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A Qualitative Study of the Experiences of Former Bible-Based Cult Members

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A Qualitative Study of the Experiences of Former Bible-Based Cult Members A Qualitative Study of the Experiences of Former Bible-based Cult Members Simone Jill Mallett Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology The University of Leeds School of Medicine, Division of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences in Relation to Medicine and Department of Psychology. August 2000 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. IMAGING SERVICES NORTH Boston Spa, Wetherby West Yorkshire, LS23 7BQ www.bl.uk CONTAINS PULLOUTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to tbank the following people: Anna MadlU & Gary Latchford for their encouragement and supervision; Helen & Josie for their patience during the various validity checks; Sheila Youngson and my mother for their support throughout the research process; and most of all John Whaling, without whom this project would not have been possible. Last but not least, I am extremely grateful to the people who agreed to take part in this research. Their willingness to share their experiences with such openness was very much appreciated - they taught me many things during the process. ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to contribute to the understanding of cult membership, by examining the "before, during, and after" experiences of former members. Five male and five female former long-term members of bible-based religious cults were interviewed. The transcripts of these interviews were then analysed using procedures based on Strauss and Corbin's (1990) Grounded Theory methodology. Three models were constructed from the data analysed, which was explored using a variety of psychological and sociological conceptualisations. The study found that experiences of cult membership were too complex to be explained by a single theory or model. However Social Identity Theory proved useful in synthesising theories across a range of disciplines. The main predicators of joining were a searching/idealistic disposition, pre-existing religious convictions, and active cult recruitment tactics. The dynamics of membership were best conceptualised as an active process, involving a "switch" from individual to group identity. A belief that God was the constant audience was fundamentally important in determining the behaviour of members. A number of those interviewed had left involuntarily due to pressure from within the group rather than outside influence, which had not been widely reported before. Individuals appeared to suffer a griet7bereavement reaction after exiting, and treating them as such may provide a useful initial mode of intervention by mental health professionals. Former members themselves stressed the importance of understanding the context of their involvement, as opposed to any clinical approach based on individual pathology. The study was de facto a pilot, as no previous record of grounded theory research into religious cults was found in the existing literature. The study therefore identified significant scope for further research into this field, and recommends the grounded theory approach as a useful means to do so. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 1. AIMS 1 2. PROVIDING CONTEXT - REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 1 (i) Definition of a cult 1 (ii) Joining a cultic group 2 (a) Antecedents to joining (b) Mind control (ii) Experience of membership 6 (iv) Leaving the group 9 (a) Why do people leave cults? (b) Effects of leaving (b) Other relevant issues (v) Methodological problems within the existing literature 11 3. THE MEmOOOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK 12 4. CHOICE OF MEmOOOLOGY 15 (i) Introduction - the theoretical backdrop 15 (Ii) Grounded theory 17 (iii) Reprise of the researther's choice of method 19 CHAPTER 2: METHOD 1. EmICS 21 (I) Introduction 21 (Ii) Confidentiality & informed consent 21 (iii) Structure of the researth interview & follow-up contacts 22 2. RESEARCHER'S OWN BACKGROUND & EXPERIENCE 23 3. THE PARTICIPANTS 24 (i) General selection issues 24 (ii) Specific criteria 25 (iii) Profile of the participants 26 4. THE INTERVIEW 27 (I) Style of the interviewer & design of the interview schedule 27 (ii) The interview schedule 28 (iii) Pilot interviews 29 (a) Pilot interview I (b) Pilot interview 2 (iv) The interview process in the main study 32 (v) Feedback sessions 33 s. CODING & THEORY BUILDING 34 (i) Transcription 34 (ii) Open coding & the crystallisation of empirical categories 34 (iii) Conceptual categories 36 (iv) Theory building & modelling 38 (v) Memos 39 6. THE REFLEXIVE PROCESS 40 (i) ReOexivity 40 (ii) The reOexive journal 41 7. QUALITY CONTROL 42 (i) Introduction 42 (ii) Validation of category titles 43 (iii) Participant feedback 44 CHAPTER THREE: ANALYSIS 1. INTRODUCTION 62 (I) General 62 il) Overview of the results chapter 62 2. THEMES SPECIFIC TO JOINING A CULTIC GROUP 63 (i) Overview of the model & rationale for joining 63 (il) Time of life: circumstances & vulnerability 65 (a) Gap in life &lor time oftransttion - Wlcertainty & searching (b) Family, social backgroWld & context (c) Loneliness/depression/urge to belong (Hi) Common relevant personality fadors 67 (a) Naivety/gullibility (b) Shyness, sensitivity or lack of self confidence (c) Idealism/searching nature (Iv) Pre-e:sisting faith 68 (a) Existing spiritual beliefs or Christian faith (b) Dissatisfaction with mainstream church (v) The appeal of the group 69 (a) Idealism/radicalism (b) Offers purpose, certainty & guaranteed salvation (c) Genuineness of members - offer of friendship (vi) Nature of recruitment 70 (a) Manner of encoWltering group (b) Active recruitment tactics by group (c) Targeting vulnerabilities (d) Incremental attachment 3. EXPERIENCES OF MEMBERSIllP 73 (i) Introduction to the main model 73 (ii) God as audience 75 (iii) Narrative of the model 75 (iv) "Us & them": group self-definition in contradistinction to the outside world 78 (a) Polarised world view - everything is black or white (b) The group as God's chosen elite & the only means to salvation (c) The Messianic mission, evangelising & fundraising (v) The group & its leader(ship) 80 (a) Leader has divine authority (b) Subordination to leader ( c) Group norms & high standards (d) Demand of conformity (vi) Influence and control over interactions with the outside world 83 (a) Influence over family relationships outside group (b) Influence over other social interactions outside group (c) Influence over info./access to info. (vii) Influence over everyday life 85 (a) Influence over time & living arrangements (b) Influence over language (c) Influence over material assets (viii) Influence over relationships within the group 87 (a) Influence over parenting (b) Influence over sexual and marital relationships (c) Influence over other relationships (Ix) Influence over beliefs & interpretation 90 (x) Means of influence & group self-protective behaviour 91 (a) Fear/threat of punishment by God - divine retribution (b) Fear/threat of punishment by leader or group (c) Punishment by leader &lor group - physical or verbal (d) Use of confession (e) Use of secrecy and/or deception (xi) Negative outcomes 96 (a) Abuse - physicaVsexual (b) Abuse - mentaVspiritual (c) Emotional- depression, fatigue, breakdown (d) Emotional- guilt & shame (e) Emotional-jealousy/anger (t) Inner conflict/distress (xii) Reinforcement of us & them 99 (a) Distrust of society: isolation & severance of ties with outside world (b) Group as God (c) Group as family (xiii) Switch of identity & heightened conformity 101 (a) Denigration of critical thinking (b) Dependence & sense of powerlessness over own fate (c) Self-sacrifice/group interests supersede individual wants (d) Change in beliefs, behaviour & identity (xiv) Rewards 104 (a) Relief from inner contlict & sense of purposelbelonging (b) Good times & positive experiences (c) Reinforcement by group (xv) Miscellaneous group characteristics 106 (a) Stratification & competition amongst group members (b) Evolution of group over time (xvi) High group standards & progressive doubts 107 (a) Inability to meet group standards (b) Questioning or chaUenging the group 4. AFfER EXITING: "THEM" ARE NOW "US" 109 (i) Introduction 109 (il) Process of leaving 110 (a) Thinking for self & questioning of group (b) Group reaction to inability to meet group standards & leaving (c) Involuntary exit (d) Role of ,'trusted" others (iii) Emotional fallout 113 (a) General difficulty coping (b) Grief and regret about general losses (c) Regret about specific losses, & loneliness (d) Frustration, anger & desire for retribution (e) Feeling of unreality or disorientation - depression & suicidal tendencies (t) Self-recrimination, guilt & shame (iv) NegativeetJectonidentity 115 (a) Loss of meaning or purpose in life (b) Arrested psychological development & difficulties with making decision (c) Practical difficulties adjusting & social disorientation (d) Effect on relationships - lack of trust (e) The ongoing hold of the group (v) Effects on faith 117 (a) Revised attitude to faith, religion and religious groups (b) Ongoing fear of divine retribution (vi) Coming to terms with the experience 119 (a) Recognition of having been used, deceived & manipulated (b) Self-vindication, self-forgiveness, and rationalisation of the experience (e) Importance of being Widerstood & fear of being misWiderstood or rejected (d) The role of health professionals (e) Moving forward and regaining individual identity (f) Need to use the experience & acknowledgement of gains (vii) Use of metaphors 123 CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION 1. INTRODUCflON
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