THE EAGLE AND THE ROOSTER: THE 1994 U.S. INVASION OF HAITI A dissertation presented to the faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Philippe R. Girard August 2002 © 2002 Philippe R. Girard All Rights Reserved This dissertation entitled THE EAGLE AND THE ROOSTER: THE 1994 U.S. INVASION OF HAITI BY PHILIPPE R. GIRARD has been approved for the Department of History and the College of Arts and Sciences by Michael Grow Associate Professor of History Leslie Flemming Dean, College of Arts and Sciences GIRARD, PHILIPPE R. Ph.D. August 2002. History The Eagle and the Rooster: The 1994 U.S. Invasion of Haiti. (333 pp.) Director of Dissertation: Michael Grow. Abstract: This dissertation studies the 1994 U.S. intervention in Haiti, focusing on causation (why did Bill Clinton decide to intervene in Haiti?) and consequences (what did the United States and the United Nations achieve from 1994 to 2001?). Regarding U.S. motives, the dissertation argues that economics and ideology played secondary roles in convincing the Clinton administration to intervene in Haiti. Restoring U.S. and presidential credibility; stopping the flow of Haitian refugees; securing the political support of the Congressional Black Caucus; and responding to demands by Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide were the decisive factors. Regarding consequences, the dissertation views the U.S./U.N. occupation as a political and economic failure. U.S. occupation forces, particularly during the first few months following the 1994 intervention, limited themselves to basic law and order, often with the help of former Haitian soldiers. Political strife soon resumed. A politically divided Haitian government refused to approve economic reforms requested by foreign donors and thus failed to seize this opportunity to better the economic lot of most Haitians. Sources for the dissertation are: World Bank, IMF, UN, OAS, U.S., and Haitian internal government documents; documents obtained under the Freedom of Information Act; interviews with participants; published government documents; U.S., Haitian, French, Canadian, and Venezuelan newspapers and magazines; and secondary literature. Approved: Michael Grow Associate Professor of History 5 Table of contents Abstract: ....................................................................................................................................................4 Table of contents .......................................................................................................................................5 List of Tables.............................................................................................................................................7 List of Abbreviations and Foreign Terms..................................................................................................8 Chapter 1: Introduction........................................................................................................................10 A late-summer night’s speech .............................................................................................................10 The Carter mission ..............................................................................................................................13 Looking for motives ............................................................................................................................19 Chapter 2: Haiti before the U.S. intervention.....................................................................................23 Violence ..............................................................................................................................................23 Reverse development...........................................................................................................................25 The Land of the Unfree .......................................................................................................................28 Jean-Bertrand Aristide.........................................................................................................................32 The 1990 presidential campaign and its aftermath ..............................................................................34 The first Aristide presidency (7 February-30 September 1991) ..........................................................37 The Cédras junta..................................................................................................................................40 Chapter 3: Economic interests .............................................................................................................45 The Clinton administration promoted free trade and capitalism worldwide........................................46 Aristide’s leftist, anti-American views................................................................................................48 Haiti’s poverty.....................................................................................................................................50 The clothing industry lobby did not support U.S. policy in Haiti........................................................52 Chapter 4: Restoring democracy .........................................................................................................55 The Clinton administration’s rhetorical commitment to democracy ...................................................57 Haiti’s appalling human rights situation.............................................................................................60 The Clinton administration’s policy was not always consistent with its stated commitment to democracy ...........................................................................................................................................62 Aristide’s human rights record during his first presidency..................................................................66 Chapter 5: U.S. Credibility...................................................................................................................72 Clinton’s foreign policy (1993-1994): ambitious goals, wavering policies, limited achievements.....75 The Harlan County humiliation (11 October 1993).............................................................................80 “The Devil” .........................................................................................................................................86 The economic embargo’s ineffectiveness allowed the junta to remain in power ................................90 The use of force became the only way to restore credibility ...............................................................92 Chapter 6: National Security................................................................................................................96 New security priorities ........................................................................................................................96 Drugs ...................................................................................................................................................98 The drug situation in Haiti, though disquieting, did not prompt concerns ........................................100 Haitian immigration...........................................................................................................................103 A racist policy?..................................................................................................................................107 Shifting policies on immigration .......................................................................................................111 Immigration was mostly a political, not security, concern ................................................................112 Chapter 7: Domestic Politics ..............................................................................................................115 Many Americans were quietly opposed to an intervention ...............................................................116 Political lobbies supporting Aristide were few but vocal ..................................................................119 Clinton faced a difficult domestic political situation.........................................................................126 Taking a stand in Haiti could help Clinton look presidential ............................................................133 Why Haiti? ........................................................................................................................................138 Haiti was easy....................................................................................................................................140 Haiti had to be short ..........................................................................................................................143 Chapter 8: Haitian lobbying...............................................................................................................148 6 The junta’s public relations problem .................................................................................................149 The Shadow.......................................................................................................................................151 Impact of anti-Aristide lobbying .......................................................................................................154