristo.” 49. Gates defines signifying as:

Thinking about the black concept of Signifiyin(g) is a bit like stumbling unaware into a hall of mirrors: the sign itself appears to be doubled, at the very least, and (re)doubled upon ever closer examination . ...The difficulty that we experience when thinking about the nature of the visual (re)doubling at work in a hall of mirrors is analogous to the difficulty we shall encounter in relating the black linguistic sign, “Signification,” to the standard English sign, “signification.” This level of conceptual difficulty stems from—indeed, seems, to have been intentionally inscribed within—the selection of the sig- nifier, “signification.” For the standard English word is a homonym of the Afro-American vernacular word. And, to compound the dizziness and gid- diness that we must experience in the vertiginous movement between these two “identical” signifiers, these two homonyms have everything to do with each other and, then again, absolutely nothing. (Gates 1999, 44–45, my emphasis)

Gates proposes here an interesting rearticulation to the Lacanian mirror stage when conceptualized racially, a topic I address in the fourth chapter in my reading of mirror scenes in Piri Thomas’s Down These Mean Streets. 50. I am expanding Hayden White’s notion of emplotment here, using it beyond the parameters of the relation and tensions between history and fiction. The original definition of emplotment is: “the way by which a sequence of events fashioned into a story is gradually revealed to be a story of a particular kind” (Metahistory 1975, 7). Jamaican sovereignty is not necessarily understood as par- allel to the formation of the national state attained through independence, since the tradition of marronage also refers to a community formation that takes place beyond, and sometimes without the constitution of, an independent state. For more information about this, see Wynter (2010) and Murdoch (2009). 51. Or perhaps the novel is suggesting that Eurocentric Caribbean nationalisms are as alienating as a journey back to the metropole. For an innovative reading of how diasporic Caribbean subjects transform the metropole, see Murdoch (2012). 52. The first Marroon War (1690–1739) in Jamaica was a rebellion of slaves of African descent that culminated with the Cudjoe’s Treaty with the British empire “giving the once-enslaved Africans autonomy and recognition as free people” (Murdoch 2009, 72). This supposed autonomy of free Africans did not last long, and there was a second Maroon War (1791–1792). The slave trade was not to be banned until 1807, and the abolition of slavery did not take place until 1838. The abolition of slavery consequentually prompted the large scale importation of indentured laborers from Asia. 224 ● Notes

53. Ilmonen proposes an interesting reading of Cliff’s work as it relates to the inter- section of sexuality and race in Abeng and No Telephone to Heaven, arguing for a reading of Cliff’s work as a feminist queering of the creolized Antillean imaginary (2005). I will expand this line of interpretation in my analysis of Clare’s sexile in No Telephone to Heaven in the next chapter of the book. 54. Here Cliff partakes in an important narrative tradition that has queered Caribbean nationalism by defining it as “love for the same” that has been studied by Arnaldo Cruz Malavé (1996). But she also feminizes that critical reapro- priation of Caribbean nationalism as queer nationalism, while showcasing the difficulties and conflicts of this kind of affectivity, instead of proposing an organic and harmonic unification in national love. In this regard, Cliff’s narrative pro- poses a key interrogation to the limits of the model proposed by Sommer in Foundational Fictions (1991) when it is used in the case of the insular Caribbean, a region in which nationalism has been a problematic and weak paradigm. I address this topic in my discussion Cecilia Valdés and El filibusterismo in the second chapter of this book. 55. Ruinate is a neologism created by Cliff in No Telephone to Heaven, used to refer to lands that were once cleared to be used in agriculture but have grown back into a forest (Cliff 1996, 1). I analyze this novel in more detail in the next chapter. The scene between Zoe and Claire at the river in Miss Mattie’s property will be paralleled in the next novel with a similar scene in the same location between Clare and her trans friend, Harry/Harriet. 56. According to Loftman, “as a term of derision, buckra survives in reference to the mulatto and quadroon sections of the population, and except by the older inhabitants, it is never used when speaking of full-blodied whites” (1952, 143) Stephenson links it to “non Standard Negro speech” (1973, 144). Etymologically the term is very similar to Creole, as it refers to the Black population in the Americas as well as to the form of popular speech developed in Afro-American communities. Cliff is using the definition of the term among African Americans in the Southeast of the United States, who use it to refer to a white boss or master. (Merriam Webster). 57. In No Telephone to Heaven, Zoe will be replaced by the male-to-female trans (and possibly lesbian) character Harry/Harriet, imbricating race, gender expres- sion and sexual orientation in the process of national identification that Clare will experience as an adult in the second part of this novel. I will discuss this further development in Cliff’s narrative imaginary in the next chapter. 58. It is interesting that in the novel the return home is linked to a disappoint- ment with French politics, yet the link colony-metropole is still central in the displacement between Europe and the Caribbean. The Antillean family decides to go back home when President Charles de Gaulle loses the public trust in a referendum held in 1969, just after the student protests and general strike of 1968. 59. Debra Popkin (2007) analyzes the centrality of the grandmother in this novel. 60. The novel also develops a parallel definition of creoleness through religion (Popkin 2007, 37), cuisine (Licops 1999, Mehta 2005), folk talkes (Popkin 2007, Notes ● 225

39) and several other forms of cultural practice. Popkin also identifies Julia’s granddaughter as a negropolitain (2007, 48). 61. According to Dayna Oscherwitz, L’exil selon Julia clearly distinguishes créolité (creoleness) from francité (Frenchness). She proposes a reading of this novel that aligns Pineau’s narrative project with the créolité movement (2005, 356–358). 62. Discussion of a shorter version of this chapter at Tepoztlán Institute for Transnational History of the Americas, August 2, 2011.

Chapter 6 1. I am grateful to the undergraduate students of my course “Queer Latin America” that I offered at the University of Pennsylvania in the Fall of 2007 for this insight that encouraged me to refocus the theoretical framework of this chapter. 2. There are limits to the ethical dimensions of this practice, since we know that sexile has had very negative results for young people who identify as queer or gay in the United States. In my own institution, Rutgers University, for example, Tyler Clementi’s suicide in September 2010 can serve as an example of the per- verse consequences of sexile. In this case, even though Clementi tried to negotiate the use of the shared dorm space, there was failure in the articulation and usage of a common space since his roommate, a straight man of color, ultimately used this same request to invade his roommate’s privacy. So when we discuss sexile as negotiation we should not ignore the power dynamics mediating the relationship between gay and straight subjects. 3. As far as I know, sexile can be considered a cultural concept and a generational experience in US universities. Students in Spanish Caribbean universities do not use this term, yet they recognize engaging in similar practices. I would like to thank my colleague Gloria D. Prosper-Sánchez, a linguist at the University of Puerto Rico, who surveyed her first-year students in 2011 to assess the use of the term “sexile” among members of their generation. 4. Manolo Guzmán (1997) and Lawrence LaFountain-Stokes (2009) have done foundational work about this topic. 5. I am adopting this notion from Robert Young’s book Colonial Desire (1995,166–174). Young conceives colonialism as a “desiring machine,” referring to Guilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari’s rearticulation of desire, imperial power, and capitalism in their Anti-Oedipus (1983). I am taking Young’s characterization of colonialist racism as a form of ambivalent desire to study how the expul- sion of sexual minorities from the insular Caribbean to the First World is still linked to colonial networks and imaginaries that redefine gender, race, linguistic competence, and cultural knowledge according to the asymmetrical colonial and postcolonial relationships between the Caribbean, Europe, Africa, and the rest of the Americas. 6. Constance S. Richards also reminds us that postcolonial is not the same as decolonial (2005, 20). I review other critical interventions about colonialism, 226 ● Notes

postcolonialism, decolonization, and coloniality in the Caribbean in the Intro- duction of this book. 7. On homophobia in the Caribbean, see Padgett (2006), Glave (2005), King (2004–2005), LaFountain Stokes (2006, 2007), Rowley (2011), and Alexander (1994). On homophobia in the insular Spanish Caribbean, see Horn (2008), Decena (2011), Polanco (2006), Laureano (2011), and Ardín (2002), among others. 8. By Caribbean Confederation, I am referring to a series of political projects that tried to achieve sovereignty in the Caribbean by creating political units that were based on the coalition of several Caribbean countries. The Antillean Confeder- ation was an idea promoted by Eugenio María de Hostos, Segundo Ruiz Belvis, and Ramón Emeterio Betances in the second half of the nineteenth century and that proposed the coalition of the three greater Spanish Antilles—Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico—to achieve political independence following the model of the Haitian nation. This idea was never successfully implemented. A project similar to the Antillean Confederation was revived in the 1950s in the Anglo Caribbean in the short-lived political initiative known as the “Federation of the West Indies.” The federation was in existence only between January 1958 and May 1962 and it originally included various Caribbean islands that were colonies of the UK. Competing insular nationalisms and the lack of popular support, followed by Jamaica’s discontent with the absence of a strong independence movement behind the federation, culminated in a referendum in which Jamaica decided to secede from the West Indies Federation in 1961 and did the same in 1962. 9. I analyze the prevalence of failed protagonists or the absence of a character that can represent the moral center in the narrative as a characteristic of the fictions produced in the colonial insular Caribbean, as well as in the case of colonial archipelagic novels, as is the case of the Philippines. 10. I am aware, though, that this link of the unfaithful woman with queer subjectivity could be quite problematic, since sexual minorities are not necessarily advocating for the dissolution of the monogamous relationship implied in marriage as an institution. Yet what I am trying to rescue here is the notion of radical sexual freedom as a powerful political motive behind the first and second waves of the LGBT movement in the First World, and how that could be linked to some of the first feminist attempts to question traditional definitions of heterosexual female sexuality. 11. This nameless character occupies a similar place in the narrative to the one assigned to Trinidad’s son in “Hum!” by Luis Rafael Sánchez, another foundational story. Speechless and nameless, in both stories masculine sexual transgression is conceived as marginal in the context of the patriarchal insular Caribbean. Yet Fernanda’s lover remains in the island within the family circle, while Trinidad’s son is annihilated by the repressive members of his own com- munity, so the asymmetrical relationship between heterosexuality and queerness must be taken into account when comparing silenced, marginalized characters in Notes ● 227

both stories. For a reading of Sánchez’s short story as the foundational narrative of sexile in Puerto Rican literature, see LaFountain-Stokes (2009, 1–18). 12. “Spiks” is a derogatory term that makes fun of the Spanish accent of first- generation migrants to the United States. This term was later appropriated by some Puerto Ricans in the mainland to celebrate their diasporic identity. 13. The Isla Verde International airport, located in Isla Verde Puerto Rico, opened in May 1955. The name of the airport was changed to Luis Muñoz Marín Inter- national Airport as a tribute to the first democratically elected governor of the island, a politician and poet that I study in Chapter 3. 14. “Operación Manos a la Obra,” or , refers to the mod- ernization and industrialization project that was developed in Puerto Rico from 1948 to the 1970s. The main transformation encouraged by this project was the change from an agrarian to an industrial economy. This major eco- nomical shift generated new jobs, but also displaced unskilled workers, which the Labor Department channeled to the United States through an institu- tionalized program of migration overseen by he “Bureau of Employment and Migration” (1948–1951), which subsequently became the “Division of Migra- tion” (1951–1988) and the “Department of Puerto Rican Community Affairs” (1989–1993). 15. For a Caribbean reappropriation of the notion of disavowal, see Fischer (2004). 16. Mayotte Capécia is a Martinican writer who authored two novels in French: Je suis martiniquaise (1948) and La négresse blanche (1950). Beatrice Stith Clark (1973, 1996) documented that Mayotte Capécia’s real name is Lucette Ceranus, and that she lived between 1916 and 1955. Christiane Makward and James Arnold questioned Capécia’s authorship of Je suis martiniquaise, by showing the parallels between the plot of the novel and the contents of a diary written by an aviator of the French Marine nationale (Makward 1999, Arnold 2002, 2003). Tinsley resolves this debate by explaining how the novel is a composite of the narrative of childhood memories written by Capécia in the first part and the rewriting of the French sailor’s memoirs that he sent to her in 1944 in the second part of the text (Tinsley 2010, 142–143). 17. For a queer reading of the subtle narratives of same-sex erotics in this novel, see Tinsley (2010). 18. Given the complex relationship between Mayotte the “author” of the narrative and Mayotte the autobiographical character of the novel, I should clarify that I use Capécia to refer to the pen name of the “author,” while I use Mayotte to refer to the character in the novel. 19. This part of the novel takes place during the Vichy government in France, in which Martinique was controlled by Admiral Robert, and kept as a close ally of Nazi-occupied France. For more information, see footnote 21 in Chapter 3. Mayotte and André’s relationship fails during a crucial historical moment in the French-Martinican political context, just before the final resistance of France against the German occupation led by General Charles de Gaulle and before Martinique would become a department of France. 228 ● Notes

20. In this regard, Mayotte revisits the same idea of interracial marriage explored in Cecilia Valdés (1839–1882) by Cirilo Villaverde, but she is more explicit about her desire to become white. 21. The limitation of the mestizaje-mulataje paradigm is that it still excludes misce- genation with Asian immigrants to the Caribbean, like Indians and Chinese. For more information on this, see López (2013). 22. Other terms used to refer to whitening the race are “blanqueamiento” and “lactification” (this second term was coined by Fanon 1952). 23. This story resonates with another historical couple that is foundational in the Martinican colonial imaginary: and his Martinican wife, Josephine (married between 1796 and 1810). As the first wife of Napoleon, she was the Empress of the French empire, and became an icon in Martinique for the desired equality within the French empire. Capécia refers directly to Josephine in the novel (1948, 113–114, 1997, 94–95). 24. In the second chapter of this book, I analyze Cecilia Valdés as an example of the problematic inscription of abolitionist novels into Sommer’s foundational fiction paradigm, and I propose an alternative interpretation that accounts for the extended colonialism experienced in the Spanish Caribbean and that focuses on the figure of the negative protagonist, which cannot provide a moral cen- ter for the narrative. Capécia and Fanon write after the abolition of slavery in Martinique, which takes place in 1848, yet they both have a hard time creating a heroic protagonist for their narratives. Instead they choose to use the autobi- ographic narrative as the basis for their textual account of their experiences of colonial racialization. 25. The French cruiser Jeanne d’Arc brought Admiral Georges Robert, high com- missioner of the Republic, to the Antilles and Guiana in 1939. This marks the beginning of the Vichy regime in Martinique. 26. On the imbrication of shame and colonialism, see Negrón Muntaner, (2004). 27. Arlette M. Smith notes that 1976 is an important date, since Alex Haley’s Roots was published the same year, yet Condé’s message is quite the opposite to Haley’s (1995, 63). 28. Flannigan suggests that Verónica’s incessant sexual activity is her way to recover and replace her father, and he even reads the indirect free discourse as a dialogue between Veronica and her father/lover (1988, 306–307). 29. Marilisse is in the Afro-Caribbean imaginary the equivalent of the Mexican Malinche, the Puerto Rican Guanina, and the North American Pocahontas. Racialized and gendered “traitors,” these women are also key for the beginning of “mestizaje,” “mulataje,” “métissage,” and “miscegenation,” key notions in the invention of contemporary Caribbean and Latin American national identities. 30. Heremakhonon is part of Condé’s African narrative phase, which includes Une saison à Rihata (1981), Ségou (1984–1985), Traversé de la mangrove (1989), and Pays mêlé (1997). For more information on these novels, see Miller (1996), McCormick (2000), Smith (1995), Perret and Shelton (1995). For information about Condé’s ten-year residence in Guinea, see her interview with Barbara Lewis Notes ● 229

(1995). Condé develops her critique of “négritude” in her article “Négritude cesairienne, Négritude senghorienn” (1974). 31. Métissage refers to a process of racial and cultural mixture that produces another (creolized) cultural formation. For a critical assessment of “métissage” in the context of the French Caribbean, and the etymology of métissage with a distinction of the concept of mestizaje as transculturation, see Lionnet (1989). 32. This scene is parallel to the one presented by Fanon of the reaction he provokes in a child while riding a train in Paris and that I analyze as an example of the racialization process produced by intracolonial migration in Chapter 4. How- ever, in Condé’s novel, Africa, and not the metropolis, becomes the source of this discourse of misrecognition that denies a direct link between Guadeloupans and Africa. Condé deconstructs here the notion of Africa as the organic origin of decolonial Afro-Caribbean identities, one of the central tenets of the Négritude movement. For more information, see the fifth chapter of Black Skins, White Masks, entitled “The Lived Experience of the Black Man” and Condé’s question- ing of Négritude, in her article “Order, Disorder, Freedom and the West Indian Writer” (1993). For critical readings of this representation of Africa, see Miller (1996) and Sankara (2000). 33. This is another narrative instance in which the main character representing a member of a sexual minority (in this case the sexually pro-active Verónica) is silenced in the text. Condé’s text is in this regard similar to Sánchez’s depiction of Trinidad’s son in “Hum!,” yet in this story Verónica does have a voice in the narrative that is represented in her constant flow of consciousness throughout the novel. 34. Mabo Julie occupies in this narrative the double role of mother figure and link to the Caribbean origins that Cliff will depict in the more problematic figure of Harry/Harriet in No Telephone to Heaven. Hershini Young (2006, 211–213) compares Pierre and Harry/Harriet, the trans character I will analyze in the next section of this chapter. 35. For an interesting reading of the relationship between Verónica and Pierre, see Young (2006). 36. Hewitt comments on the controversial reception of Verónica (1995, 642). Hewitt also refers to Condé’s irreverence and inflammatory writing to explain the problematic reception of some of her novels (1995, 648). 37. I am proposing here a productive intersection of Freud’s definition of desire as perverse and polymorphous in Three Essays on Sexuality (2000) with queer understandings of desire as non-reproductive playfulness and excess. 38. I analyze the links between coloniality and the narrative of return proposed by Césaire in his Cahier in Chapter 3. 39. This closure of the novel, with a return to Paris instead of the Caribbean, has been the source of debate among several critics studying Condé’s first novel, for example, Andrade (1993), Paravisini-Gebert, (1992), Smith (1995), and Nyatetu-Waigwa (1995). 230 ● Notes

40. Female homoeroticism will become a visible topic among Caribbean critics a few years later (Alexander 1994, 1997, 2005, King 2008, Tinsley 2010, Martínez- Reyes 2010). Brincando el charco (1994) by Frances Negrón-Muntaner is the first cinematic representation of a Puerto Rican lesbian who leaves the island due to her sexual orientation. For an interpretation of this film, see LaFountain Stokes (2009). 41. For an analysis of Abeng,seeChapter5. 42. This narrative of return to the metropolis has been read as an inversion of the Middle Passage that takes Clare “from a position of colonization to decolo- nization” (Knutson 1996–1997, 277) or a form of auto-exile, since it becomes unbearable for her to remain in the homeland (Toland-Dix 2004, 37). 43. There have been two major revolts in this region. The first one took place in 1958 in London and began when a group of young men insulted a black man who was having an argument with his wife on the street. The second riot occurred in 1976 at the conclusion of the Notting Hill in London. The police arrested a pickpocket, and disturbances aroused between the police and a group of black youths who tried to stop the arrest. 44. Aimé Césaire is also a powerful intertext in the narrative of return of this novel, explicitly acknowledged in two of the epigraphs (Cliff 1996, 13, 85), as well as in direct quotes taken from the Cahier and included in the novel (1996, 113). 45. The political unrest in Jamaica was a result of a struggle of power between two political parties, the Jamaica Labor Party (JLP) lead by Edward Seaga and the People’s National Party (PNP) lead by Michael Manley. Jocelyn Fenton Stitt notes that Cliff’s novel is set during the same years (1972–1980) in which Jamaica’s Prime Minister Manley was struggling to establish a democratic socialist state (2007, 58). Cliff also comments about this in her interview with Schwartz (1993, 611–612). 46. Cliff uses “ruinate” as a Jamaican creole neologism to refer to a plot of land that was once cleaned for agricultural purposes that has reverted to wilderness (Cliff 1991, 40). 47. This moment in the story line is similar to the disappearance of Brew, Piri’s African American friend, from the plot in Down These Means Streets discussed in Chapter 4. These sudden disappearances from the plot can be read as a textual symptom of an alternative configuration of identity that is explored by the pro- tagonist but that becomes unproductive. In the case of Piri, Brew’s disappearance signals the failure of Piri’s identification as an African American by negating his Puerto Rican identity. In the case of Clare, Bobby’s disappearance also marks the ending of her attempt to identify as a colored emigrant in the First World. That is why after these two events, Piri returns home via Hispanic Texas, and Clare returns to Jamaica via London and the United States. 48. In this sense, Harry/Harriet is similar to Diego in the Cuban film Fresas y chocolate, since in both cases the queer character is vindicated by his profound nationalistic commitment with the country of origin. For more information on the role of the gay character in the Cuban film, see Santí (1998), Quiroga (2000), and Bejel (1997). Notes ● 231

49. This affective bond between Clare and Harry/Harriet can be compared with her earlier friendship with Zoe in Abeng. I discuss this relationship in Chapter 5. It seems that by the time Clare comes back to Jamaica, she has developed more sensitivity in order to establish a more intimate relationship with the marginality and otherness of Harry/Harriet. 50. Ben. Sifuentes analyzes a similar scene between la Manuela and La Japonesita in his reading of El lugar sin límites (2002) and I propose this gender inversion as a key trope in recent Caribbean narratives in Martínez-San Miguel (2008b). 51. Several critics have proposed postcolonial interpretations to this ending. See, for example, Murdoch (1992) and Stitt (2007). 52. It is interesting to note that the texts analyzed here depict a very problematical relationship with biological motherhood. In all the stories the protagonists have tense relationships with their mothers, as well as a hypersexuality that is not con- ducive to reproduction or a reproductive agenda, and they are disconnected from an exclusive desire to have offspring to perpetuate their identities. On Caribbean literature and motherhood, see Guzmán-Zavala (2004, 2007, 2009) and Valdez (2013). 53. Sheller (2012) defines erotic agency in dialogue with sexual citizenship in the Caribbean. For Sheller, erotic agency allows women of color and queer subjects in the Caribbean to claim an autonomous identity in a context in which sexual domination, hypersexualization, and racialization have defined the bodies of the colonial Caribbean subjects as subordinate. Rowley studies the link between non- normative sexualities and citizenship in the Caribbean (2011, 171–204). 54. See Introduction to the book for a detailed reflection on the debate about the problematic applicability of postcolonial studies to the Caribbean. 55. I should note, though, that there are many cases of sexile that are indeed pro- duced in the context of institutional and political repression. That is the case with Reinaldo Arenas, Calvert Casey in Cuba, and even Negrón-Muntaner in Brincando el charco. Bibliography

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Note: Letter ‘n’ followed by the locators refer to notes.

Adams, Lucien, 133 and gender, 48–9, 52–3, 149–50, Adorno, Rolena, 3 159–61, 221n38 Age of the Buccaneers, 26 in Heremakhonon (Condé), 182 Alleyne, Mervyn, 134, 139 in Je suis martiniquaise (Capécia), Altazor o el viaje en paracaídas 177–8 (Huidobro), 92, 206n4 and Lacanian mirror stage, 117–21 alterity, 14–16, 47, 71, 105, 124, 157, and language, 15, 134, 137–8, 140, 160, 164, 167, 175, 185–6, 193, 145–6, 157–9, 208n19 195, 231n49 in L’exil selon Julia (Pineau), 156–9 in No Telephone to Heaven (Cliff), Amalia (Mármol), 46 152–5, 224n53 ambivalent/anomalous nationalism, 42, in Peau noire, masques blancs (Fanon), 54, 144, 202n16 1, 14, 99, 104–6, 109–13, Amistad funesta (Martí), 202n10 118–24, 208n18, 210n28 Anderson, Benedict, 20, 44, 60, 204n26 in “Pollito, chicken” (Vega), 149–50 Andrade, Oswald de, 93 Antillean space, 93, 105, 159 anthropolitical linguistics, 137, 145 Anzaldúa, Gloria, 185, 221n35 antiheroes, 24, 44, 59, 68–71 archipelago studies, 10–11, 16, 71 Antillean Confederation, 226n8 archipiélago (archipelago), etymology Antillean identity, 15, 80, 81, 97, 99, of, 40 109, 206n6, 207n12, 211n11, Armada de Barlovento, 26, 28, 30 212n18 Arnold, A. James, 77, 227n16 in Cahier d’un retour au pays natal (Césaire), 91, 93–6, 149, Badiane, Mamadou, 77 208n16 Bailey, Beryl Loftman, 139, 217n12 in Cantos de la humanidad forcejeando Bakhtin, Mikhail, 209n24 (Muñoz Marín), 96 Balbuena, Bernardo de, 203n20 in Cecilia Valdés (Villaverde), 48–9, Balibar, Etienne, 62, 101, 105 52–3 Belausteguigoitia, Marisa, 159 in Down These Mean Streets Benítez Rojo, Antonio, 79, 96 (Thomas), 14, 99–100, 108, Bernabé, Jean, 15, 128, 130, 140, 119–24, 208n18 215–16n1 268 ● Index

Bernabe, Rafael, 207n11 BUMIDOM, 79, 206n7 Bhabha, Homi, 94, 102, 105, 109, 117, Buscaglia Salgado, José, 9–10, 23–5, 27, 209n25 29, 199n15, 200n9, 200n11 bilingualism, 129, 134, 137, 143–8, Butler, Judith, 212n17 150, 158, 217n10, 217–18n14, 218n15, 221–2n39 Cahier d’un retour au pays natal Black Atlantic (Gilroy), 4, 91, 102, (Césaire), 79, 90–5, 149, 177–8, 131, 179 182, 208n16, 209n23 blackness and black identity, 4–5, 14, Caisso, Claudia, 8 81–2, 101–2 Cantos de la humanidad forcejeando in Cahier d’un retour au pays natal (Muñoz Marín), 14, 79, 85–90, 95 (Césaire), 91–4 Capécia, Mayotte, 13, 110–11, 179–80 in Cecilia Valdés (Villaverde), Négresse blanche, 173 49–50, 54 Je suis martiniquaise, 15, 167, 173–8, and colonial desire, 109–17 227n16 in Down These Mean Streets Caribbean Confederation, 226n8 (Thomas), 99–100, 106–8, Caribbean as distinct geographical 113–17, 120–4, 214n30, area, 2 215n38, 215n42 Caribbean identity, 14, 79, 91, 93, 104, in Heremakhonon (Condé), 179–84 106, 117, 129–30, 136–7, 141–2, in Je suis martiniquaise (Capécia), 155, 158, 170, 180, 184, 187, 177–9 220n27, 220n29, 220n31 in No Telephone to Heaven (Cliff), Caribbean Philosophical Association, 154–5 103, 211–12n12 in Peau noire, masques blancs (Fanon), Caribbean Postcolonial, The (Puri), 4 99, 104–6, 110–13, 116–24 Caribbean studies, 2–4, 7, 11, 15, 69, see also Négritude movement; United 95, 117, 129 States: and African Americans Caribeños (Rodríguez Juliá), 80 blanqueamiento, 48, 175 Carpenter, Karen, 135 see also whitening Carpentier, Alejo, 5, 96 Blest Gana, Alberto, 46 casta system, 58 Blumentritt, Ferdinand, 60, 204n27 “La cautiva” (Soto), 13, 15, 167–73, Bolaños, Álvaro Félix, 23 177–9, 182, 184 Bolton, Herbert, 57 Cavite Mutiny, 42, 57 Bonifacio, Andrés, 42, 54 Cecilia Valdés (Villaverde), 13–14, Bonilla, Yarimar, 198n10 44–54, 67–71, 153, 175, 201n9, Bosch, Juan, 26, 57 202n13–14, 221n38, 222n46, Bost, Suzanne, 187 228n20, 228n24 Brathwaite, Kamau,150, 160, 219n22–5 Certeau, Michel De, 105 Development of the Creole Society in Césaire, Aimé, 10, 13–14, 75–9, 81, Jamaica, The, 219n22 103, 127, 181–2, 184–5, 205n2, History of the Voice (Brathwaite), 15, 208n19 130, 137–40, 145–6, 219n22 Cahier d’un retour au pays natal, 79, Brincando el charco (film), 40 90–5, 149–50, 177–8, 182, buccaneers, 19, 26, 30, 32, 34, 36, 208n16, 209n23 200n13 Chambers, Iain, 92 Index ● 269

Chamoiseau, Patrick, 7, 96, 128, 130, creoleness, 128, 136, 142–3, 160, 140, 144, 215–16n1 220n31, 224–5n60, 225n61 chronotope, 91, 93–4, 209n24 see also créolité Clementi, Tyler, 225n2 creolistics, 127, 129, 131–3, 135, 142, Cliff, Michelle, 13, 192 216n2, 218n18 Abeng, 15, 130, 146, 151–4, 202n12, créolité, 5, 12, 14–15, 81, 102, 127–37, 224n53, 231n49 141–2, 145–60, 215–16n1, No Telephone to Heaven (Cliff), 15, 216n7, 218n15, 220n30–1, 152–5, 167, 186–92, 224n53, 225n61 224n55, 224n57, 229n34 creolization, 4–5, 12, 14–15, 127–36, code-switching, 129, 144–7, 150–1, 152, 159–61, 181–2, 186, 154, 158, 217n10, 222n40 207–8n13, 210–11n6, 216n5, Collaborative Writing on Translocal Flows 216n7, 218n16, 219n21–2 in the Americas, 205n1 criollo, 3, 5, 13, 20, 44, 48, 90, 95–6, Collymore, Frank, 139, 219n24 133, 199n16, 207–8n13, 208n19, 216n7 Colón, Jesús, 107 Cruz Malavé, Arnaldo, 101, 109, 115, Colonial Desire (Young), 109, 225n5 224n54 colonial epic, 79, 89–90, 92, 95 Cuba, 6, 12, 77, 195, 201n4 colonial exploitation, 2 and Cecilia Valdés (Villaverde), colonialism, extended, 6–7, 11, 19, 21, 44–54, 70–1, 201n6, 202n13, 44, 59, 69, 143–4, 160, 165, 182, 203n23 193, 195, 228n24 and Down These Mean Streets coloniality of diasporas, defined, 2 (Thomas), 106 colonial Latin American studies, 11, 55 and filibustering, 13, 40–1, 45–54, Colonial Subjects: Puerto Ricans in a 59, 61, 68, 70 Global Perspective (Grosfoguel), 9 and El filibusterismo (Rizal), 59, 61, coloniality of power, 7–9, 64 68, 70 Colonizer and the Colonized, The in Heremakhonon (Condé), 179–86 (Memmi), 65 in No Telephone to Heaven (Cliff), Condé, Maryse, 13 186–92 Heremakhonon, 15, 167, 179–86, and political-historical context, 42–3, 228–9n30 46, 56–7, 59, 201n6–8, 226n8 Confiant, Raphaël, 15, 80–1, 128, 130, and slavery, 45, 47, 52–4, 70–1, 140, 144, 207n11, 209n26, 201n7, 202n13 215–16n1 contact languages, 14, 129–32, 137, Daniel, Captain (filibuster), 33–6 146, 150, 159–61 Daniel, Justin, 80, 205n1 contraband, 13, 22, 29, 31, 33, 36, 48 decolonization, 3, 5–6, 8, 15, 44, 60–4, Coronil, Fernando, 3 69–70, 80, 83, 102, 105, 107, 133, Craig, Dennis, 134, 139, 217n12, 198n8, 199n13, 211–12n12, 218n15 212n18 Creole (language), 129–39, 143–7, De Cristóbal Colón a Fidel Castro 152–4, 156–61, 176, 207n13, (Bosch), 26 209–10n27, 215–16n1, Deleuze, Guilles, 76, 94, 164, 205n2, 217n13–14, 218n15, 220–1n32 209n26, 225n5 270 ● Index desire eroticism in “La cautiva” (Soto), 167–73, as dispersion, 179–85 177–9, 182, 184 erotic agency, 193, 231n53 in Cecilia Valdés (Villaverde), 48, female erotics, 168–73 52–3, 70 heteroracial erotics, 173–8 colonial, 101–2, 104, 109–19, homoracial erotics, 174–5, 178 166–95, 225n5 Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, definitions of, 229n37 14, 79, 82, 84, 206n6 in Down These Mean Streets L’exil selon Julia (Pineau), 15, 130, 146, (Thomas), 109–10, 113–17, 155–61, 225n61 120–2 extended colonialism, 6–7, 11, 19, 21, in Je suis martiniquaise (Capécia), 44, 59, 69, 143–4, 160, 165, 182, 173–8 193, 195, 228n24 and Lacan’s mirror stage, 117–21 machine of, 101–2, 164, 178 Fanon, Frantz, 10, 96, 101, 107, 138, in Peau noire, masques blancs (Fanon), 155, 158, 166, 173, 181, 186, 109–20 208n16, 208n18, 211n11, 212n17 sexual, 52, 151, 165–95 Capécia and, 214n34–5, 228n24 for social mobility, 48, 53, 70, 87 L’an V de la révolution algérienne, 103 whitening, 48, 53, 70, 150, 153–5, Les damnés de la terre, 103 174–5, 178–80, 228n20 Peau noire, masques blancs, 1, 14, 99, desired identity, 193 101, 102–6, 109–19, 121–3, Devonis, Hubert, 135 178, 210n28, 214n33, 229n32 Dézafi (Frankétienne), 141 Zenón and, 214n30 diaspora, use of the term, 8–9 Faraclas, Nicholas, 134 diglossia, 129, 158, 217–18n14 female erotics, 168–73 diversion, 185–6 feminist and feminism, 112–13, Diwa, Ladislao, 42 146–50, 160, 166, 177, 181, Dominican Republic, 1, 46, 48, 79, 222n47, 224n53, 226n10 195, 201n4, 226n8 fictive ethnicity, 62, 101, 105 douglarization, 4, 220n31 El filibusterismo (Rizal), 13–14, 39, 41, Down These Mean Streets (Thomas), 14, 43–4, 47, 54–69, 203n19, 204n27 99–103, 106–10, 113–17, 119–23, filibusterismo, 12, 39, 43–4, 47–72, 191, 213n19, 214n28, 214n32, 199n3, 203n24 215n38, 215n42, 223n49, 230n47 filibustero, 39, 41, 45–7, 54, 59–61, Duany, Jorge, 205n1, 210n1 67–71, 204n25 DuBois, W. E. B., 220n29 filibusters and filibusterism, 15, 19, Dussel, Enrique, 3 29–36, 39, 41, 44–5, 48, 53, 60, 68 Edmondson, Belinda, 189, 191, 219n23 Filipino, use of the term, 57–8 ÉlogedelaCréolité(Bernabé, Fischer, Sibylle, 47, 201n4, 202n11, Chamoiseau, and Confiant), 15, 202n14 127–8, 130, 137, 140, 146, 216n7, flota (treasure fleet), 26, 28 220n27–8 Flota de Indias, 200n10 epistemerotics, 193 Foucault, Michel, 113 epistemes, 94–5, 137, 218n17 Frankétienne, 141 Index ● 271

Fresas y chocolate (film), 230n48 Guridy, Frank, 77 Freud, Sigmund, 102, 115, 120, 166, Guzmán, Manolo, 163, 174–5, 178 176, 193, 229n37 Haiti, 46, 48, 201n4, 218n15, 226n8 Galeón de Manila, 200n10 Hall Beverley, 139 Gates, Jr., Henry Louis, 152, 223n49 Hall, Stuart, 3–5, 212n18 Gay Hegemony/Latino Homosexuality Harlem Renaissance, 77, 209n23, (Guzmán), 174–5 211n7 Helweg-Larsen, Kjeld, 32 gender Henry, Paget, 94–5 and Antillean identity, 48–9, 52–3, Heremakhonon (Condé), 15, 167, 149–50, 159–61, 221n38 179–86, 228–9n30 mulata, 15, 48–9, 52–3, 110–11, Hernández, Deborah Pacini, 207n9 146, 150–1, 159–61, 173–9, heteroracial erotics, 173–8 186–91 Hewitt, Leah D., 229n36 mulataje, 5, 9, 12, 48, 71, 82, 102, Hiddleston, Jane, 214n33 120, 159–60, 173, 175, 181, Hispanic identity, 106–10, 113–16, 199n14, 214n35, 215n42, 120–1, 150, 215n38 228n21, 228n29 hispanismo, 82, 102 mulatta/mulatto, 2, 9–10, 30–1, History of the Voice (Brathwaite), 15, 50–3, 69–71, 108, 113, 130, 130, 137–8, 146, 219n22 150, 153, 175–81, 197n5, homophobia, 165, 185 224n56 homoracial erotics, 174–5, 178 see also feminist and feminism Horn, Maja, 172, 185 Gerassi-Navaro, Nina, 43 Huidobro, Vicente, 92, 206n4 Gilroy, Paul, 3–4, 91, 102, Hulme, Peter, 10 131, 179 Hurley, Anthony, 178 Glissant, Edouard, 9, 37, 40, 82, 96, hybridity, 4, 102, 109, 197n5, 122, 141–2, 185–6, 198n11, 216n7 216n3, 220n30 González-Casanova, Pablo, 7 identity Gordon, Lewis R., 212n13 Caribbean, 14, 79, 91, 93, 104, 106, “la gran colonia,” 37 117, 129–30, 136–7, 141–2, Green, Mary, 222n40 155, 158, 170, 180, 184, 187, , 57 220n27, 220n29, 220n31 Grosfoguel, Ramón, 9, 80, 199n12, communal, 20, 44, 165 206n8 desired, 193 Grosz, Elizabeth, 166, 169 Hispanic, 106–10, 113–16, 120–1, Growing Up Bilingual (Zentella), 15, 150, 215n38 130, 144–7, 221n35 linguistic, 2, 127–30, 136–7, 140–61 Guadeloupe, 34–5, 79, 106, 146, national, 20, 28, 43–4, 58–9, 63, 155–9, 176, 179, 181, 183, 206n6, 76–9, 94–5, 135, 137, 150, 212n15, 222n40 153, 160, 186, 193 Guam, 42, 56 Nuyorícan, 103, 107–9, 123, 147–8, Guattari, Félix, 76, 94, 164, 205n2, 151, 171, 207n9, 213n25, 209n26, 225n5 221n36, 222n42 Guillén, Nicolás, 122 sexual, 163, 173, 187 272 ● Index identity—continued LaFountain-Stokes, Lawrence, 225n4, , trans, 110, 115, 187–90, 224n57 226n7, 227n11, 230n40 see also Antillean identity; blackness Lamming, George, 5, 212n18 and black identity language Ilmonen, Kaisa, 224n53 and Antillean identity, 15, 134, ilustrado, 55, 58, 62, 64, 67, 69, 71, 87, 137–8, 140, 145–6, 157–9, 203n19, 204n26 208n19 Imagined Communities (Anderson), 20, contact languages, 14, 129–32, 137, 44, 60, 204n26 146, 150, 159–61 imperial archipelago, 11, 44 Creole, 129–39, 143–7, 152–4, incest, 47–9, 53–4, 67, 202n14, 228n28 156–61, 176, 207n13, Indios, 57–8, 203n21, 205n32 209–10n27, 215–16n1, Infortunios de Alonso Ramírez (Sigüenza 217n13–14, 218n15, 220–1n32 y Góngora), 13–14, 21–8, 31–2, language education, 134–6, 147, 200n9, 200n11 217–18n14, 218n15 Intellectual History of the Caribbean, An lenguajes fronterizos (border (Torres-Saillant), 5–6 languages), 135, 137, 145 internal colonialism, 2–3, 108, 145, linguistics, 129, 131–61, 216n5, 213n25 216n7 intra-colonial migrations, defined, 1–2 nation language, 138–40, 150 Isaac, Allan Punzallan, 62, 201n1, pidgins, 42, 55–9, 129–31, 133, 204n25, 204n29, 214n28 207–8n13, 216n2, 217n13 Isaacs, Jorge, 46 Spanglish, 14–15, 129–30, 133, 135, 145–51, 159–61, 216n6, Jamaica, 48, 79, 134, 137, 146, 151–5, 220n1n32, 221n35–6, 222n40 186–92, 199–200n5, 217n11, Laó, Agustín, 213n20 218n15, 219n24, 223n50, Latortue, Régine, 179 223n52, 226n8, 230n45–7 Lazo, Rodrigo, 41, 45–7 jibarismo, 4, 197n5 lenguajes fronterizos (border languages), Jones Act, 89, 208n17 135, 137, 145 Joyce, James, 71 Lima, Lázaro, 192 Linebaugh, Peter, 36, 40 Kellogg, Susan, 211n9 linguistic identity, 2, 127–30, 136–7, Klor de Alva, José Jorge, 3, 64, 140–61 199n16 linguistics, 129, 131–61, 216n5, 216n7 koineization, 133 Linguistic Turn: Essays in Philosophical Kubayanda, Josaphat, 77, 209–10n27 Method, The (Rorty), 216–17n8 Lionnett, Françoise, 185 Labat, Père Jean Baptiste Local Histories/Global Designs Memoirs of Père Labat,29 (Mignolo), 142 Nouveau voyage aux isles de Loftman, Beryl, 139, 224n56 l’Amérique, 13–14, 21–2, 29–36 Loomba, Ania, 112, 119 Lacan, Jacques, 102, 117–21, 184, López, Narciso, 45, 201n7 215n38, 216–17n8, 223n49 Luis Muñoz Marín International lactification, 111, 228n22 Airport, 227n13 see also whitening Lukács, Georg, 92, 206n4 Index ● 273 machine of desire, 101–2, 164, 178 mestizo, 2, 8, 61, 197n5, 204n25, madre-patria, 12, 60, 121–4, 190–1 204n29 Maldonado-Torres, Nelson, 110, 113, métissage, 181, 228n29, 229n31 198n10 metropolitan racialization, 12, 101–2, Malemort (Gilssant), 141 105, 108, 111–12, 116–17, 121, maligna (wicked woman), 53 123, 181 “Manifiesto Antropófago” (Andrade), 93 see also racialization Mannoni, Octave, 104 Mexico, 56–8, 199n14, 200n10 Many Headed Hydra, The (Linebaugh Mignolo, Walter, 3, 6, 91, 93, 142, and Rediker), 40 218n17, 219n25 Maran, René, 110 Milia, Monique, 80 María (Isaacs), 46 minor literature, 94, 205n2, 209n26 Mariátegui, José Carlos, 7 miscegenation, 9, 47, 110, 128, 136, 146, 173–4, 181, 199n14, Mármol, José, 46 215n38, 228n21, 228n29 Maroon Wars, 48, 153, 202n12, Modernism and Negritude (Arnold), 77 223n52 modernista poetry, 76, 85 Marqués, René, 150, 223n48 Mohr, Nicholasa, 147, 221–2n39 Martí, José, 9, 62, 202n10 Morales, Ed, 216n6 Martinique, 3, 14 mulata, 15, 48–9, 52–3, 110–11, 113, and Cahier d’un retour au pays natal 146, 150–1, 153, 159–61, 173–9, (Césaire), 90–1, 94, 96–7 186–91 and ÉlogedelaCréolité(Bernabé, mulataje, 5, 9, 12, 48, 71, 82, 102, 120, Chamoiseau, and Confiant), 159–60, 173, 175, 181, 199n14, 127–8, 130, 137, 140, 146 214n35, 215n42, 228n21, 228n29 and L’exil selon Julia (Pineau), mulatto, 2, 9–10, 30–1, 50–3, 69–71, 155–6, 158 93, 108, 130, 150, 153, 175–81, as insular colony, 79–81 197n5, 224n56 and Je suis martiniquaise (Capécia), multilingualism, 134, 143, 218n15 173–8 see also bilingualism and metropolitan racialization, 12, Muñoz, Elías Miguel, 222n40 100–23 Muñoz Marín, Luis, 13–14, 75–9, and Peau noire, masques blancs 82–5, 90, 92, 96–7, 205n2, (Fanon), 1, 99, 102–6, 111, 208n14, 208n19, 210n28, 113, 120–4, 138 219n22, 221n33 Martín Rivas (Blest Gana), 46 Breakthrough from Nationalism: A Marxism, 4, 90 Small Island Looks at a Big McWhorter, John, 133, 217n13 Trouble,83 Meléndez, Miguel, 213n19 Cantos de la humanidad forcejeando, Memmi, Albert, 65, 100 14, 79, 85–90, 95 Memorias de Bernardo Vega (Andreu Memorias,83 Iglesias, editor), 107 see also Luis Muñoz Marín mercedes (favors), 27–8 International Airport mestizaje, 4, 9, 57–9, 82, 102, 120, 127, 175, 181, 199n14, 211n8, Naipaul, V. S., 194, 212n18 215n38, 215n42, 228n21, 228n29 “Ñam-Ñam” (Palés Matos), 93 274 ● Index

Nandy, Ashis, 194, 215n43 Odyssey, The (Homer), 71 Narciso descubre su trasero (Zenón), Omeros (Walcott), 78 214n30 Omi, Michael, 100 nationalism, 4–9, 12–15, 20–2, 41–5, Ortiz, Fernando, 10, 96 75–8, 94–6, 101, 122–4, 132–6 Oscherwitz, Dayna, 225n61 in Abeng (Cliff), 151–3 otherness. see alterity ambivalent/anomalous, 42, 54, 144, 152, 202n16 Palés Matos, Luis, 77, 122, 209n23 anachronism of, 42 Peau noire, masques blancs (Fanon), 1, in Cecilia Valdés (Villaverde), 46–8, 14, 99, 101, 102–6, 109–19, 52–4 121–3, 178, 210n28, 214n33, and Rizal, 54–5, 59, 62, 66–72 229n32 gender and, 160–1 Peru, 56–8 and Muñoz Marín, 88–90 Philip V, King of Spain, 33, 201n15 in “Pollito, chicken” (Vega), 148–51 Philippine-American War, 42, 56 sexile and, 164–5, 172, 184, 191–5 Philippines, 6, 11, 198n9, 201n3, 203n19, 203n23, 204n27, nationalist imaginary, 20, 42, 44, 53–4, 217n13, 226n9 71, 150, 161 and filibustering, 12–13, 39–45, nation language, 138–40, 150 54–71 negrismo, 76–7, 102, 211n7 and El filibusterismo (Rizal), 13–14, Négritude movement, 76–7, 81–2, 90, 44, 59–69 93, 102, 127, 141, 181, 211n7, and Infortunios de Alonso Ramírez 229n32 (Ramírez), 21, 23–4 Negrón-Muntaner, Frances, 199n12, and Noli me Tangere (Rizal), 230n40, 231n55 59–66, 71 Négropolitain, 80, 102–3, 123, 156, separatist movement in, 54–65, 207n9, 224–5n60 69–70, 204n26 neocolonialism, 3, 5–7, 14, 84, 130, pidgins, 129–31, 133, 207–8n13, 150, 158, 160–1, 165–6, 184, 216n2, 217n13 190–4 Cavite Mutiny, 42, 57 New Spain, 23, 25, 27–9, 56, 58, mestizaje and, 57–9 203n20 revolution, 42 Noli me Tangere (Rizal), 39, 54, 59–66, under Spanish colonialism, 55–9 71, 203n19, 204n25–7 Pineau, Gisèle, 13 No Telephone to Heaven (Cliff), 15, L’exil selon Julia, 15, 130, 146, 152–4, 167, 186, 190, 224n53, 155–61, 225n61 224n55, 224n57, 229n34 Pirate Novels: Fictions of Nation Building Nouveau voyage aux isles de l’Amérique in Spanish America (Labat), 13–14, 21–2, 29–36 (Gerassi-Navaro), 43 “Nuestra América” (Martí), 9, 62, pirates and piracy, 12, 19–36, 40, 45, 48 202n10 filibusters as distinct from, 31, 33 Nuyorícan identity, 103, 107–9, 123, Labat on, 31 147–8, 151, 171, 207n9, 213n25, romantic reappropriation of, 44 221n36, 222n42 use of the terms, 19–20, 22 Nuyorican Poets Café, 145, 221n36 see also filibusters and filibusterism Index ● 275

Plata, Teodoro, 42 and “Pollito, chicken” (Vega), 146–51 poetics of relation, 9, 82, 97, 142, radical statement manifesto and, 216n3 199n13 “Pollito, chicken” (Vega), 15, 130, Spanish-American War and, 56 146–51, 221–2n39, 222n40 and, 42 Popkin, Debra, 224n59, 224–5n60 Puri, Shalini, 4 postcolonialism, 3–7, 12, 44, 129, 159, 179, 195, 225–6n6 queer studies, 165, 167, 172, 178 postcolonial theory, 3–6, 10, 16, 19, 97, Quibuyen, Floro C., 202n17 111, 130, 164, 168, 191, 195, Quijano, Aníbal, 7–9, 64, 79 197n1–3, 206n5–6 postmodernity, 3, 6 racial ambiguity, 49–50, 69, 188 Pratt, Mary Louise, 69 racialization, 12, 100–23, 127–9, 146, Price, Richard, 216n5, 218n16 155, 160, 173, 177, 181, 187, Prosper-Sánchez, Gloria, 222n44, 206n6, 210n1, 214n30, 229n32 225n3 Rafael, Vicente, 198n9 psychoanalysis, 117, 119, 129, 166, Ramírez, Alonso: Infortunios de Alonso 216–17n8 Ramírez, 23–33, 36–7, Puerto Rican in New York and Other 199–200n5, 200n6, 200n11 Sketches, A (Colón), 107 La raza cósmica. (Vasconcelos), 128, Puerto Rico 211n8 and Cantos de la humanidad Rediker, Marcus, 40 forcejeando (Muñoz Marín), Rich, Adrienne, 115 84–5, 88–9, 95–6 Richards, Constance S., 225–6n6 and Cecilia Valdés (Villaverde), Richelieu, Cardinal, 62, 204n30 49–50, 54 Rizal, José, 13, 201n3, 202n15–17, Cortes de Cádiz and, 56 203n19, 204n26–7 decolonization and, 123 El filibusterismo, 13–14, 39, 41, 43–4, and diaspora to the United States, 47, 54–69, 203n19, 204n27 147–51, 171–2 Noli me Tangere, 39, 54, 59–66, 71, and Down These Mean Streets 203n19, 204n25–7 (Thomas), 99–103, 106–10, Rizal Law, 55, 203n18–19 113–17, 119–23 Rodríguez, Clara, 206n8 Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rodríguez de Laguna, Asela, 107 Rico, 14, 79, 82, 84, 206n6 Rodríguez Juliá, Edgardo, 80 Grito de Lares, 57 Rodríguez, Richard, 214n17, 215n39 and Infortunios de Alonso Ramírez Romero, Ivette, 222n40 (Ramírez), 23, 26–7, 36 Rorty, Richard, 216–17n8 Jones Act and, 89, 208n17 language and, 144–51 Said, Edward, 213n26 Martinique and, 79–82, 97 Sánchez, Luis Rafael, 226–7n11, nation building and, 43 229n33 Nuyorícan identity, 103, 107–9, 123, Sánchez, Marta, 108, 115–16, 121 147–8, 151, 171, 207n9, Santangelo, Caminero, 121 213n25, 221n36, 222n42 Schier, Donald S., 34 Operación Manos a la Obra, 227n14 Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher, 43 276 ● Index

Schuchardt, Hugo, 216n5 S. S. Marine Tiger, 213n19 Scott, David, 192 Stavans, Ilán, 149 sensuality, 167–8, 187–95 Stavenhagen, Rodolfo, 7 separatist movements, 13, 40–7, 54–64, Stephens, Michelle, 10 69–70, 201n3, 204n26 strategic mulata, 159–60 sexile, 12, 163–95, 221n38, 225n2–3, 231n55 sexual alterity/otherness, 14–15, 164, Tagalog War, 42 178, 185–6, 193, 195 Taylor, Diana, 216n4, 219n24 sexuality. see desire; queer studies; Teller Amendment, 42 sensuality; sexile Ten Year War, 42, 46, 57 Sheller, Mimi, 231n53 Thiong’o, Ngugi Wa, 219n25 Sifuentes-Jáuregui, Ben., 193, 222n47, Thomas, Piri, 13–14, 96, 151, 155, 231n50 206n6, 208n18, 212n17, 213n25, Signifying Monkey, The (Gates), 152, 213n26 223n49 Down These Mean Streets, 14, Sigüenza y Góngora, Carlos, 13 99–103, 106–10, 113–17, Infortunios de Alonso Ramírez, 13–14, 119–23, 191, 213n19, 214n28, 21–8, 31–2, 200n9, 200n11 214n32, 215n38, 215n42, slavery, 29, 35, 47, 92, 113, 132, 152, 223n49, 230n47 179, 202n14, 207–8n13 Thompson, Lanny, 44 abolition of, 47–8, 191, 222n47, tierra firme, 21, 45, 56–8, 69, 164 223n52, 228n24 Tinsley, Omise’eke Natasha, 173, 178, Cuba and, 45, 47, 52–4, 70–1, 188–9, 227n16 201n7, 202n13 Torres-Saillant, Silvio, 5–6, 216n7 Jamaica and, 223n52 transculturación/transculturation, 5, 82, slave owners, 191 229n31 slave trade, 47, 92, 143, 168 trans identity, 110, 115, 187–90, Smith, Arlette M., 228n27 224n57 Society of Caribbean Linguistics, 134 translocality, 8–10, 12, 20–1, 44, 57, Sollors, Werner, 202n14 82, 114, 122, 129, 161, 167, 172, Soto, Pedro Juan 182, 186, 213n20, 215n45 “La cautiva,” 13, 15, 167–73, 177–9, transnational paradigms, 207n12 182, 184 transnational societies, 215n45 Spiks, 168, 171 Trouillot, Michel Rolph, 134, 219n21 Sourieau, Marie-Agnès, 2 Spain, 13, 26, 41–3, 45–6, 54–66, 71 Spanglish, 14–15, 129–30, 133, 135, ultramar (overseas), 40–1 145–51, 159–61, 216n6, Ulysses (Joyce), 71 220n1n32, 221n35–6, 222n40 Under Three Flags (Anderson), 204n26 Spanglish: The Making of a New Undoing Empire: Race and Nation in the American Language (Stavans), 149 Mulatto Caribbean Spanish-American War, 42, 56 (Buscaglia-Salgado), 9 Spanish language. see language UNESCO: The Use of Vernacular Spiks (Soto), 168, 171 Languages in Education, 134, Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty, 184 218n15 Index ● 277

United States Vega, Ana Lydia, 13, 160, 222n42 and African Americans, 100, 108–9, “Pollito, chicken,” 15, 130, 146–51, 120–2, 135, 191, 211n11, 221–2n39, 222n40 213n23, 218n18 Vega, Bernardo, 107 Black nationalist movement in, 77 Vélez, Diana, 222n40 and Cantos de la humanidad Villaverde, Cirilo: Cecilia Valdés, 13–14, forcejeando (Muñoz Marín), 44–54, 67–71, 153, 175, 201n9, 83–5, 88–9 202n13–14, 221n38, 222n46, and Caribbean historico-political 228n20, 228n24 context, 13–14, 42–3, 46–8, 56, 70, 151, 198n8, 198n10, Walcott, Derek, 78 199n13 Watson, C. W., 202n15–16 Civil Rights Movement and, 213n24, White, Hayden, 223n50 218n18 whiteness, 110–13, 116, 119, 122 and Cuba, 42–3, 45, 56, 70, 201n8 whitening, 15, 45–54, 70, 104, 108, and Down These Mean Streets 110, 150, 154–5, 174–5, 178–80, (Thomas), 100, 106–9, 114–16, 214n35, 216n7, 228n22 120–3 Wilson, Woodrow, 89 emigration to, 1–3, 136, 145, 147, Winant, Howard, 100 149, 151, 155, 170, 172, Writing to Cuba (Laza), 45 186–7, 190–1, 206n8–9 Wynter, Sylvia, 81–2, 93–5 and filibustering, 41, 44–5, 135–6 Harlem Renaissance in, 209n23 Young, Everild, 32 Young, Hershini, 229n34 and No Telephone to Heaven (Cliff), Young, Robert, 100, 102, 109–10, 164, 186–7, 190–1 225n5 and the Philippines, 42, 56 and Puerto Rico, 42–3, 56, 81, Zavala, Iris, 205n3 206n8–9, 208n17 Zenón, Isabelo, 214n30 see also Nuyorícan identity Zentella, Ana Celia, 137, 160, 217n10, 221n35–6, 222n40 vanguardista poetry, 76 Growing Up Bilingual, 15, 130, Van Name, Addison, 127, 136, 216n2 144–7, 221n35 Vasconcelos, José, 127–8, 211n8, 216n6 Zirimu, Pio, 140, 219n25