Apulian Warrior-Heroes and Greek Citizens: Mortuary Constructions of Identity in Ruvo Di Puglia and Metaponto

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Apulian Warrior-Heroes and Greek Citizens: Mortuary Constructions of Identity in Ruvo di Puglia and Metaponto

Miranda K. Siklenka

A thesis submitted to the Graduate Program in Classics

in conformity with the requirements for the

Degree of Master of Arts

Queen’s University

Kingston, Ontario, Canada

April, 2015

Abstract:

The purpose of this thesis is to shed light on the socio-political ideology of the warrior- aristocracy of Ruvo di Puglia and the inhabitants of the Greek polis of Metaponto through observation of the motifs on the figured vessels placed in wealthy tombs. By examining the mortuary deposits of the Ruvo tombs alongside those from Metaponto, we will be able to see some similarities between the two cities. While these similarities imply a level of cultural sharing, they more succinctly show that the indigenous inhabitants of Ruvo were quite selective in borrowing from the Greeks. However, the differences provide the best insight into the fascinating practices of the Apulians. I show that the Apulian chieftains coveted a warrior-hero status and were not hesitant to liken themselves to the legendary Achilles or Herakles, while the

Greeks saw such practices as a breach of the fundamental principles of their polis-centered egalitarianism. This is significant for the understanding of the cultural environment of Magna

Graecia since only little remains in terms of primary sources on the subject.

Acknowledgments:

Foremost, I would like to express my utmost gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Fabio

Colivicchi for his continual patience, invaluable advice, and mentorship throughout the process of writing this thesis. To my loving mother, the rest of my family, and my friends, your words of encouragement have provided me with confidence throughout this endeavor and my entire life.

For this, I am so lucky and forever grateful. Finally, the financial support of the Department of

Classics at Queen’s University has made this research possible. To the Classics faculty and my colleagues, you have made my entire experience at Queen’s University memorable.

Table of Contents:

Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………i Acknowledgments ……………………………………………………………………………...ii List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………………...... iv

List of Figures ………………………………….…………………………………………….... v

List of Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………………...x Chapter 1: Introduction ……………………………………………………………...... 1 Methodology ……………………………………………………………………………….....2 Previous scholarship on red-figure pottery of south Italy …………………………………….3 Chapter 2: Classification of Themes Youths ………………………………………………………………………………….…...... 7

Chapter 3: Classification of Themes Mythological Heroes …………………………………………………...... 29

Chapter 4: Classification of Themes Naiskos Monuments ………………………………………………………………………....48

Chapter 5: Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………..76

Database Findings: Ruvo di Puglia ………………………………………………………………………………81 Metaponto ………………………………………………………………………………...113

Bibliography: Translations and Editions of Ancient Texts……………………………….....121

Bibliography …………………………………………………………………………………121

iii

List of Tables:

Table 1: List of database categories…………………………………………………………..2

Table 2: Vessel count for all three themes in Ruvo and Metaponto………………………....3

Table 3: Vessel count for Youth theme in Ruvo and Metaponto……………………………7

Table 4: Vessel count for Mythological Hero theme in Ruvo and Metaponto……………..29

Table 5: Vessel count for Naiskos Monument theme in Ruvo and Metaponto……………..48

Table 6: Database for Ruvo di Puglia……………………………………………………….81

Table 7: Database for Metaponto…………………………………………………………..113

List of Figures:

Figure 1 – Red-figure lebes gamikos depicting flautist and youth (Side A, SMet. 57) from Carter et al (2011), p. 1072 (T19.05)………………………………………………………………...8

Figure 2 – Red-figure lebes gamikos (Side B, SMet. 57) from Carter et al. (2011), p. 1073 (T19. 05)………………………………………………………………………………………….….9

Figure 3 – Red-figure lekythos with nude youths holding strigils and helmets (SRuv. 17) from Montanaro (2007), p. 371 (Tomba 55)………………………………………………………11

Figure 4 – Red-figure Lucanian hydria depicting a male in pursuit of a woman, Pisticci Painter (SMet. 53) from Carter (1998), p. 640 (SAV 4-3)……………………………………………12

Figure 5 – Red-figure hydria depicting Zeus in pursuit of a woman, Pisticci Painter (SMet. 48) from Carter (1998), p. 637 (SS 12-1)………………………………………………………...14

Figure 6 – Red-figure volute krater depicting the rape of the Leucippids by the Dioscuri, Sisyphus Painter (SRuv. 42) from Montanaro (2007), p. 638 (Tomba 150)………………...15

Figure 7 – Fragment of a Lucanian red-figure vessel with torso of warrior (SMet. 43) from Carter (1998), p. 618 (T 165- 1b)……………………………………………………………16

Figure 8 – Red-figure panathenaic amphora. Warriors pursuing women, lower register, Amykos Painter (SRuv.40) from Montanaro (2007), p. 620 (Tomba 148)…………………………...17

Figure 9– Red-figure mascaroon krater depicting a warrior in naiskos, Ilioupersis P. (370-360 B.C.) (SRuv. 26) from Montanaro (2007), p. 524 (Tomba 111)………………………….…18

Figure 10– Corinthian style helmet, bronze (SRuv. 23) from Montanaro (2007), p. 451 (Tomba 103)…………………………………………………………………………………………...19

Figure 11 – Black-figure lekythos with Achilles dragging Hector (SRuv. 23) from Montanaro (2007), p. 476 (Tomba 103)…………………………………………………………………..20

Figure 12 – Red-figure volute krater depicting a battle between Greeks and Iapygians (380-370 B.C.) (SRuv. 80) from Montanaro (2007), p. 908 (Tomba 324)…………………………….21

Figure 13 – Red-figure volute krater depicting a Centauromachy (SRuv. 43) from Montanaro (2007), p. 647 (Tomba 152)………………………………………………………………….23

Figure 14–Nolan amphora with warrior departure, Achilles Painter (SRuv. 40) from Montanaro (2007), p. 633 (Tomba 148)………………………………………………………………….24

Figure 15 – Black-figure amphora depicting the departure of Kastor and Polydeukes, Exekias Painter, later 6th century B.C………………………………………………………………...25

Figure 16– Red-figure stamnos with indigenous warriors and women, Amykos Painter (SRuv. 30) from Montanaro (2007), p. 556 (Tomba 116)…………………………………………...26

Figure 17 – Red-figure hydria with Orestes, Plyades and Electra at Agamemnon’s tomb (SRuv. 7) form Montanaro (2007), p. 286 (Tomba 34)……………………………………………...27

Figure 18 – Side B of panathenaic amphora. Warriors giving funerary offerings at stele (SRuv. 48) from Montanaro (2007), p. 695 (Tomba 160)………………………………………….…………………………………………...... 28

Figure 19 – Bronze Corinthian style helmet from warrior tomb (SRuv. 23) from Montanaro (2007), p. 455 (Tomba 103)…………………………………………………………………..30

Figure 20 – Bronze south Italian style helmet, Calcidese (SRuv. 23) from Montanaro (2007), p. 457 (Tomba 103)……………………………………………………………………………..30

Figure 21 – Prosternidion (for chest of horse) with gorgon face. Bronze (SRuv. 23) from Montanaro (2007), p. 459 (Tomba 103)……………………………………………………..31

Figure 22 – Prometopidion (for face of horse), bronze (SRuv. 23) from Montanaro (2007), p. 461 (Tomba 103)………………………………………………………………………………….31

Figure 23– Black-figure skyphos with Herakles and the satyr thief (SRuv. 23) from Montanaro (2007), p. 472 (Tomba 103)………………………………………………………………….32

Figure 24 – Herakles head, silver (SRuv. 23) from Montanaro (2007), p. 468 (Tomba 103) ………………………………………………………………………………………………..33

Figure 25 – Red-figure hydria depicting Herakles and Hippolyta, Amykos P. (440-430 B.C.) (SRuv. 40) from Montanaro (2007), p. 616 (Tomba 148)…………………………………..33

Figure 26 – Black-figure lekythos depicting Achilles and Memnon in combat (SRuv. 23) from Montanaro (2007), p. 478 (Tomba 103)…………………………………………………….36

Figure 27 – Red-figure volute krater depicting the Argonauts on upper and lower registers, Sisyphus P. (430-420 B.C.) (SRuv. 40) from Montanaro (2007), p. 612 (Tomba 148)…....37

Figure 28 – Red-figure Protoapulian volute krater depicting the Argonauts fighting the Harpies (SRuv. 11) from Montanaro (2007), p. 337 (Tomba 43)……………………………………39

Figure 29 – Red-figure volute krater depicting the Death of Talos with the Dioscuri, Talos P. (SRuv. 112), Museo Nazionale Jatta 1501 (ARTstor, Scala Archives 2006)………………..41 vi

Figure 30 – Red-figure volute krater depicting the Death of Talos with the Dioscuri (Close up view), Talos P. (SRuv. 112), Museo Nazionale Jatta 1501 (ARTstor, Scala Archives 2006) ……………………………………………………………………………………………….42

Figure 31 – Medea and her potions, Talos krater (SRuv. 112) Museo Nazionale Jatta 1501 (ARTstor)…………………………………………………………………………………....44

Figure 32 – Talos krater (side B) depicting Castor, Pollux, Nike, Athena, Hera, and Jason (di Palo)……………………………………………………………………………………….....45

Figure 33 – Red-figure mascaroon krater depicting warrior in naiskos (SRuv. 91) from Montanaro (2007), p. 960 (Tomba 346)………………………………………………...…..49

Figure 34– Red-figure panathenaic amphora depicting a warrior in naiskos (Side A), Offerings at stele (Side B), Painter of the Patera (340-320 B.C.) (SRuv. 346 B.C.) from Montanaro (2007), p. 962 (Tomba 346)……………………………………………………………...... 50

Figure 35 – Red-figure panathenaic amphora depicting a horseman in naiskos (SRuv. 45) from Montanaro (2007), p. 657 (Tomba 154)…………………………………………………….51

Figure 36 – Drawing of the stucco decoration on a tomb of the Via Flaminia, Castor and Pollux from Nista (1999), p. 75……………………………………………………………………..51

Figure 37 – Red-figure panathenaic amphora depicting a warrior in naiskos (Side A) offerings at stele (Side B) (SRuv. 45) from Montanaro (2007) p. 659 (Tomba 154)…………………….52

Figure 38 – Panathenaic amphora showing a warrior seated with helmet in one hand, Patera P. (SRuv. 53) from Montanaro (2007), p. 746 (Tomba 154)…………………………………..53

Figure 39 – A Warrior in native Apulian dress (short tunic and belt), Patera P. (SRuv. 53) from Montanaro, p. 747 (Tomba 166)…………………………………………………………….53

Figure 40 – Red-figure mascaroon krater depicting a warrior in naiskos with native attire and horse, Baltimore P. (SRuv. 61) from Montanaro (2007), p. 807 (Tomba 241)……………..54

Figure 41 – Apulian red-figure column krater with Apulian warriors wearing local dress, Sisyphus Painter from Carpenter, T.H. (2014), p. 19……………………………………….55

Figure 42 – Red-figure mascaroon krater with young warrior and stele, Patera Painter (SRuv. 61) from Montanaro (2007), p. 253 (Tomba 17)…………………………………………….…..56

Figure 43 – Warrior assemblage and figured vessels with warrior-naiskos scenes from Ruvo (SRuv. 110) from Montanaro (2007), p. 1022 (Tomba 472)…………………………….….57

vii

Figure 44 – Red-figure mascaroon krater depicting Hades, Hermes and Hecate with warriors (Side A), Baltimore Painter (SRuv. 19) from Montanaro, p. 408 (Tomba 57)……….…58

Figure 45 – Red-figure mascaroon krater with warrior in naiskos (Side B), Baltimore Painter (SRuv. 19) from Montanaro (2007), p. 408 (Tomba 57)………………………………...58

Figure 46 – Red-figure mascaroon krater with warrior and elderly man in naiskos, Napoli Painter (SRuv. 44) from Montanaro (2007), p. 654 (Tomba 153)……………………………....59

Figure 47 – Red-figure mascaroon krater with old man and youth in naiskos (SRuv. 9) from Montanaro (2007), p. 310 (Tomba 39)……………………………………………….….59

Figure 48 – Red-figure panathenaic amphora with a shield and helmet in naiskos, Side A and Side B (SRuv. 87) from Montanaro (2007), p. 948 (Tomba 342)………………………..60

Figure 49 – Red-figure panathenaic amphora, shield on chair in naiskos (SRuv. 87) from Montanaro (2007), p. 949 (Tomba 342)………………………………………….....……61

Figure 50 – Shield episema, bronze (SRuv. 9) from Montanaro (2007), p. 331 (Tomba 29) ………………………………………………………………………………………….....62

Figure 51 – Red-figure panathenaic amphora, nude youth in naiskos (SRuv. 9) from Montanaro (2007), p. 312 (Tomba 29)……………………………………………………………..…62

Figure 52 – Red-figure mascaroon krater depicting a pair of nude youths in naiskos surrounded by offerings, New York Group (SRuv. 53) from Montanaro (2007), p. 745 (Tomba 166) ………………………………………………………………………………………….....63

Figure 53 – Red-figure amphora without handles, boy and horse in naiskos (SRuv. 8) from Montanaro (2007) p. 299………………………………………………………………....64

Figure 54 – Red-figure mascaroon krater depicting a semi-nude youth with his dog in naiskos, Copenhagen P. 4223 (SRuv. 18) from Montanaro (2007), p. 383 (Tomba 56)……….....64

Figure 55 – Calydonian boar hunt, Dioscuri and hound on the François Vase (c. 570 BC). Firenze, Museo Archeologico Nazionale (ARTstor)…………………………………..…66

Figure 56 – Red-figure mascaroon krater with man and woman in naiskos, Ganymede P. (SRuv. 33) from Montanaro (2007), p. 572 (Tomba 127)……………………………………..…67

Figure 57 – Red-figure lebes gamikos depicting a couple and gifts (SRuv. 6) from Montanaro (2007), p. 263 (Tomba 21)………………………………………………………………..67

Figure 58 – Red-figure mascaroon krater depicting a couple in naiskos (SRuv. 63) from Montanaro (2007), p. 824 (Tomba 259)………………………………………………….68 viii

Figure 59– Red-figure hydria depicting a male and female in naiskos, Lycurgus P. (SRuv. 77) from Montanaro (2007), p. 889 (Tomba 321)…………………………………………….69

Figure 60 – Red-figure panathenaic amphora depicting a woman in naiskos (Side A), female head (Side B), (SRuv. 63) from Montanaro (2007), p. 825 (Tomba 259)………………...70

Figure 61 – Red-figure mascaroon krater depicting an Amazonomachy (Side A) and woman in naiskos (Side B), Baltimore P. (SRuv. 92) from Montanaro (2007), p. 965 (Tomba 347) ……………………………………………………………………………………………..71

Figure 62 – Red-figure loutrophoros depicting a female in naiskos (SRuv. 63) from Montanaro (2007), p. 826 (Tomba 259)……………………………………………………………….72

Figure 63 – Red-figure loutrophoros depicting a female in naiskos (Side A) and a man and woman with gifts (Side B) (SRuv. 18) from Montanaro (2007), p. 388 (Tomba 56)……………..72

Figure 64 – Red-figure loutrophoros depicting the rape of Procne and Philomela by Tereus (Side A), Darius P., 340-330 B.C. (SRuv. 51) from Montanaro (2007), p. 728 (Tomba 164) …………………………………………………………………………………………...... 73

Figure 65 – Red-figure loutrophoros depicting a woman in naiskos (Side B), Darius P., 340-330 B.C. (SRuv. 51) from Montanaro (2007), p. 728 (Tomba 164)…………………………..74

Figure 66 –Map of Apulia, from Carpenter, T.H. (2003), p. 2…………………………...77

Other-Two warriors, Castor and Pollux, on p. ii “Acknowledgments” illustrated by M. Siklenka.

List of Abbreviations:

RF- Red-figure Leky.-Lekythos Grvs.-Greaves BF- Black-figure Leb.-Lebes gamikos Swrd.-Sword TC-Terracotta Lout.-Loutrophoros Kn.-Knife NC- non-ceramic Phia.-Phiale Sp.-Spear Amph. -Amphora (Panathenaic) Cass.-“Cassa” or Box tomb Cui.-Cuirass Kr.Masc. –Mascaroon krater Cham.-Chamber tomb Helm.-Helmet Kr. Vol.- Volute krater Foss.- “Fossa” or Trench tomb Trip.-Tripod Kr. Col. –Column krater Sarc.-Sarcophagus Hyd.-Hydria Semi.-Semichamber tomb Oin.- Oinochoe Hum.-Human remains

N.B. These abbreviations correspond to the information provided in the database table entries for Ruvo and Metaponto (Tables 6 and 7).

Chapter 1: Introduction

In order to gain a better understanding of the association with the buried individuals in the necropoleis of Ruvo di Puglia and Metaponto with specific iconographical representations on the vessels deposited in their tombs, it is of utmost necessity to distinguish how often each theme occurs. It is not surprising that the numerical discrepancies observed in this study are indicative of an indigenous Peucetian1 city centered on a warrior-aristocracy and a Greek polis, driven by the mindset of communal egalitarianism. One must be cautious not to consider the prevalence of

Greek thematic flavors as the result of imposed Hellenization. Gallini (1973) presents a poignant discussion on “Hellenization” in terms of how the Romans were selective in borrowing from the

Greeks.2 Similarly, out of motivations and necessity to assume power over their community,3 the indigenous elites of Italy4 chose to associate themselves with select aspects of Greek culture. In the case of the Peucetians, this association happens especially in conjunction with their ostentatious burials. The native inhabitants of Ruvo exhibited on their decorated wares an extensive knowledge of Greek mythology, theatrical plays and language as a result of longstanding interactions with the Greeks since the 8th century B.C. Some of the most complex mythological scenes on monumental volute kraters, which were exorbitantly popular amongst the

Peucetians in terms of burial deposits, required an understanding of the myths for clear

1 Carpenter, T.H. (2003), p. 2 ‘Peucetian’ refers to the population of the region in southern Italy that is equivalent to the modern province, Bari, in which Ruvo is located. 2 Gallini, C. (1973), p. 180-1. Interesting references to the modern world are applied to the discussion of Roman Hellenization, such as Japan and its appropriation of American culture and methods of production, thus becoming a powerful economic entity or even a rival to America. 3 Lombardo, M. (2014), p. 52 and p. 68, n59. 4 Lombardo, M. (2014), p. 53. Peucetian elites adopted Hellenizing behaviors “in the form of pretended descent from a Greek hero…or in the of commanding, purchasing, and exhibiting in their funerals, many Greek and Hellenizing figured vases, first Attic, and then Italiote and Apulian.”

interpretation. Unfortunately, not many written sources were left behind to reveal the intriguing lives of the native inhabitants and their interactions with the Greeks. From the rich and copious figured vessels, we can thus gain a better understanding of their burial customs, social interactions, and ideals especially if we compare and contrast them to the customs of a nearby

Greek colony.

This study focuses on a total of 112 tombs that have been discovered in the central and outermost areas of Ruvo, and a much smaller number in the necropoleis of Metaponto (57). The database system, for which visual examples will be provided, is separated into one table for Ruvo and another for Metaponto. Montanaro (2007) is an invaluable resource for the information required to complete the Ruvo database, and Carter (1998) for Metaponto. The categories for the 10 columns of the database tables are divided into the following areas:

A: Date of tomb F: Red-figure vessels

B: Sex of buried individual (if known) G: Other wares (black-figure)

C: Tomb location H: Iconography on figured vessels

D: Tomb type I: Bibliographical information

E: Non-ceramic finds J: Tomb number in excavation reports

Table 1: List of database categories

Each of the tombs referenced throughout the paper are under the names SRuv and SMet, which is a combination of Siklenka and the respective city. In order to create an easily accessible reference to the tomb in the excavation reports, the original tomb numbers are indicated in the furthest right column (J). Tables 6 and 7 are comprised of sections A, B, D, E, F, G, H, and J.

As a whole, these extensive database findings reveal that the natives of Ruvo wished to be remembered as warrior-heroes after death as demonstrated by the deposition of mortuary objects with a blend of martial contexts and Greek cultural flavors.

Theme: Youths Ruvo di Puglia Metaponto Number of Vessels Number of Vessels As a warrior 62 1 Cloaked 45 8 Nude/Seminude 142 11 Strigil 16 1 Athlete 10 1 Theme: Mythological Heroes

Herakles 20 1 Argonauts 3 0 Theseus 4 0 Dioscuri 2 0 Achilles 4 0 Theme: Naiskoi

With warrior statue 13 0 With nude youth statue 10 0 With female statue 10 0 With elderly man 4 0

Table 2: Vessel count for all three themes in Ruvo and Metaponto

Scholarship on Red-Figure Pottery of South Italy

The topic of this work is an analysis of the themes of Apulian and Lucanian red-figure pottery from the sites of Ruvo and Metaponto. South Italian red-figure pottery has been studied for more than a century, especially from the point of view of its style and its relationship to early

Attic red-figure pottery. The first modern work by Furtwängler5 assumed that red-figure pottery production started in south Italy because of the immigration of Athenian potters. For the following decades, the study of south Italian pottery was dominated by A.D. Trendall,6 a student of J.D. Beazley, who used Beazley’s methods to identify painters and groups of painters based on minor details of the figures. His monumental works are still the foundation for the study of this class of artifact. Trendall was not interested in the context where the vases were found and he considered the vases as ‘museum pieces’ with no connection with their archaeological context. He frequently omits this information in his entries. Another popular trend has been the interpretation of some of the scenes of south Italian red-figure vases as evidence for mystery cults, supposedly very popular in Magna Graecia.7 Starting in the 90’s, the work of Trendall was reexamined and new methods and approaches were considered.8 Some scholars have questioned the identifications and attributions of Trendall, trying to refine his groups of painters and chronology but without using a different method.9 New trends of studies emerged, concerning the contexts in which vases were found, as well as trying to understand the practical functions and meanings of figured vases. Since some of them were expressly made for non-Greek customers and there were some workshops active in native territory, scholars have begun asking the question of how the different culture of native users affected the representations on south

Italian red-figure vases found in native context, that traditionally were considered simply monuments of Greek art, purchased by the natives for their visual quality only and without understanding their meaning. Carpenter presented a general overview of the problem and the

5 Furtwängler, A. (1893), pp. 149-52. 6 In particular, Trendall, A.D. (1978-82), (1967) and the supplements. 7 In particular, Schauenburg, K. (2006). 8 An overview of the new trends is available in Denoyelle, M., E. Lippolis, M. Mazzei et al. (2000). 9 Denoyelle, M. (2014).

new perspectives in his article published in the American Journal of Archaeology in 2003,10 where he summarizes the main avenues of research. The conference held in 2009 in Cincinnati was an important turning point, since the red-figure pottery of southern Italy was studied primarily in its archaeological context, and great emphasis was placed on the role of non-Greek populations as consumers and even producers of this pottery.11 The first systematic study of

Apulian pottery as an indicator of the cultural difference between the native Italians and the

Greek colonists was the article by Colivicchi12 about the images of warriors and athletes on south

Italian red-figure vases, followed by a study of vase shapes that are specific to native context.13

However, the complete analysis of all figured vases from a Greek colony and a native site and their comparison has never been attempted. This will be the subject of this work.

The Sites of Ruvo and Metaponto

The sites selected for the comparison of the subjects are Ruvo and Metaponto. Ruvo is a native site of central Apulia, a region also called Peucetia. The site was one of the largest and wealthiest of the area, and has provided an extremely rich documentation. Unfortunately, the site was not properly excavated during the nineteenth-century and the information on the context is largely missing. A recent work by Montanaro14 has examined and published archival records in order to identify the groups of objects found in the tombs hastily excavated in the 19th century.

Thanks to his work, we are now able to study hundreds of burial contexts in Ruvo. Ruvo is an ideal case study because of this large number of vases and contexts. The settlement is largely

10 Carpenter, T.H. (2003). 11 Carpenter, T.H. et al. (2014). 12 Colivicchi, F. (2009). 13 Colivicchi, F. (2014). 14 Montanaro, A. (2007).

unknown, but it is certain that it was made up of several dwelling clusters separated by empty spaces. Each cluster had a cemetery, followed by the typical settlement pattern of the native

Apulians. The other site is Metaponto, a Greek colony, which was also one of the main production sites of south Italian red-figure pottery. Many of the vases found in Ruvo were in fact made in Metaponto. The potter’s quarter in Metaponto was excavated in the 1970’s. 15 In addition to its importance as a production site, Metaponto is also the Greek colony for which we have the best information on burials. The American excavations of Pantanello have uncovered hundreds of intact tombs that have been published complete with bone analyses.16 This is by far the best-known necropolis of Greek south Italy and it is a perfect case study for the use of red- figure pottery in Greek contexts. The urban site of Metaponto has been largely excavated, thus revealing its regular urban layout, public planning, and monuments,17 all of which are typical of a

Greek polis. The territory of Metaponto was also investigated for many years and it is today the most recognized chora of Magna Graecia.18 The site of Pantanello is actually a rural site near the city, but comparison of burials from the lesser-known urban necropolis show that the burial customs were the same as the city dwellers.

15 D’Andria, F. (1975). 16 Carter, J.C. (1998) 17 Carter, J.C. (2006) “Chora, Asty, and Polis,” pp. 195-237. 18 Carter J.C. and A. Prieto (2011).

Chapter 2

Classification of themes: Youths

Theme: Youths Ruvo di Puglia Metaponto Number of Number of Vessels Vessels As a warrior 62 1 Cloaked 45 8 Nude/Seminude 142 11 Strigil 16 1 Athlete 10 1 Table 3: Vessel count for youth theme in Ruvo and Metaponto

The numbers above reveal a strong variance in how many instances youths are depicted on the vessels found in the tombs of Ruvo and Metaponto. The first subcategory, nude or seminude youths, illustrates the largest similarity in patterns between the sites. It is the most common theme for both locations, with 142 vessels at Ruvo and 11 at Metaponto. While observing this iconographical theme, it is essential to understand the Greek and Apulian views of nudity. The Greeks saw nudity as an indication of athleticism and epic heroism, and male deities are depicted as fully unclothed in Attic art. Earlier scholars have addressed the origins of nudity in the Greek world. For example, Arieti (1975) cites an epitaph of Simonides, whereby Orsippus is described as the first of the Greeks from Olympia to be crowned while naked during the 15th

Olympic games in 720 B.C.19 In the presence of the public, nudity demonstrated an athlete’s ability in strength and self-control.20 It is very rare to see a woman in the presence of a nude man in Attic representations. It appears that the Apulians shared the idea of heroism coupled with

19 Arieti, J.A. (1975), p. 431. 20 Arieti, J.A. (1975), p. 436.

display of the undressed body, however it is much more common

to see nude, mortal men in the presence of women and engaging

in a plethora of activities such as providing funerary offerings, in

conversation and in the stages of wedlock. It is important to keep

in mind that, despite the frequency of nude mortal males in

interaction with their female counterparts, nudity cannot be

considered as a real aspect of Apulian21 everyday life. Even in

Greek contexts, the portrayal of male nudity was featured in

unrealistic settings such as battle scenes.

Figure 1: Lebes gamikos (Side A, The 11 vessels portraying nude youths that have been SMet. 57), Carter et al (2011), p. 1072 (T19.05) found in Metaponto reveal the cases in which nude males are depicted as heroes, in pursuit of women, in wedding scenes or as athletes. A red-figure lebes gamikos, dating to around 400 B.C., provides the example of an interesting interpretation by J.C.

Carter, who suggested that the nude youth with a lyre who is accompanied by a woman with torch and pipes is Orpheus leading Eurydice back from the Underworld,22 with her torch in one hand lighting the way up through the darkness and flutes in the other (SMet. 57, Fig. 1).

The aforementioned interpretation is appealing, for Carter believes that “those ancient inhabitants of Metaponto who chose to be buried in plaster-lined tombs like Tomb 19 were initiates or devotees of the Orphic-Pythagorian-Dionysiac complex of beliefs.”23 However, a more plausible interpretation is simply a flute girl in the presence of a komast, either returning

21 Carpenter, T.H. et al. (2014), p. 8. 22 Carter, J. C. et al., (2011), p. 1071. 23 Carter, J.C. et al., (2011), p. 1071.

from or hurrying to a symposium.24 Such scenes were very popular on mid-fifth century Attic vases, for example, a krater attributed to the Kleophon

Painter (Munich 2414; Matheson 1995, Pl. 126).

Flute girls were an essential component to a symposium and according to Aristotle’s Constitution of the Athenians, the city police were expected to keep Figure 2: Lebes gamikos (Side B, SMet. 57). Carter et al. (2011), p. 1073 (T19. 05) close watch over them.25 On side B, a woman sits on a block, perhaps a stele, while a nude youth with his cloak slung over his arms and a long knotted staff offers her a box (SMet. 57, Fig. 2). This offering scene can possibly be showing a moment whereby the wedding day is over, since it is a common scene to show a seated woman receiving offerings the day after.26 The plaster-lined fossa tomb (SMet. 57, Site 736) in which this vessel was discovered belonged to a female in her mid twenties.

Another young male, likely Herakles, on a red-figure pelike from a fossa tomb in

Metaponto (SMet. 20) sports his heroic nudity and holds in his right hand a knotted club. He is facing Nike, the winged figure of victory who is dressed in a flowing peplos and offers a phiale with her outstretched arm. The scene suggests the subsequent honoring of his heroic deeds. This is a unique instance whereby a hero is represented in a general trend that is associated with non- heroic figures. Those scenes are commonly males receiving offerings from women. However, these women are not subordinate to those receiving the offerings. Rather, this is a reciprocal relationship, whereby the women are elevated in respect to their own role and the awards are

24 Carter, J.C. et al., (2011), p. 1071. 25 Aristotle. Const. Ath.50.2, see Cohen, B., ed. (2000), p. 207. 26 Carter, J. C. et al., (2011), p. 1066.

essential for the acknowledgment of young heroes. By including a vessel with the imagery of heroes receiving offerings, the buried individuals subsequently link themselves to heroic status. It is important to note that, as mentioned above, this supporting role of women is not limited to heroes and goddesses. A large number of vases with those scenes have been found in Ruvo. They depict young women offering wine to young males, Dionysos (SRuv. 78, calyx krater), and warriors. On side B of the vase are two draped youths, the second most popular youth-related theme with Attic origins in both Ruvo and Metaponto. The recurrence of the draped youths on side B of 45 vessels in Ruvo is indicative that although the indigenous population used these vases, some Attic visual trends translated into the local market. The draped youths, called

“mantle figures”27 by J.D. Beazley, are repetitively illustrated in conversation with one another and are clad in a typical himation. These cloaked youths are simply “stock,” used primarily for insignificant filler while the ornate and main side of the vase was intended to amaze the viewer.

From a slab-covered fossa tomb of a female of Metaponto dating to the fifth century

B.C. (SMet. 50), a red-figure squat lekythos portrays a young nude male carrying a strigil in his right hand. A woman dressed in a peplos and holding a mirror accompanies him. The presence of a mirror in this scene suggests the female realm, whereby a woman prepares herself for marriage and eventually motherhood.28 The strigil is the symbol of the Greek palaestra and athleticism.

Greek athleticism is a “fundamentally egalitarian ideology, as a means of collective paideia, through the city institution, the gymnasium…athletic activity was one of the most important and long-lasting symbols of the status of polites and of belonging to Greek culture.”29 It is important to note that this is the only athlete depicted on a figured vessel from Metaponto. However, the

27 Beazley, J.D. (1922), pp. 70-98. 28 Stansbury-O’Donnell, M. (2011), p. 148. 29 Colivicchi, F. (2009), p. 72.

inhabitants of the Greek polis were not the only ones to use such figures. Similarly, the pairing of the young, nude athlete and a woman in nuptial process is a more common scene on vessels from Ruvo, with a total number of six. An interesting example is a red-figure pelike from a fourth century B.C. tomb (SRuv. 85), which shows a woman and a

Figure 3: (SRuv. 17) Lekythos (Montanaro, p. 371). man in embrace while reclining and on side B, two nude youths (one carrying a strigil) and two women holding mirrors. As well, a squat lekythos from a fourth century B.C. semichamber tomb (SRuv. 25) illustrates the athlete accompanied by

Eros as he approaches a woman. The presence of Eros alludes to the erotic nature of the scene.

Young athletes are also depicted without marital context in Ruvo. A first example is a red-figure lekythos from a fifth century B.C. sarcophagus tomb (SRuv. 81). On side A, a youth sits on a pile of stones and holds his mantle. His athletic identification can be suggested by the strigil placed on the ground next to him. Furthermore, a pair of nude youths on a red-figure lekythos sport crowns, while one is holding a strigil and the other clutches a pilos helmet (SRuv.

17, Fig. 3). The inclusion of a helmet here emphasizes the difference in the role of athleticism between the two cultures. While athleticism is not directly linked to war in Greek society, the natives of Ruvo held a markedly different view, where athleticism was a complement to training for warfare. The combination of the strigil and helmet, found very often in the tombs of warriors at Ruvo and on vase iconography, but virtually absent in Greek contexts, is a salient indication

that there are “deep structural difference between

the two cultures.”30 The intriguing aspect of this

scene is the white swan placed at the center. It is

possible that the swan is creating a connection to

the Dioscuri, as Zeus fathered them in the guise

of a swan. In addition, the twin youths were noted

for their athleticism; Pollux was a skilled pugilist

and Castor was an adept horse tamer. However,

this observation is speculative and the Figure 4: (SMet. 53) Pursuit of woman, Pisticci Painter (Carter (1998), p. 640) iconography of the swan appears in various other contexts31 on a total of 13 vessels at Ruvo.

Erotic pursuit involving nude youths is a captivating theme used both in Metaponto and

Ruvo. In Metaponto, the first example is a red-figure Lucanian hydria found in a fossa tomb

(SMet. 53, 430-400 B.C., Fig. 4). The individuals deposited in this tomb died at a relatively old age, the female at age seventy and the male around fifty. The likelihood of a marriage between them in life is very high, as indicated by the iconography of the aforementioned hydria. A youth, seminude with his chlamys draped over his back, is in intense pursuit of a woman. His hair is bound by a taenia. The woman flees while looking over her shoulder, her long chiton flows behind her, and a stephane adorns her head. A spirally tendril or plant stands between them.

30 Colivicchi, F. (2009), p. 72. The strigil in indigenous contexts is viewed as an ‘accessory’ to burials. Although the strigil is mundane in nature, the large number of strigil findings in the indigenous tombs is a clear indication that young Peucetians practiced athleticism as pre-training for war, and finally coming into manhood as a result of displaying strength in battle. 31 The swan is also associated with Aphrodite. It is seated on her lap (4th century B.C., calyx krater, SRuv. 78) and on the lap of an anonymous woman (4th century B.C, panathenaic amphora, SRuv.50); also see Corrente, M. (2014), p. 183 n48.

This hydria has been attributed to the “developed style” of the Pisticci Painter,32 who is very likely to be the first of the Metapontine painters.33 A very similar scene is illustrated on a red- figure pelike from a cappuccina tomb belonging to a female, which dates to the early fifth century

B.C. (SMet. 22). The nude youth in the scene, driven by desire, chases after a fleeing woman.

On side B of this vessel is the standard pair of cloaked youths. The abduction motif was quite popular in Athens34 as a metaphor and symbol of marriage and it is not surprising that it transfers to the Lucanian and Peucetian locations. A proto-Lucanian red-figure bell krater from a fifth century fossa tomb (SRuv. 66) in Ruvo portrays a strikingly similar image of the pursuit of a woman by a nude youth. In this case, there is a second woman in flight and she expresses her fear with outstretched arms. The interpretation of the rape scenes raises many questions; however, there is a popular trend of interpretation that the unmarried girl can be compared to a wild animal in need of taming by her heroic pursuer.35 Regardless of the fact that a scene of nuptial ceremony is absent, the chase scene implies the imminent betrothal, which renders the woman a civilized member of Attic society.36 Thus, it was common practice to give these vessels as a gift to the bride.37

32 Carter, J.C. (1998), p. 640 mentions LCS, Suppl. 3, 6, no. 24a. 33 Denoyelle, M. (2014), p. 117. 34 Rautman, A., ed. (2000), p. 126. 35 Rautman, A., ed. (2000), p. 127: This is the claim of Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood (1973, 1987a and 1987b). 36 Rautman, A., ed. (2000), p. 127: Ritual abduction is noted as a central element to a Greek wedding; also see Jenkins (1983). 37 Rautman, A., ed. (2000), p. 127.

Nude youths are not the only subjects of

the erotic chase. As some vases from Ruvo and

Metaponto illustrate, the gods replace mortals

and their connection “with seduction, sexuality

and fertility elevates such scenes and makes

their message more clear and effective.” 38 A

Figure 5: (SMet. 48) Zeus pursuing woman, Pisticci noteworthy red-figure hydria from a fifth Painter (Carter (1998), p. 637) century B.C. Metapontine fossa tomb belonging to a child (SMet. 48, Fig. 5) depicts Zeus in pursuit of a woman. He is identified by his laurel wreath, scepter and thunderbolt. The fleeing woman looks back over her shoulder, her arms lifted in supplication. It is interesting to note that, unlike the nude youths, Zeus is fully covered by a cloak. The emotion of male assertiveness is well illustrated here. Tombs from Ruvo yield fantastically ornate scenes of mythical rape. For example, the north wind Boreas swiftly abducts

Oriethyia, daughter of King Erectheus on a red-figure panathenaic amphora from a fourth- century B.C. chamber tomb (SRuv. 50). Apollo is shown on an oinochoe from a mid fifth century

B.C. sarcophagus tomb (SRuv. 99). The god moves to the left, with his physiognomy indicating speed as the woman runs away. He is nude, like the youths discussed on the previous vases and the risen arms of the woman imply her desperation. However, the most noteworthy pursuit scene is from a richly decorated red-figure volute krater from the fifth century B.C., which is attributed to the Sisyphus Painter (SRuv. 42, Fig. 6). Volute kraters were specifically connected to fifth

38 Colivicchi, F. (2014), p. 226.

century Peucetian burials and were used for mixing

and libation purposes.39 The scene is divided into

upper and lower registers and the painter has

skillfully captured the detail and amount of

movement. On the upper register, one of the

Dioscuri twins sweeps a daughter of Leucippus off

her feet. The musculature of his nude body is

revealed as the wind blows his cloak over his

shoulder. The expression of the young maiden’s

face is somewhat helpless as she desperately reaches Figure 6: (SRuv. 42) Volute krater depicting rape of the Leucippids, Sisyphus Painter (Montanaro, p. 638) back with one arm to an unnamed figure driving a chariot. Another woman flees towards two seated figures to the right, Eros and an anonymous woman. On the lower register, the other Dioscuros mirrors his brother. He takes the other daughter of Leucippus with ease and he is also nude. It is very possible that the depiction of mortal youths in episodes of erotic pursuit could be modeled in terms of heroic nudity on divine youths such as the Dioscuri. In conclusion, the scenes of pursuit are similarly used in Metaponto and Ruvo. However, the significant difference is that the mythical scenes from Ruvo are especially complex, and these large and ornate vessels are more frequent than in the modest tombs of Metaponto.

The second most common theme on the vessels from Ruvo is the youth as a warrior, with a total of 62 examples. While adhering to the ideal of heroic nudity, warriors appear in many contexts such as the pursuit of women, in small and large-scale combat, departure and return,

39 Small, S. (2014), p. 30.

and in funerary ritual. In Metaponto, the image of the warrior on figured vases is by contrast very low, with only one fragment that possibly depicts the upper torso of a nude warrior holding a spear. His arm is partially wrapped in a mantle and there is a second youth to the right (SMet.

43, Fig. 7). Given the fact that very little of the image remains, it is not entirely certain as to whether or not the figure is a warrior at all. He could very well be a hero or hunter and it is possible that this fragment is the remnants of a vase that was used as a tomb marker, but was subsequently broken and swept aside like the fragments of a massive column krater found at a ceramic deposit in Nucleus 8 (SMet. 26). According to J.C. Carter, “the Metapontines were not habitual warriors, and there is no evidence that they were frequently fighting neighbors beyond their borders.”40 However, wars between the Metapontines and native populations occurred, beginning in the earlier years of settlement. Oftentimes, Greek authors who had a clear focus on the mainland and the eastern Mediterranean did not feel the need to record internal wars between the Western Greeks and native Italic populations. Like any Greek polis, there is some Figure 7: (SMet. 43) Fragment of warrior (Carter (1998), p. 618) surviving evidence that Metaponto engaged in wars. According to

Strabo, who cites a fifth-century Greek historian from Sicily, the citizen farmers of Metaponto took up arms both against the Greeks of Taras and the indigenous population of the hinterland:

Antiochus says that certain Achaeans, who had been sent for by the Achaeans in Sybaris, settled in this place when it had been desolated; he adds that these were sent out of the hatred of Achaeans to the Tarantini, who had originally migrated from Laconia, in order to prevent their seizing upon the place which lay adjacent to them. Of the two cities, viz. Metapontium which was situated the nearer from Tarentum, the newcomers preferred to occupy Metapontium. This choice was suggested by the Sybarites, because, if they should make good their settlement there, they would also possess Siris, but if they turn to Siris, Metapontium would be annexed to the territory of the Tarentines

40 Carter, J.C. (2006), p. 224.

which was conterminous. But after being engaged in war with the Tarantini and the Oenotrians, who dwelt beyond them, they came to an agreement, securing to them a portion of land, which should constitute the boundary between Italy, as it then existed, and Iapygia. (Strab. Geog. 6.1.15).41

Indeed, it is not the lack of warlike tendencies that accounts for the lack of figured vessels depicting warriors and battles in funerary contexts at Metaponto. Rather, this trend must be attributed to the polis ideology of this Greek city, where collective war efforts were more pertinent than individualized braggadocio as also confirmed by the fact that the same trend is found in all other Greek poleis.

On the other hand, the popularity of the warrior theme in Ruvo is determined by the socio-political environment, whereby the “the most Figure 8: (SRuv.40) Panathenaic amphora. Warriors pursuing women, lower register, distinguishing male role is that of a warrior, which explains Amykos P. (Montanaro, p. 620) the focus on military victory in representations. Victory is proof that the young man is ready for his new role of husband and father.” 42 Abduction scenes involving the warrior are common in Ruvo and as mentioned earlier, the illustration of an erotic chase implied the eventual marriage. The first example is a red-figure column krater attributed to the

Alkymachos Painter (470-460 B.C.), which was discovered in a fifth century semichamber tomb belonging to a male (SRuv.

27). Included in the grave deposits are items indicative of the warrior status such as a pileus helmet, bronze belt, and iron

41 Falconer, W. and Hamilton, H.C., trans. (1903). 42 Colivicchi, F. (2014), pp. 227, 239 n92.

sword. On side A, a bearded warrior reaches at a woman who appears to pull her arm away from his grasp. He wears a helmet and carries a spear and a shield. These central figures are interpreted as Helen and Menelaos. On side B of the vase, there is a komos scene. Another semichamber warrior tomb yields a red-figure panathenaic amphora attributed to the Amykos

Painter with a scene of a young warrior reaching towards a woman in flight (SRuv. 40, Fig. 8).

She carries what appears to be a mirror and takes one large stride to the left. On the register above, two women offer a phiale and ribbons to the warriors. It is possible that the pursuit scenes involving warriors such as these are modeled on the depiction of mythological episodes such as the Rape of the Leucippids (SRuv. 42). Unlike the Dioscuri, these warriors have not obtained

physical restraint over the women of their desire.

Combat scenes display the pinnacle of a young

warrior’s prowess, by which he is able to defeat the opponent.

Some of the vases discovered in Ruvo portray some intense

episodes of heroic contest and the images are an ideal

association for the males belonging to a society that coveted

militaristic excellence. Among these vases is a red-figure

‘mascaroon’ krater from a fourth century B.C. semichamber

tomb (SRuv. 26, Fig. 9). The medallions within the volutes,

Figure 9: (SRuv. 26) Warrior in naiskos, Ilioupersis P. (Montanaro, p. a technique coined by the Ilioupersis Painter, define the 524) mascaroon krater.43 On the neck, there is a warrior in oriental dress attacking a horseman. The scene on side A of the body depicts Achilles dragging the body of Hector along the ground as he drives a quadriga. Above, a woman holds an open box in one hand and a wreath in other,

43 Carpenter, T.H. (2014), p. 273.

indicating the victory of the epic hero. Behind Achilles is a

white, nude warrior situated in a naiskos. He stands gracefully in

contrapposto stance, and holds a spear and shield. To the right of

the structure, a woman with loose hair falling over her shoulders

and dressed in long chiton offers a phiale. According to

Montanaro, the youth in the naiskos is Patroclus,44 the beloved

comrade of Achilles who died at the hands of Hector. However, a

Figure 10: (SRuv. 23) Corinthian style helmet, bronze (Montanaro, p. more likely interpretation is that the youth in the naiskos is a 451) depiction of the man deposited in the tomb. The placement of the deceased within a scene of Achilles in heroic action further indicates an honorable status obtained in his lifetime. On side B of the krater, Dionysos is at the center with his usual retinue of dancing maenads and satyrs, the ideal iconographic figures for a vessel intended for funerary wine.

The same episodes of the Achilles myth are also found on earlier Attic imports from

Ruvo and evidence from these tombs shows that Greek imports were arriving in Ruvo by the seventh century B.C. Several black-figure Attic vessels from a sixth century B.C. warrior tomb

(SRuv. 23) are indicative of this trade and most of them depict scenes of combat between gods and epic heroes. A salient observation of this tomb is the volume of armor deposited within, which includes six Corinthian helmets (Fig. 10), a south-Italic helmet, four pairs of greaves, a pair of foot guards, three horse chest plates (prosternidia), two horse head guards, a scepter ornament and a sphinx statuette. One of the vessels is a lekythos with another scene of Achilles

44 Montanaro, A. (2007), p. 523.

driven by a charioteer, Automedon, while the corpse of Hector is attached to the chariot wheel.

A snake figure with an open mouth hangs over Hector’s face and a small winged figure with

Figure 11: (SRuv. 23): Lekythos, Achilles dragging Hector (Montanaro, p. 476)

weapons hovers overhead, which represents the departing soul of Hector. Achilles has conquered his rival and this image resonates with the message of absolute victory (SRuv. 23, Fig. 11) The concentration of warrior iconography in this tomb is further strengthened by the presence of a black-figure hydria depicting the duel between Herakles and Apollo, a black-figure column krater with the apotheosis of Herakles on side A and anonymous warriors in combat on side B, and a second black-figure lekythos with a scene of Achilles and Memnon fighting in full armor.

This semichamber tomb along with the assortment of arms and decorated vessels undoubtedly reveals the presence of a warrior aristocracy in Ruvo in the late 6th century B.C.

The large-scale battles are often depicted on monumental kraters from Ruvo, as the large size provides a vast canvas for many figures in violent movement, resulting in a showpiece intended to advertise the wealth and status of the buried individual. None of these has been

discovered at Metaponto, a polis driven by a collective hoplite mentality instead of flaunting individual success.

The first vessel is a red-figure volute krater from a fourth century B.C. fossa tomb (SRuv.

80, Fig. 12) and its imagery is indicative of the discord between the Greeks and the native populations of Apulia. The youthful natives wield spears on horseback against the fully armored

Greeks. The lively movement of the battle is skillfully executed and the natives, with long hair and short tunics, are distinguishable from their Greek adversaries.

Figure 12: (SRuv. 80) Battle between Greeks and Iapygians (Montanaro, p. 908).

Despite the Greek presence and a subsequent boom of trade networks in southern Italy, the indigenous populations were still headstrong in their desire for autonomy. A passage from

Diodorus Siculus illustrates this:

When Menon was archon in Athens, the Romans chose as consuls Lucius Aemilius Mamercus and Gaius Cornelius Lentulus, and in Italy a war broke out between the Tarantini and the Iapygians. For these peoples, disputing with each other over some land on their borders, had been engaging for some years in skirmishes and in raiding each other’s territory, and since the difference between them kept constantly increasing and frequently resulting in deaths, they finally went headlong into contention. Now the Iapygians not only made ready the army of their own men but they also joined with them an auxiliary force of their neighbors, collecting in this way a total body of more than twenty thousand soldiers; and the Tarantini, on learning of the great size of the army gathered against them, both mustered the soldiers of their state and added to them many more of the Rhegians, who were their allies. A fierce battle took place and many fell on both sides, but in the end the Iapygians were victorious (Diod. 11.52.1-5).45

Herodotus also mentioned this battle, which took place during the 470s B.C., in detail. It is important to note that the collective name of the Iapygians includes the Peucetians, who were neighbors of the Tarentines:

From Hyria they made settlements in those other towns which for a very long time afterwards the Tarentines attempted to destroy, thereby suffering great disaster. The result was that no one has ever heard of so great a slaughter of Greeks as that of the Tarentines and Rhegians; three thousand townsmen of the latter, men who had been coerced by Micythus son of Choerus to come and help the Tarentines, were killed, and no count was kept of the Tarentines slain (Hdt. 7.170.3).46

These scenes, however, are not limited to the representation of real skirmishes.

Mythological battles of Greek origins are used on vases in order to adhere to the warrior ideology and status in the afterlife of the buried individual. Battles between Greeks and Amazons, giants and centaurs are among the most common depictions. In Ruvo, the number of vases are as follows: Amazonomachy (8), centauromachy (4), and gigantomachy (2). An Attic calyx krater from a fifth century B.C. semichamber tomb combines two types of battles (SRuv. 41). The ornate vessel, attributed to the Pronomos Painter, is broken but most of the scenes remain intact.

On side A, there are giants hurling stones at young warriors in the nude while Helios and

45 Diodorus Siculus 11.52.1-5, see Lombardo, M. (2014), p. 64. 46 Godley, A.D., trans. (1920).

Dionysos drive chariots overhead. Further in the center, there is a battle between Amazons and

Greek youths. Some fight with hammers, chisels and axes. On side B, there is an interesting battle between Dionysos, satyrs and giants. The physiognomy of the youths and their opponents is muscular and detailed. Furthermore, a centauromachy is depicted on a protoapulian red- figure volute krater from a fifth century semichamber tomb (SRuv. 43, Fig. 13). All of the warriors are beardless and nude, indicating their youth. They are minimally armed with shields, spears and helmets. Victory is evident, as two of the centaurs succumb to the valor of their youthful Figure 13: (SRuv. 43) Centauromachy (Montanaro, p. 647) opponents. The indigenous warriors no longer see themselves as the “other” against the Greeks. In fact, they are taking on a Greek myth whereby civilization meets its uncivilized, barbaric opponent. This scene is an optimal platform for the indigenous warriors to flaunt their bravura.

The idealistic young hero can also be shown in combat, even with wild beasts. A red- figure mascaroon krater from a fourth century semichamber tomb boasts a highly detailed scene in the lower register of Jason, naked, fighting with the bull, while Medea and Eros figures observe from a balcony located above the bull (SRuv. 54). This vase reveals that the inhabitants of Ruvo had sound knowledge of Greek epic tales. Jason is the perfect model of the young warrior hero and with each adversity, he becomes markedly braver, a characteristic that is sought

after by Peucetian youths. In the Argonautika47 of Apollonius Rhodius, Jason accepts the task proposed by King Aeetes of Colchis, which is to yoke a pair of fire breathing bulls and subsequently till the field with seeds. From these seeds, armed warriors appear, all of which Jason defeats (Apollon. 3. 1277-1407). As a display of her sorcery, Medea anoints Jason’s body with magic oil that endows him with the strength and courage necessary to face such an enormous challenge (Apollon. 3. 1025-1062). This leads into the next discussion of the role of a woman in a warrior’s preparation for battle. The first vase discussed here is a red-figure column krater from a fifth century sarcophagus tomb (SRuv. 2). More importantly, the non-ceramic finds indicate that the tomb belongs to a wealthy male warrior. They include an Apulian-Corinthian helmet, a

bronze belt, a spearhead, an iron sword with a bone handle,

and a knife. On side A of the vase, a woman hands the shield

to the young warrior while two older men watch. Side B

shows a young man with Nike and this alludes to the

victorious status of the warrior after his departure. Another

vase from a fifth century B.C. semi chamber tomb features a

similar scene of preparation (SRuv. 40, Fig. 14). Included in

the grave deposits are the following items: a gold necklace

with fifteen beads in the shape of ram heads, a fibula, armor,

Figure 14: (SRuv. 40) Nolan amphora, Achilles Painter (Montanaro, p. 633)

47 It is important to note that the Argonautika of Apollonius Rhodius was written in the 3rd century BCE. The work dates later than the making of these vases, which was fourth and fifth centuries. Argonautika is referred to frequently because it is the most complete and comprehensive version of the early myth.

an Apulian-Corinthian helmet and a sword with small ornaments. The scene on side A of the amphora illustrates a woman handing a sword to a young man. He has a petasos slung over his shoulder and a helmet sits Figure 15: Amphora, Exekias Painter. Departure of Kastor on a shield at his feet. These and Polydeukes. Later 6th century BC (ARTstor) portrayals of departure bring to mind earlier works such as the sixth century Attic black-figure amphora attributed to the Exekias Painter (Fig. 15). Although there are a vast number of

Athenian vases with this heroic theme, this specific vase is a prime example. Side B shows the young heroes, Castor and Pollux, as Leda and Tyndareos prepare them for departure. Images like these, whether or not they are portraying mythical heroes or mortal youths, are representative of when a youth leaves the safety of his family and returns a man as the result of displaying bravery in battle. It is clear, then, that the comparison is strong between the warrior’s preparation to leave his home and the departure of heroes.

More common is the theme of the warrior’s return, especially in regards to Apulian examples.48 Nike is a specific indicator of victory and she is often portrayed giving a crown to the young warrior. A red-figure krater from a fourth-century B.C. sarcophagus tomb shows a warrior naked, sitting on a little hill with his cloak partly folded under him (SRuv. 31). He has two long lances in his right hand and leans his elbow on his left knee, supporting his chin in the act of meditation. Below, Nike faces the warrior and opens her arms in the act of talking to him. A

48 Colivicchi, F. (2014), p. 224.

bearded man with a diadem on his head

and a long scepter in his right hand

follows her. The tomb belongs to a male

and the assortment of tomb deposits is

indicative of his warrior status. There are

two iron spearheads, two bronze belts and

two bronze helmets. Furthermore, the

main scene on side A of a red-figure

Figure 16: (SRuv. 30), Stamnos with indigenous warriors and women, Amykos Painter (Montanaro, p. 556) stamnos illustrates two indigenous warriors with two women, who pour libations into a phiale in honor of their heroism. As with the athletes, the symbolic figure of Nike can be replaced by the women with offerings in acknowledgment of success and victory. The vessel is from a fourth century B.C. semichamber tomb with no non-ceramic deposits (SRuv. 30, Fig. 16). It is important to note that the warriors on the stamnos departure scene are wearing indigenous clothing such as a short tunic and a belt.49

As a result of their attraction to self-glorification after death, the indigenous inhabitants of Ruvo include on their figured vessels the image of young warriors in the process of giving offerings at funerary monuments. These scenes often include a central funerary monument, either a naiskos or stele, which is surrounded by an even mix of women and young men. In terms of context, both mythological and mortal funerary offering episodes on the vases allude to the honor of the deceased individual. The first example is a red-figure hydria from a fourth century

B.C. semichamber tomb. On side A, a woman and two youths surround an ornate stele on top of

49 Carpenter, T.H. (2014), p. 8.

which is a very large vessel (SRuv. 7, Fig. 17). To the right, a seminude warrior places a sheathed sword onto the ground below the monument. He holds a pair of spears and wears a pilos helmet.

Another nude youth leans on a stick and is engaged in conversation with a tall female. A very elaborate red-figure panathenaic amphora from a fourth century B.C. semichamber tomb provides an excellent illustration of a funerary offering (SRuv. 47).

On side A, four figures stand around a stele, which is painted in white. A seated nude youth holds a staff and crown while looking over his left shoulder. Above him, a woman holds an open box and a phiale. On the right, a nude warrior with a cloak slung over his arm holds a spear in one hand and offers a crown in the other.

Beside him, a woman inquisitively points at the stele. Figure 17: (SRuv. 7) Hydria. Orestes, Pylades and Electra Agamemnon’s tomb (Montanaro, p. 286) There are three individuals on side B bringing offerings to a tomb, on top of which is placed a richly decorated black-figure amphora. The first youth is seated and a woman stands with a plate full of offerings and a box in the other hand. On the right, another seminude youth holds a wreath over the tomb. Two crowns have been deposited at the base of the tomb. It is important to note that a cuirass was discovered in the semichamber tomb, thus the iconography of this panathenaic amphora provides an exceptional continuity of the warrior identity. Furthermore, another panathenaic amphora is worth discussion.

It was found in a fourth century warrior tomb (SRuv.

48, Fig. 18) containing a pilos helmet and cuirass, in addition to

a variety of other figured vessels. Two nude warriors with short

hair flank a stele and provide offerings to the deceased, who was

likely of high status given the grand size of the volute krater

sitting on top of the monument. The tendrils and flowers

provide a florid backdrop while the stele, richly decorated with

small white ovoid shapes, remains the focal point of the image.

Figure 18: (SRuv. 48) Side B of panathenaic amphora. Warriors giving funerary offerings (Montanaro, p. 695)

Chapter 3

Classification of themes: Mythological Heroes

Theme: Ruvo di Puglia Metaponto Mythological Heroes Number of Number of Vessels Vessels Dioscuri 2 0 Argonauts 3 0 Theseus 4 0 Herakles 20 1 Achilles 4 0 Table 4: Vessel count for Mythological Hero theme in Ruvo and Metaponto

The status and self-representation as a leading warrior in Ruvo is undoubtedly evident through the rich armor deposited in numerous warrior tombs. Moreover, Greek mythological heroes are significant in the identity of the Peucetian warrior elite because they could be the epitome of martial valor. Ornate vessels from these tombs include figures such as Herakles,

Theseus, Achilles, the Argonauts, and the Dioscuri. As indicated by the table above, Herakles is the most common hero on vessels from Ruvo, while there is only one vessel from Metaponto.

On the other hand, in the tombs of the Greek city, vessels with complex representations are rare, and mythological heroes are nearly absent. This is a result of Greek preferences for “scenes of pursuits, conversation, or courtship,” 50 rather than placing an emphasis on individualized achievement of warrior prowess, and showing heroic models that could be used for status representation and self-promotion. Therefore, the numbers above are indeed indicative of the ideological differences between Ruvo and Metaponto.

50 Silvestrelli, F. (2014), p. 110.

A sixth century warrior semichamber tomb of Ruvo, which

has previously been mentioned in brief (SRuv. 23), boasts an

incredible collection of armor and intricate ceramic and non-

ceramic finds. In total, there are six Corinthian style helmets, one

south Italic helmet, four pairs of greaves, one pair of foot guards,

three prosternidia (equine chest plate, Fig. 21), two pairs of

prometopidia (equine nose plate, Fig. 22), a sphinx figurine, and

many figured vessels.

Figure 19: (SRuv. 23) Bronze Corinthian style helmet. The Corinthian helmet was discovered with other pieces (Montanaro, p. 455)

of armor that indicate the wealth and success of the deceased warrior (Fig. 19, SRuv. 23).51 An interesting inclusion is the south Italic helmet with a structural style much different than the Corinthian examples (Fig. 20, SRuv. 23). The eye spaces are rounded and more open with a smaller nose guard, resulting in a heart-shaped appearance. The topmost area of the head is molded to look like a pilos style helmet. Furthermore, two sets of bronze greaves are decorated with a gorgon at the knee and the metal has been shaped to mimick musculature. Several parts of horse armor reveal that the male was a cavalryman, which was an aristocratic position in his community. Figure 20: (SRuv. 23) Bronze south Italian style helmet, Calcidese (Montanaro, p. 457)

51 Montanaro, A. (2007), p. 452-3.

Figure 21: (SRuv. 23), Prosternidion (for chest of horse) with gorgon face. Bronze (Montanaro, p. 459)

According to Athenaeus’ Deipnosophistae, the Iapygians valued self promotion and luxuries, which was far from the egalitarian Greek neighbors. It is also important to bear in mind that this description may have been influenced by a certain level of bias or even elitism, as seen from a

Greek polis:

Ἰαπύγων τε αὖ τὸ γένος ἐκ Κρήτης ὄντων κατὰ Γλαύκου ζήτησιν ἀφικοµένων καὶ κατοικησάντων, οἱ µετὰ τούτους λήθην λαβόντες τῆς Κρητῶν περὶ τὸν βίον εὐκοσµίας εἰς τοῦτο τρυφῆς, εἶθ᾽ ὕστερον ὕβρεως ἦλθον ὥστε πρῶτοι τὸ πρόσωπον ἐντριψάµενοι καὶ προκόµια περιθετά λαβόντες στολὰς µὲν ἀνθινὰς φορῆσαι, τὸ δὲ ἐργάσασθαι καὶ πονεῖν αἴσχιον νοµίσαι. καὶ τοὺς µὲν πολλοὺς αὐτῶν καλλίονας τὰς οἰκίας ποιῆσαι τῶν ἱερῶν (Ath. XII. 522F-523B).

So, again, the Iapygians. They were natives of Crete who had come to look for Glaucus and settled there; but their successors, forgetting the Cretan discipline of life, went so far in luxury, and then later in arrogance, that they became the first to rub cosmetics on their faces and assume false fronts attached to their hair; and while they wore gaily colored robes, they regarded working and toiling at a trade as too disgraceful. Most of them made their houses more beautiful than the temples…52

From the aforementioned warrior tomb, three figured vessels depict

Herakles in various stages of his life. The first, and most impressive, is a large black- figure column krater attributed to the Lysippides Painter. The scene on side A is the apotheosis of Herakles. He drives a chariot and is wearing his iconic lion skin. Figure 22: (SRuv. 23) Prometopidion (for face of horse), bronze (Montanaro, p. 461) 52 Lombardo, M. (2014), p. 62.

An unidentified standing woman follows him, while Athena leads. Her helmet and chiton have been painted in remarkable detail. At the very far right, Hera engages with Zeus who is bearded, wearing a chiton, and holding a scepter. The scene on side B includes a series of warriors in combat. Two of these figures are holding shields and attack a crouching man in the center.

Along the rim of the vase, there is a fine ivy leaf motif. Another vessel is a black-figure hydria by the Theseus Painter, which dates to the 6th century B.C. On the front, Herakles duels with

Apollo. Again, Herakles sports his lion skin and Apollo has

bound hair. A series of warriors in battle adorn the shoulders of

the vase. Clearly, the myths of Herakles in this context were a

symbol of heroic status for a great warrior chieftain, who, like

the Greek hero, had proved himself worthy of immortality

through his triumphs. Figure 23: (SRuv. 23) Skyphos with Herakles and the satyr thief (Montanaro, p. 472) A lighter take on the figure of Herakles is seen on the last vase from this tomb is a black-figure skyphos, which is also attributed to the Theseus Painter

(SRuv. 23, Fig. 23). The scene on side A shows Herakles reclining on a kline, turning his attention to the right while a bearded satyr attempts to steal his quiver. Written in white paint vertically near Herakles’ face is the word, “kalos.” On side B, Herakles catches the satyr in his furtive act and wields his club over the cowering thief. This image is somewhat comedic and a likely interpretation is that the hero, in addition to his physical might, is too shrewd to be the victim of deceit. Furthermore, this theft theme is on a proto-Apulian krater from a fifth century sarcophagus tomb (SRuv. 83). Side A shows the satirical drama scene, derived from a comedy with Xanthias the servant escaping with sweets. The scene on side B is of Herakles holding the world globe on his shoulders, while the satyrs steal his quiver and club. Together with this vase,

the objects deposited in this tomb include a bronze belt, spear tips, and

javelins, demonstrating the warrior status of the deceased male.

A unique non-ceramic find from the illustrious semichamber tomb

(SRuv. 23, Fig. 24) further emphasizes the importance of Herakles to the

deceased individual. It is a small, silver, pair of plates soldered together

and shaped into the likeness of Herakles. Only measuring 6.2cm in height

Figure 24: (SRuv. 23) and 5.8cm in length, the amount of detail of the facial features is Herakles head, silver (Montanaro, p. 468) remarkable. The beard has small stipples to indicate facial hair, the eyes, nose and mouth are in relief, and the trademark lion head is included. There is a small hole in the base of the object, suggesting its use as a scepter ornament. The stick was likely composed of an organic material, explaining its absence.53

Finally, the ninth labor of Herakles is featured on a red-figure hydria from a fifth century semichamber tomb (SRuv. 40, Fig. 25). No human remains were found, however, the funerary deposits indicate that the buried individual was likely a wealthy warrior.

Figure 25: (SRuv. 40) Herakles and Hippolyta, hydria (Montanaro, p. 616)

53 Montanaro, A. (2007), p. 468.

The non-ceramic finds include a gold necklace, an intricate fibula, armor, an Apulian-

Corinthian style helmet, a sword, and other small ornaments. On the shoulder of the figured hydria attributed to the Amykos Painter, the beardless and youthful Herakles is seated in a relaxed posture as Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons, presents him with a girdle. A semi-nude companion holds a spear and stands behind him, while other Amazons surround their queen.

According to Apollonius Rhodius’ Argonautika, who gives the most detailed version of the myth,

Herakles was ordered to obtain the girdle for Admeta, daughter of King Eurystheus (Ap. Rhod.

2. 777). This episode on the vase suggests a peaceful interaction between Herakles and

Hippolyta, to such a degree that she simply forfeits her girdle without a contest. However, the symbolism behind the gesture is far more complex. The loosening of the women’s belt in the presence of a male figure, according to Plutarch, is sexual and nuptial in nature:

ὁ δὲ νυµφίος οὐ µεθύων Οὐδὲ θρυπτόµενος, ἀλλὰ νήφων, ὥσπερ ἀεί, δεδειπνηκὼς ἐν τοῖς φιδιτίοις, παρεισελθὼν ἔλυε τὴν ζώνην καὶ µετήνεγκεν ἀράµενος ἐπὶ τὴν κλίνην (Plut. Lyc. 15.3)54

The groom, who was not to be drunk neither enfeebled, but sober as usual, after having lunch at the common table, entered the room, loosened the belt of the bride and carried her in his arms on the bed.55

Furthermore, M. Giuman (2002) states a worthwhile claim that Herakles, the embodiment of masculine fortitude “is ideal in terms of correcting the curious and dangerous role reversal of the social cosmos that these female warriors represent…the task of Herakles is to tame these female rebels, to domesticate, and to bring them back within those limits which was right.”56 The heroism of Herakles, then, is exaggerated as a result of defeating the Amazons both in battle and in the social realm. Moreover, the Hippolyta scene reveals that the presence of women is

54 Perrin, B., trans. (1914) 55 Ibid. 56 Giuman, M. (2002), p. 235.

essential in the acknowledgment of a hero. The lower register of the vessel features a series of

Maenads and satyrs with Dionysos and Arianna. In addition to representing the deceased as a victor at war, the Herakles and Hippolyta scene alludes to his ability to conquer a wife and continue the family lineage. While the warriors mentioned in the previous chapter use generic images of young males and females, this elite warrior identifies himself with the glory of

Herakles.

The Peucetian admiration for Greek epic heroes is certainly not limited to Herakles. A number of warrior tombs from Ruvo contain vessels depicting Theseus, including the tomb mentioned above (SRuv. 40). A fifth century red-figure protoapulian hydria, restored from fragments, portrays a high-energy scene of an Amazonomachy. In the center, two youths transport an Amazon on a quadriga. To the left, Theseus (ΤΕΣΕΥΣ) attacks an Amazon, who is named (ΑΝΤΙΟΠ...), and another warrior in combat. To the right, a dead warrior lies between two Amazons. A well-crafted vessel with an intense battle scene involving Theseus, a prime hero in Greek epic, is certainly an ideal funerary deposit for a renowned warrior of Ruvo.

Furthermore, the hero was of significant importance to Athens, thus linking Ruvo to the Attic city. In fact, Thucydides refers to “the old treaty of friendship was renewed with Artas, potentate of the Messapians,57 who contributed the javelineers to the Athenian expedition in 413 B.C.”58

This is certainly indicative of the diplomatic relations between the inhabitants of the Apulian coast and Athens.

57 Messapians refer to native inhabitants of Iapygia. 58 Thuc.7.33.3-4, see Small, A. (2014), p. 29; also see Lombardo, M. (2014), p. 60.

Perhaps the most noteworthy tomb in this database is the previously

mentioned semichamber tomb containing an extraordinary collection

of equine armor, helmets, ornaments and a plethora of figured

vessels depicting Greek heroes (SRuv. 23). Various stages of the life

of Achilles on three black-figure lekythoi delineate what it means to

be a warrior: Achilles dragging his defeated rival, Hector, on the

wheels of a chariot, Achilles and King Priam on a kline while the

dead Hector is sprawled on the floor below and Achilles and

Memnon in combat. The first lekythos is a salient example of how a

warrior proves his prowess by subordinating the enemy. The scene Figure 26: (SRuv. 23) Achilles and Memnon in conveys brutality and absolute power, as Achilles flaunts victory by combat (Montanaro, p. 478) affixing Hector’s corpse to the wheel of a chariot. He has not only decided the fate of his foe, but chooses to disrespect the body and display it as a trophy object.

The objectification of Hector is further emphasized on the second lekythos with a scene of

Hector’s body situated beneath the couch on which Achilles reclines. King Priam indicates the celebratory nature of this episode, as he approaches Achilles with open arms. Featured on the third lekythos are two warriors, Achilles and Memnon, who are armed with helmets, greaves, a short sword and shield (SRuv. 23, Fig. 26). These two combatants direct their spears in preparation for deathly blows while women, identified as Thetis and Eos, on either side flee from the conflict. The inclusion of three episodes of the saga of Achilles is certainly no coincidence because he is an exemplary warrior-hero and role model for Greek and Peucetian aristocrats alike.

A journey requiring the resilience to face a multitude of seemingly impossible challenges including monsters, the will of the gods, and strange lands is the ideal platform for a man to become a true hero. Therefore, it is no surprise that episodes from early versions of the story about the Argonauts are portrayed on the monumental volute kraters from the warrior tombs of

Ruvo. From the affluent fifth-century warrior tomb (SRuv. 40, Fig. 27) is a large volute krater, divided into three scene registers. The decoration of the vessel is attributed to the Sisyphus

Painter and the quality of craftsmanship is indicative of high-ranking purpose. Around the neck, a series of Eros figures interact with each other and Aphrodite, who is seated in the center.

Figure 27: (SRuv. 40) The Argonauts on upper and lower registers, volute krater (Montanaro, p. 612)

The upper register consists of seminude youths standing together with their lances. Inscriptions identify these young men as Laertes, Anticleia and Sisyphus. The lower register depicts Jason in conflict with the dragon of Colchis while he grabs the Golden Fleece.

Behind him, Medea stands with her open box of spells, which aid Jason by lulling the dragon to sleep. Apollonius Rhodius illustrates this event in great detail:

So at that time did that monster roll his countless coils covered with hard dry scales. And as he writhed, the maiden came before his eyes, with sweet voice calling to her aid sleep, highest of gods, to charm the monster; and she cried to the queen of the underworld, the night-wanderer, to be propitious to her enterprise. And Aeson's son followed in fear, but the serpent, already charmed by her song, was relaxing the long ridge of his giant spine, and lengthening out his myriad coils, like a dark wave, dumb and noiseless, rolling over a sluggish sea; but still he raised aloft his grisly head, eager to enclose them both in his murderous jaws. But she with a newly cut spray of juniper, dipping and drawing untempered charms from her mystic brew, sprinkled his eyes, while she chanted her song; and all around the potent scent of the charm cast sleep; and on the very spot he let his jaw sink down; and far behind through the wood with its many trees were those countless coils stretched out. Hereupon Jason snatched the golden fleece from the oak, at the maiden bidding; and she, standing firm, smeared with the charm the monster's head, till Jason himself bade her turn back towards their ship, and she left the grove of Ares, dusky with shade. And as a maiden catches on her finely wrought robe the gleam of the moon at the full, as it rises above her high-roofed chamber; and her heart rejoices as she beholds the fair ray; so at that time did Jason uplift the mighty fleece in his hands; and from the shimmering of the flocks of wool there settled on his fair cheeks and brow a red flush like a flame. And great as is the hide of a yearling ox or stag, which huntsmen call a brocket, so great in extent was the fleece all golden above. Heavy it was, thickly clustered with flocks; and as he moved along, even beneath his feet the sheen rose up from the earth. And he strode on now with the fleece covering his left shoulder from the height of his neck to his feet, and now again he gathered it up in his hands…(Ap. Rhod. 4. 143-181).59

An accurate portrayal of this epic tale is a significant indicator that the native inhabitants of

Ruvo were knowledgeable of this Greek literature, thus enabling them to interpret the scene and appreciate its context.

The next vessel comes from a fourth century semichamber tomb and it also features this episode from the Argonautic expedition (SRuv. 45). On side A, there is an Amazonomachy and a series of figures above, including Athena, Achilles seated on a couch, Hermes, Nestor,

Anthilochos, Hector, Priam, and Thetis. Side B shows a detailed scene of the dragon, Callas,

59 Seaton, R.C., trans. (1912)

coiled around a tree on which the Golden Fleece hangs. Jason wields his spear at the serpent while his three companions, including Herakles, stand poised for attack. Medea, just as in the previous vessel, stands with her box of leaves and prepares to cast her spell. The leaves are described in the Argonautika as a fresh sprig of juniper (ἀρκεύθοιο…θαλλῷ, 4.156). Unlike the aforementioned warrior tomb with its complete collection of armor (SRuv. 40), there are no non-ceramic finds from SRuv. 45 to confirm that the deceased was a warrior elite. However, the figured vessels feature militaristic motifs such as young warriors in naiskoi, a gigantomachy, an

Amazonomachy, and the Argonauts. Therefore, the iconography and quality of these vessels can be enough to conclude that the buried individual must have been a recognized warrior in his community.

Figure 28: (SRuv. 11) Argonauts fighting the Harpies (Montanaro, p. 337)

Furthermore, a tomb in Contrada Sant’Angelo, dating to the fifth century contains one volute krater and no other ceramic and non-ceramic finds (SRuv. 11, Fig. 28). The volute krater

is attributed to the Amykos Painter and depicts a scene of two of the Argonauts, Zetes and

Calais, sons of Boreas, warding off the Harpies (Side A). The episode illustrates the young heroes as the saviors of Phineus from his eternal strife at the hands of Zeus. For years, Zeus punished Phineus by assigning the Harpies to snatch his food every time he tried to eat. At last, the Boreads drove them away and relieved Phineus from the torturous curse (Ap. Rhod. 2. 262-

290). Side B shows the heroic Argonauts resting and interacting with one another.

Perhaps the most captivating find in the Jatta collection, which merits an extensive description, is the Talos vase. The Talos Painter crafted this volute krater in the late 5th century

B.C.60 and it is one of the most impressive examples of the florid style61 having been found at

Ruvo. The newly established antiquities market in the early 1830’s, which was a product of tomb looting in Ruvo, encouraged the Jatta family to avoid the clandestine business and to open a private museum for the purpose of appreciating the archaeological aspect of the treasures.62 In fact, Giovanni Jatta senior financed excavations and the collection was later passed on to his nephew, who organized the finds of the collection into five separate exhibit rooms that have remained viewable to the public to this day.63 Jatta senior discovered the Talos vessel in 1834 in the Sant’Angelo area beneath a series of collapsed tufa tombs, which were similar in construction to SRuv. 11.64 This large red-figure volute krater (SRuv. 112, Fig. 29) gained its name from the remarkably rare depiction of a scene from the Argonautic expedition, when Talos, the bronze giant of Crete, confronts Jason and the Argonauts (Ap.Rhod.4.1638-1694). 65 The artistic

60 Beazley Online Database, Oxford University, Vase number: 217518. 61 Birch, S. (1858), p. 290. 62 Di Palo, F. (1993), p. 11. 63 Di Palo, F. (1993), p. 12-13. 64 Montanaro, A. (2007), p. 108. 65 The Argonautika of Apollonius Rhodius is the clearest version of the earlier stories of Jason’s expeditions, thus it is frequently used as a reference.

elegance of its iconography is indicative of the elevated craftsmanship of the fifth century and boasts a florid style characteristic of many of the red-figure pieces found at the site of Ruvo.

Although the Talos Painter was previously considered to be working out of a local workshop, it is likely that he was working in Attica, and the shipment of such an expensive vessel shows the wealth of the warrior aristocracy in Ruvo.66

Figure 29: (SRuv. 112) Death of Talos with the Dioscuri, Museo Nazionale Jatta 1501 (ARTstor)

66 Di Palo, F. (1987), p. 186.

The scene on Side A is exceptionally fluid and the viewer of this vase can almost feel the movement of each figure in the scene. Featured on the central scene are two youths on horseback flanking the bronze giant as he falls. The young men are Castor and Pollux, who are identified with inscriptions. The scene is a sort of spectacle with an audience: to the left, some of the

Argonauts watch the slaying of Talos from afar while aboard the Argo. On the extreme right,

Poseidon and Amphitrite are seated and observing the Argonauts with their divine gaze. It is possible that the Talos Painter was inclined to include Poseidon and his partner in this scene in order to symbolize his omnipotent presence in the obstacles of the Argonauts while at sea.

As the burly bronze giant descends into the arms of the victorious twins, he looks up at them in a state of defeat, which is characteristic of Greek mythical imagery (SRuv. 112, Fig. 30).

The once intimidating giant has become subordinate to the heroes who are depicted as being taller upon their swift steeds. The horses appear to be strong with every detail of their musculature carefully painted and they look ready to move at the single command of their riders.

Figure 30: (SRuv. 112) Pollux (Polydeukes) and Castor flanking Talos, Jatta 1501 (ARTstor)

To the left, Pollux places his assured gaze over the exhausted giant and holds him firmly.

Although the semi-divine youth is slender in physique, he is well toned and able to bear the weight of the massive Talos. The same ability is noted earlier in the Argonautika when the belligerent King Amykos who was mightier in size challenged Pollux. Subsequently, the quick moving son of Zeus dodged his assailant’s swings and knocked him to the ground with one powerful blow of a fist (Ap. Rhod. 2.67-97). Pollux has a certain refinement to his demeanor. In addition to his curled hair, a crown of olive leaves is a salient indicator of his heroic role here.

The Talos painter depicts the duality of these brothers, for they are both wearing the same decorated garments with elaborate swirl patterns and sport the same long hairstyles. The twins are also shown as beardless which indicates that they are still in their youth during their voyage with Jason. The aesthetic portrayal of the Dioscuri thus contrasts them with the barbaric appearance of entrapped Talos. Unsurprisingly, the buried individual in the grave from which this vase was recovered must have seen the heroic twins as the ideal models of attaining warrior prowess at a young age.

A very interesting aspect of the Talos vase is the use of polychromy, a technique often found in Apulian wares.67 The purpose of the use of yellow and white paint to illustrate Talos was to “distinguish his metal form from those of his fleshy adversaries.”68 He is thus rendered as the barbaric “other,” having been slain by the elegant Greek warrior heroes. As the only figure in white, Talos stands out and the viewer can immediately recognize that he is the foremost character in the scene of this vase. Talos is also mentioned in the Argonautika and is described as being “a stock of bronze…the son of Cronos gave him to Europa to be the warder of Crete…in

67 Herford, M. (1919), p. 107. 68 Robertson, M. (1977), p. 159.

all the rest of his body and limbs was he fashioned of bronze and invulnerable” (Ap. Rhod.

4.1641-1646).69 Although he is described as being invulnerable, this is not the case because he had one flaw that made him extremely assailable. A very thin skin covered a blood-red vein that ran from his ankle straight up to his neck. This vein was “plugged at the ankle by a bronze nail.

Medea drew out the nail, causing his life-blood (ichor) to pour forth and his body to collapse.”70

Medea stands to the left of Pollux as a spectator of the central scene and she is a pivotal figure in the process of subordinating the monstrous Talos (Fig. 31). Like the previously discussed episodes of the serpent in the tree and the Harpies, her magical powers aid the

Argonauts when they arrive at Crete. As Talos throws rocks at the Argo approaching Crete (Ap.

Rhod. 4.1638), Medea shows her confidence by calling out:

‘κέκλυτέ µευ. µούνη γὰρ ὀίοµαι ὔµµι δαµάσσειν ἄνδρα τόν, ὅστις ὅδ᾽ ἐστί, καὶ εἰ παγχάλκεον ἴσχει ὃν δέµας, ὁππότε µή οἱ ἐπ᾽ ἀκάµατος πέλοι αἰών.’ (4.1654-6)71

"Hearken to me. For I deem that I alone can subdue for you that man, whoever he be, even though his frame be of bronze throughout, unless his life too is everlasting. But be ready to keep your ship here beyond the cast of his stones, till he yield the victory to me."72

She states here that she is able to subdue Talos, although he is made out of bronze and also orders the Argonauts to keep their ship away from the reach of his thrown stones until he has yielded to her victory. Medea “with songs did she propitiate and invoke the Death-spirits…thrice she called on Figure 31: (SRuv. 112) Medea and her them with songs…and, shaping her soul to mischief, with potions (Jatta 1501, ARTstor)

69 Seaton, R.C., trans. (1912) 70 Mertens, J. R. (1985), p. 12. 71 Mooney, G. W., ed. (1912) 72 Seaton, R.C., trans. (1912)

her hostile glance she bewitched the eyes of Talos…and she sent forth baneful phantoms in the frenzy of her rage” (Ap.Rhod.4.1659-72).73 After this episode of unsettling black magic, Talos stumbles and scrapes the nail on his ankle against a rock causing it to be loosened. The gaze of

Medea is so potent that she is able to stupefy the goliath bronze Talos. After his nail is knocked out, all of his life fluids gush out and he falls to the ground with a roaring thump

(Ap.Rhod.4.1675-1688). We see here that Medea is indeed a “twilight figure, capable of great good and of great evil, depending upon the ends to which her powers are harnessed.”74 As discussed in the first subsection, she encompasses the importance of a female’s role in the success of a hero and in the recognition of the victory of a young warrior. In the Talos vase scene, Medea watches as the Dioscuri support the fallen body of Talos. She appears to be looking down at them, indicating her power and control over the entire event.

Figure 32: Side B: Castor, Pollux, Nike, Athena, Hera, and Jason, Jatta 1501 (Di Palo, p. 216)

73 Seaton, R.C., trans. (1912). 74 Dyck, A. R. (1989), p. 470.

On side B of the vase (SRuv. 112, Fig. 32), Nike follows Castor and Pollux. As they approach the two goddesses dressed in beautifully flowing peploi. Athena spreads her arm out towards the

Dioscuri. Nike is an important symbol because her presence indicates victory and in this particular case, she represents the fact that Castor and Pollux defeated Talos. The placement of

Athena in this scene and in the Argonautika is especially meaningful, for she “directed the building of the Argo and had apparently been watching the progress of the Argonauts throughout their journey.”75 Castor and Pollux stand before the goddess as heroes and they appear to exhibit a strong sense of accomplishment in their stances. They are almost nude which reveals their agile physiques and are both equipped with long spears. Castor is wearing a petasos over his shoulder, while Pollux has a garment loosely flung over his arm and a sword hanging at his hip. The twins are both crowned with delicate olive leaves, symbolizing their roles as peace- bearing champions. On the right of this scene, Hera greets Jason with a welcoming gaze.

Although Jason is a mortal, he has overcome a plethora of seemingly impossible challenges, which grants him the same heroic status as the semi-divine Dioscuri. The depiction of Hera by the Talos Painter also reflects the “divine structure of the Argonautika, in which Hera, for her own motives, protects Jason on his travels.”76 The deliberate representation of young males with these women in conjunction with the personification of Nike here is similar to the generic scenes previously discussed. Essentially, these females are powerful in that they are able to make the success of these young, heroic males possible.

75 Hunter, R. (1993), p. 86. 76 Fantuzzi, M. (2004), p. 118.

From these examples, it is clear that the imagery of mythological heroes speaks volumes in the context of the warrior tombs at Ruvo. Impressive vessels displaying figures such as

Herakles, the Argonauts, Theseus, Achilles, and the Dioscuri, all with outstanding repertoires of heroic deeds, allowed these deceased warriors to convey a status that was highly elevated. In addition to promoting a lofty self-representation, the figured vessels showed that this warrior aristocracy understood and appreciated Greek literature. The discovery and restoration of the

Ruvo vessels by the Jatta family in the 19th century has provided us with the ability to comprehend the militaristic ideology of Ruvo’s male population. Moreover, the absence of elaborate mythological hero themes on the vessels from Metaponto, as indicated by the numbers at the beginning of this section, is a reminder of how the military played a different role in this

Greek polis. While the chieftains of Ruvo could boast to be a new Achilles or Herakles, the citizens of Metaponto would have contradicted the fundamental principles of their egalitarian society with such claims of self-glorification.

Chapter 4

Classification of themes: Naiskos Monuments

Theme: Naiskoi Ruvo di Puglia Metaponto Number of Number of Vessels Vessels With warrior statue 13 0 With nude youth statue 10 0 With female statue 10 0 With elderly man 4 0 Table 5: Vessel count for Naiskos Monument theme in Ruvo and Metaponto

A naiskos, or small funerary chapel, was commonly used in the Greek cemeteries as a mortuary display of self-promotion. Naiskoi are typically composed of a carved relief in conjunction with architectural features. Like most funerary monuments, naiskoi can vary in size from a small, singular marble slab to an imitation of a temple with many marble components and carved figures.77 This funerary practice was carried out by the Greek poleis of the West, including

Metaponto, and “there is evidence that these rural burials were quite elaborate, as they were marked with naiskoi,78 previously known only in the urban necropolis of Taranto.”79 The absence of vessels depicting naiskoi in Metaponto, as indicated by the numbers above, is the result of the

Metapontine preference for physical grave marker monuments consisting of large vessels or constructions. Conversely, in lieu of ostentatious monuments above ground, the illustrated naiskoi on the figured vessels of Ruvo just as well provided the medium for advertising status.

77 Grossman, J.B. (2001), p. 5-6. 78 Carter, J.C. (2006), p. 109; also see Lippolis, E. (1994) pp. 109-128.

Figure 33: (SRuv. 91) Warrior in naiskos (Montanaro, p. 960)

The most common representation, found on thirteen vases, is that of a naiskos which features a warrior statue as the central figure. The majority of these scenes include a group of four individuals, a pair of men and a pair of women, giving offerings. The first example is a red- figure mascaroon krater from a fourth-century sarcophagus tomb in Ruvo (SRuv. 91, Fig. 33).

Although there are no non-ceramic deposits associated with this burial, the iconography and quality of these vessels are indicative of the individual’s high status. On side A, a polychromatic naiskos is the focal point of the scene. Within the structure, a stately warrior clad in a helmet and armor directs his gaze towards the left. He holds the reins of his horse in one hand, and in the other, a spear. Men and women bring various offerings to the naiskos, consisting of fans, garlands and a phiale. Featured on side B is a large funerary stele, on top of which is placed a large vessel.

The monument is wrapped with decorative ribbons and there is a large kylix at the base. Four figures present eggs, tambourines, palm branches, and ribbons.

Additionally, this tomb yielded a red-figure panathenaic amphora with a similar motif

(SRuv. 91, Fig. 34). A warrior seated within the naiskos frame holds a sheathed sword and wears his cuirass. To his left, there is an alabastron leaning against the wall. Women on either side of the monument bring offerings such as mirrors and ribbons. The scene on side B shows a pair of cloaked men bringing funerary offerings to an elaborately decorated stele.

Figure 34: (SRuv. 91) Warrior in naiskos (Side A), Offerings at stele (Side B). Painter of the Patera, 340-320 B.C. (Montanaro, p. 962)

It is interesting to note that the youth on the right carries a strigil in one hand. This item is significant in terms of symbolism since athletic training was a prelude to the arduous training for war.80 All together, the elements of these scenes make clear that the deceased individual was a high-ranking warrior in his society.

80 Colivicchi, F. (2009) p. 74. See above, p. 8.

Two panathenaic amphorae from a fourth-century

semichamber tomb in Ruvo (SRuv. 45) are worth discussion.

The tomb contains additional deposits such as a bronze

candelabrum, crystal items, along with several red-figure

kraters depicting themes such as the rape of Oreithyia by

Boreas, Orestes pursued by the Furies, a Gigantomachy, an

Amazonomachy, and the Argonauts retrieving the Golden

Fleece. The inclusion of a large amount of martial imagery is

indicative of a warrior burial. The first amphora shows an Figure 35: (SRuv. 45) Horseman in naiskos (Montanaro, p. 657) ornate naiskos containing a statue of a young, nude warrior with his horse (SRuv. 45, Fig. 35). He stands in contrapposto stance with his lance in one hand, and controlling his white steed in the other. A sword is slung over his shoulder and hangs at his left hip. Ionic columns and the richly detailed base of the naiskos result in an aesthetically appealing frame. Two women and two men provide offerings to the deceased male. The polychromatic technique elevates the visual quality of the naiskos, whereby the eye of the viewer is immediately drawn to this central aspect of the scene. A young warrior in conjunction with a horse reveals the importance of a cavalry class in Ruvo. Furthermore, this depiction possibly links him to the Dioscuri, who were heroic horsemen and often Figure 36: Drawing of the stucco decoration on a tomb of the portrayed in the nude (Fig. 36). The second Via Flaminia, Castor and Pollux (Nista, p. 75) amphora features the statue of a young warrior who is armed with a shield, a pair of lances, and a

helmet (SRuv. 45, Fig. 37). There is a plant growing to his right and two circular objects, likely hanging phialai, situated on either side of his head. As in the previous amphora, the architecture of the naiskos here includes a carefully detailed base and ionic columns. In addition, the usual groups of two women and two men are providing offerings to the deceased individual. On side

B, the same pairings give boxes, flowers, and crowns to a richly decorated funerary stele. The large kantharos situated at the base, along with the bounty of offerings suggests that the deceased man was an illustrious individual in his community.

Figure 37: (SRuv. 45) Panathenaic amphora. Warrior in naiskos (Side A) offerings at stele (Side B) (Montanaro, p. 659)

Next, a fourth-century semichamber tomb (SRuv. 53) has a clear context in terms of non-ceramic deposits. These include a bronze helmet, fragments of armor, a bronze cuirass, an

iron grill, and an iron candelabrum. As well, there is a panoply of

ceramic deposits.81 Two red-figure panathenaic amphorae, attributed

to the Patera Painter, feature warrior naiskos imagery similar to those

in the previously discussed tomb. The first amphora shows a seated

nude warrior within a naiskos (SRuv. 53, Fig. 38). He is holding two

spears and a pilos helmet, which is decorated with feathers. Women

on either side present offerings, including ribbons and oinochoai. The

decoration of the naiskos, as usual, is

ornate on the peaks of the pediment

and at the base. On side B, there are

Figure 38: (SRuv. 53) Panathenaic two women at a stele offering a box amphora showing a warrior seated with helmet in one hand, Patera P. (Montanaro, p. 746) and a mirror. Within the naiskos on

the second amphora (SRuv. 53, Fig. 39), a warrior leans one

hand on a shield and grasps a tall spear in the other. A small

shield and sword hang on the wall behind him. Noteworthy is

the costume of this young warrior, which consists of a very short,

decorated tunic with a belt. Many native Apulian warriors are

Figure 39: (SRuv. 53) A Warrior in depicted in this fashion on figured vases (see Fig. 41) and “the native Apulian dress (short tunic and belt), Patera P. (Montanaro, p. commonest item found in male burials is the bronze belt.”82 747)

Another vessel with the image of a naiskos-warrior in native dress comes from a fourth-

century fossa tomb (SRuv. 61, Fig. 40). Again, the warrior sports a very short tunic and holds a

81 These include a mascaroon krater, panathenaic amphorae (2), loutrophoros, oinochoe (6), nestoris, phiale, kantharoi (4), rhyton, skyphoi (4), lebes gamikos, plate, kernos, phiale, and kylix. 82 Small, A. (2014), p. 28.

spear in one hand and the reins of his white horse in the other. Around this naiskos are four figures, which include the typical pairing of two men and two women, all with offerings. On the left, a woman carries a fan and a disk, and below her is a partially nude youth holding a mirror.

On the right, below the female figure, a nude youth with his cloak slung over his back holds a strigil (Side A). The tomb contains an array of funerary deposits and skeletal remains, which verify that the deceased was a male. 83 Among the finds are a belt, a golden patera, daggers, and the fragments of a strigil. The presence of a strigil brings to mind the importance of athleticism in the process of training to become a reputable warrior.

Figure 40: (SRuv. 61) Warrior in naiskos with native attire. Mascaroon krater, Baltimore Painter (Montanaro, p. 807)

From a fourth-century sarcophagus tomb (SRuv. 5), two ornate red-figure mascaroon kraters reveal the importance of naiskos imagery together with the display of warrior status. Although no non-ceramic finds were found that reveal the identity of the deceased, these vessels nevertheless

83 Montanaro, A. (2007), p. 804. The tomb contains two depositions. The remains of the oldest deposition, which were left with only a few bones were piled at the southeast corner of the pit, while the second burial was a warrior. He was deposed following a ritual widely used in the Hellenistic-Roman period: with the supine trunk, upper limbs folded on the chest. Anthropological analysis this individual reveals that this is a male, 1.80 m. tall, who died in old age and was exposed to compressive action of the chest, due to war activities or sports, while the finds were placed along the sides of N and O of the pit.

reflect a reputable male of Ruvo. On side A of the first krater, much like the one from the previously discussed fossa tomb (SRuv. 61, Fig. 40), a stately warrior stands with his horse while framed by the monumental architecture of the naiskos. Unfortunately, the scene is scuffed, but the indigenous costume of the warrior is somewhat visible. He is wearing a feathered pilos helmet, a cuirass, and holds a spear. To the left of the naiskos, a nude male with a ribbon and kantharos, and on the right, a woman provides a crown and an oinochoe. Side B of the vessel features a man and woman bringing offerings such as a mirror, alabastron, situla, and ribbon to a funerary stele.

Figure 41: Apulian red-figure column krater with Apulian warriors wearing local dress, Sisyphus Painter (Carpenter, T.H. 2014, p. 19)

The second krater is magnificently detailed with a variety of swirls and patterns, but more importantly, the main naiskos scene is the focal point (SRuv. 61, Fig. 42). A young warrior, with one foot on a stack of stones, hangs his sword on the wall while leaning the other arm on a shield. In the upper left corner of the naiskos frame, a pilos helmet is situated behind him. As is common with most of these naiskos scenes, the man and woman present offerings to the

Figure 42: (SRuv. 61) Mascaroon krater with young warrior and stele, Patera Painter (Montanaro, p. 253)

deceased, who is represented in the monument. These figures, although repetitive in respect to the warrior-naiskos theme, are essential additions to the imagery because they remind the viewer that the deceased warrior merits continual honor, even after his death.

Perhaps the most impressive collection of warrior-naiskos themed vessels is from a fourth- century warrior tomb (SRuv. 110, Fig. 43). The presence of a cuirass, winged style helmet, pair of greaves, and spear tips in conjunction with the ornate vases confirms that this is indeed the tomb of a high-rank military figure. Two red-figure mascaroon kraters feature scenes of a pair of semi-nude warriors within a naiskos monument. Like the previously discussed mascaroon krater

(See Fig. 42), helmets hang on the wall and the warriors hold their spears and shields.

Additionally, two red-figure amphorae show singular warriors seated within a naiskos. On all four vessels, the naiskoi and the figures are painted in white, which further enhances these meaningful scenes.

Figure 43: (SRuv. 110) Warrior assemblage and figured vessels with warrior-naiskos scenes from Ruvo (Montanaro, p. 1022)

The imagery on a detailed red-figure mascaroon krater from a fourth-century semichamber tomb in Ruvo (SRuv. 19, Fig. 44 and Fig. 45) combines the realm of the

Underworld with the glorification of young warriors, which is fitting for a vessel used as part of a funerary deposit. The scene on side A is divided into upper and lower registers. On the top register, Hades is situated on a chair between Hecate and Hermes. Below is a series of nude warriors, some standing and others seated, with spears, pilos helmets, and shields. Hecate, a chthonic deity, is an essential point of interest here because “she became closely associated with restless souls, such as the spirits of people who had died

Figure 44: (SRuv. 19) Side A: Hades, Hermes Figure 45: (SRuv. 19) Side B: Warrior in and Hecate with warriors. Baltimore P ainter naiskos. Baltimore Painter (Montanaro, p. (Montanaro, p. 408) 408)

violently rather than dying of natural causes.”84 It is no surprise, then, that this goddess is amongst numerous warriors who bravely met their fates on the battlefield. Side B of the vase features a young warrior within a naiskos. He supports a shield in one hand and his spear in the other. Two ribbons are suspended on the upper corners of the wall. Around the naiskos monument, a set of four figures brings offerings. This vessel is undoubtedly a perfect example of the symbiotic relationship between the exaltation of a warrior and the world of the dead.

84 Felton, D. (2007), p. 91.

Furthermore, the recognition of a warrior is emphasized with the

presence of an elderly male figure. For example, the fourth-

century semichamber tomb in Ruvo (SRuv. 44, Fig. 46)

delineates the importance of a youth’s acknowledgment by an

older and respected individual. At the top of the naiskos, there is

a large louterion vessel. Within the monument, the seated old

man with white hair and beard takes the hand of a young warrior.

Figure 46: (SRuv. 44) Warrior and The nude youth stands confidently with a spear and his cloak elderly man in naiskos, Napoli Painter (Montanaro, p. 654) hangs off his shoulder. On the wall, there is a pilos helmet and a

sword. As the two figures make eye contact, there is a sense of emotional interaction and this

specific scene embodies the triumphant return of the young man or accomplishment of his duty

to defend his family.

Within the naiskos scene on a red-figure mascaroon krater

from a fourth-century warrior tomb (SRuv. 9, Fig. 47) is a young

male who offers a phiale to a seated elderly man. In the other hand,

the youth carries a strigil, which is the symbol of strengthening

athletic stamina prior to becoming a warrior. As the young man

presents the phiale, he assumes a bowing posture as if to show

respect. Behind him, there is a hanging pilos helmet, possibly to

reveal that he has returned from war. This example strongly Figure 47: (SRuv. 9) Old man and resembles the previously discussed vessel (SRuv. 44, Fig. 46). The youth in naiskos (Montanaro, p. 310)

iconographical message is powerful here, given the fact that these vessels were discovered in the

tombs of wealthy warriors. By including these specific vessels, the deceased inhabitants of Ruvo

relate themselves to the youths in the naiskos who display a salient act of respect. Perhaps the seated men are fathers and it is of great importance for youths to honor the role that these older men played in the process of becoming reputable males in Peucetian society.

Two red-figure panathenaic amphorae from a fourth-century sarcophagus tomb (SRuv.

87) show an interesting rendition of the warrior-naiskos theme. In this case, the statue of the warrior is absent on both vessels. Side A of the first amphora features a white naiskos with ionic columns and a battlement-patterned base (SRuv. 87, Fig. 48). In the center, there is a suspended pilos helmet and a round hoplite-style85 shield. On the left, a nude youth presents a long ribbon and a white alabastron. The woman on the right holds a mirror and a crown. Two cloaked figures with staffs face each other in conversation on side B.

Figure 48: (SRuv. 87) Panathenaic amphora with a shield and helmet in naiskos, Side A and Side B (Montanaro, p. 948)

85 Montanaro, A. (2007), p. 947.

A nearly identical image is portrayed on the second amphora (SRuv. 87, Fig. 49), however there are minor variations. The naiskos monument is narrower in terms of width and the base is adorned with a swirling pattern. The circular shield, an iconic symbol of the warrior, is elevated on a small seat with narrow legs and can replace his physical presence. Like the previous vessel, there is a man and woman with a variety of offerings, each standing amongst plant fronds.

The use of white paint for the structure of the naiskos allows the monument to be the foremost aspect of the image. Despite the fact that there is no figure of a warrior, the inclusion of these martial objects reminds the viewer that the buried individual must have achieved warrior prestige.

Figure 49: (SRuv. 87) Panathenaic amphora, naiskos with shield (Montanaro, p. 949)

After warriors, nude youths are one of the most popular subjects in respect to the naiskos theme on the figured vessels of Ruvo, with a total number of 10 vessels. They are depicted alone,

with dogs or horses, in pairs, with elderly

men, and in the presence of women. The

representation of male nudity in these

cases recalls the discussion of the

importance of the undressed body and its

link to epic heroism in both Greek and

Apulian contexts (See Chapter 2, p. 7-8).

The first examples, featuring solitary nude

youths, are from a fourth-century Figure 50: (SRuv. 9) Shield episema, bronze (Montanaro, p. 331) semichamber tomb in Ruvo (SRuv. 9).

The mortuary deposits are representative of a warrior burial: an Italian-style cuirass, belt, knife, javelin tip, a shield episema in the form of a boar, a shield piece (SRuv. 9,

Fig. 50), and belt hooks. On one red-figure panathenaic amphora from this tomb, the statue of the nude youth sits on his cloak and gestures one arm upwards (SRuv. 9, Fig. 51). The monument in which he is seated is narrow with ionic columns, and a ribbon is sprawled directly over the head of the youth. The image on the other amphora is similar, but is different in that the youth is standing in contrapposto stance and his cloak hangs on his outstretched arm. On both vessels, the naiskos monument is accompanied by the generic pairing of man and woman with offerings.

From another fourth-century semichamber tomb (SRuv. 53) containing a collection of armor, is a red-figure mascaroon krater with an Figure 51: (SRuv. 9) Panathenaic amphora, nude youth in naiskos (Montanaro, p. 312)

ornate scene of two nude youths in a naiskos (SRuv. 53, Fig. 52). The seated figure holds a phiale and a staff, and the other stands with a crown in one hand. Above them, a circular object that is possibly a shield, hangs from the ceiling. It is possible that the inclusion of the phiale and crown is intended to evoke the feeling of a triumphant return. The pairing of the youths is interesting to note and is perhaps a reference to the duality of the Dioscuri, the quintessential youth- heroes.

Figure 52: (SRuv. 53) A pair of nude youths in naiskos surrounded by offerings on a mascaroon krater, Attributed to the New York Group (Montanaro, p. 745)

Additionally, specific animals such as horses and dogs accompany nude youths in naiskoi, which further connects them to heroic imagery. For example, the horse is the symbol of Castor and Pollux (See Fig. 36, p.51), who were renowned trainers and tamers of horses. As well, the

Peucetians valued cavalry, as indicated by the frequency of the horse and warrior combination on figured vessels found at Ruvo in addition to real spurs and horse armor in their tombs. An

amphora without handles, from a fourth-century semichamber tomb,

shows a nude youth with his horse in a naiskos (SRuv. 8, Fig. 53). On side

B, a winged Eros figure sits on a pile of stones and holds a large fan. The

other ceramic deposits, including a lebes gamikos with scenes of women and

Erotes, suggest that this burial is female.86 The inclusion of this boy and

horse imagery links the deceased female to her pivotal role as the wife who

must be earned by a warrior as a result of militaristic success in the

community.

Dogs are frequent companions of young heroes, as exemplified by

the tale of the Calydonian boar hunt, Figure 53: (SRuv. 8) Amphora without which is illustrated on many Attic red handles, boy and horse in naiskos (Montanaro, p. 299) and black-figure vessels (See Fig. 55,

François vase). Two vessels from the tombs of Ruvo reveal the bond between youths and their canines. From a fourth-century chamber tomb (SRuv. 18), an elaborately decorated red-figure mascaroon krater sports a depiction of a semi-nude youth feeding his dog in a naiskos. On either side of the monument, a man and a woman present offerings of branches, crowns, ribbons and an alabastron (SRuv. 18, Fig. 54). The other vessel is a red-figure mascaroon krater from a fourth-century Figure 54: (SRuv. 18) Semi-nude youth with his dog in naiskos, Copenhagen Painter 4223 semichamber tomb (SRuv. 75). Within the naiskos, the young (Montanaro, p. 383)

86 Schreiber, T. (1999), p. 165: A lebes gamikos is a nuptial vessel, used for the sprinkling of water and purification in marital ceremonies as early as the 6th century B.C.

male whose honor is signified by a hanging crown leans forward to feed his dog a bird. The dog eagerly leaps onto his leg to receive the meal. Xenophon, in his Kynegenikos notes the reliability of the Laconian hound in heroic activities such as hunting:

τὸ µὲν εὕρηµα θεῶν, Ἀπόλλωνος καὶ Ἀρτέµιδος, ἄγραι καὶ κύνες: ἔδοσαν δὲ καὶ ἐτίµησαν τούτῳ Χείρωνα διὰ δικαιότητα. [2] ὁ δὲ λαβὼν ἐχάρη τῷ δώρῳ καὶ ἐχρῆτο: καὶ ἐγένοντο αὐτῷ µαθηταὶ κυνηγεσίων τε καὶ ἑτέρων καλῶν Κέφαλος, Ἀσκληπιός, Μειλανίων, Nέστωρ, Ἀµφιάραος, Πηλεύς, Τελαµών, Μελέαγρος, Θησεύς, Ἱππόλυτος, Παλαµήδης, Μενεσθεύς, Ὀδυσσεύς, Διοµήδης, Κάστωρ, Πολυδεύκης, Μαχάων, Ποδαλείριος, Ἀντίλοχος, Αἰνείας, Ἀχιλλεύς, ὧν κατὰ χρόνον ἕκαστος ὑπὸ θεῶν ἐτιµήθη (Xen. Cyn. 1.1-1.2)

Hounds and hunting are the invention of the gods Apollo and Artemis. They gave them, honoring Chiron with them for his righteousness…He had as students of the chase and in other noble pursuits – Cephalus, Asclepius, Meilanion, Nestor, Amphiaraus, Peleus, Telemon, Meleager, Theseus, Hippolytus, Palamedes, Odysseus, Menestheus, Diomedes, Castor, Polydeuces, Machaon, Podaleirius, Antilochus, Aeneas, Achilles, of whom each in his time was honored by the gods (transl., E.C. Marchant).87

In the third chapter, Xenophon delineates the origin of Laconian hounds and their nomenclature, which directly links the breed to the noble Dioscuri:

τὰ δὲ γένη τῶν κυνῶν διττά, αἱ µὲν καστόριαι, αἱ δὲ ἀλωπεκίδες. ἔχουσι δ᾽ αἱ µὲν καστόριαι τὴν ἐπωνυµίαν ταύτην ὅτι Κάστωρ ἡσθεὶς τῷ ἔργῳ µάλιστα αὐτὰς διεφύλαξεν: αἱ δ᾽ ἀλωπεκίδες διότι ἐκ κυνῶν τε καὶ ἀλωπέκων ἐγένοντο: ἐν πολλῷ δὲ χρόνῳ συγκέκραται αὐτῶν ἡ φύσις (Xen. Cyn. 3.1)

There are two kinds of [Laconian] hounds, the Castorians and the Vulpine. The Castorians have their name because Castor paid special attention to the breed, making a hobby out of the business (transl., E.C. Marchant).88

87 Marchant, E.C. and G.W. Bowerstock (1925). 88 Ibid.

Figure 55: Calydonian boar hunt, Dioscuri and hound (far right). Firenze, Museo Archeologico Nazionale (ARTstor)

An exquisitely detailed black-figure volute krater, known as the François Vase (570-560 B.C.) shows the Dioscuri, ΚΑΣΤΟΡ and ΠΟΛΥΔΕΥΚΕΣ, amidst hounds and heroes during the hunt of the Calydonian Boar (Fig. 55). It is no surprise, then, that the illustrious warriors of Ruvo chose to incorporate the imagery of dogs with youths in their mortuary deposits.

The presence of women is also essential in naiskoi scenes on the figured vessels from the tombs of Ruvo, for they embody the nuptial episode in life, which is earned by Peucetian males through displaying martial prowess. Females are depicted on the Ruvo vases with youths, alone, or in groups. The incorporation of women into the naiskos imagery connects them to mortuary context and memory, which are important elements of honoring the life of an individual well after he has passed away. Lastly, Montanaro and R. Taylor claim that when mirrors are depicted with naiskos scenes, there is also a significant reference to Dionysiac rites.89

89 Montanaro, A. (2007), p. 729 and Taylor, R. (2014), p. 102.

On the first set of vessels, the male-female combination

within a naiskos is coupled with nuptial symbols. From a fourth

century sarcophagus tomb in Ruvo (SRuv. 33, Fig. 56) is an

impressive mascaroon krater featuring ornate designs on the

neck, including an array of florid swirl patterns and a youth

accompanied by a flying swan. The scene on the body shows a

grand naiskos that is surrounded by the usual set of figures

providing offerings. Inside the monument is a seated female

holding a box and a standing youth accompanies her. A

plausible interpretation of the scene is that this couple is newly Figure 56: (SRuv. 33) Mascaroon krater with man and woman in naiskos, Ganymede Painter (Montanaro, p. 572) wed and is participating in the practice, epaulia, whereby “gifts were presented to the couple by the bride’s father and other relatives; they were carried in procession to the house, and included items – a wool-basket, pots, furniture, jewelry, fine garments, combs, perfume – which alluded either to the domestic role or to the sexual identity of the new wife.” 90 This recalls the lebes gamikos from Metaponto, which was discussed in Chapter 2 (Fig. 2, see above p. 9).

Furthermore, a lebes gamikos from a fourth-century sarcophagus tomb belonging to a female in Ruvo (SRuv. 6, Fig. 57) bears a Figure 57: (SRuv. 6) Lebes gamikos striking resemblance to the scene on the mascaroon krater (SRuv. with couple and gifts (Montanaro, p. 263)

90 Blundell, S. (1995), p. 123.

33, Fig. 56). It is important to note that this mascaroon krater was discovered in a tomb containing non-ceramic deposits such as fragments of armor and a belt, which possibly indicate that the tomb belongs to a male.

Figure 58: (SRuv. 63) Mascaroon krater with couple in naiskos (Montanaro, p. 824)

Likewise, a fourth-century fossa tomb (SRuv. 63, Fig. 58) includes an elegantly decorated mascaroon krater along with a belt, a javelin, and spear tips. Eros hovers amidst the copious swirls on the neck of the vessel; however, the central scene on the body is the paramount aspect of the imagery. The grandiose naiskos with ionic columns, lofty pediment, and ornately engraved base frames two figures within. A standing nude youth, holding an oinochoe and a wine branch, approaches a seated woman who gracefully holds a large fan and leans her other hand on the

ionic-column stool. On either side of the monument, a woman brings offerings such as mirrors and baskets. The inclusion of a winged Eros figure points to the erotic and nuptial essence of the scene.

The final example of a couple in a naiskos is featured on a red-figure hydria, attributed to the Lycurgus Painter, from a fourth-century semichamber tomb (SRuv. 77, Fig. 59). Unlike the previous two tombs, there are no remains of armor or weaponry. However, the inclusion of several high-quality figured vessels possibly indicates that the individual was wealthy. The naiskos on the body of the hydria is highlighted with the use of white paint. Within the naiskos, the woman stands while she opens a chest and the seated man looks into a mirror. It is interesting to note the interchangeable interaction that both males and females have with objects of the female realm here. R. Taylor suggests that these objects “are virtually ungendered, being nothing more nor less than magical tools of communication with the living and dead,”91 which could be appropriate in respect to the naiskos Figure 59: (SRuv. 77) Hydria with male and episodes. On the other hand, F. Colivicchi (2006) claims female in naiskos. Lycurgus Painter (Montanaro, p. 889) that “the male possession of a mirror is seductive and nuptial in context, similar to the instances in which a young man has a kalathos or a cassette as gifts, for these objects are both a means of seduction and the recognition of the virtues possessed by a bride: the beauty and the ability to arouse desire, to keep an industrious home, and to assume the

91 Taylor, R. (2014), p. 102.

role of the guardian of the oikos.”92 Outside the monument is a set of figures bearing offerings. In terms of the three provided examples, these buried males evidently were proud to display their key role as a husband in addition to holding warrior status.

Furthermore, women can be without their male companions in naiskoi, and this the third most popular naiskos theme in Ruvo. The previously mentioned fossa tomb (SRuv. 63, Fig. 60), in which was found a number of warrior related objects, contained a red-figure panathenaic amphora with a single woman sheltered in the naiskos. This may have been a double burial, given the presence of both male and female motifs or objects, however, there are no human remains to

Figure 60: (SRuv. 63) Woman in naiskos (Side A), female head (Side B) (Montanaro, p. 825) confirm this context. The naiskos female sits on a stout stool with ionic volutes and supports a phiale in one hand. According to H.R. W. Smith, the phiale is a significant object for ritual libations in addition to nuptial ablutions. 93

92 Colivicchi, F. (2006), p. 298. 93 Taylor, R. (2014), p.99 and n. 46.

A very similar depiction of a female with a phiale in a naiskos is illustrated on Side B of a mascaroon krater attributed to the Baltimore Painter. The vessel, which was discovered in a fourth-century sarcophagus tomb (SRuv. 92, Fig. 61), is sumptuously detailed. On side A, warriors and Amazons are engaged in a battle. The small, white naiskos on the neck of the krater is noteworthy. Perhaps the presence of the monument, in which a large hydria is placed, is intended to symbolize the victory of a specific warrior involved in the Amazonomachy or the individual buried in the tomb.

Figure 61: (SRuv. 92) Mascaroon krater, Side A and Side B. Baltimore Painter (Montanaro, p. 965)

Moreover, these examples of women depicted alone in the naiskoi could be celebrating their integral role as the keepers of a house, and more importantly, the prized wives of esteemed chieftains. It is difficult to confirm the identity of the buried individuals in SRuv. 92 because

there are no non-ceramic finds. However, the women and naiskos

symbolism on the vases from this sarcophagus tomb express a powerful

message about status.

The next example is a red-figure loutrophoros (SRuv. 63, Fig.

62). In Greek contexts, the loutrophoros is an “elongated vessel in which

water was brought from a sacred spring for weddings and for funerals

of those who died unwed.”94 For the Apulians, the loutrophoros was

most likely a grave marker with imagery that reflects the feminine

realm. The role that is mostly emphasized on these vases is marriage, Figure 62: (SRuv. 63) Loutrophoros with female in naiskos (Montanaro, p. 826) much like the role of males around militaristic victory. Elegantly curled handles add to the refinement of the vessel, and the depiction of the naiskos fills the entire space of body. In the center of the monument, a woman sits and holds a large basket with a cake. On side B, a winged Eros figure carries a situla and a fan.

Figure 63: (SRuv. 18) Loutrophoros with female in naiskos (Montanaro, p. 388)

94 Easterling, P. and J.V. Muir (eds.) (1985), p. 185.

Another loutrophoros from a fourth-century sarcophagus tomb (SRuv. 18, Fig. 63) also features curled handles. The statue of the woman within the naiskos appears to step forward as she carries a garland in one hand, and a fan in the other. To the right, there is a white lekythos. A man and a woman flank the monument and present a series of offerings, including a crown, a strigil, an olive branch, and a bunch of grapes. The nuptial exchange of gifts between and man and woman is shown on side B of the body.

Moreover, women from mythological episodes can be featured on these loutrophoroi, as illustrated by a red-figure loutrophoros from a fourth-century semichamber tomb in Ruvo

(SRuv. 51), which is attributed to the Darius Painter (340-330

B.C.). A lively scene of the rape of Procne and Philomela at the hands of Tereus spans the entirety of side A of the vessel

(SRuv.51, Fig. 64). In the upper register, Tereus flies overhead on a white horse while the two women are whisked away by charioteers. As discussed in Chapter 2 (p.15), this vessel recalls the depiction of the rape of the Leucippids by the Dioscuri

(SRuv. 42, Fig.6), whereby the theme of erotic pursuit implies an imminent betrothal despite the absence of nuptial ceremony

Figure 64: (SRuv. 51) Rape of Procne or objects. However, the culmination of violence in the Tereus and Philomela by Tereus, Darius Painter 340-330 B.C. (Montanaro, p. and Philomela episode is the result of the clandestine attempt 728) to conceal a wrong couple relationship between a brother and sister-in-law.

In Ovid’s Metamorphoses, the myth is illustrated in a morbid tone. Tereus fixes his gaze on Philomela like an eagle with greedy eyes on its prey (Met. 6.515). The actual rape with “its

delay, its secrecy, its union of brutal violence with defenseless innocence…is told in such a way to emphasize the difference between Tereus’ complete destruction of everybody’s security and his futile attempt to hide the fact.”95 Philomela is a trembling white dove, terrified of the greedy claws of the bird of prey: utque columba suo madefactis sanguine plumis | horret adhuc auidosque timet quibus haeserat ungues (Met. 6. 529-30).96 To add to the grotesque nature of his assault, Tereus severs Philomela’s tongue (Met. 6. 550-55). The glossotomia97 renders her speechless and Tereus is able to surpass her power of expression.98 Such a tragic myth on this vase likely represents this individual’s level of familiarity with Greek tragedy. Carpenter notes that “in just what form a tragedy might have been performed is at present impossible to say, but well documented trade connections with Athens make the suggestion that troupes of Attic actors performed at Ruvo a possibility.”99

On side B of the loutrophoros (SRuv. 51, Fig. 65) there is a female statue looking into a mirror within a slender naiskos, which is surrounded by four figures with offerings. Montanaro makes a fascinating, although not entirely plausible observation of these pictorial elements, which consist of visitors bringing Figure 65: (SRuv. 51) Side B of loutrophoros, Darius Painter garlands of flowers, mirrors, and all types of receptacles. Aside from (Montanaro, p. 728)

95 Otis, B. (1966), p. 212-13. 96 Tarrant, R.J. (2004), p. 171. 97 Otis, B. (1966), p. 213. A word used to describe the act of tongue cutting. 98 Kaufhold, S. (1977), p. 68. 99 Carpenter, T.H. (2014), p. 278.

the nuptial contexts previously discussed in conjunction with naiskos imagery, Montanaro claims the following:

These [objects] clearly refer to the world of Dionysus that has the role of a mystery deity. You will immediately notice that those offering at the tomb are without exception, young figures, both men and women. Obviously, they do not represent the families of the dead, as they do not appear to be parents or small children. They are completely missing expressions of mourning and lamentation for the dead. These individuals fulfill their pitiful service – so it seems – in serenity. It is possible that this is a mystery community whose members feel united by the hope of overcoming the fear of death and the hope of eternal salvation of the soul. This should not be surprising because it is in this period100 that the cult of Dionysos, the Orphic and eschatological beliefs related to it are deeply rooted in the religious ideologies of the indigenous aristocracies.101

Furthermore, according to R. Taylor, “mirrors served as portals through which the dead could be summoned by the living. Indeed, it is known that Dionysiac rites were sometimes performed directly at the tombs of dead members of the thiasos, probably as acts of appeasement, blessing, or purification.”102 Although these are fascinating interpretations, it is not fully clear that this is the case with the specific vases mentioned above. Instead, the symbols simply allude to the betrothal of the women.

Altogether, the many examples of naiskos depictions on the figured vessels of Ruvo reveal the mortuary and social practices of the Apulian natives. Rather than utilizing a physical naiskos structure for means of self-promotion after death like their Greek neighbors in Metaponto, the inhabitants of Ruvo deposited an array of red-figure wares with illustrations of warriors, youths, and women within naiskoi, all of which represented the deceased individuals. The lifelike statues painted in white inside the naiskoi embodied ambitions that the males of Peucetian society thought to be important such as emulating epic heroes, achieving honor in battle, and obtaining a spouse.

100 Montanaro, A. (2007). The period referred to here is the fourth-century B.C., when the loutrophoros was made. 101 Montanaro. A. (2007), pp. 729-730. 102 Taylor, R. (2014), p. 102.

Chapter 5: Conclusion

This final chapter will consist of a brief discussion of the findings in each subsection of themes, including conclusions based on the provided archaeological evidence and arguments. As a result, the differences and similarities between Ruvo and Metaponto regarding the treatment of warrior status in conjunction with mortuary practices will be brought to light. The impressive collections of tomb deposits discovered at Ruvo, namely red-figured vessels and armor sets, have allowed archaeologists and scholars to see into the window of Ruvo’s past despite the scant remnants of written sources on the city. On the contrary, the extensive database comparisons reveal that Metaponto had a collective-minded polis ideology whereby individualized advertisement of warrior-hero status was not coveted.

Considering the close proximity between Ruvo and the Greek city of Metaponto, it is not surprising that the native inhabitants used many items of Greek craftsmanship. The commercial trade between Greek workshop centers in southern Italy was especially prevalent during the late fifth and early fourth centuries,103 and the target customers of elaborate and large red-figure vessels, mostly volute and column kraters, were wealthy Apulian aristocrats. According to

D’Andria (1975), “the discovery of kilns at the Achaean city of Metaponto with fragments of vases by the Amykos, Creusa, and Dolon Painters showed that at least some Early Lucanian

103 Carpenter, T.H. (2003), p. 19.

vases were produced there.”104 Additionally, there was “a substantial increase of imported vases at sites in Peucetia around 475, particularly at Ruvo di Puglia, a native settlement c. 100 km northwest of Taranto.”105 Moreover, these “Attic vases almost certainly came to the settlements in Peucetia directly from Greece through a native port on the Adriatic.”106

Figure 66: Map of Apulia (Carpenter, T.H. (2003), p. 2)

The evidence presented over the last three chapters is congruent with the claim by Gallini in her seminal article on Hellenization that, much like the Japanese in relation to North

America,107 the Romans took only what they wanted from the Greeks. Likewise, the elite native

Apulians of Ruvo associated themselves with chosen aspects of Greek culture out of necessity to assume power in their community, rather than being subject to imposed Hellenization. This selective borrowing is certainly evident when we observe the large number of vases from the

104 D’Andria, F. (1975); also see Carpenter, T.H. (2003), p. 4. 105 Macdonald (1979), p. 144-145; also see Carpenter, T.H. (2003), p. 3 106 Macdonald (1979), p. 155; also see Carpenter, T.H. (2003), p. 3. 107 Gallini, C. (1973), p. 180-181.

tombs of Ruvo with Greek pictorial flavors. It is important to bear in mind that, as nicely put by

T.H. Carpenter, “the imagery in general was also influenced by native tastes. The visual language is Greek, but the nature and frequency of the subjects depicted may well reflect values, attitudes, and beliefs of the native people who obtained them.”108

By placing the iconographical themes on the Ruvo vessels alongside those from the

Greek city of Metaponto, we will see that some similarities arise. Between the two cities, the most popular visual theme is nude youths. While the Greeks and Apulians associated nudity with heroism and athletics, it is important to remember that the depictions on the vases were not a reflection of everyday life. The only example of a nude hero on a vase from Metaponto can be identified as Herakles, given his possession of the iconic knotted club. Nike provides a female presence in the scene, which is essential to the recognition of male triumph. Likewise, there are many pictorial examples of women bestowing offerings to nude youths and heroes on the vessels from Ruvo. Furthermore, when youths are illustrated with women, the context often is nuptial in nature. Several vessels from Metaponto and Ruvo show young men in pursuit of fleeing females, and in both cases, the motif of rape symbolizes imminent betrothal. Even the gods are fueled with erotic desire, and a prime example from Metaponto is a vase showing Zeus running after a frightened woman with upraised arms. The imagery of rape in Ruvo, however, is much more frequent and is portrayed on ostentatious vases. Deities such as Boreas, Apollo, and the Dioscuri are the subjects of these lively pursuit episodes. Additionally, nude youths as athletes are depicted at both sites. Noteworthy is the fact that the only athlete scene from Metaponto has a matrimonial meaning, as indicated by the mirror-strigil combination and the presence of a woman, and some vessels at Ruvo share the same pairing of symbols. Therefore, it appears that

108 Carpenter, T.H. (2003), p. 20.

the two locations had very similar views towards the coming of age of young males and their subsequent wedlock. Those two milestones of their lives are portrayed with the same visual language.

Predominantly, the two sites show their difference in the way that the male role is defined. From a tomb at Ruvo is a vase with a unique image of two athletes carrying strigils and pilos helmets. It is from this example that we can see the deep structural contrasts between Ruvo and Metaponto. The pairing of athletics and warfare was a practice unknown to Greek poleis, where the palaestra was an integral element of a fundamentally egalitarian society. In Ruvo, however, gymnastic exercise was a simple complement to militaristic training. More importantly, the copious instances of warrior-centric themes on the red and black-figure vases emphasize the manners in which the illustrious, aristocratic chieftains of Ruvo wished to be remembered after death. The panoplies of armor deposits in many of the tombs add to the element of prestige in

Apulian mortuary customs. Images of large-scale combats with Amazons, giants, and centaurs adorn volute and mascaroon kraters, which appear to be choice vases for such displays. An exemplary warrior tomb (SRuv.23) contained three vases, which feature key episodes of the life of Herakles including his apotheosis. Achilles, Jason, Theseus, and the Dioscuri were also popular subjects of the figured vessels in other warrior burials. The impressive quality of the monumental vases, some of which were Attic imports, especially the Talos krater, reveals the buying power of this warrior-aristocracy. There is certainly no coincidence in regards to the concentration of hero iconography at Ruvo, and it is likely that these chieftains viewed themselves as a new Achilles and Herakles as a result of their martial prowess. Unlike their

Metapontine neighbors, who used physical naiskos monuments at their graves, both male and female Apulians of Ruvo incorporated naiskos imagery on numerous vases. Furthermore, these

naiskos scenes focus on the commemoration of warriors and on marital episodes between young men and women. From the naiskos motifs at Ruvo, it is clear that the women in Apulian society played a pivotal role as keepers of the household and as wives to their illustrious warrior-spouses.

The definition of status in Ruvo, then, appears to be twofold: the distinguished male of Ruvo must exhibit his ability to be a triumphant warrior-hero, therefore securing the right to become the head of a household and continue his family lineage. Their women also have a very important role, which is demonstrated in the recurrent depictions of heroines and goddesses who serve as guides, protectors, and benefactors of heroes until they achieve success. Thus, the status of males is ultimately dependent on female acclamation. As a whole, the assemblages of figured vessels paint a picture of the unwritten aspects of Apulian life. Although the vessels were not visible once placed within the tombs, they were displayed during elaborate funerary rites and processions for which we have no written records, but can be safely assumed based on archaeological evidence. With these tomb deposits, the inhabitants of Ruvo could construct an idealized mortuary memory by advertising that they reached the pinnacle of heroic likeness, earned a bride, and achieved militaristic excellence.

80 Table 6: Tombs and finds at Ruvo di Puglia

SRuv A (Date) B (Sex) D E (NC finds) F (RF) G (BF Only) H (Themes) J

1 470 B.C. F Sarc Hum, Lebete, Kr.Col. Oin. RF Kr.Col: Theseus, Tomb 1 Trip. Poseidon. 2 490 B.C. M Sarc Helm, Basin, Trip., Kr. Col Kylix RF Kr.Col: Young Tomb 2 -475 Belt, Sp. head, warrior, departure, armor, B.C. Swrd, Kn., Plate woman with shield, Nike. (2) BF Kylix: Dionysos. 3 5th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Vol. None RF Kr.Vol: Abduction of Tomb 4 Thetis by Peleus. 4 4th cent Unknown Sarc Pyx, Skewers, Kr.Masc., None RF Kr.Masc: Female Tomb 8 Candelabra, patera, Amph., Oin., head, Apollo defends Alabastron Patera, Lekanis, Orestes, Furies, Naiskos Olpe, Fish woman and youth. RF Bowl Amph: Stele, youth, strigil, woman. RF Oin: women, harp, xylophone, nude youth. RF Lekanis: youth seated, female heads. RF Lekanis: woman head. RF Olpe: satyr. RF Phia: nude men, women.

5 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Masc. (2), None RF Kr.Masc: naiskos Tomb Amph. (4), warrior, horse, spear, 17-18 Hyd. offerings. Funerary stele, mirror, situlae. RF Kr.Masc: naiskos, warrior, helm., offerings, woman, mirror. Stele, ribbons, youth, woman, bowl. RF Amph: woman, tambourine. RF Amph: woman, stele, mirror, vine, youth, phiale. RF Amph: woman, youth, stele, alabastron. RF Amph: youth, phiale, woman, mirror. RF Hyd: women, stele, crown. 6 4th cent F Sarc None Kr.Col., Amph., None RF Kr.Col: female, two Tomb 21 Hyd., Oin., Sky. youths, spears, crowned. (2), Leb., Phia., RF Amph: Stele, female, Lekanis youth, dish. RF Hyd: Male, female, dish. RF Oin: Dionysos, women, dish. RF Sky: female, tambourine. Stele, nude youth. RF Leb: female, male, dish, wedding. RF Phia: youth, woman, torch, altar. RF Lekanis: woman head, crown. RF Sky: winged youth, female.

7 4th cent F (?) Semi None Kr.Masc., Hyd. None RF Kr.Masc: Naiskos, Tomb 34 (2), Sky. (2), nude males, harp, woman, Situla, Pelike, dish, branch, crown. Leb., Amph., Female, male, dance Pyx, Lekanis movement RF Hyd: stele, (2), Stamnos, three figures. Semi-nude Leky. warrior youth, sword, pair of spears. Young nude male, stick, conversation, tall female. Orestes, Pylades, Electra at tomb of Agamemnon (?). RF Situla: Dionysius, Arianna, woman server, nude male, running rabbit, winged figure. Woman, dish, crown. RF Pelike: Woman, dove, youth, winged woman, swan. Woman seated, semi-nude youth, standing woman, crown. RF Leb: woman, louterion, youth crowned, nude male, chlamys, female, phiale. RF Amph. Youth, chlamys, strigil, female, stele. Cloaked youths. RF Pyx: female heads, bound hear, looking Greek letters: lambda, delta, alpha. RF Lekanis: fragmented. Two youths

and three women. "AY" and "P." RF Hyd: Woman, man, ball. RF Stamnos: Male, mirror, myrtle. Stele, woman. RF Cup: maenad, tambourine grapes, woman, satyr. RF Lekanis: semi-nude woman, himation, phiale, ball game. Eros, myrtle leaves. RF Sky: Eros, white egg, phiale. Woman, box, crown. RF Leky: Woman, cupid figure, grapes, mirror, white crown. Window, flower petals. RF Sky: Woman, mirror, crown. Eros. 8 4th cent F (?) Semi Aphrodite statue Kr.Masc., Lout., Non-fig. (30) RF Kr.Masc: Cassandra, Tomb 35 (2), Candelabra, Leb., Amph. statue. Ajax grips her, TC sphinx, trip. (no handles), attack, sword, Hera, Phia., Hyd., Athena, helmet, spear, Oin. (2), Pelike, Satyr, maenad, Sky. (3), Lek., tambourine, Dionysius Amph. (2) phiale, woman, torch, situlae. RF Lout: Latona, Artemis, Apollo, Hermes, Zeus. Woman, nurse, naiskos woman statue, Niobe, old king, young nude warrior, alabastron, cuirass. 9 women, offerings

RF Leb: Two women interacting, Eros, dove. Woman, Eros, crown. RF Amph: naiskos youth, horse. Eros, fan. RF Phia: Maenad with tambourine, branch, Arianna, crown, oinochoe to Dionysius. Youth in chlamys, branch. RF Phia: Youth, maenad, fan, bucket. Youth, woman, phiale. RF Phia: Woman, chariot, white horses, swan, star. RF Hyd: youth, women, Aphrodite, cupid, young women, men at a louterion. Cupids, mirror, phiale. RF Rhyton: woman, phiale, nude youth, mirror. RF Amph (2): Human heads. RF Oin (2): figures. RF Pelike: Depicting two figures. RF Leky aryballica: two figures. RF Leky: One figure. RF sky: pair of graceful figures. 9 4th cent M Semi Trip., Cuir., Belt, Kr.Masc., RF Kr.Masc: Naiskos old Tomb 29 Javelin tip, Kn., Amph. (2), Oin. man, youth, phiale. spit frags, Sh. (5), Leb., Hyd., Offerings. RF Amph: Piece, belt hooks, Lekanis, Phia., Naiskos youth, woman

ring Fish plate, offerings. RF Oin: Kantharos (2), woman, dish, Eros, fan. Kernos, Sky. RF Hyd: naiskos. RF Lekanis: Eros, dishes. RF Leb: Eros, female. RF Oin: Woman, Eros, youth. RF Kantharos: Dionysos, chlamys, alabastron. RF Kernos: Female head. RF Oin: Woman, Eros, dish. RF Sky: Woman, box, nude male, altar. RF Sky: Woman, offerings. RF Sky: Woman, crown, offerings. RF Lekanis: woman head. 10 5th cent Unknown Foss None None Kylix, Oin. BF Kylix: Men horseback Tomb 41 (2), warriors (2), shield. (2) BF Oin: Herakles, Nemean Lion. RF Oin: Warrior, helmet, old man, spears. 11 5th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Vol. None RF Kr.Vol: Argonauts, Tomb 43 woman, helmet, Harpies, Dioscuri (?) 12 5th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Vol. None RF Kr.Vol: Orestes, Tomb 44 Furies, Apollo sanctuary 13 5th cent M Sarc Helm. (Apulian- Kr.Vol., Amph. None RF Kr.Vol: Satyr, woman, Tomb 45 Corinthian) (2), Oin., dance, youth. RF Amph: Kantharos, Sky. Youth, woman, pursuit. (2), Askos (2) RF Amph: Eros, youth,

woman, strigil. RF Oin: Satyr, woman, pursuit. RF Kantharos: Youth, mirror. RF Sky: Woman, ribbon. RF Askos: Youth, dance, Silenus. RF Askos: Owls. RF Askos: Dog. 14 5th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Calyx None RF Kr.Calyx: Hermes, Tomb 46 Argos, Io, Zeus, Hera, Erotes, Satyrs, Rabbit. Athletes. 15 5th cent Unknown Foss None Rhyton (2) None RF Rhyton: Nike. RF Tomb 47 Rhyton: Satyr, Maenad, torch. 16 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Leky., Oin., None RF Leky: Nude figure Tomb 54 Amph., Hyd., winged, box, stele, woman, Lekanis, crown. RF Oin: Women, Kantharos, Plate phiale, lekythos, mirror. RF Plate: Woman, phiale, mirror. RF Amph: Male, thyrsus, box. Female head, bound hair. RF Hyd: Nude youth, box, thyrsus. RF Lekanis: woman head. RF Kantharos: Nude youth, female figure, mirror, xylophone. Woman, thyrsus, grapes. 17 4th cent Unknown Semi Iron squares, Trip., Kr.Vol., Hyd., None RF Kr.Vol: Orestes, Tomb 55 Lamp, guttus, Leky. (4) Situla, Plyades, Iphigenia at Glass Lout., Kr.Kylix, Tauris, temple. Nude men, Phia., Pelike, strigil, staff. RF Hyd:

Oin., Fish plate Women, youths, stele, offerings. RF Leky: Herakles, garden of Hesperides. RF Situla: Theft, horses of Rhesus, Ulysses with pileus, Diomedes, Thracian warriors. RF Lout: Dionysos, Arianna, Satyr, woman, flute, harp. Amazonomachy, warriors. RF Kylix: Iphigenia, message delivery to Orestes, Artemis, Apollo. RF Leky: Two athletes, strigil, swan. RF Phiale: Youth, women, mirrors, Eros, bath. Women, box, male, mirror. RF Phia: Woman, youth, Nike, box, fan. RF Phia: Woman, altar, mirror, dish. RF Pelike: Woman, Eros, mirror. RF Oin: Satyrs, youth, woman. RF Sky: Olive leaves. RF Leky: Woman, box, dance. RF Leky: Woman, youth, phiale, strigil. RF Kylix: Lion. RF Fish Plate: 3 Fish in center.

18 4th cent Unknown Cham Colorless mortar Kr. Masc., None RF Kr.Masc: Naiskos Tomb 56 Amph. (2), youth and dog. Stele, Lout., Oin. (5), offerings. RF Amph: Leky. (2), Naiskos nude youth. RF Lekanis (2), Amph: Naiskos nude Pyx, Askos, youth holding vessel. Stele. Phia., Sky. (3), RF Lout: Naiskos woman, Leb., Fish plate lekythos, flowers. Offerings, youths. RF Oin: woman head. RF: Oin: woman profile. RF Oin: Woman, mirror, Eros, tambourine, xylophone. RF Oin: Woman, phiale, Eros, bucket, laurel branch. RF Leky: Woman profile (3). RF Leky: Seated woman. RF Pyx: Woman profile. RF Alabastron: women bound hair. RF Oin: Woman bound hair. RF Fish plate: 2 fish, squid. RF Askos: Eros, mirror. RF Phia: Woman, crown, Eros, mirror, phiale. RF Sky (3): Woman profile. RF Leb: Woman and Eros. 19 4th cent Unknown Semi Aphrodite statue Kr.Masc., Lout., None RF Kr.Masc: Hecate, Tomb 57 Epichysis, Oin. Hades, warriors. Naiskos, (3), Leky. (2), offerings. RF Lout:

Kantharos Naiskos, woman with swan. Offerings. RF Epichysis: Woman face. RF Oin: Woman, harp, Eros, Nike, woman, mirror, phiale. RF Oin: Youth, chlamys, crown, woman, box, myrtle crown. RF Leky: Woman, ornaments. RF Leky: Youth, woman, mirror, crown. RF Kantharos: Woman, grapes, crown. 20 4th cent Unknown Semi None Fish plate None RF Fish Plate: 5 fish, Tomb 59 shrimp, clam. 21 4th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Calyx None RF Kr. Calyx: Myth of Tomb 98 Parthenopeus. 22 5th cent Unknown Foss None None Sky. Cup (2) BF Cup Sky: Sphinx, lion. Tomb BF Cup Sky: Quadriga. 102 23 6th cent M Semi Helm. (7), Grvs. None Kr.Col., BF Kr.Col: Apotheosis of Tomb (4), Foot guards, Hyd., Sky. Herakles. Warriors in 103 prosternidion (3), (2), Leky. battle. BF Hyd: Herakles, prometopidia (2), (3), Kylix (9) Apollo duel. BF Sky: Scepter (Herakles), Herakles, satyr thief. BF Sphinx statue, Sky: Warriors, bird, tumulus. BF Leky: Achilles, Priam, dead Hector. BF Leky: Achilles, Hector dead, chariot. BF Leky: Achilles, Memnon, combat. BF Kylikes (9): Deer, felines,

fowl, centaur, sphinxes, warriors, chariot, “eye” pattern, Harpies, horsemen, Gorgon, Old man, horse. 24 5th cent Unknown Sarc None None Oin., Sky. BF Oin: Woman profile, Tomb Cup altar, fire. BF Cup Sky: 108 Quadriga, woman, man, lyre. 25 480B.C. F (?) Semi Gold necklace (4), Oin., Kr.Col., None RF Oin: Woman, fleeing. Tomb -470 fibulae Leky., Askos, RF Kr.Col: Symposium. 110 B.C. Kr.Vol., White Ground Leky: Kantharos (6), Youth, staff, lyre, Hyd., Kylix alabastron, strigil. RF Leky: Woman, nude youths, strigil, branch. RF Leky: Women, nude youth, spear. RF Askos: Cats. RF Kr.Vol: Theatrical, Dionysos, thyrsus, women, Eros, kline, Herakles, other youths, costumes, Satyrs, Maenads. RF Kantharos (6): youth, satyr, women. RF Hyd: Oreithyia, Boreas, youths, spears, women. RF Kylix: Eros, woman, pursuit. Nike, athlete, strigil. 26 4th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Masc., None RF Kr.Masc: Oriental Tomb Pelike, Phia., warrior, horseman, 111

Amph. Achilles, Hector’s corpse, woman, box, wreath, naiskos with nude warrior. Dionysos, dancing, Maenad, satyr. RF Pelike: Athena, helmet, warrior, Helen, Diomedes, Odysseus, fleeing woman, Nike. Aphrodite, Eros, Zeus, Apollo, lyre, Harpy, dog, woman, Marsyas. RF Phia: Nike, Athena, Gorgon head, Perseus. RF Amph: Stele, offerings, youth, woman, warrior. 27 5th cent M Semi Pileus helm., Belt, Kr. Col. Leky. RF Kr.Col: Warrior, Tomb Swrd. woman, pursuit (Helen, 112 Menelaus). BF Leky: Charioteer, warriors, “Ilios.” 28 5th cent M (?) Semi Necklace Hyd., Kr.Vol. None RF Hyd: Centauromachy, Tomb Lapiths, warrior, 113 Dionysiac retinue. RF Kr.Vol: Amazonomachy, Peleus, Thetis, Youths, women, pursuit. 29 5th cent M Semi Prosternidion, Kr.Bell None RF Kr.Bell: Pharmakos Tomb Swrd., Helm. ritual. 114 30 4th cent Unknown Semi None Kr. Vol., Kr.Col. RF Kr.Vol: Persians, boar Tomb Kr.Col. (3), hunt, horsemen. RF 116 Hyd. (3), Sky., Kr.Col: Ariadne, Leky. (5), Dionysos, leopard.

Stamnos (2), Centauromachy, warriors. Amph. RF Kr.Col: Nike, chariot. RF Hyd: Leto, Apollo, laurel branch, phiale. Artemis, bow, quiver. RF Sky: Eros, woman, pursuit. RF Leky: Mirror, woman, kalathos. RF Leky: Nike, cithara. RF Stamnos: Woman, nude youths, strigil. RF Stamnos: Warriors, departure, women, phiale. RF Hyd: Dionysos, Maenads, tympanon. RF Hyd: Woman, long branch, nude youth. RF Leky: Woman, sprig. RF Amph: Athlete, draped man. RF Kylix: Eros, youth, pursuit. RF Kylix: Athletes, javelins. BF Kr.Col: Hermes, Athena, Dionysos, youth, woman, chariot, Ariadne, Satyrs, Hermes. RF Kr.Col: Athletes, stele. White ground Leky: Nike, wreath. White ground Leky: youth, staff, wreath RF Kylix: Nude athlete.

31 5th-4th M Sarc Tweezers, Fibula, Kr.Col., Kr. (2), Kylix RF Kr.Col: Woman in Tomb sp. Heads (2), belt chariot, Nike. RF Kr: 117 cent (2), Helm. (2) Hermes, woman, satyr. BF Kylix: Return of Hephaestus from Olympus RF Kr: Warrior, Nike 32 5th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Vol. None RF Kr.Vol: Dionysos, Tomb party. 123 33 4th cent M Sarc Armor frags, lamp, Kr.Masc., None RF Kr.Masc: Naiskos two Tomb belt, trip., Situla, Fish youths, box, offerings, 127 candelabra Plate, Lout., warrior, spear, pilos. RF Kantharos (2), Situla: Dionysos, kline, Oin. (2), Kylix woman, swan, Eros, (2), Phia. phiale. RF Lout: Naiskos woman. RF Oin: Eros, woman, ribbon, box. RF Kantharos (2): Eros, mirror, box, vine. RF Kylix (2): Eros, Dionysiac symbols. RF Phia: Eros, mirror, crown, torch. 34 4th cent Unknown Sarc None None Rhyton (2) RF Rhyton (2): Nude Tomb youths, Bacchae. 128 35 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Col. None RF Kr.Col. Warriors, Tomb women, wreath, nectar, 130 spears 36 4th cent Unknown Sarc Statues: Selene, Hyd., None RF Hyd: Woman, nude Tomb Eros, men, Harpy youth, lance, Eros, 131 and horse, alabastron. “Enkelados” man 37 4th cent Unknown Sarc None None Aryballos BF Aryballos: Man attacks Tomb animal with axe, Phrygian 132

cap. 38 4th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Bell None RF Kr.Bell: Dionysiac Tomb scene 138 39 5th cent Unknown Sarc Lamp, mortar Kr.Col. Sky., Kylix, RF Kr.Col: Warrior at Tomb Amph., funerary monument, 147 woman, phiale. Strigil, youth, conversation. BF Kylix: Symposium, kline, youths. 40 5th cent M (?) Semi Gold necklace, Kr.Vol., Hyd. Oin. RF Kr.Vol: Eros, Laertes, Tomb fibula, armor, (2), Amph. (3), Anticleia, Sisyphus, Jason, 148 helm., swrd., Kantharos, Kylix Boreads, Medea, ornaments (3), Kr.Bell, Argonauts, Muses. Askos, Oin. (2), Lapiths, Centaurs. RF Amph. Nolana, Hyd: Herakles, Hippolyta, Rhyton Amazons. RF Hyd: Amazonomachy, warriors, Theseus. RF Amph: Perseus, Bellerophon, Pegasus. Warrior, women. RF Amph: Warriors, women, Eros, pursuit, conversation. RF Kylix (2): Satyrs, symposium. RF Kylix: Youth, lyre. RF Kr.Bell: Warrior, shield, woman, pursuit. RF Amph: woman, youth, ribbon, KALOS, KALE. RF Askos: Satyr, sphinx. RF Oin: Women, deer, bird, Eros. RF Oin: Nude

youth. RF Amph: Theseus, Proscrustes, Maenad. RF Amph: Woman, warrior, helmet, sword, departure. 41 5th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Bell Frags RF Kr.Calyx: Tomb Gigantomachy, Athena, 149 Selene, Satyrs, Dionysos. 42 5th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Vol. None RF Kr.Vol: Rape of Tomb Leucippids, Dioscuri, 150 Athena. Amazonomachy, Herakles. 43 5th cent Unknown Semi None Hyd., Leky., None RF Hyd: Judgment of Tomb Kr.Vol., Amph. Paris, Hermes, Athena, 152 Hera, Eris, Helios, Eutychia. RF Leky: Festival of Adonis. RF Kr.Vol: Woman on quadriga, warrior, Dionysos. Centauromachy. RF Amph: Theft of the Palladion, Odysseus. 44 4th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Masc., None RF Kr.Masc: Underworld, Tomb Hades, Persephone, Nude 153 Amph., Kylix youths. Bellerophon, Pegasus, Athena, warriors. RF Amph: Naiskos old man and warrior, pilos, sword, offerings. Stele, women, youths. RF Kylix: Woman profile.

45 4th cent Unknown Semi Candelabra, crystal Kr.Vol. (4), None RF Kr.Vol: Boreas rape, Tomb items Amph. (2), Oreithyia, Aphrodite. 154 Kr.Masc., Dionysos, youth, woman, Kr.Calyx, Hyd., phiale. RF Amph: Naiskos Kr.Col., Oin. nude warrior, spear and (2) horse, offerings. RF Amph: Naiskos nude warrior, spear, helmet, belt, cloak, phialai, offerings. Stele, offerings, youth, women. RF Kr.Vol: Orestes, Furies, Delphi, Apollo, satyr. RF Kr.Vol: Gigantomachy, Athena, Zeus, quadriga, Nike, Artemis, Herakles. Warriors, serpent on tree, Hypsipyle. RF Kr.Vol: Amazonomachy, Athena, Achilles, Hector, Hermes, Anthilochus, Hector, Priam, Thetis, Eros, warrior. Argonauts, Fleece, Jason, dragon, Medea. RF Kr.Masc: Zeus, Fury, Ixion, wheel, Hephaestus, Apollo, Persephone, Hades. Youths (2) in naiskos, offerings. RF Kr. Calyx: Orestes, Furies.

46 4th cent M Semi Cui., helm., belt, Kr.Masc., Phia., None RF Kr.Masc: Eros, Tomb grvs., episema Sky., Amph. Naiskos old man and 158 (boar), urn, youth, offerings, armor. pendants Naiskos youth, spear, woman, phiale, thyrsus. RF Phia: Women, star, males, satyr, Eros. RF Bell Skyphos: Woman profile. RF Amph: Nude youth, phiale, female, garland, white pillar. Stele, cloaked youths. 47 4th cent M Semi Cui. (Three disk) Amph. (2) None RF Amph: Stele, nude Tomb youth, woman, phiale, 159 warrior, tomba, offerings. RF Amph: Dionysos, Arianna, quadriga, Maenad, satyr, stele, nude youth, woman, coronation of youth, mirror phiale. 48 4th cent M Semi Helm. Pilos, cui. Kr.Masc., Leky. RF Kr.Masc: Orpheus, Tomb (three disk), Amph., Hyd., lyre, women, warriors, star. 160 lantern, urn Phia., Lekanis, Dionysos, thyrsus, satyr, Oin. (2), Kylix, Maenad. RF Amph: Sky., Pelike Warriors, stele, massive krater. RF Hyd: funerary monument, woman, bird, Eros, crown, phiale. RF Phia: Woman, Dionysos, crown, Eros. RF Pelike: Woman, box, crown. RF Lekanis: Dionysos,

kantharos, women, satyrs. RF Oin: Head of Arimasp, griffins. RF Oin: Athlete. BF Leky: Woman, mirror. RF Bell Kylix: Youth, phiale, woman, box. RF Oin: Eros, swan, crown. RF Sky: Warriors, shields, spears, chitoniskos, star. 49 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Bell None RF Kr. Bell: Nude youth, Tomb box, crown. 162 50 4th cent M (?) Cham None Kr.Vol., Amph. None RF Kr.Vol: Helios, Eros, Tomb (3), Dinos Tithonos, kidnapping, 163 Greeks, Persians, combat, warriors, Alexander the Great vs. Darius III Codomanus, rape of Kore by Hades, Hermes, Hecate, Corybantes. RF Amph: Boreas, Oreithya, kidnapping. Greek, Persian combat, Dionysos, Ariadne, woman, mirror, cupid. RF Amph: Rage of Lycurgus, Dionysos, Ariadne. RF Amph: Pan, cupid, quadriga, Laius, Chrysippus, Aphrodite, dog, snake. Dionysos. RF Dinos: Meander, chariot race.

51 4th cent M (?) Semi None Kr.Masc., Lout., None RF Kr.Masc: Nike, Tomb Amph., Hyd., Pelops, Oenomaus, 164 Phia. (2) Hippodamia. Funeral of Archemorus, corpse, Dionysos, Zeus, Nemea personification, Herakles in Garden of Hesperides, Atlas, Nike, Athena. RF Lout: Tereus, bearded, Phrygian cap, nude warriors, Procne, Philomela. Woman in naiskos, fan, offerings, mirrors, crown. RF Amph: Lycurgus, Hypsipyle, Eurydice, youth, women. RF Hyd: Judgment of Paris, Nike. RF Phia: Women, youth, crown, phiale, Eros. RF Phia: death of Pentheus, Silenus, Dionysos, Maenads. 52 4th cent Unknown Semi None Rhyton None RF Rhyton: Jumping deer. Tomb 165 53 4th cent M (?) Semi Helm., armor frags, Kr.Masc., None RF Kr.Masc: Naiskos two Tomb cui., grill, Amph. (2), nude youths, phiale, 166 candelabra Lout., Oin. (6), crown, shield, offerings, Nestoris, women, youths. Eros, Kantharos (4), woman, fan. RF Amph: Rhyton, Sky. Naiskos warrior, feathered (4), Leb., Plate, pilos, spears, offerings, Kernos, Phia., women. Stele, woman,

100

Kylix mirror, box. RF Amph: Naiskos warrior, belt, short chiton, spears, offerings, women. Stele, offerings. RF Lout: Naiskos woman, bird, mirror, loutrophoros. Stele, women. RF Oin: Nude male, women, box, garland. RF Oin: Woman, bunch of grapes, Eros. RF Oin: Woman profile. RF Oin: Woman, box, Eros. RF Oin: Eros, woman, circular object. RF Oin: Woman profile, earrings. RF Nestoris: Nude satyr, woman, fan, branch. RF Phia: Dionysos, thyrsus, nude youth, ribbons. RF Kantharos: Eros, box. Woman profile. RF Rhyton: Hound shape, woman, paterae. RF Kantharos: Eros, round object, box, tambourine, phiale. RF Kantharos: Eros, mirror. Woman, box. RF Kantharos: Eros, phiale, torch. RF Kantharos: Eros, branch, phiale. RF Kantharos:

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Eros, mirror, box, woman. RF Sky: Youth, basket, women. RF Sky: Woman, phiale, nude youth. RF Sky: Woman, mirror, phiale. RF Sky: Woman, box, crown, flower. RF Kylix: Youth, crown, garland, woman heads. RF Leb: Eros, woman, mirror, youth, phiale. RF Plate: Woman profile. 54 4th cent Unknown Semi Crown frags Kr.Masc. None RF Kr.Masc: Jason, bull, Tomb combat, Medea. Amazons, 173 Nereids, Hyakinthos, swan. 55 4th cent Unknown Semi None Fish Plate None RF Fish Plate: Three fish. Tomb 175 56 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Masc., None All red-figure vessels: Tomb Amph., Phia., Woman profile. RF 179 Sky. (3), Oin. Kr.Masc: Naiskos with (2) floral patterns inside. 57 4th cent Unknown Sarc Lantern, casters, Rhyton, Kr., None Various figures, no details Tomb trip., TC dog Lekanis, Oin., provided. 184 Pelike, Sky., Phia. (2) 58 4th cent Unknown Foss None Lout., None Various figures, no details Tomb given. 186 59 4th cent Unknown Sarc Candelabra, trip. Kr.Bell, Phia., None RF Kr.Bell: Satyr, thyrsus, Tomb Head, sp. Tips, Kr.Col. (2), tambourine, cloaked 187 belt (3) Amph. (2), youths. RF Phia: Woman, Hyd., Patera crown, phiale, Eros. RF

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(2), Kr. Col: Warrior, helmet. RF Kr.Col: Bacchic figures. RF Patera (2): Large heads. RF Amph (2): heads. RF Hyd: head. 60 4th cent Unknown Sarc None None None None Tomb 234 61 4th cent M Foss Hum. (warrior), Kr.Masc., Oin., None RF Kr.Masc: Naiskos Tomb belt, patera (2), Kantharos, Sky., warrior, spear, horse, 241 mortar, dagger, Lekanis (2), offerings, women, youths. trip., strigil Plate (2), Stele, offerings, strigil. RF Rhyton Oin: Woman, mirror, Satyr. RF Kantharos: Cupid with mirror, tambourine. RF Skyphos: Woman head. RF Lekanis: Woman head. RF Lekanis: Woman, wreath, phiale. RF Plate: Woman head. RF Rhyton: Cupid, mirror, thymiaterion. 62 4th cent Unknown Sarc Trip. Oin. Leky. BF Leky: Eros standing. Tomb RF Oin: fragmented 254 63 4th cent M (?) Foss Belt, javelin tip, sp. Kr.Masc., None RF Kr.Masc: Eros, Tomb tip, candelabra, Amph., Lout. naiskos woman and youth, 259 trip. offerings, mirror, women. Stele, women, ribbons. RF Amph: Naiskos woman and phiale. RF Lout: Woman head, woman in naiskos with box, Eros.

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64 4th cent Unknown Foss Belt, sp. tip, nail Pelike (2), None RF Pelike: Nude youth, Tomb Kr.Bell fan, laurel, woman profile. 260 RF Pelike: Woman, alabastron, youth, crown. RF Kr.Bell: Three rabdophoroi, cloaked youths. 65 4th cent Unknown Sarc Strigil, metal piece Kr.Calyx, None RF Kr.Calyx: Eros, box, Tomb Amph., Oin., woman, crown. RF Sky: 267 Sky. Woman profile. RF Oin: Youth. RF Lekanis: Eros, phiale, wreath. RF Amph: Woman, youth, ribbon. 66 5th cent M Foss Hum., javelin tip, Leky., Kr.Bell, None RF Leky: Woman, mirror, Tomb kn., kn. blade, Kylix bird. RF Kr.Bell: Pursuit, 280 curved blade youth, women. RF Kylix: Woman profile. 67 4th cent Unknown Unk None Situla, Leky. None RF Situla: Dionysos, Tomb women, satyrs. RF Leky: 281 Athena, Ajax?, warrior. 68 4th cent Unknown Foss None Kr.Bell None RF Kr.Bell: Maenad, Tomb Eros, tambourine. 284 69 4th cent Unknown Foss None Kr.Masc., None RF Kr.Masc: Naiskos Tomb Amph. woman, mirror, offerings. 287 RF Amph: Woman, mirror, jewelry. 70 4th cent M (?) Foss Lance (iron) Kr.Col., Oin., None RF Oin: Eros. Tomb Pelike (?) 299 71 5th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Col., Sky. None RF Kr.Col: Theseus, Tomb (2), Leky. Minotaur, combat, 300 Arianna, King Minos. RF Sky: Satyr. RF Sky:

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Woman, crown, nude youth. RF Leky: Artemis, torches, diadem. 72 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Col., Pelike None RF Kr.Col: Herakles, lion Tomb skin, dove, wreath, 301 Athena, Hermes. RF Pelike: Woman, pillar, phiale, two warriors. 73 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Bell, Pelike, None RF Kr.Bell: Nude youth, Tomb Nestoris crown, woman, box. RF 302 Pelike: Woman, basket, youth. RF Nestoris: Laconian hound, griffin, youths, warrior, woman, lions. 74 4th cent Unknown Foss None Hyd. (2), Oin., None RF Hyd (2): Sacrifice, Tomb Libation vessel, women, crown, vine. RF 317 Patera Oin: Nude woman. RF Pater: Nude youth, sandals. 75 4th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Masc., None RF Kr.Masc: Naiskos Tomb Amph., Rhyton youth, bird, dog, crown, 318 offerings, woman, youth. Stele, offerings, ribbons, box, situla, vine. RF Amph: Stele, ribbons, woman, mirror, situla, alabastron. RF Rhyton: Amazon, griffin. 76 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Sky., Oin., cups None Various figures. Tomb (5) 319

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77 4th cent Unknown Semi None Kr.Masc., None RF Kr.Masc: Eros, Tomb Amph., Aphrodite, Oriental 321 Kr.Calyx, Hyd. warrior (Pelops), Hippodamia, Oenomaus, Myrtilus, Pelagon, sacrifice, Pan, Fury, warrior, quadriga. Naiskos warrior, offerings. RF Amph: Hippodamia, Pelops, Oenomaus, libation, Myrtilus, Eros, phiale, Aphrodite. Youths, women, box. RF Kr.Calyx: Rage of Lycurgus, attack, Apollo, Madness personified, corpse of Dryas, Lyssa, Ares, nymph, Apollo, Hermes. RF Hyd: Naiskos youth with mirror, woman, box. 78 4th cent F Semi Hum. (female), Leb., Kr.Masc., None RF Leb: Eros, mirror, Tomb gold jewelry Kr.Calyx, Leky. crown, woman, nude 322 (5), Oin. (2), youth, ribbon. RF Sky. Cup, Kr.Masc: Judgment of Rhyton (4), Paris, Athena, Hera, Kantharos, Leb., Aphrodite, Pan. Naiskos Nestoris, Fish woman, mirror, mirror. plate RF Kr.Calyx: Pan, syrinx, Hermes, dog, Theseus, Cerberus, Orpheus, Eurydice? Dionysos, woman, Eros. RF Leky:

106

Aphrodite, Apollo, Eros, woman, box, mirror, kalathos. RF Leky: Kalathos, women, dove, youth, mirror, fan. RF Leky: Woman, dove, crown, fan. RF Leky: Woman, myrtle branch, stele. RF Leky: Adonis, Aphrodite, Eros, dove. RF Oin: Pan, Echo, thyrsus, tambourine. RF Oin: Woman, torch, Centaur, crown. RF Cup Sky: Woman, phiale, myrtle, grapes. Woman profile. RF Kantharos (2): Eros, woman. RF Leb: Woman, myrtle branch. RF Nestoris: Male, amphora, serpent, bird. RF Fish Plate: Two fish, squid. 79 4th cent Unknown Foss None Kr.Masc. None RF Kr.Masc: Nude Tomb youths, horses, strigil, 323 departure of Triptolemus, satyr, woman, Dionysos, Maenads. 80 4th cent Unknown Foss None Kr.Masc., None RF Kr.Masc: Naiskos Tomb Kr.Vol., Kr.Bell youth, women, offerings. 324 (2), Kr. Calyx Stele, mirror, woman, youth. RF Kr.Vol: Greeks, Indigenous warriors,

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combat. RF Kr.Bell: Dionysos, Arianna, chariot, strigil, youth. RF Kr.Bell: Zeus, scepter, Herakles eating offerings at temple of Olympian Zeus, youths. RF Kr.Calyx: Thief, punishment, seminude youth. RF Kr.Calyx: Dionysos, woman, kline, satyr, Maenad, youths, ribbon, box. 81 5th cent F (?) Sarc Pendant (5) form Hyd., Kr.Col., None RF Hyd: Pottery Tomb of warrior, satyr, Leky., Sky. workshop, Athena, 325 fibula (4), toiletries, glorification, needle craftsmanship. RF Kr.Col: Dionysos Perikionios, Maenad, flute. RF Leky: Athlete, women. RF Sky: Athlete, strigil. Woman. 82 5th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Col. None RF Kr.Col: Women, Tomb bathing. Youth, bull, 326 louterion, “KALOS.” 83 5th cent M (?) Sarc Belt, sp. tips, Kr.Bell, 28 None RF Kr.Bell: Satirical Tomb javelins, candelabra Apulian vases drama scene, Xanthias 327 (4), skewers including Hyd., servant. Herakles Sky., Pelike, Kr. supporting the globe, Satyr Col., Kr. Masc. thief, quiver. 84 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Masc. (3) None RF Kr.Masc: Athlete Tomb tomb, worship, nude 339 youths, women, offerings.

108

Coronation of warrior. RF Kr.Masc: Theseus, bull of Marathon, combat, youth, petasos. Dionysos, Maenads. RF Kr.Masc: Orpheus, Thracians, Dionysos, satyrs, Maenads. 85 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Vol., Pelike None RF Kr.Vol: Death of Tomb Neoptolemus, temple of 340 Apollo at Delphi, Omphalos, Machaireus, slaughter of Orestes, Apollo. Dionysos, retinue. RF Pelike: Weddings, couple on kline, bird, offerings, Eros. Women and youths, strigil, mirrors, phiale, crown. 86 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Masc. None RF Kr.Masc: Apotheosis Tomb of Herakles, quadriga, 341 Nike, deer, satyr, Dionysos. 87 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Amph. (2) None RF Amph: Naiskos with Tomb pilos helmet and shield (no 342 statue), offerings, youth, woman. RF Amph: Naiskos with shield on table (no statue), youth, woman, offerings. 88 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Hyd. (2) None RF Hyd: Naiskos woman, Tomb box, chiton, offerings. RF 343

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Hyd: Naiskos woman, offerings. 89 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Amph. (2) None RF Amph: Naiskos nude Tomb youth, offerings, strigil, 344 youths. RF Amph: Youths, white stele, phialai. 90 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Amph. (2), None RF Amph: Woman, box, Tomb Pelike, Phia. youth, crown. Stele, 345 youths. RF Amph: Naiskos cloaked man, offerings, phiale, crown. RF Pelike: Woman, youth, dance, flower, tympanon. RF Phia: Woman, Eros, phiale, youth. 91 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Masc., None RF Kr.Masc: Naiskos Tomb Amph. (2) warrior with horse, cuirass, 346 offerings. Stele, women, youths. RF Amph: Naiskos warrior, sword, alabastron, mirror. RF Amph: Naiskos warrior, offerings, women. Stele. 92 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Masc. (2), None RF Kr.Masc: Tomb Amph. Amazonomachy, naiskos 347 woman, mirror, offerings. RF Kr.Masc: Naiskos two women, offerings, youths, women, alabastron, kantharos. RF Amph:

110

Naiskos woman, mirror. 93 4th cent Unknown Sarc None Oin. (2), None RF Oin (2): Woman Tomb Kantharos (2) profile. RF Kantharos (2): 348 Woman profile. 94 4th cent Unknown Sarc None None Amph., BF Kr.Col.“Corinthian- Tomb Kr.Col. imitation”: Griffins, 349 swirls. BF Amph: Dragon, birds, owl, 95 5th cent Unknown Sarc None None Leky., Kylix BF Leky: Bearded man, Tomb two horsemen, Dioscuri? 351 BF Kylix: Horseman, petasos, whip. 96 6th cent Unknown Foss None None Kr.Col. BF Kr.Col: Herakles, Tomb Cerberus, Athena. 352 Warriors, combat. 97 5th cent Unknown Sarc None Kr.Bell Kylix RF Kr.Bell: Apollo, Tomb cithara, Hermes?, 353 Artemis? BF Kylix: Sphinxes, satyrs, Dionysos. 98 5th cent Unknown Sarc None Sky., Askos Kantharos RF Askos: Satyr, ram. RF Tomb Sky: Owl. BF Kantharos: 354 Dolphin/whale? 99 5th cent Unknown Sarc None Kantharos, Oin. None RF Kantharos: Cloaked Tomb youth, Eros. RF Oin. 355 Apollo, laurel, woman, pursuit. 100 4th cent M and F Cass Swrd (2), hilt, kn., Oin. None RF Oin: Youth, woman, Tomb ring, fibula pillar, staff, mirror. 356 101 4th cent Unknown Foss TC horse, TC Rhyton None RF Rhyton: No Tomb woman, colorless description. 357 mortar

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102 4th cent Unknown Foss Ladle None None None Tomb 358 103 4th cent Unknown Foss None Kr.Masc., Phia. None RF Kr.Masc: Naiskos Tomb warrior, helmet, shield, 361 offerings, woman, box. Stele, ribbons, offerings. RF Phia: Dionysos, phiale, woman, box, nude youth, mirror, thyrsus, Eros. 104 4th cent Unknown Foss Spoon, kn., belt, Kr.Bell, Lekanis None RF Kr.Bell: Woman, Tomb sp. tip (2) sandals, ribbon, ivy leaves, 436 Eros, deer. Youths, cloaks. RF Lekanis: Woman profile. 105 Unk Unknown varied None Kr.Col. None RF Kr.Col: Bellerophon, Tomb Pegasus, Chimera 466 106 Unk Unknown Unk None Dinos, patera None RF Dinos: Tomb Centauromachy 467 107 Unk Unknown Unk None Dinos Urn None Tomb 468 108 Unk Unknown Unk None Frags of a vase None RF Frags: Underworld (?) Tomb 470 109 Unk Unknown Unk None Leky. Unguentariu RF Leky: Woman, swan, Tomb “Aryballica” (2) m nude youth. 471 110 4th cent M Unk Cui., helm. Kr.Masc., Pelike None RF Kr.Masc: Warrior, Tomb (winged), grvs., sp. (2) armor. RF Pelike: Youth, 472 tips armor 111 4th cent M Unk Strigil, helm., cui., Frags None None Tomb armor horse, sp. 473 head (32), buttons (41), belt (2)

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112 Unk Unknown Tufa None Kr.Vol. None RF Kr.Vol: Death of None (Fragmented, Talos, Dioscuri, restored) Argonauts, Jason

Table 7: Tombs and finds at Metaponto:

SMet A (Date) B (Sex) D E (NC Finds) F (RF) G (BF Only) H (Themes) J

1 325-330 F Foss Coin, bronze (2) Stamnoid None RF Stamnoid Jar: Tomb B.C. Woman profile, jewelry. 125 2 400-370 Unk Cremation Mirror, fibula Cup None RF Cup: Owls. Tomb B.C. (2), TC frags, 126 TC votive feet 3 530-480 Unk Ceramic Cow skull None Kr. No details. Ceramic B.C. Deposit Deposit 37 4 420-380 F (25- Cappuccina None Pelike None RF Pelike: Woman, fan. Tomb 48 B.C. 30) Offering scene. 5 420-400 Child Foss Hum. Hyd., cup None RF Hyd: Nude youths, Tomb 87 B.C. (2-4) cloak youths. RF Cup: Owls. 6 425-410 Child Foss Hum. Hyd. None RF Hyd: Cloaked youths, Tomb 88 B.C. conversation. (3)

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7 400-370 F? Foss Hum. Leky., Hyd. None RF Hyd: Dolon Painter, Tomb 51 B.C. woman, kantharos, nude youth, marriage, courtship, mirror. RF Leky: Woman, wreath, pillar. 8 325-300 Child Cappuccina Hum. Leky. None RF Leky: Florid designs. Tomb 46 B.C. (5-6) 9 350-330 F Cist Hum., strigil, Kr. None RF Kr: Fragments, no Tomb 43 B.C. ring, wood details. handle 10 470-450 F (20- Sarc Hum., fibula (2) Leky. None RF Leky: Eros, pedestal. Tomb 54 B.C. 25) 11 440-400 Child Foss Hum., fibula (6), Leb. None RF Leb: Woman, mirror, Tomb 95 B.C. (10-14) mirror, mirror, florid patterns. astragalos, TC necklace 12 420-360 M (25- Foss Hum., Pelike None RF Pelike: Eros, woman, Tomb B.C. 30) alabastron, mirror. 106 strigil, belt. 13 430-400 F (20- Foss Hum., tweezers, Leky. None RF Leky: Eros, woman, Tomb B.C. 25) shell. embrace. 136 14 420-380 F (25- Foss Hum., Leky. None RF Leky: Youth, woman? Tomb 69 B.C. 30) alabastron, cosmetic kn., pin. 15 525-500 F Sarc Hum. None Psykter BF Psykter: No details. Tomb B.C. (Adult) 224 16 325-275 F (40- Cappuccina Hum. Kr. (fragment) None RF Kr. (fragment): Tomb B.C. 50) Woman, youth, mirror, 143 edge of naiskos pediment, Underworld Painter?

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17 325-300 Unk Cremation None Bottle None RF Bottle: Woman Tomb 58 B.C. profile. 18 510-500 M (18- Sarc Hum., pin (6), None Leky., BF Leky: Man, horse, Tomb B.C. 22) tweezers, mirror, Pelike. tree. BF Pelike: Man, 292 alabastron, glass bearded, woman, bead. conversation, cup. 19 480-470 F (35- Cist Hum. None Leky. BF Leky: No details. Tomb B.C. 40) 296 20 400-370 Unk Foss Hum., mirror. Pelike None RF Pelike: Woman, Tomb B.C. phiale, nude youth, club, 306 Herakles? 21 400-380 F (25- Cappuccina Hum., fibula (5) Pelike None RF Pelike: Youth, Tomb B.C. 30) woman, stele, offerings. 341 22 400-380 F (25- Cappuccina Hum. Pelike, Sky. None RF Pelike: Nude youth, Tomb B.C 30) woman, pursuit. RF Sky: 219 Owls. 23 470-450 F (30- Cist Hum., handle, Leky. Leky. (2), RF Leky: Eros. BF/WG Tomb B.C. 40) stud (2), boss (5), Leky. White Leky: Charioteer. 196 pin, fibula, nail. ground/black BF/WG Leky: Owl, figure (2). shield, Athena. BF Leky: Cloaked youth, tree. 24 460-420 F (35- Sarc Hum., fibula (5), Leky. Leky. RF Leky: Cloaked youth. Tomb B.C. 45) clamp, tweezers, BF Leky: No details. 218 boss (2), ring, mounting, nail (4), lug (2), eggshell, shell, coffer foot. 25 505-495 F (35- Sarc None None Leky. BF Leky: Nude figure, Tomb B.C. 40) movement (chipped). 137 26 540-300 Unk Ceramic Tack, murex Kr. (Apulian), Kr.Col., BF Kr.Col: Charioteer. Ceramic B.C. Deposit shell. Pelike, frags. Leky., Cup RF Kr (fragmented): Deposit

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fragment (2). Murder of Aigisthos? 8 Sanctuary, bull, youth attacks older man, Pan, woman (Underworld Painter?) 27 400-380 Child Cappuccina Hum., fibula (7), Sky., Bolsal, None RF Leky: Woman, bird. Tomb B.C. (1-2) earring (2). Leky. RF Sky and RF Bolsal: 330 Owls. 28 410-360 F (30- Foss Hum., tack (2). Leky. None RF Leky: Woman, long Tomb B.C. 40) dress. 198 29 500-460 Child Tile Cist Hum. None Leky. BF Leky: Athena fights Tomb B.C. (8-10) Enkelados, men with 130 spears. 30 480-300 Unk Ceramic None Kr.Vol. None RF Kr.Vol.(fragment): Ceramic B.C. Deposit (fragment) Draped figure, kantharos, Deposit Dionysos? 274 31 400-380 F (50- Cappuccina Hum. Leb. (fragment) None RF Leb: Woman, sash, Tomb B.C. 60) wreath, peplos, chair, 110 Creusa Painter? 32 460-380 M (40- Cappuccina Hum., Leky., Sky. None RF Leky: Woman, Tomb B.C. 50) tortoiseshell, outreached arms. RF Sky: 336 lyre, strigil. Woman, youth, phiale. 33 460-440 Unk Cappuccina Hum. Leky. None RF Leky: Woman Tomb B.C. moving to the right. 230 34 460-440 Unk Tile Cist Hum., None Leky. BF Leky: Goddess, Tomb B.C. alabastron, pin. chariot, lyre, bearded 237 male, horse, woman, branches. 35 450-430 Unk Laconian Hum. Leky. None RF Leky: Woman, stele. Tomb B.C. Tile 312 36 480-460 F (20- Sarc Hum. None Leky. BF Leky: Chariot. Tomb B.C. 25) Haemon and Diosphos 339

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Painters? 37 440-400 F (25- Sarc Hum., Leky. None RF Leky: Woman, staff, Tomb B.C. 30) alabastron, fibula chiton. 350 (9), bone object, glass bead, mirror, rings, tweezers, stud (5), stone object, TC bead (4). 38 440-420 F (20- Cist Hum., alabastron Leb. None RF Leb: Eros, hare, Tomb B.C. 25) (2), fibula (8), woman, pursuit. Pisticci 354 mirror, ring, TC Painter. necklace. 39 460-440 Unk Sarc Hum. Leky. None RF Leky: Woman Tomb B.C. profile, chair. 207 40 460-420 Unk Sarc Hum., mirror (2) Leky. (2) None RF Leky: Nike. RF Tomb B.C. Leky: Eros, lyre, tendril, 206 wreath. Berlin Painter. 41 440-400 M (20- Foss Hum., Leky., pelike. None RF Leky: Woman Tomb B.C. 25) alabastron, profile, jewelry, Pisticci- 209 mirror, ring, nail Amykos Workshop. RF (6), ladle, fibula, Pelike: Satyr, Maenad, tack. youths, Silenus, Pisticci Painter. 42 310-275 F (50-x) Cist Hum., coin (2), Stamnoid jar, lid. None RF Stamnoid Jar: Tomb B.C. shell cosmetic Woman profile. 189 container, mirror, strigil. 43 400-390 Child Cappuccina Hum., strigil. Hyd. (Two None RF Hyd. (fragments): Tomb B.C. fragments) Fragment A-Torso of 165 woman, bird, Creusa Painter. Fragment B-

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Torso of warrior or youth, spear, second youth to right. 44 420-370 Unk Cappuccina Hum. Hyd. None RF Hyd: Woman, Eros, Tomb B.C. Mirror. Amykos Painter? 175 45 430-370 Unk Cappuccina Hum. Leky. (fragment) None RF Leky: Woman, arms Tomb B.C. outstretched, peplos, 166 object? Workshop of Pisticci or Amykos Painters. 46 440-430 Child Foss Hum., strigil, None Leky. BF Leky: Ivy leaf, Tomb 7 B.C. (0-1) ring, astragoloi. Beldam Painter? 47 460-440 Adult Sarc Hum. None Leky. BF Leky: Satyr, Tomb B.C. Maenads. 15A 48 440-420 Child Foss Hum., strigil (3), Sky. (2), Hyd. None RF Sky (2): Owls, olive Tomb 12 B.C. (8-12) astragalos (3). branches. RF Hyd: Zeus, woman with raised arms, pursuit. 49 400-360 Child Cappuccina Strigil Sky. None RF Sky: Owl, olive Tomb 19 B.C. leaves. 50 400-360 F (20- Foss Hum., fibula (8) Leky. None RF Leky: Nude youth, Tomb 21 B.C. 25) woman, athlete, strigil, mirror, peplos. 51 435-420 Unk Unk None Pelike, Sky. None RF Pelike: Woman, Tomb 29 B.C. Eros, mirror, Amykos Painter style. RF Sky: Owl, olive branches. 52 Unk Unk Unk None Pelike, Sky. None RF Leky: Woman, Unk kalathos, chair. RF Pelike: Youth, woman, conversation, bird, necklace, stephane.

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53 430-400 F (70-x) Foss Hum. (2 Hyd. None RF Hyd: Seminude Tomb 4 B.C. and M skeletons), youth, woman, pursuit. (50-60) alabastron, pin, Pisticci Painter. ring, bead, glass bead, seashell. 54 440-420 Unk Foss Hum. (child) Hyd., Sky. None RF Hyd: Women, Tomb 8 B.C. farewell, diphros, Pisticci Painter. RF Sky: Owl, olive branches, Pisticci Painter. 55 5th cent Unk Unk None Kr.Bell (rim), None RF Kr.Bell (rim): Laurel Tomb 2 B.C. Pelike, Kr.Bell leaf pattern. RF Kr.Bell (fragment), Kr. (fragment): Column, egg (fragment. on top. RF Kr. (fragment): Leg of a woman, double striped dress. 56 440-370 F (25- Cappuccina Hum. Kr. (base), Pelike None RF Pelike: Laurel wreath Tomb 18 B.C. 35) (fragment) pattern. 57 430-360 F (25- Foss Hum., alabastron Leky. (2), Pelike, None RF Leky: Woman, Eros, Tomb 19 B.C. 30) foot (2), strigil, Dinos, Leb., Sky. box, mirror, wedding, blades, fibula (5) gifts, Cyclops Painter. RF Pelike: Women, youth, wreath, Creusa and Dolon Painters. RF Leky: Women, mirror, Eros, bride. RF Leb: Nude youth, lyre, woman, torch, pipes, perhaps Orpheus and Eurydice or reveler and flautist. RF Dinos: Vine pattern. RF

119

Sky: Woman, oinochoe, phiale, ionic column, woman profile.

120

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