DOCSLIB.ORG

THE 1994 US INVASION of HAITI a Dissertation

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
THE 1994 US INVASION of HAITI a Dissertation THE EAGLE AND THE ROOSTER: THE 1994 U.S. INVASION OF HAITI A dissertation presented to the faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Philippe R. Girard August 2002 © 2002 Philippe R. Girard All Rights Reserved This dissertation entitled THE EAGLE AND THE ROOSTER: THE 1994 U.S. INVASION OF HAITI BY PHILIPPE R. GIRARD has been approved for the Department of History and the College of Arts and Sciences by Michael Grow Associate Professor of History Leslie Flemming Dean, College of Arts and Sciences GIRARD, PHILIPPE R. Ph.D. August 2002. History The Eagle and the Rooster: The 1994 U.S. Invasion of Haiti. (333 pp.) Director of Dissertation: Michael Grow. Abstract: This dissertation studies the 1994 U.S. intervention in Haiti, focusing on causation (why did Bill Clinton decide to intervene in Haiti?) and consequences (what did the United States and the United Nations achieve from 1994 to 2001?). Regarding U.S. motives, the dissertation argues that economics and ideology played secondary roles in convincing the Clinton administration to intervene in Haiti. Restoring U.S. and presidential credibility; stopping the flow of Haitian refugees; securing the political support of the Congressional Black Caucus; and responding to demands by Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide were the decisive factors. Regarding consequences, the dissertation views the U.S./U.N. occupation as a political and economic failure. U.S. occupation forces, particularly during the first few months following the 1994 intervention, limited themselves to basic law and order, often with the help of former Haitian soldiers. Political strife soon resumed. A politically divided Haitian government refused to approve economic reforms requested by foreign donors and thus failed to seize this opportunity to better the economic lot of most Haitians. Sources for the dissertation are: World Bank, IMF, UN, OAS, U.S., and Haitian internal government documents; documents obtained under the Freedom of Information Act; interviews with participants; published government documents; U.S., Haitian, French, Canadian, and Venezuelan newspapers and magazines; and secondary literature. Approved: Michael Grow Associate Professor of History 5 Table of contents Abstract: ....................................................................................................................................................4 Table of contents .......................................................................................................................................5 List of Tables.............................................................................................................................................7 List of Abbreviations and Foreign Terms..................................................................................................8 Chapter 1: Introduction........................................................................................................................10 A late-summer night’s speech .............................................................................................................10 The Carter mission ..............................................................................................................................13 Looking for motives ............................................................................................................................19 Chapter 2: Haiti before the U.S. intervention.....................................................................................23 Violence ..............................................................................................................................................23 Reverse development...........................................................................................................................25 The Land of the Unfree .......................................................................................................................28 Jean-Bertrand Aristide.........................................................................................................................32 The 1990 presidential campaign and its aftermath ..............................................................................34 The first Aristide presidency (7 February-30 September 1991) ..........................................................37 The Cédras junta..................................................................................................................................40 Chapter 3: Economic interests .............................................................................................................45 The Clinton administration promoted free trade and capitalism worldwide........................................46 Aristide’s leftist, anti-American views................................................................................................48 Haiti’s poverty.....................................................................................................................................50 The clothing industry lobby did not support U.S. policy in Haiti........................................................52 Chapter 4: Restoring democracy .........................................................................................................55 The Clinton administration’s rhetorical commitment to democracy ...................................................57 Haiti’s appalling human rights situation.............................................................................................60 The Clinton administration’s policy was not always consistent with its stated commitment to democracy ...........................................................................................................................................62 Aristide’s human rights record during his first presidency..................................................................66 Chapter 5: U.S. Credibility...................................................................................................................72 Clinton’s foreign policy (1993-1994): ambitious goals, wavering policies, limited achievements.....75 The Harlan County humiliation (11 October 1993).............................................................................80 “The Devil” .........................................................................................................................................86 The economic embargo’s ineffectiveness allowed the junta to remain in power ................................90 The use of force became the only way to restore credibility ...............................................................92 Chapter 6: National Security................................................................................................................96 New security priorities ........................................................................................................................96 Drugs ...................................................................................................................................................98 The drug situation in Haiti, though disquieting, did not prompt concerns ........................................100 Haitian immigration...........................................................................................................................103 A racist policy?..................................................................................................................................107 Shifting policies on immigration .......................................................................................................111 Immigration was mostly a political, not security, concern ................................................................112 Chapter 7: Domestic Politics ..............................................................................................................115 Many Americans were quietly opposed to an intervention ...............................................................116 Political lobbies supporting Aristide were few but vocal ..................................................................119 Clinton faced a difficult domestic political situation.........................................................................126 Taking a stand in Haiti could help Clinton look presidential ............................................................133 Why Haiti? ........................................................................................................................................138 Haiti was easy....................................................................................................................................140 Haiti had to be short ..........................................................................................................................143 Chapter 8: Haitian lobbying...............................................................................................................148 6 The junta’s public relations problem .................................................................................................149 The Shadow.......................................................................................................................................151 Impact of anti-Aristide lobbying .......................................................................................................154
Load more

Recommended publications
  • September 12, 2018
    Hope College Hope College Digital Commons The Anchor: 2018 The Anchor: 2010-2019 9-12-2018 The Anchor, Volume 132.02: September 12, 2018 Hope College Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/anchor_2018 Part of the Library and Information Science Commons Recommended Citation Repository citation: Hope College, "The Anchor, Volume 132.02: September 12, 2018" (2018). The Anchor: 2018. Paper 13. https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/anchor_2018/13 Published in: The Anchor, Volume 132, Issue 2, September 12, 2018. Copyright © 2018 Hope College, Holland, Michigan. This News Article is brought to you for free and open access by the The Anchor: 2010-2019 at Hope College Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Anchor: 2018 by an authorized administrator of Hope College Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. VOL. 132 NO. 2 SEPTEMBER 12, 2018 ♦ SINCE 1887 SPERA IN DEO HOPE COLLEGE ♦ HOLLAND, MICHIGAN Phelps Scholars attend first cultural event Cameron Geddes feathers, the crooked bend of the S t a f f W r i t e r pole and the colored medicine On September 8th, the wheel mounted atop the pole. Center for Diversity and Dancers of all colors and Inclusion paired up with the backgrounds took part in their Phelps Scholars Program (PSP) respective dances; a darker- to send students to Grand skinned individual named Rapids for the 57th annual Marcus Carter, known by the Grand Valley American Indian name Little Hawk, bore bright Lodge Powwow. regalia vestments. There was stunning When asking about the ceremonial regalia, vendors personal significance of the selling Native American curios, pow wow, Carter thought for a the bass of.
    [Show full text]
  • ANNUAL REPORT 1998-1999 JUSTIN GUARIGLIA Children Along the Streets of Jakarta, Indonesia, Welcome President and Mrs
    M E S S A G E F R O M J I M M Y C A R T E R ANNUAL REPORT 1998-1999 JUSTIN GUARIGLIA Children along the streets of Jakarta, Indonesia, welcome President and Mrs. Carter. WAGING PEACE ★ FIGHTING DISEASE ★ BUILDING HOPE The Carter Center One Copenhill Atlanta, GA 30307 (404) 420-5100 Fax (404) 420-5145 www.cartercenter.org THE CARTER CENTER A B O U T T H E C A R T E R C E N T E R C A R T E R C E N T E R B O A R D O F T R U S T E E S T H E C A R T E R C E N T E R M I S S I O N S T A T E M E N T Located in Atlanta, The Carter Center is governed by its board of trustees. Chaired by President Carter, with Mrs. Carter as vice chair, the board The Carter Center oversees the Center’s assets and property, and promotes its objectives and goals. Members include: The Carter Center, in partnership with Emory University, is guided by a fundamental houses offices for Jimmy and Rosalynn commitment to human rights and the alleviation of human suffering; it seeks to prevent and Jimmy Carter Robert G. Edge Kent C. “Oz” Nelson Carter and most of Chair Partner Retired Chair and CEO resolve conflicts, enhance freedom and democracy, and improve health. the Center’s program Alston & Bird United Parcel Service of America staff, who promote Rosalynn Carter peace and advance Vice Chair Jane Fonda Charles B.
    [Show full text]
  • Facilitator's ORIENTATION MANUAL for Pilgrimages (Trips) to HAITI
    1 of 79 Facilitator’s ORIENTATION MANUAL FOR Pilgrimages (Trips) TO HAITI 2 of 79 Opening Prayer Call to Prayer: I have called you, you are mine…. (pause) We each have been called here, to this place and time. We come from many places and varying life journey’s but here our journey’s meet to embark on a new path together. When paths cross and pilgrims gather there is much to celebrate. Leader: Let us begin by worshiping God, the ground of our being, the source of our life and the Spirit who sets us free. Let us celebrate, with joyful hearts, knowing that God is present with us and within this gathered community. Let us pray, and in the silence of our hearts, hear God speaking to us in love, as we prepare to hear and respond to God’s word. Moment of silence Reader: Jeremiah 1: 4 – 10 Leader: The harvest is ready. Whom shall I send? All: Send me, God. I am ready to serve you all the days of my life. Leader: The world is hungry. Whom shall I send? All: Send me, God. I am ready to nourish all the days of my life. Leader: The vineyard is ready. Whom shall I send? All: Send me, God. I am ready to work for you all the days of my life. Prayer intentions: Offer any prayer intentions. Response: God, hear our prayer. All: Holy breathing of God, you call our names and we hear your voice. Stirred by your breath, we are ready for journey.
    [Show full text]
  • Global Markets Institute a Survivor's Guide to Disruption
    GLOBAL MARKETS A SURVIVOR’S GUIDE INSTITUTE July 2019 TO DISRUPTION Steve Strongin Amanda Hindlian Sandra Lawson Sonya Banerjee Dan Duggan, Ph.D. [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. Table of Contents Chapter 1: Survivor’s guide - the short form 3 Chapter 2: Disruption’s evolutionary roots 9 Chapter 3: Perfecting Platforms 19 Chapter 4: Niche after niche - Organizers 32 Chapter 5: The competitive value of data 44 Chapter 6: Concluding thoughts 56 Appendix A: Considering communities 59 Bibliography 61 Disclosure Appendix 62 The Global Markets Institute is the research think tank within Goldman Sachs Global Investment Research. For other important disclosures, see the Disclosure Appendix. 2 Survivor’s guide - the short form Chapter 1: Survivor’s guide - the short form We examine how companies can reshape themselves to better compete in today’s Everything-as-a-Service (EaaS) economy1. In this new economy, firms can use services provided by other businesses to grow faster, while using less capital and fewer people than would otherwise be possible. Industries are reorganizing in response to these dynamics, and companies must adapt or risk falling behind. EaaS can be thought of as an extreme form of outsourcing. In the past, firms would selectively outsource business functions to reduce costs, for example by outsourcing ancillary functions like operating a cafeteria within an office or by outsourcing labor-intensive but simple manufacturing processes. Over time, however, the high degree of standardization that has emerged across manufacturing, communications, data systems and user interfaces, among other areas, has made it possible to outsource virtually any business function.
    [Show full text]
  • Bad Cops: a Study of Career-Ending Misconduct Among New York City Police Officers
    The author(s) shown below used Federal funds provided by the U.S. Department of Justice and prepared the following final report: Document Title: Bad Cops: A Study of Career-Ending Misconduct Among New York City Police Officers Author(s): James J. Fyfe ; Robert Kane Document No.: 215795 Date Received: September 2006 Award Number: 96-IJ-CX-0053 This report has not been published by the U.S. Department of Justice. To provide better customer service, NCJRS has made this Federally- funded grant final report available electronically in addition to traditional paper copies. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. Bad Cops: A Study of Career-Ending Misconduct Among New York City Police Officers James J. Fyfe John Jay College of Criminal Justice and New York City Police Department Robert Kane American University Final Version Submitted to the United States Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice February 2005 This project was supported by Grant No. 1996-IJ-CX-0053 awarded by the National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. Points of views in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • The Impact of the New Right on the Reagan Administration
    LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY OF LONDON THE IMPACT OF THE NEW RIGHT ON THE REAGAN ADMINISTRATION: KIRKPATRICK & UNESCO AS. A TEST CASE BY Isaac Izy Kfir LONDON 1998 UMI Number: U148638 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U148638 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 2 ABSTRACT The aim of this research is to investigate whether the Reagan administration was influenced by ‘New Right’ ideas. Foreign policy issues were chosen as test cases because the presidency has more power in this area which is why it could promote an aggressive stance toward the United Nations and encourage withdrawal from UNESCO with little impunity. Chapter 1 deals with American society after 1945. It shows how the ground was set for the rise of Reagan and the New Right as America moved from a strong affinity with New Deal liberalism to a new form of conservatism, which the New Right and Reagan epitomised. Chapter 2 analyses the New Right as a coalition of three distinctive groups: anti-liberals, New Christian Right, and neoconservatives.
    [Show full text]
  • The Carter Center Atlanta, Georgia
    LEADERSHIP PROFILE Chief Executive Officer The Carter Center Atlanta, Georgia “I am excited and energized about the next chapter of The Carter Center. Our most significant accomplishments are yet to come.” --President Jimmy Carter A COMPELLING OPPORTUNITY The Carter Center is a global leader in human rights, focused on peace, health and alleviation of human suffering. Founded in 1982 by former President Jimmy Carter and Rosalynn Carter, The Carter Center has saved and enhanced countless lives in over 80 countries. The Center seeks to prevent and resolve conflicts, enhance freedom and democracy, and improve health. It receives over $300 million a year in cash, pledges and in-kind support. Today the world faces unprecedented challenges to human rights, peace and health. Political polarization, eroding democratic principles, climate change, human migration, wars and human rights violations are proliferating. Addressing these and other significant issues calls for fresh approaches and adaptive strategies. The Carter Center is poised to enter a new era of impact. The Center is transitioning from a founder-led organization to one that is guided by the founders’ principles. The next CEO will build on a strong foundation, focusing the Center’s unique capacities and principles on critical current and emerging issues. “We must adjust to changing times and still hold to unchanging principles.” President Carter in his inaugural address The Carter Center CEO Leadership Profile, October 2019 Page 2 of 6 The next CEO will lead The Carter Center forward in ways that make the greatest possible difference. Building on the significant progress made by previous CEOs, Ambassador (ret.) Mary Ann Peters, CEO since 2014, has continued to strengthen the Center internally and externally and prepare it for the next phase of contribution.
    [Show full text]
  • Notes and Sources for Evil Geniuses: the Unmaking of America: a Recent History
    Notes and Sources for Evil Geniuses: The Unmaking of America: A Recent History Introduction xiv “If infectious greed is the virus” Kurt Andersen, “City of Schemes,” The New York Times, Oct. 6, 2002. xvi “run of pedal-to-the-medal hypercapitalism” Kurt Andersen, “American Roulette,” New York, December 22, 2006. xx “People of the same trade” Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, ed. Andrew Skinner, 1776 (London: Penguin, 1999) Book I, Chapter X. Chapter 1 4 “The discovery of America offered” Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy In America, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (New York: Library of America, 2012), Book One, Introductory Chapter. 4 “A new science of politics” Tocqueville, Democracy In America, Book One, Introductory Chapter. 4 “The inhabitants of the United States” Tocqueville, Democracy In America, Book One, Chapter XVIII. 5 “there was virtually no economic growth” Robert J Gordon. “Is US economic growth over? Faltering innovation confronts the six headwinds.” Policy Insight No. 63. Centre for Economic Policy Research, September, 2012. --Thomas Piketty, “World Growth from the Antiquity (growth rate per period),” Quandl. 6 each citizen’s share of the economy Richard H. Steckel, “A History of the Standard of Living in the United States,” in EH.net (Economic History Association, 2020). --Andrew McAfee and Erik Brynjolfsson, The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies (New York: W.W. Norton, 2016), p. 98. 6 “Constant revolutionizing of production” Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx, Manifesto of the Communist Party (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1969), Chapter I. 7 from the early 1840s to 1860 Tomas Nonnenmacher, “History of the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Black Citizenship, Black Sovereignty: the Haitian Emigration Movement and Black American Politics, 1804-1865
    Black Citizenship, Black Sovereignty: The Haitian Emigration Movement and Black American Politics, 1804-1865 Alexander Campbell History Honors Thesis April 19, 2010 Advisor: Françoise Hamlin 2 Table of Contents Timeline 5 Introduction 7 Chapter I: Race, Nation, and Emigration in the Atlantic World 17 Chapter II: The Beginnings of Black Emigration to Haiti 35 Chapter III: Black Nationalism and Black Abolitionism in Antebellum America 55 Chapter IV: The Return to Emigration and the Prospect of Citizenship 75 Epilogue 97 Bibliography 103 3 4 Timeline 1791 Slave rebellion begins Haitian Revolution 1831 Nat Turner rebellion, Virginia 1804 Independent Republic of Haiti declared, Radical abolitionist paper The Liberator with Jean-Jacques Dessalines as President begins publication 1805 First Constitution of Haiti Written 1836 U.S. Congress passes “gag rule,” blocking petitions against slavery 1806 Dessalines Assassinated; Haiti divided into Kingdom of Haiti in the North, Republic of 1838 Haitian recognition brought to U.S. House Haiti in the South. of Representatives, fails 1808 United States Congress abolishes U.S. 1843 Jean-Pierre Boyer deposed in coup, political Atlantic slave trade chaos follows in Haiti 1811 Paul Cuffe makes first voyage to Africa 1846 Liberia, colony of American Colonization Society, granted independence 1816 American Colonization Society founded 1847 General Faustin Soulouque gains power in 1817 Paul Cuffe dies Haiti, provides stability 1818 Prince Saunders tours U.S. with his 1850 Fugitive Slave Act passes U.S. Congress published book about Haiti Jean-Pierre Boyer becomes President of 1854 Martin Delany holds National Emigration Republic of Haiti Convention Mutiny of the Holkar 1855 James T.
    [Show full text]
  • Bill Clinton, the Bosnian War, and American Foreign Relations in the Post-Cold War Era, 1992-1995
    VISIONARY POLICY: BILL CLINTON, THE BOSNIAN WAR, AND AMERICAN FOREIGN RELATIONS IN THE POST-COLD WAR ERA, 1992-1995 James E. CovinGton III A thesis submitted to the faculty at the UniveRsity of NoRth CaRolina at Chapel Hill in paRtial fulfillment of the RequiRements foR the deGRee of MasteR of Arts in the Military History program in the DepaRtment of HistoRy. Chapel Hill 2015 AppRoved by: Michael C. MoRgan Wayne E. Lee Joseph W. Caddell © 2015 James E. CovinGton III ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT James E. CovinGton III: VisionaRy Policy: Bill Clinton, the Bosnian WaR, and AmeRican Foreign Policy in the Post-Cold War Era, 1992-1995 (Under the direction of Michael C. MoRGan) Bill Clinton assumed office duRinG a particularly challenging peRiod of AmeRican histoRy. AfteR the fall of the Soviet Union, the United States enjoyed a period of unprecedented power and authority. Clinton was elected to office laRGely for his domestic policies, howeveR, his vision foR AmeRica’s position in the post-Cold War woRld steeRed his foReign policy, particularly with respect to Europe. Clinton’s vision was moRe inclusive and encompassinG than that of his predecessor, George H. W. Bush. During the post-Cold WaR yeaRs, Bush was moRe inclined to let EuRope soRt out theiR own pRoblems, particularly in the case of Bosnia. Clinton, however, was moRe willing to see post-Cold WaR EuRopean pRoblems as AmeRican issues. The Bosnian WaR RepResents a point wheRe these two ideals collided. Guided by this vision, Clinton oveRcame challenGes fRom the EuRopean Community, political adveRsaRies, and even his own public en Route to inteRveninG in Bosnia.
    [Show full text]
  • Barthé, Darryl G. Jr.Pdf
    A University of Sussex PhD thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details Becoming American in Creole New Orleans: Family, Community, Labor and Schooling, 1896-1949 Darryl G. Barthé, Jr. Doctorate of Philosophy in History University of Sussex Submitted May 2015 University of Sussex Darryl G. Barthé, Jr. (Doctorate of Philosophy in History) Becoming American in Creole New Orleans: Family, Community, Labor and Schooling, 1896-1949 Summary: The Louisiana Creole community in New Orleans went through profound changes in the first half of the 20th-century. This work examines Creole ethnic identity, focusing particularly on the transition from Creole to American. In "becoming American," Creoles adapted to a binary, racialized caste system prevalent in the Jim Crow American South (and transformed from a primarily Francophone/Creolophone community (where a tripartite although permissive caste system long existed) to a primarily Anglophone community (marked by stricter black-white binaries). These adaptations and transformations were facilitated through Creole participation in fraternal societies, the organized labor movement and public and parochial schools that provided English-only instruction.
    [Show full text]
  • 002B.- Histoire Immediate Et Innachevee Temoignage D Ex-Premiers Ministres . (...) (
    TÉMOIGNAGES D’EX-PREMIERS MINISTRES Une main pour arrêter le glas Robert MALVAL La Constitution de 1987 fut votée dans l’enthousiasme par une majorité uand un pays passe, sans tran- de citoyens haïtiens, dont l’auteur fut du nombre. Après 30 ans de totali- Qsition , de 1’inculture politique à tarisme fasciste, elle fut accueillie comme un rempart contre le retour au la politisation extrême de tous les pouvoir absolu. Par la suite, certains de ses articles apparaitront com- courants d’opinion; du système de me une aberration. L’instauration du Primo-ministère, institution iné- parti unique à la multiplication de dite, si opposée à nos traditions politiques, demeure une création ab- groupuscules porteurs de reven- surde tant que ce qui devait lui conférer légitimité et cohérence, à sa- dications multiples et cultivant voir de grands partis politiques assez forts pour donner corps au princi- 1’esprit de rivalité et de division; pe de cohabitation en cas de majorité parlementaire, ne devienne une d’un ordre politique homogène à l’affirmation de sensibilités diver- réalité durable sur 1’échiquier politique. ses, il eut fallu une charte fon- damentale assurant 1’équilibre des pouvoirs. Or, les constituants de 1987, en consacrant 1’hégémonie du Parlement dans une société sans traditions parlementaires et en affaiblissant 1’Exécutif en le scin- dant, ont malgré eux, ouvert la voie aux imposteurs et aux opportunistes de tous bords. Calquée dans ses grandes lignes sur la Constitution de la Vème République française, la nôtre ne pouvait répondre aux exigences de 1’heure Deux tendances ont caractérisé la Constituante de 1987 : une s’inspi- rant ostensiblement du libéralisme des années 1870, seule période de 1’histoire d’Haïti qui vit le triom- phe du parlementarisme et qui dura peu; 1’autre, dont les principaux re- présentants avaient connu 1’arbi- Louisiane SAINT-FLEURANT, Flore à l’arbre de vie, 2001 traire de 1’incarcération ou de 50 Rencontre no 28-29 / Mars 2013 1’exil, puisait sa source dans la vo- Jouissant d’une grande popularité, il symbolisme.
    [Show full text]