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The London School of Economics and Political Science The The London School of Economics and Political Science The Influence of Intelligence-Led Policing Models on Investigative Policy and Practice in Mainstream Policing 1993-2007: Division, Resistance and Investigative Orthodoxy Adrian James A thesis submitted to the Department of Social Policy of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, September 2011 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without the prior written consent of the author. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. …………………………….. Adrian James 2 Abstract This research addressed the question ‘What is the National Intelligence Model (NIM), why did it emerge and how has it influenced police organisational structures and investigative practice’? The NIM embodied the apotheosis of intelligence-led policing (ILP) policy in Britain. Allied to the pre-existing ‘intelligence cycle’, it represented an eclectic ‘pick n’ mix’ of strategies that aimed to deliver effectiveness and ‘best value’ in policing. Sir David Phillips, sponsor of the model and President of the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO), during a key period in its development, wanted it to overhaul intelligence work, and revolutionise investigative practice in the mainstream. Through archival, secondary and primary research, the thesis examined the NIM’s policy content in the context of Kingdon’s ‘Agenda Setting’ approach to policymaking. It evaluated the roll-out of the NIM through the lens of Sabatier’s policy implementation model, drawing on primary research in the form of case studies that included observations and interviews with senior police commanders, officers and other officials. Ultimately, Phillips’ plans were confused by commanders’ orthodoxy and frustrated both by competing agendas within ACPO and the paucity of evidence that the NIM could deliver what he had promised. Phillips’ policy entrepreneurship was the key factor in the model gaining support in ACPO and the Home Office. However, beyond that policymaking arena, few commanders were willing to effect the structural changes that the Home Office-codified model demanded. Instead, they seemed to adopt ‘compliance’ tactics that disguised resistance and forestalled sanction. Orthodoxy, resistance and tradition played significant parts in the resulting ‘NIM-compliant’ activity in forces as, with few complaints, officers and staff dutifully applied the model in a myriad of inefficient ways. Ultimately, the NIM added to the burden of bureaucracy but the end result was that British policing ended up looking very much the way it had before the NIM narrative began. 3 Acknowledgements I offer my sincere thanks to my doctoral supervisor, Professor Tim Newburn, for his guidance, understanding and unfailing patience. I thank my family, friends and colleagues, past and present, for their much needed encouragement and support. I am extremely grateful to the research respondents. All gave generously of their time and spoke with honesty and candour. I am equally grateful to those, in police forces and in other organisations, who allowed respondents the time to contribute to this research and who gave me the opportunity to observe the National Intelligence Model in action. My work partly was funded by the Metropolitan Police Service under the auspices of the Bramshill Fellowship Scheme. 4 Index List of tables and figures 9 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 10 Introduction to the Research 13 Introduction 13 A Personal History 13 Thesis Structure 16 Key Concepts and Terms 17 Chapter 1 - Relevant Literature 20 Introduction 20 Intelligence-Led Policing 20 Intelligence-Led Policing in the Modern Era 21 Problem Oriented Policing (POP) 22 Community Policing, Crime Reduction, eighbourhood Policing 24 Intelligence, Knowledge Management and Organisational Memory 25 The Police Organisation 28 Structure of Policing 29 ACPO 31 Suits and Uniforms 33 Police Culture 35 Oversight of the Police 38 Police Governance 39 ew Public Management and the Police 41 The Oversight Bureaucracy 44 COMPSTAT 44 HMIC 47 Audit Commission 48 Public Policymaking 50 Summary 51 Chapter 2 - Research Methods 53 Introduction 53 Rationale 53 Research Aims and Research Question 54 Research Design 54 Methods 58 Data Collection 60 Units of Analysis 62 Investigative Practice, Intelligence Work and the IM 63 Urban Case Study 64 5 County Case Study 65 Data Analysis 66 Ethical Issues 67 Research Challenges 70 Summary 74 Chapter 3 - Contextualising IM: A Brief History of Investigation 73 Introduction 73 The Police Mission 73 Plain Clothes Policing 75 Howard Vincent and the birth of the CID 79 Cultural Division 86 Home Office Committee on Detective Work, 1933-1936 89 Intelligence Work 89 CID and Mainstream Policing 91 Specialist Detective Squads 93 The Flying Squad 93 The Special Duty Squad (SDS) or ‘Ghost Squad’ 94 Criminal Intelligence Squad 9 (‘C9’) 96 Criminal Intelligence Squad 11 (‘C11’) 98 Regional Crime Squads (RCS) 100 Summary of Analysis 102 Chapter 4 - Contextualising the IM: Intelligence-Led Investigation 104 Introduction 104 UBP, Intelligence Work and the CID 104 UBP’s Influence on Patrol Strategies 105 UBP and Local Intelligence 108 UBP and the CID 110 Scrutiny of the CID 112 Specialist Detective Work at the End of the Twentieth Century 114 ew ational Detective Bodies 114 Controlling the Detectives 117 The Resilience of the Specialist Squads 120 Policing with Intelligence 123 Summary of Analysis 128 Chapter 5 - The Emergence of the IM 131 Introduction 131 David Phillips’ Influence on Policing in Kent 131 Kent’s Crime Management Model 133 Kent Police Model 137 KPM Roll-Out 141 The NIM 143 The Philosophical Roots of the Model 148 6 The NIM ‘Ideal’ 151 Intelligence Collection 151 Collation, Analysis and Evaluation 151 Presentation of Evidence/Intelligence Assessments 154 Consultation 154 Monitoring Identified Problems 155 Home Office, Policing Policy and the NIM 155 Summary of Analysis 163 Chapter 6 - Evaluating the IM: the Model in Practice 165 Introduction 165 Models of Policy Implementation 165 ACPO’s Lack of Influence Over its Membership 166 Challenges to NIM Implementation 167 Home Office Performance Targets 168 Ideological Resistance 170 The IM’s Association with CIS 174 Inadequate Implementation Strategy 176 The IM’s Language and Style 181 UK Intelligence Architecture 183 Phillips’ Retirement from the Police Service 188 Cross-Border Crime 187 Summary of Analysis 193 Chapter 7 - Evaluating the IM: Urban Case Study 195 Introduction 195 Reaction of the Urban Elite to the NIM 195 NIM at BCU Level 200 The NIM Process in Urban 205 Intelligence Collection in Urban 205 Collation, Analysis and Evaluation in Urban 207 Presentation of Evidence in Urban 208 Consultation with Partners in Urban 212 Monitoring Problems in Urban 218 NIM and Neighbourhood Policing in Urban 222 Urban’s Intelligence Architecture 224 Summary of Analysis 227 Chapter 8 - Evaluating the IM: County Case Study 230 Introduction 230 Force Reorganisation 230 County Elite and the NIM 233 NIM at BCU Level in County 236 The NIM Process in County 240 Intelligence Collection in County 240 7 Collation, Analysis and Evaluation in County 241 Presentation of Evidence in County 244 Consultation with Partners in County 247 Monitoring Problems in County 252 NIM and Neighbourhood Policing 257 County’s Intelligence Architecture 258 Summary of Analysis 261 Chapter 9 – Conclusions 264 Introduction 264 ILP in the Modern Era 265 Intelligence Work in the Mainstream 269 Orthodoxy 270 What Does the NIM Reveal About the Police Organisation? 273 Appendix A – Sabatier’s Model of Policy Implementation 282 Appendix B – Thesis Aims and Objectives 283 Appendix C – CID Corruption 284 The First Detectives 284 Robert Mark and CID Reform in London 285 Operation Countryman 289 Appendix D - Home Office Committee on Detective Work, 1933-1936 292 Appendix E - Pen Picture of Sir David Phillips 297 References 299 8 List of Tables and Figures Table 1 - Methodologies against ‘political’ crime 85 ............................................. Figure 1 – The Intelligence Cycle 125 Figure 2 - Crime Pattern Analysis - vehicle crime ‘hotspots’ 152 Figure 3 - Network analysis chart 153 Figure 4 - The Neighbourhood Policing Reinvention Cycle 173 9 List of acronyms and abbreviations AC Assistant Commissioner (Metropolitan Police) ACC Assistant Chief Constable ACPO Association of Chief Police Officers APA Association of Police Authorities ASB Anti Social-Behaviour BCU Basic Command Unit CDA Crime and Disorder Act 1998 CDIIIU Central Drugs and Illegal Immigration Intelligence Unit CDRP Crime and Disorder Reduction Partnership CID Criminal Investigation Department CMM Crime Management Model COMPSTAT Computerised Statistics CPA Crime Pattern Analysis CRM Crime Reduction Manager CSM Community Safety Manager DAC Deputy Assistant Commissioner (Metropolitan Police) DC Detective Constable DCC Deputy Chief Constable DCI Detective Chief Inspector DI Detective Inspector DOI Director of Intelligence
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