REPRESENTING SUBJUGATION of FEMALE GENDER and ITS VARIANT FORMS in BUCHI EMECHETA's SECOND CLASS CITIZEN ADAM, Ezinwanyi E

Home , Alex Badeh, Babcock University, Buchi Emecheta, Niyi Osundare, Snob

REPRESENTING SUBJUGATION OF FEMALE GENDER AND ITS VARIANT FORMS IN BUCHI EMECHETA'S SECOND CLASS CITIZEN

ADAM, Ezinwanyi E., PhD & OSOGBIYE , Yewande Funmilayo

Abstract This study is set to expand the boundaries of existing knowledge in gender and women's studies by engaging in an in-depth analysis of Buchi Emecheta’s Second Class Citizen to show her lucid and apt representation of the variant forms of oppression of African women by their male counterparts and the need for social change. The research is qualitative and adopts the literary theory of Feminism and its African variant, Womanism, as approaches to evaluate the issues of suppression and mistreatment that female characters are faced with in the selected fiction. The study reveals the various forms of subjugation and oppression faced by the female gender in African society, and the effects on women and society at large through an analytical discourse of the selected texts. Keywords: Gender, Feminism, Womanism, African womanism, Subjugation

Introduction

Feminism, a western ideology, found a fertile ground in Africa in the 1960’s as it provided opportunity of re-evaluating attitudes and disbeliefs about women in the African community. Katherine Frank in her essay

1 titled “feminist criticism and the African novels”, an article which analyses the relevance and usefulness of feminism to the study of African female writers, gives the impression that the feminist ideology in its emphasis in individualistic growth and interests must necessarily be opposed to traditional tendencies which place values on group interests. She explains that feminism is a profoundly individualistic philosophy and values personal growth and individual fulfillment over any communal needs or goods. Germaine also supported this view, when she states in “The Female Eunuch” that the beginning of feminism in a woman is manifested in her ability to devise her own method of revolt, a revolt which will reflect her own independence or originality.

After World War II, the world was no longer the same. It was the dawn of many newly emerging states and new economic principles which started playing the world fire field. This climate of change gave an impulse to women activities all over the globe. Capitalism and the emergence of a global economy also caused a change in women rights. According to scholars like Bell Hooks (1998), Clenora Hudson-Weems (1993), Mary Modupe Kolawole (1997), and Mobolanle Sotunsa (2008), among others, the Africa women’s movement has been strongly influenced and shaped by activities against the colonial rule and racist ideologies. African women’s activism cannot be seen separately from the larger context of repression and exploitation of both men and women. This has given a rise to feminism and activism primarily aimed at changing social and humanitarian conditions. Gwendolyn (1985) in Osogbiye's (2015) asserts that the main disruptive effect on women’s roles in Africa is the colonization process, in which the colonial masters disrupted the normal tradition in the society. The colonial masters introduced churches, governance, and trade which disrupted the traditional influence on the

society, during the colonial period. Four factors influenced the development of inequality in Africa, they include

• The Catholicism with the introduction of monogamy • Suppression of women • Western education giving more opportunities to men • Legal system which recognized the independence of African women.

These four factors influenced the unequal standard of the men and women folk in the society. The colonial structures and capitalist economic principles were institutionalized in religion, legal, economic and educational structures. These structures led to a new social order in which African women not belonging to the upper few had very little rights. As a result, the economic and legal positions of women changed drastically. The political crisis of the colonial and traditional rulers led to more and more gender inequality, during the 80’s African women understood that they were paying the highest prize for political and economic instability. African feminist writers who portray their characters in the feminist literature, these writers include Buchi Emecheta, Nawal El Saadawi, Ama Ata Aidoo, Flora Nwapa, Efua Sutherland, Akachi Ezeigbo, Zaynab Alkali, Bessie Head, Mariama Ba and others are engaged in fiction writing. These feminist writers have used their literary works as a tool in giving vivid descriptions of the challenges of African women in their respective societies.

African feminism is a move away from the western feminism; it has an accommodative perception which assents that both men and women have roles to play in the society. Feminism in Africa has undergone a lot of metamorphosis and has assumed variegated forms and nomenclatures such as Feminism, Womanism, Motherism, Sexism, Stiwanism, Africana

Womanism and presently African Womanism with regards to the womanist theory. Kolawole (1998) and Joseph (2002) explain that Womanism is not a solipsistic theory but one that recognizes and responds to the yearnings of many women who have problems with appropriating Feminism in spite of the diversities. It increases black Women’s options of self-conceptualization, self-actualization and unity. However, according to Alice walker (1983), Womanism means mature, responsible, courageous behavior of adult females, as opposed to the frivolous behavior of the gender.

In Africa today, for example in Nigeria, women have gone into professions that have once be regarded as exclusively for men, for example, the literary scene was dominated for decade by male writers like Amos Tutuola, Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka and others, until women like Florence Nwapa made a sudden break. In Nigeria, feminism is viewed from various angles, for instance when examined from the view of religion, it preaches gender equality which is considered to be unnatural judging from the fact that God pronounced the man as head over his wife which pre-supposes that women are expected to be subservient to men

WOMANISM The deficiencies of feminism as practiced by middle class white women and the need to evolve a theory or an ideology that caters specifically for the need of the black women and other women of color later led to the development of another variant of feminism called WOMANISM. According to the Encarta Dictionaries (2008), a womanist is defined as one who has respect for and belief in the abilities and talents of women. Womanism is concerned with balance as it believes in partnering with the men folk, and the predominant issues in the writings of womanists are

4 racism, classism and sexism. Womanists believe in the emancipation of the total race and not that of the women alone. It can also be defined as a concept that encourages total belief and respect for women and what they stand for without operating under any form of bias (Akorede, 2011; Hooks, 1984; Hudson-Weems, 1993; Kolawole, 1997).

Womanism is an African centered gender perception. Womanism celebrates blackness and black people's unique experiences and lifestyles. It makes the aspirations, need and desires of the black women its first priority. Womanism is also a global ideology as stated by Ogunyemi Okonjo (1985) that ‘it celebrates or embraces racial, gender, class and the African women consciousness. Womanism is aimed at achieving self- definition and self-actualization for black women. This concept is totally different as it is subtle in its approach and it is accommodative towards men when compared to the concept of feminism which is totally separate and aggressive in its approach, this approach is subtle to address the wrong representation of women in literature unlike feminists who are quite extreme in their works (Adam, 2012; Kolawole, 1997; Sotunsa, 2008). According to Alice Walker (1983: xi-xiii) a womanist is: A black feminist of color. A woman who loves other women, sexually and/ or non-sexually----sometimes love individual men, and/ or non-sexually, committed to survival and wholeness of entire people, male or female, not a separatist, except periodically for health…. Regardless womanist is to feminist as purple is to lavender.

From the above extract from Alice Walker (1983) the accommodating perspective of Womanism through established relationships with both the

5 opposite sex and women of all race is noted. Reaffirming Ogunyemi's viewpoint, Kolawole (1998:24) projects Womanism as: A philosophy that celebrates black roots, the ideals of black life, while giving balanced presentation of black womanism. It concerns itself as much with the black sexual power tussle as with the world power structure that subjugates blacks. It concerns itself as much with the blacks. It concerns itself as much with the black sexual power tussle as with the world power structure that subjugates blacks.

The black woman is not as powerless in the black world as the white woman is in the white world; the black woman, less protected than her white counterpart, has to grow independent. Hudson-Weems (1993) contends that the Africana womanists names and define herself and her movement and is family centered. The Africana womanist is more concerned with her entire family than just herself and her sisters even though genuine sisterhood is also very important to her. Since Womanism is accommodating in nature Hudson-Weems maintains that the Africana womanist also welcomes male presence and participation in her struggle as her destiny is often interviewed with his in their broader struggle for humanity and liberation for African people. Thus, the Africana womanist desires positive male companionship. Womanism is still aimed at assuaging the dehumanizing and oppressive experiences of women. This feature is shared with feminism. However, the issues addressed in womanism concerns black women folk and their cultural issues. Meza (1993) opines that: These cultural issues made the universalism of western feminism

irrelevant because the white middle class women’s ideology failed to address the cultural specific conditions and interest of black and non-white women …. Womanism a concept set up to correct misconceptions re-define Africans womanhood and place in its own specific cultural space. Rose Meza’s a history of Africana women’s literature (1993) satisfies the reconstructive phase of female writing a more positive stage which she calls womanist creativity because women as writers will use tropes and resources of literature to create strong capable female characters not suffering as passive victims on social inequalities but women who made their communities take note of their creative force. Emecheta's works, on this note, are regarded as a works through which awareness of existing social inequalities have been created and the need to fight such injustices. Hence, the choice of one of her most powerful narratives for the purpose of identifying and analyzing events that project vividly issues that form the subject matter of our discourse.

Brief Summary of Second Class Citizen

This novel is set in Nigeria and in the United Kingdom (U.K.) where major events that mirror the subjugation and determination of Adah, the protagonist of the novel, took place. The narrator tells an extraordinary story of Adah’s hardship right from a tender age to a grown woman: Adah saw herself through school due to her father’s early death and gender, she is determined to go to school and make it in life but her relatives are not concerned about her vision and reason for going to school, they are only concerned with the impact that a little education would have on her bride price, though they do nothing to help her achieve this dream.

At age 17, after her secondary school which was on scholarship, she realizes that she would have to leave her family house to achieve her dreams in full. Making it a reality, she therefore decides to get married; she refuses all her suitors because she sees no potential in them and decides to choose Francis. Francis is a student who is still being controlled by his family. Francis is unable to pay her bride price but Adah helps out with it because she needed the marriage which is regarded as the pride of a woman. The marriage was blessed with a child but it dawns on her that she has to work to keep body and soul together. She is fortunate to have a good job and becomes the breadwinner of her family and even in-laws. To her surprise, she finds herself in bondage even higher than the ones she ran away from because her pay is usually taken from her and apportioned without her presence and opinion by her father-in-law who is very much the head of her family, to support their own family.

Adah realizes that her husband Francis is a weak, lazy, and unstable man who only married her because of her determination and zeal to succeed and not for love. Based on her childhood dream, Adah shares her goal of travelling to the U.K. and worked towards achieving but was cut short by the reply of Francis’s father who said she cannot go but only Francis to embark on the journey because she is a woman. Francis travels to U.K and passes his exams on his fifth attempt, Adah decided one day to take the bull by the horn when she arranges for her children and herself to be transported to the U.K by boat after deceiving her mother-in-law into believing that she will eventually return soon. On getting there, it is a different surprise as she discovered that the house rented by her husband Francis is not comfortable and got pregnant with the third child, she confronted Francis and questioned him which was a big surprise to him, he blames her for getting pregnant but was appeased when Adah gets

8 another job that fetches a lot of money. Not long after they have to move out of the house due to pressure from other tenants.

Adah finds herself at the mercy of Francis who would beat her and still seek for a sexual intimacy with her, when she is extremely tired. When he learned that she had gotten contraceptives he beats her, then she realized that the marriage was not for love but it was too late to quit. It also dawned on her that Francis had no intentions of getting a job, so they started living like strangers under the same roof. The climax of her bitterness with Francis was when she stumbles on him burning the manuscript of her unfinished novel. She is blinded by fury and moves out of the house, but was attacked by Francis who manages to trace her new address through the children. He also snuffs life out of her but the timely intervention of the landlord and another tenant who broke the door open. She goes to court to protect herself and encounters the callous side of her so-called husband as he begins to tell lies to explain the injuries he inflicted on Adah. He also denies being married to Adah and refuses to take responsibility for the children. Adah decides to take responsibility for her children and leaves the court weak but with much determination to survive and succeed in life amidst all forms of oppression.

Forms of Subjugation in Second-Class Citizen.

The first form of subjugation in the novel can be seen in the first introduction of Adah, the protagonist. Her parents preference of a male to a female child becomes the first oppressive notion against female gender. Adah is born a female but in her environment, a woman without a male child is despised by her people because of the superiority imposed on male gender over their female counterpart. Consequently, she suffers rejection

9 and oppression from a tender age on account of her gender. The narrator introduces Adah as thus:

She was not even quite sure that she was exactly eight, because, you see, she was a girl. She was a girl who arrived when everyone was expecting and predicting a boy. So since she was such a disappointment to her parents, to her immediate family, to her tribe, nobody thought of recording her birth she was so insignificant (SCC 1). Adah is viewed as a disappointment and insignificant because of her sex. A baby boy was being expected but she comes and as an unwanted sex, no one bothered to take note of when she was born. Therefore, one could see the marginalization of female gender in the society but Adah is a girl-child who is determined to be someone in life. Also, Francis had that cultural belief in a male child when Adah and her children visited England, when Francis saw them at first the narrator explains that Francis was delighted with Vicky and not the children and he said “just my image, I can now die in peace!” (Emecheta, SCC , 33)

Also at the hospital in London, when Vicky was ill, the nurse asked Adah “is Victor your only child?” Adah answered “….Vicky was not, there was another, but she was only a girl” because, she is aware of the importance of a male child and the high regard of males over a female child in her society. Again, when Adah wanted to travel with Francis to United Kingdom, her father-in-law refused her going on the note that she is a woman but allows Francis because he is a man.

Secondly, the girl-child is not seen as insignificant but is often denied of receiving formal education. There is a belief that it is only a male child

10 that is expected to have a formal and sound education. As a result, Adah struggles from the time she was in the primary school because of her determination and focus; she knew what she wanted and worked towards its actualization. An example is when Adah was unable to get money for her common entrance examination, she buried the two shillings given to her by her cousin to buy a pound of steak. The narrator reveals:

After all, her cousin could afford the money, though he would not give it to her if she asked for it in the proper way….Then she saw the image again. It was going to be alright. The image was smiling, so Adah buried the money and went back home in fears, without the meat (SCC 16). She is aware of the punishment but was not concerned about the consequences of her act because of her determination and the purpose for which she took the money, which is for her education. She is aware of how education can bring her close to her dream, so she did not mind. The narrator further explains that "after a hundred and three strokes …. Adah did not mind she was in fact, very happy. She had earned the two shillings” though with some strokes of cane. She also suffers great hardship after losing her father.

Forced and arranged marriage is the third form of subjugation identified in Emecheta's Second Class Citizen . Arranged marriage is when a child is bestowed to a person of no interest without his/her consent because of family interest or material issues like finance, property. Adah’s mother, Ma and her uncles made arrangement of suitors to marry Adah so they can have money to give her brother a formal education and keep some for their selfish interest when her high bride price is paid. However, she disappoints them by not meeting up with their expectation of marrying a wealthy man when she settles for

11 a student, Francis. She is therefore seen as a self-centered woman driven into marriage because of her need to become successful:

In short, Adah had to marry …. Adah congratulated herself on her marriage…. To Adah the greatest advantage was that she could go on studying at her own pace…. That Francis was too poor to pay the five hundred pounds bride-price Ma and the other members of her family were asking (SCC 19). Also the belief that women are only meant for procreation is seen from the love she receives from her parents-in-law because she gave birth to children. They tell her, “A woman would be forgiven everything as long as she produces children” ( SCC, 22).

There is the issue of maternal oppression of the female child in the home. This is when a mother deprives her girl child the same opportunities that she allows the boy child. Adah’s mother does not believe in educating the female child, consequently, Adah is prevented from going to school even before her younger brother, Boy. Her mother wanted her to stay at home and learn how to do domestic works with her rather than going to school to be educated as to her, that is the way she can be a good wife. Thus, even when she sneaked out to a school at the end of the day, she worries not for her father's reactions but for her mother would smack her and nag all day. Thus, she reveals that, “if not for Ma, Pa would have seen to it that I started school with Boy”( SCC , 4).

Self-Assertion of the Female Gender in Second Class Citizen

In Second Class Citizen, there is a projection of a powerful compelling voice, women should confront the male superiority image or dominance, even in the face of highly repressive cultural belief and roles attached to

12 them traditionally, they should strive and assert themselves out of poverty, unhappy marriage and molestation to a comfortable liberated ends. In the novel, the issue of self-assertion and personal development is portrayed through the main character, Adah. She sees education as a way out of poverty and to liberate herself from the cultural norms and the perception of female gender in her society. The fact that she was born a female child, denied the opportunity to education, married early and affected with the socio-cultural experiences grow made her stronger and strive towards achieving a dream.

Adah asserts herself by rejecting the socio-cultural norms of her people and succeeds in gaining education up to secondary school level on her own. Even after her marriage with Francis Obi, she keeps her dreams alive and realizes that her financial contribution to the house hold is the main force that keeps her family together (Helen Chukwuma, 1995, 132).

The single most competing factor of female subjugation was her economic dependence on the female, and the social demands that made a woman give all her earnings to the home because her identity lies there. Adah never accepted that she is a second class citizen in London even if she is a black or because she is a woman she confronted the laws that the black people lived by, she worked with the known first class people, in their company and even wanted a life of comfort like they had because she wanted to have a better life and also for her children. This purpose made her to be more resourceful and creative, thus she began to write a novel, which was finally burnt by her husband, Francis. For her full assertion of a comfortable liberated life, she divorced Francis and took responsibility for her children.

Other female characters in the novel like Adah’s mother and Francis mother, similar to their contemporaries in many African societies, had

13 accepted the inferiority ascribed to their gender, and are submissive to the cultural norms and tradition binding them under male dominance. Consequently, they do nothing to correct the identified oppressive notions of women and female gender. Also, they do not fight or gain their identity, and do not help other women assert or define their own self. They simply remain voiceless and contented with their roles as just wives and mothers.

Conclusion

In Second Class Citizen, Buchi Emecheta, like in her other notable works, aptly describes some of the African beliefs and practices that promote social and gender inequality, thereby revealing the need for social change. It includes the belief that it is only a male child that is expected to have a formal and sound education which is contrary to contemporary belief and practice of equal opportunity and right to education by both genders. A woman without a male child is despised by the society because girls are regarded as inferior to boys but Adah is a girl and is determined to be someone in life, therefore she confronts the beliefs by struggling by all means to see her goal of being educated is achieved. She attends the best school of her interest that is the Methodist Girls' School because she understood the importance of education and its role as a tool for self- emancipation and self-actualization. Through Adah’s attitude, it is observed that she never accepted that tag of being a second fiddle to men, thus the inferior position given to women should be rejected like in decision making on their education, marriage and even acquisition of skills or job. In the United Kingdom, when Adah was seeking for a job, she was made to understand that the kind of job she is looking for is only meant for the first class citizen and not the second class like her, she insisted on the type of job she wanted until she got it. She got nothing less because of her resilience to go for the best.

The notion that women’s position should not be higher than their husbands is confronted by Adah. The African belief that women should be in the house obeying and breeding children for their husbands as seen in the life of Adah’s mother and Francis’s mother is rejected by Adah and that threatens Francis her husband because he sees her thrice his salary earning as a threat to his position in his family. Emecheta advocates a change of attitude towards female gender and believes that this change should be initiated by women themselves, also that a woman can contribute meaningfully to the growth of her family and society just as men too. Hence, Adah's reactions towards the domineering nature of her husband and other males in her extended family seen as a rebellion, were only calculated acts for the advancement of her family's position.

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A VIRTUAL STUDY OF DIFFERENT SCHOLARS VARIETIES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE USED IN NIGERIA RAJI, Tolulope Olabimpe

Abstract

The paper examines some varieties of English language in Nigeria as presented by scholars like Brosnaham (1958), Banjo (1971), Adesanoye (1973) Olagoke (1981), and Bamgbose (1982) Awonusi (1987). In this study a critical analysis of the existence of varieties in English has been made. In considering the variation by these scholars we have parameters like Education, Socio-linguistics occupation etc. and all this were reflected upon in the study. This paper therefore shows that there can be different parameters in the classification of English language in Nigeria. Key word: varieties, English language, Scholars, Education, Socio- linguistics.

Introduction

English language has been adopted by many Nigeria homes especially in the Southern part of the nation. This implies that English language has steadily become a language spoken by most Nigerians. This effect means that English as a language has become a kind of native language in Nigeria. In some parts of Nigeria, English language has been ‘ nativised’ while some see it as a second language; others have pidginized the English spoken in their environment in order to accommodate the sheer needs of the people. It is obvious that English language used in Nigeria has been twisted to express “Unaccustomed concepts and modes of interaction”.

This can be seen as the precipitate of its domestication. According to Wale Adegbite (2003), ‘English language is tagged technically as a second language (ESL) in Nigeria’. English has become the language spoken by the ruling power ; the language has been energized as a prevailing factor over the native and indigenous language of the people due to its operation in most offices, homes and public places .This can be traced to fact that English language was the language used by the Colonial masters.

English language therefore became i. The language of instruction/teaching entertainment, socialization media. ii. The language of communication and media iii. The language of control, legislation and governance iv. The language of trade/business and employment. v. The language of education & Administrative purpose. vi. The language used for international communication.

It is pertinent to agree with Wale Adegbite that English language is a second language because there are indigenous languages that take the place of mother tongue or Li. It came into existence asa result of language interaction situation especially when two languages meet two nations have met. English language has therefore become an instrument used globally as a means of communication especiallyon the internet, this does not mean that other languages such as French, Dutch, and Spanish etc. are not used, but English is widely accepted by the Anglo-phone speaking countries.

Brosnahan Classification of English In Nigeria

The first attempt at differentiating the use of English in Nigeria was made by Brosnahan’s (1958). According to Banjo (1971) Brosnahan’s variety are Educationally determined. This means that Education is the parameter he used in his classification and posits for varieties. Variety I presents the performances of those who acquired the language outside the school system. Variety II represents the performance of Nigerians with primary Education, Variety III represents those with secondary Education and Variety IV those with University Education

Brosnahan’s varieties of English language are based on Educational levels already attained and his observations were confined to the southern part of the country. Using the level of Education as a parameter is fraught with instability because many Nigerians are still undergoing formal Education and will normally rise from one level to another. There is mobility between the levels which makes variety differentiation more tasking. However, Education is not the only determinant of language variation.

Banjo’s Classification of English in Nigeria

Banjo 1971 point out that Bronahan’s classifications is too simplistic and attempts a classification based on grammatical feature and degrees approximation to the world standard British English and the Received Pronunciation (RP). He proposes four varieties in which Educational achievement play a part and it has a role in the differentiation. Banjo’s Variety I is pidgin and not English. Banjo’s Variety I is used by Nigerians who have picked up the language as a result of the exigencies of occupation. The first variety can be best described as ‘Broken English’. The degree of approximation to the standard British English is very

21 minimal. In fact Variety I speakers spread their much more controlled vowel systems over the more standard one of RP, with the result that the vowel contrast are obliterated and in many cases, there are cases of substitution of the consonant phonemes and these vary from language to language (Igbo, Hausa, Yoruba). The vocabulary of variety I is highly restricted and may likely be confined to the register of the language used.

Although Banjo remarked that Brosnahan’s classification is too simplistic and that the parameter used by Brosnaham were restrictive, Banjo’s classification however, qualifies as “An elaboration of Brosnaham varieties. His variety goes further into explaining divergences’ or the extent of differentiation in Brosnahan’s classification. We cannot talk about approximation to the RP and grammatical features without a previous Education.

Variety II: Banjo’s classification in variety II states that most Nigerians are bilingual speakers of English. This means that they have a form of secondary School Education after their primary school. Discoveries show that there is an evidence of phonemic contrast in the speech variety II which was not present in variety I.

Variety III: Variety III is a further exposure to a standard of the English language that represents the acrolectal use of English in Nigeria. Variety III is mostly seen in University graduates. Koyore (1985) and Jowitt (1991) support Banjo’s Variety III.

Variety IV: In appraising Variety III another variety that can be labeled as Variety IV evolves. This includes a regional classification of speakers who have been exposed to English language from a country which experiences English language as a mother tongue.

From this variety of English, the speaker may eventually lose their accent and then replace it with variety II which is assumed to be the standard variety. However, Banjo (1971) opines that:

The criterion of social acceptability demands that the variety to be adopted commands enough prestige in the country. If the matter were to be resolved democratically by being put to the vote, variety II would obviously win the day since it is the variety III which unlike variety VI is a variety that many speakers of variety II themselves would like to attain. Social acceptability is a crucial requirement for an endonomative standard for without it, the propagation of the variety would be difficult if not in fact impossible such a basis of choice also breeds a sense of national pride in the speakers and learners. Banjo’s parameter in classification of the English language in Nigeria is basically linguistic using features as a parameter (a noun) from which the degree of deviation from the standard variety is determined. Banjo adds another parameter to the linguistic which presents the sociolinguistic parameter as intelligible and socially acceptable in Nigeria.

Bamgbose’s Classification

Another critique of banjo’s variety IV is Bamgbose (1982) he queried the inclusion of IV and removed it from the various categories of the varieties of English. This however makes the varieties to be less homogeneous to the preceding varieties. Bamgbose fuses Brosnahan’s varieties II-IV with banjo’s varieties 1-3. Thus the parameter Bamgbose uses is a correlate of Education and linguistic features

Adesanoye’s Classification

Adesanoye (1973) identifies threeVarieties using Education and sociolinguistic and occupation as a parameter. He links variety I with the average primary school levers, the modern three pupils and also low grade workers, variety 2 with secondary school leavers, sixth formers and many university students and also most magistrates and many journalists and variety 3, representing the graduate class, with most universities lecturers, superior judges, administrators the more sophisticated authors. The Educational system in Nigeria has witnessed substantial changes with the introduction of 6-3-3-4 system of Education in 1980(which is likely to change soon), it has an additional component with the spilling of the old secondary into junior secondary schools. However, it is important to note that Nigerians can fall into a very wide range of categories according to Educational attainment.

Usually each variety is made up of a continuum of groups of Nigerians, there are different classes of graduates for example in the University system, there are those with a first degree, masters holders and doctorate degree holders and all along the line there are other groups which can fit into the classification, particularly the pre-undergraduate level. Some other factors which affect language variation tend to make the Educational parameter incapable of being regarded as an absolute one.

Olagoke’s Classification

Olagoke (1981) however, views that the development of local variant of English is more or less the same in other multilingual areas like Ghana, East, African, India, Pakistan and others were English is widely used outside native-speaking environments. In Olagoke’s paper he presented Kachru’ study as

The indianness in English thought that in India English has blended itself with the social and cultural life of the country and has even become indianized and culture bound, and the linguistic implication of such acculturation of IE are that the more culture bound it become the more distance is created between IE and other varieties of English. In considering the lexical deviation in Nigerian English and the influences or effect of Nigeria languages on English, Kachru observation seems highly irrelevant. This is because many of the socio-linguistic factor he has identifies in india are at work in Nigeria, although perhaps not to the same extent if following Adetugbo (1979:137), Nigerian English is defined as the varieties of English used in Nigerian especially those used by educated Nigerians on formal occasions, the questions to ask are these: 1. Are local varieties of English in Nigeria different from Standard English elsewhere? 2. Is English so Nigerians’ as to become inseparable from the culture of the people? 3. Is English in Nigeria so different from Standard English as to become almost unintelligible to speakers of other varieties of English?

The above questions however make it possible for us to accept the fact that English as used in Nigeria has varieties which are not different from the Standard English elsewhere.

Awonusi’s Classification of Nigerian English

Awonusi (1987) in his grouping derived the lectal pyramid to illustrate the Nigerian English continuum. He says that Nigerian English continuum which is pyramidal in shape is publicly and geographically motivated, having at its apex, the acrolectal Nigerian English, and, at its maximally

25 broad base, the basilectal Nigerian English, while the mesolectal Nigerian English lies in between the two extremes. On this principle, Obalade {1988} says within this frame work, Nigerian English may be defined as the discourse form that grips all the lects spoken in Nigeria; the basilectal, mesolect, and the acrolect.

Conclusion

Nigerian English is that unevenness in English used by Nigerians to converse across socio-cultural borders and we know global English differs from that of the native speaker. Nigerian English is reformed from the native speakers of English and other English’s in terms of its usage of some culture-specific transformations as well as its non-observance of certain global and surface structure constraints. There is no doubt that there exists Nigerian English and Adetugbo clearly states that Nigerian English unlike British and American English ought to be viewed as “… a dialect or a group of divergent form of a language bereft of any pierce meaning of inferiority usually attached to the world”. It is this origin that diverse intellectuals in Nigeria have in launching the different diversities of English Language articulated in Nigeria using dissimilar approaches.

It is also observed that English has become a part of the philosophy of the people and actually acts as the lingua franca, second and official language of the people. The spoken English has promoted understanding and National unity in the country. We are also forced to accept scholars like Brosnanhan’s and Banjo’s classification of English even though advanced Education does not relate with high ability and capability in the use of English, we can consequently assume that the standard English of school certificate holder should be higher than that primary school pupils and that of the university student and lecturers who represent the apex of the

Educational pyramid, should be better than the other members of the Nigeria society i.e. there must be a standard.

References

Adetugbo, A 1979 ‘Appropriation and Nigerian English and ‘Nigerian English and communicative competence in Varieties and Function of English in Nigeria (ed) EboUbahakwe, African Universities press Nigeria, English students Association 137 183

Anonusi, S and Babalola E.A 2003. The Domestication of English in Nigeria LAGOS: University of Lagos press.

Banjo, A. 1996 Making a Virtue of Necessity: An overview of the English Language in Nigeria. Ibadan: University press.

Brosnahan, 1958,”English in Southern Nigeria”English Studies 39, 97- 110.

Dadzie, A.B.K and Awonusi, S 1980 Nigerian Englishinfluences and Characteristics: England: Longman Group.

Jowitt, D. 1991 Nigerian English Usage: An Introduction Lagos: Longman Jowitt, Nigeria.

Olagoke, D.O. 1981 Lexical Deviations in Nigerian English Journal of Language Art and Communication. 2.334:38-39.

Oyeleye, Lekan (2004) Language and Discourse in Society. Ibadan: Hope publication.

Wale Adegbite (2003) Enlightenment and attitudes of the Nigerian elite on the roles of Languages in Nigeria.Language in culture and curriculum.

AMINATA SOW FALL ET LES EFFETS DE LA POLYGAMIE

ADISA, Akinkorede Somana & MURITALA, Shuaib A.

Résumé La littérature féminine d’Afrique francophone s’est montrée comme une littérature engagée, dès le début. Les écrivaines critiquaient l’oppression des hommes à travers les thèmes majeurs tels que le mariage, la polygamie, la circoncision, l’assujettissement etc., dans leurs œuvres. Elles ont commencé à décrire les femmes africaines comme intelligentes, actives, capables, déterminées et à la recherche de la justice. Et elles ont décrit ces problèmes afin d’éduquer et suggérer des solutions. Dans cette communication, nous nous penchons sur l’analyse des textes littéraires surtout relatif aux issues féministes. Il s’agit de dévoiler les effets de la polygamie en Afrique, à travers l’œuvre d’Aminata Sow Fall. Nous avons adopté la méthode d’analyse textuelle. Cette recherche fait l’objet d’une recherche qualitative dans la mesure où il est question d’analyser un simple phénomène social : la polygamie. Etant littéraire, le travail repose essentiellement sur l’analyse de certaines œuvres feminine. De plus, nous recourrons à des écrits et publications pertinents et relatifs. Bien sur, les effets négatifs comme on témoigne dans notre société d'aujourd’hui et par rapports aux romans féministes, tels ceux d'Aminata Sow Fall, Ahmadou Kourouma, Sembène Ousmane etc., sont plus nombreux que ceux du positif. En somme, cette recherche condamne l’infidélité, l’abandonnent ou la séparation des parents et leurs enfants, l’abus et la mort des enfants parmi beaucoup d'autres, sans oublié de dévoiler la beauté de la polygamie. Nous recommandons cette recherche alors aux chercheurs, étudiants, professeurs, parents, et aux gouverneurs.

Mots-clés : Littérature africaine, polygamies, l’infidélité, l’abandonnement, la séparation des parents, la fraternité

Introduction La littérature africaine francophone a ajouté un nouveau thème dans les années 1970. On y voit le féminisme naitre, un thème dans lequel les écrivaines s’illustrent pour défendre leur droit ou la marginalisation. Notons que ce n’est pas seulement les femmes qui sont féministes, plusieurs écrivains (hommes) soutiennent ce courant. Les écrivains tels que Sembène Ousmane, William Sassine, Ahmadou Kourouma, ont tous d’une manière ou d’une autre discuté les issues relatifs aux femmes.

De prime abord, les écrivains féministes ne font que dévoiler l’assujettissement de la femme ou les problèmes de la polygamie. Surtout, beaucoup d’écrivains voient la polygamie comme un tabou ou plus précisément comme un phénomène négatif. Mais il y en a qui traitent la polygamie comme ayant une double facette. C’est-à-dire il y a des œuvres comme L’Appel des Arènes, Le Jeune Homme de Sable, La Famille Africaine etc., dévoilent la polygamie comme étant un phénomène aussi bien négatif et positif.

Cette recherche littéraire a pour objectif d’analyser les effets de la polygamie et ses conséquences à travers L’Appel des Arènes et L'ex-père de la Nation comme les romans principaux. L’accent était mis sur les effets négatifs, sans dévoiler les effets positifs. C’est sur ce fond que cette recherche va tenter d’analyser les effets positifs et montrer jusqu’à quel point ces effets influencent l’économie de la nation. Nous allons citer les cas tirés de certaines œuvres féministes.

Nous avons adopté la méthode d’analyse textuelle. On trouve que l’aspect positif de la polygamie influence aussi positivement l’économie. Donc nous recommandons cette recherche aux chercheurs, étudiants, parents et aux gouverneurs. Puisque Patience Lysias Dodd Gilbert cite(2010) cite Boserup (1986 :37&38), que la polygamie remplissait une fonction socio- économique: celui qui a plusieurs femmes et enfants profitait d’un prestige social élevé et elle existait avec un système primitif d’agriculture dans lequel les femmes et les enfants faisaient la plupart du travail de la ferme. Les hommes étaient encouragés et motivés d’épouser beaucoup de femmes et par conséquent d’avoir beaucoup d’enfants qui servaient comme main d’œuvre moins chère et comme moyen d’élargir la propriété des champs. Ce système a beaucoup contribué au développement de l’économie à travers l’agriculture et l’augmentation de la population.

L'effet Positif De La Polygamie Malgré la condamnation de ce type du mariage, la polygamie a quand même, quelques effets positifs si elle est bien organisée et religieusement programmée comme dans les jours de nos ancêtres. Malheureusement, presque tous les écrivains africains surtout les écrivains contemporains rejettent la polygamie dans son entièreté. Cela provoque la question à laquelle nous sommes en train de répondre : la polygamie, n'a-t-elle aucun avantage?

Nous voudrions dire non avec les raisons suivantes : Tout d'abord, c'est à partir de la polygamie qu'une famille, une nation ou un continent peut se multiplier rapidement, sans causer des problèmes de la santé. Une famille monogame ne peut pas mettre au monde plus de trois ou quatre enfants sans exposer la femme et même ses enfants aux dangers anti-natal,

30 prénatal et post-natal dans la société ou les besoins fondamentaux surtout la nourriture et la santé ne sont jamais abordables.

On ne doit pas être ignorant du fait que la famille est la plus petite unité d'une société. Pour qu'une société soit forte, formidable et puissante économiquement, culturellement et surtout militairement, une telle société doit avoir une population optimiste. Ainsi, Tayo Lanwo dans son livre intitulé Nigerian Economy a fort déclaré que: ‘’The size of labour force is a function of total population.’’ 1 Cela veut dire que la disponibilité de main-d’œuvre active dépende largement de la population. Le Nigeria entant que le géant de 1'Afrique actuelle gagne une grande proportion de son revenu de 1'Agriculture avant la découverte du pétrole. C'est parce que la majorité des familles nigérianes sont polygames dont les enfants constituent leur main-d’œuvre majeures.

L’Israël et la Turquie sont des grandes nations du monde aujourd’hui grâce à la polygamie. L’Israël contemporain est le produit de Jacob qui met au monde douze enfants de quatre femmes. Ces douze enfants deviennent les douze tribus impénétrables en Israël. Quant à la Turquie, ou les Albaniens sont les minorités grâce à la polygamie, ils deviennent plus nombreux que les Serbiens qui étaient la majorité. Le professeur Odunuga dans une de ses notes de cours déclare que : The Albanians minority was converted into Islam and through their practical polygamy, they out-numbered the Serbians majority... 2. ‘Les minorités Albanians qui étaient convertis en Islam, à travers leur système de polygamie, ont pu dépasser le nombre des Serbians qui s’etaient mjoritaire. Notre traduction.’

Aminata Sow Fall, notre romancière sénégalaise n’hésite pas de présenter encore un autre avantage de la polygamie dans son œuvre. C'est un fait indéniable qu’il existe une fraternité sincère entre les membres du système polygamique. Ceci correspond à la notion du communalisme qui s'oppose à 1'individualisme d'aujourd’hui. Dans le système communaliste, il existe le principe de la responsabilité collective. Aucun membre ne souffre pas sans raison, tous les membres agissent comme une équipe pour combattre n’importe quel problème externe. Pour s'assurer de la protection, Anta Lo, la sœur de Malaw, le grand lutteur de Diaminar revient chez elle après avoir commis l’infanticide en ville à cause de sa situation pitoyable dans laquelle elle se trouve après la disparition du père de son bébé. Les membres de sa famille, surtout les femmes de Malaw la protègent dans cet extrait: ...Huit jours après 1'arrivée de ma sœur, des gendarmes pénétrèrent dans Diaminar sans même saluer....Ils se dirigèrent vers la calebasse des femmes. Le grincement de leurs bottes était sinistre une grande terreur envahit les femmes. Elles ne regardèrent pas les gendarmes. Leur visage décomposé s'était tournée instinctivement vers les hommes...ces derniers avaient reconnu Anta assise entre ma mère et mes deux femmes qui tenaient chacun un bébé... 3

A part le fait que cette description fictive soit un portrait de la fraternité sincère, elle montre aussi qu'une famille polygame s'assure de la sécurité. Même les gendarmes qui symbolisent les autorités civiles et les envahisseurs externes ont toujours peur des guerrières parce que les guerres menées par les femmes n'ont jamais échoué. Ce sont des guerres abominables faites contre l’oppression de leurs enfants et de leur nation,

32 par exemple, la guerre des femmes d'Aba de 1949. La polygamie reste encore la seule source de ce genre de fraternité.

Les Effets Negatifs De La Polygamie Malgré le fait que la polygamie a des avantages parmi lesquels nous avons analysé ci-dessus, il existe beaucoup de désavantages dans ce genre de mariage. Puisqu’il y a tant d’effets négatifs de la polygamie, l’infidélité, 1'abandon ou le divorce tabous et la mort des enfants etc., peuvent être la récapitulation des effets principales de la polygamie.

L1NFIDELITE Le terme infidélité a plusieurs connotations. D'après Larousse de Poche : ‘’Un infidèle est celui qui ne pratique pas la religion considérée vraie’’. 4 Le dictionnaire considère 1'infidélité comme une pratique antireligieuse. Cette définition ne correspond pas au sujet de notre discussion. L'Oxford Advanced Leraner's Dictionnarv definite le terme ‘Infidèlité’ 1 comme: The action or an instance of not being faithful to one's husband, wife or partner by having a relationship with somebody else. 5 Le fait ou la situation de ne pas etre fidele au mari de soi, à la femme au partenariat en ayant des relations avec une autre personne. Notre traduction

Cela veut dire que c'est une pratique ou précisément un péché d'avoir une relation clandestine avec quelqu'un autre que le man et vice-versa. L'infidélité est le climax de la décadence morale et religieuse dans une société. Ces jours-là, 1'infidélité est un tabou surtout chez les femmes. Une femme infidèle est ouvertement condamnée. Bien qu'elle soit un peu permise aux hommes, les infidèles risquent la mort tragique ou 1'impuissance spirituelle.

C'est ce que Sembène Ousmane appelle xala dans son roman publié en 1973. Dans la traduction du roman par Tunde Ajiboye, il 1'appelle ‘MAGUN’ qui correspond l'impuissance spirituelle chez les Yoruba.

L'infidélité est le premier effet négatif de la polygamie. C'est le premier niveau aux malheurs conjugaux. Un polygamiste ne peut pas être fidèle à toutes ses femmes. L’homme ne peut pas aimer ses femmes de la même manière puisque ces femmes apprécièrent en revanche cet amour différemment. Et quand l’homme se trouve dans cette situation de bien apprécier celui qui lui traite de mieux, la jalousie naisse pour créer une tension dans la famille. Beaucoup de familles ont été dérobées de la paix, de 1'amour et du progrès qui existaient avant l’arrivée de la deuxième épouse. Dans L’ex-père de la Nation d'Aminata Sow Fall, Madiama, un polygamiste égoïste aime sa deuxième femme Yandé plus que sa première femme Coura qui double aussi comme sa mère. II 1'accusait de jalousie :

Méchante Coura! la jalousie te rend méchante! Ignoblement méchante ! 6

Les coépouses sont toujours les victimes des malheurs entre une femme et son mari polygame. Au lieu d'injurier ou insulter le mari auquel elle s'adresse, Coura adresse ses paroles abusives à Yande sa coépouse ainsi: L'ignoble, c'est Yande. C'est la femme que tu as épousée. Et tu crois qu'elle mérite de tenir 1'autre bout de mon drap. Jamais ! Jamais de la vie ! Je le dis bien : Jamais de la vie ! 7

Bien que Coura soit une femme modeste, une traditionaliste qui savait tenir la bride haute de ses sentiments. Nafi, sa fille ainée, comme Binetou, la fille de Ramatoulaye dans Une si tongue Lettre de Mariama Ba et

Rama, la fille de Hadjia Awa Astou dans Xala n'avait pas bronchée. Elle a exprimé son opinion à ses parents avec 1'accent incisif d'une amazone dans cet extrait: Avec Yande (la seconde femme), tu as introduit le diable en personne dans ta maison. N’y a que les hommes pour aller toujours n’importe où ramasser la graine pourrie. 8

Dans le roman Le Jeune Homme de Sable William Sassine nous laisse voir le côté extrême de I ‘infidélité. Mafory, la deuxième femme du député Abdou, à l'aide de son amie Mariama s'est dirige chez Papa Ibrahim un marabout où elle expose les situations pitoyables auxquelles les femmes sont exposées par leur mari polygames. Mariama devient la porte-parole de Mafory en disant que: Il vient de se marier, et à présent, même quand le tour de Mafory arrive, il prétend qu'elle allaite encore et la fait remplacer par Hadiza, la nouvelle épouse... auparavant, il jouait tout le temps avec les jumeaux de mon amie. A présent, il ne peut pas le sentir... 9

Elle conclut ses longues paroles en disant que :

Papa Ibrahim, Mafory voudrait que vous 1'aidiez à faire disparaitre 1'affection injuste et abusive que le député porte à Oumarou : ainsi, son mari pourra à nouveau... 10

Malfory confia à Papa Ibrahim que son mari boit du vin et celui-là répond: C'est parfait. II est déjà entre les mains de satan. Procure-lui le meilleur vin de la ville avant le matin. 11

L'infidélité n'est pas limitée aux hommes. Les femmes aussi la pratiquent. Mais il faut rapidement souligner qu'une femme devient infidèle dans la plupart de temps, lorsqu'elle est frustrée et abandonnée par son mari. En fait, il existe des femmes sexuellement insatisfaites. Ce sont des nymphomanes. Ironiquement, Hadiza, la deuxième femme du député Abdou s'engage dans la relation clandestine avec Oumarou, le fils ainé du député. Elle confie beaucoup de secrets du député à Oumarou. Williams Sassine décrit l’un de leurs rendez-vous amoureux : …Ils luttèrent un moment en silence, avant qu'il ne pénètre, par un furieux coup de boutoir, un monde merveilleux et clair qui lui fit tout oublier. Longtemps après, tandis que la jeune femme habillait, il choisit une cassette et l’introduisit dans son magnétophone…12

On ne peut pas imaginer les conséquences désastreuses de l’infidélité, mais nous pouvons retenir les suivantes : Les maladies contagieuses comme le SIDA, la mort soudaine, la brise de la famille et les crises sociaux.

L’abandon Et La Separation Un autre effet de la polygamie est 1'abandon et la séparation. II faut signaler ici que les conséquences de la séparation sont plus désastreuses qu'un contact physique avec un lion parce que les femmes pensent souvent avoir été trichées ou driblée surtout dans le cas ou une telle femme partage le même compte bancaire avec son mari et au cas où les biens acquis appartiennent à les deux, avant l’arrivée de la deuxième épouse.

Dans la plupart du temps, l’homme gaspille les propriétés acquises unanimement avec la première épouse pour satisfaire aux besoins

36 financiers et matériels interminables de la nouvelle épouse au détriment de l’éducation, de la santé et du bien-être des enfants de la première épouse. Le sommet de cette mauvaise pratique c'est 1'abandon et la séparation totale lorsque soit la femme, soit le mari ne peut plus supporter une telle situation provocante. Et que les hommes divorcent leur première femme n'est plus nouvelle en Afrique contemporaine, ce qui est pourtant nouvelle est le contraire telle qu'elle est peinte par Aminata Sow Fall. Cette présentation est unique chez les écrivains africains surtout les féministes. Coura, la première femme de Madiama symbolise une nouvelle femme noire, qui sait faire une guerre sans même tenir un fusil. Elle ne se laisse pas à etre abandonné par Madiama, elle sait déjà que Yande est devenue une nouvelle mangue mure dans la bouche de son mari, elle sait l’heure appropriée pour discuter avec son mari, elle sait même comment établir ses paroles, alors elle déclare: Ecoute Madiama: j'ai vaincu mon cœur à l’instant mȇme où il a voulu me troubler. Maintenant, je suis en pleine possession de tous mes nerfs... je ne passerai pas ma vie à t'accabler de reproches... je peux vouloir dire oui ou non sans offenser ma patrie ni mes ancêtres. 13

Les longues paroles de coura sont aussi efficaces que la magique. Madiama sent un esprit de culpabilité lorsqu'il dit: ‘J'avais reconnu dans ces propos la marque de ma mère’. 14 Elle lui persuade d'avoir un flash-back de la contribution sacrilège de sa belle-mère avant et après leur mariage. Elle avait dit solennellement que: Madiama et Coura : vous deux pour toujours, jusqu'à la mort". Et nous avions répété tous les deux: Nous

deux jusqu'à la mort. L'œil rayonnant… elle avait enterré la calebasse pour...souillure. 15

Madiama a renoncé déjà à sa polygamie quand coura déclare que :

Elle est ta femme. Et moi je serai dorénavant la femme que le destin et la volonté de mes ancêtres t'ont collée pour la vie...je serai toujours à tes cotés. Mais sans plus, sans plus, car je ne serai plus ta femme. Comprends que je ne verrai plus jamais en toi le male. 16

Cette déclaration est 1'apogée du roman, elle marque une victoire, une vraie émancipation, chez les femmes africaines. Jusqu'à la fin du roman, Madiama témoigne beaucoup de calamités. La mort de sa fille, Nafi. Son arrestation et incarcération en prison là où il reste lorsqu'il raconte son histoire qui devient ce roman. Beaucoup d'autres femmes sont malheureuses. Par exemple, Aissatou Painee de Ramatoulaye à laquelle la dernière s'adresse dans Une si tongue Lettre de Manama Ba.

L'abus Et La Mort D'enfant Les enfants sont toujours les victimes du divorce ou d'autre effet extrême de la polygamie. Lorsque la séparation devient la seule solution entre une femme et son mari, les enfants doivent suivre leur mère surtout s'ils sont encore petits dans 1'intention que l’homme viendra de temps en temps (ou vise-versa) pour fournir ses fonctions financières et morales. Mais dans la plupart du temps, la femme est rejetée pendant une longue période avec ses enfants et l’homme s'installe de nouveau avec une nouvelle jeune femme. Voila pourquoi Adepoju Aderanti, un chercheur et analyste

38 publique, dans le résultat de sa recherche intitulé "Les Mutations de Familles Africaines" montre que: La proportion de familles dirigées par une femme dans une famille monoparentale est en augmentation au milieu rural et au milieu urbain. Ce la peut résulter du divorce... 17

Nourrir ces enfants devient souvent un problème surtout aux pays du tiers monde ou les besoins fondamentaux n'existent guère. Les enfants sont donc condamnés à être commercialisés. Les filles parmi eux sont mariées à 1'âge trop tendre aux homme parfois à 1'âge de leurs pères juste pour gagner de l’argent du meilleur prétendant qui versera beaucoup de dot et sans considérer l’âge du prétendant à celle de la jeune fille. Les enfants, pour s'assurer du bien-ȇtre de la famille s'engagent dans les travaux communs.

Aminata sow Fall nous laisse voir comment Nafi, une jeune fille s'engage dans le parti politique de l’opposition à celui dirigé par son père.Tout d'abord, pour se prémunir contre le pouvoir masculin de son père et deuxièmement pour assurer ce dont à manger à sa mère et ses frères. Malheureusement, le jour d’une grande manifestation centre le gouvernement, Nafi est tuée sans qu'on puisse dire clairement si elle est tuée par la police ou par la foule.

Ahmadou Kourouma, dans son roman classique Allah n'est pas Obligé décrit comment les jeunes Africains ratent leur enfance à cause de la polygamie et la mal administration. Le personnage principal, Birahima qui devient enfant-soldat, simplement pour gagner sa vie et s'occuper de sa vielle maman, au lieu d'ȇtre à1'école. Tout au long, la vie n'a aucun sens

pour ces enfants. II ne font que chercher des moyens pour survivre seulement.

Conclusion Nous voulons joindre beaucoup d'autres analystes publiques surtout Wole Soyinka au Nigeria, Kenneth Kaunda en Zambie et Wande Abimbola au Nigeria pour ne pas mentionner que les vivants, que parfois en Afrique, la polygamie est inévitable. Quand même, dans telle situation inévitable, tous ceux qui font parties doivent veiller d'ȇtre modestes. La polygamie ne doit pas ȇtre un instrument d'opposition mais une mesure corrective aux problèmes conjugaux. Nous avons remarqué que le problème conjugal n'est pas à cause de la polygamie mais à cause du comportement excessif des parties La polygamie est un élément important de la culture et des traditions africaines. Tous les Africains, puis qu'ils n'ont pas d'autre origine doivent embraser, à bras ouvert ce qui leur appartient. II y aura de paix permanente publique, surtout les femmes, ne portent plus des regards soupçonneux aux familles polygames.

Notes et References 1. Lanwo Tayo : Nigerian Economy. Ibadan, Evans, 1991, p. 274. 2. Odunuga Segun : Lecture Note on MES 702, " Europe Since 1945", Dept. of European Studies, Unibadan, 2002. 3. Fall Sow Aminata : 1'Appel des Arenes. Dakar, NEA, 1982, pp. 122- 123. 4. Larousse de Poche. : Paris Edition Refondue, 1979, p. 220 5. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, UPL, Ibadan, 1998, p. 51

6. Fall Sow Aminata : L'ex-pere de la Nation. Paris, L*Harmattan 1981, p. 55 7. Ibid, p. 55 8. Ibid, p. 14 9. Sassine Williams : Le Jeune Homme de Sable, Paris, Presence Africaine, p. 125. 10. Ibid, p. 130 11. Ibid, p. 130 12. Ibid, p. 122 13. Fall Sow Aminata : op. cit., p. 56 14. Ibid, p. 56 15. Ibid, p. 58 16. Ibid, p. 58 17. Adepoju Aderanti et al. : La Famille Africaine, London, Zed books Ltd, 1999, p.

FROM ORALITY TO LITERACY: A LEXICAL SEMANTIC STUDY OF SELECT YORUBA PROVERBS IDOWU, Olubunmi A.

Abstract

The language of Proverbs has been studied from stylistic and sociolinguistic perspectives to reveal the social roles of language use in explicating the value and belief systems of its speakers. However, little attention has been paid to the meaning relations of this linguistic variety, especially the lexical semantic features as unique to the Yoruba language and culture. Therefore, this study investigates the lexico-semantic features in selected Yoruba proverbs. In the process of the analysis the cultural implications of the proverbs are established. The work will further explicate the transition between orality and literacy by examining the use of proverbs in folklore and how it is used in contemporary times by writers like Ola Rotimi in Kurunmi and Our Husband has gone Mad Again to show the enduring relevance and functions of these Proverbs. Using the Lexical semantic properties of the nature of metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, pun in the proverbs, this study projects the rhetorical and sociocultural values of the Yoruba language and culture with the purpose of transforming the contemporary society. The metaphorical and compressed forms of the proverbs are explicated and made attractive for use, especially for the younger generations of the Yoruba speech community. Consequently, a context and meaning-oriented study of Proverbs is expected to familiarize and integrate the language users into the Yoruba culture, with the purpose of transforming the contemporary society, based on the relevant themes and functions of the selected data . Ultimately, this work is expected to facilitate more researches in the proverbs of other speech communities in Nigeria and West Africa.

Introduction

Semantics has been defined variously by theorists of varied disciplines from different approaches. Though it has been an area of major controversies, it is also an area of active research among (and between) linguistics and philosophers. For Falk (1981) semantics is “the study of direct linguistic meaning – abstracted from such matters as situation, beliefs and individual experiences; while Leech (1981) defines semantics as the scientific study of meaning, centrally concerned with man’s understanding of himself as a species that lives by communication. His view of meaning is that of an observable context, and agrees with J.B. Firth (1968) which considers the notion of contextualization for determining meaning in semantics, as an ideal for scientific objectivity. This is an important point that reinforces the communication value of semantics, based on the fact that language is not only informative but expressive and communicative.

Consequently, Semantics can be defined as a branch of linguistics that studies the nature of formal meaning of individual words or group of words (sentences). It is an important part of a grammar that interprets the linguistic utterances with respect to the words that are used and the different ways that they are strung together to form varieties of sentences. Thus, a semantic system is the entire system of meaning which is expressed by grammar as well as the vocabulary of a language, hence a lexio-semantic study. Semantic studies that focus on the meaning of words is the lexical semantics, while it is structural semantics when it focuses on sentences. The focus of this work is lexical semantics because the focus is on the use and meaning of words to explicate Yoruba proverbs as linguistic units within the Yoruba culture. The word is one of the most fundamental units of linguistic structure (Akmajian et.al. 2001:11). It is a

43 dynamic system that helps the human ability to use language creatively, due to its open- ended. In view of the open –endedness of the lexical system, any practical study of the vocabulary should consider its use. According to Joseph et. al. (2003:88), “the meaning of a word is its use” (cf Witgenstein 1999:69). From this pragmatic point of view, one can conclude as Mc Arthur (1983:38) suggests thus:

The grammatical investigation of language should describe what happens, what people do _ in these practices, _and how their words and actions function therein. This is based on the perception of language as a form of behavioural practice (Witngenstein 1999). The different varieties of these practices, the complexities involved and, the indefinite nature of language, can lead to grammatical confusion and, semantic misconception, except the investigation is carried out with a consideration for the situational contexts in which the practices occur. Consequently, the grammar of a language (of which the vocabulary is a part) is not just about its forms, but also its use in its social system (Syal and Jindal 2010). In this study, the social system for the study of word in Yoruba Proverbs is the Yoruba speech community.

The Yoruba Proverbs

Generally speaking, proverbs are traditional sayings that have a fixed general sentential form, that allude to common truths or general wisdom, with some rudimentary literary value, used to guide action, explain a situation, or indicate a feeling or attitude (Akmajian et.al. 2001: 386). Linguistically, proverbs constitute one of the challenges to theories of language use due to its implicit form. As a strategy for indirect

44 communication, when using proverbs, “we seem to avoid bluntly directing our audience, and we often use proverbs to soften the effect by distancing ourselves from the advice- we let the general truth or general wisdom do the talking” (Akmajian et.al.2001:386).

As unique linguistic properties that are based on the traditions of its users, Proverbs in the Yoruba Speech community are considered as the means of resolving or explaining complex issues (Olatunji 2005:170). In the process, they serve as cultural tools for transferring the traditions of a speech community from one generation to another. In the Yoruba speech community of Nigeria, Proverbs are multifunctional and flexible instruments of language use for several aspects of communicative events, and this will enable this work to discover the functions of Yoruba proverbs with respect to the various socio-cultural aspects (health, leadership, security, social clubs and gatherings, child training and development, and public governance, social organization and development, family life, integrity, good manners, career choice, dignity of labour and, character development) of the society in which they operate. Thus, the relationship between language and the culture of a people will be explicated especially, as they impact on the practices, beliefs and moral attitudes of the speech community with a view to correcting the ills of the present Yoruba speech community within the larger Nigerian society.

The Yoruba proverbs have a lot of sources, but the common ones are: allegorical tales of tortoise, dogs and elephants for didactic purposes, historical tales of kings or myths, cultural norms, values; historical good and bad behavior; and incantations of powerful warriors and hunters. Yoruba Proverbs are used for explaining words, giving advice, correcting, warning, increasing one’s wisdom, comforting and as a source of pleasure or for entertaining . (Adewoyin 2004).

Methodology

This work is an analysis of selected Yoruba Proverbs. Twenty proverbs are randomly but purposively gathered in their Yoruba original form and they will be translated literally into English, in order to capture their lexical entries for accurate analysis. The English forms of the proverbs with their semantic denotation are analyzed using lexical, semantic tools of language study. The study will go further to illustrate the functions and relevance of proverbs in popular literary texts that have the Yoruba cultural context as their setting. The data for this study will be carefully selected from scholarly compilations on the basis of their various ethnomethodological values such as resolving conflicts, maintaining social relationships, performing routine activities and reflecting their awareness of their environment. (Olatunji, 2005:170). For the analysis, the use theory and the behaviourist approach will be employed for the theoretical framework.

Framework

Considering the fact that a linguistic study without reference to its social context, undoubtedly leads to the omission of some of the decoding and encoding of language; and that languages vary from one person to the other and from one situation to the other, even in the same language community, this study combines the usage theory as well as the behavioural approach to the study of meaning. The usage theory which was initiated by a German scholar Wittenberg and has been improved upon over the years by Firth (1981) and Halliday ( ) is one of the contextual or operational theories of meaning (Ogbulogo 2005: 12). Unlike the componential or truth conditional theories of meaning which is

46 not applicable to all linguistic items, the usage theory is useful for capturing the accurate meaning of words as determined by the context of its use. In addition, this work employs the behavioural approach to meaning which emphasizes the observable facts of utterances that are related to the immediate situations that produce them. This approach is preferred to others such as the mentalist approach which is personal. Language being a property of its speech community can only be studied objectively in its context of occurrence. Thus, this theory and approach are complementary in highlighting the contextual relevance of this study, which fosters the transition of the oral form of the Proverbs to the literary forms as used by the literary texts of Ola Rotimi.

Lexico- Semantic Analysis

Based largely on the compressed form of language in Yoruba Proverbs, the lexical tools of figurative language such as metaphor, metonymy, Rhetoric and tropes will be investigated as used in the Proverbs. A semantic approach to the study of the proverbs, regarded as wise sayings of the elders to resolve conflicts, will go at length to reveal so much about the history beliefs and ideology of the people. For example ,…

1. Agboju l’ogun fi are re fun osi ta

“A fortune hunter willingly surrenders himself to poverty poor”.

The ‘fortune hunter’ (agbojulogun) is used euphemistically to a loafer or lazy individual who lives on others or prides in the success of others rather than what he can achieve by himself. He may, or may not be from a rich background. Even when he is from a wealthy background, the Yorubas believe that such people will squander the whole inheritance foolishly, and will soon be poor, because he is not productive. Therefore, the use of

(agboju logun) is to reduce the gravity of the effect, saying that such people are useless, unproductive and hopeless, with no future. This explanation is based on the belief that,

2. Atelewo eni kiitan nije, meaning, One’s palm (atelewo) can never deceive the owner’

In other words , one’s palm can always be trusted. The palm is used in this proverb heteronimically because it represents every productive part of man, or whatever a man works for, compared to gifts. The ability of being trusted metaphorically refers to the palm as a sure and constant source of wealth and daily supplies.

3. Iwa rere l’eso enia meaning ‘Good conduct is man’s adornment’. This literal interpretation can be rephrased as ‘Honesty is man’s best policy’.

The use of eso which means ‘adornment’, is to make the attribute of ‘honesty’ concrete, visible and attractive, because Yoruba believe that one’s behavior or attitude cannot be hidden. This is expressed in an equivalent proverb.

4. “Eefin ni iwa’ translated,

“character is smoke”

The use of eefin (smoke), to describe iwa (character) is to explain how one’s character, is publicly and easily noticed, as the smoke diffuses into the air uncontrollably over a large area. In other words, pretence cannot cover up our real character, because our personality will always reflect in all that we do.

5. “Igbekele kii pa agba l’ebi”, means ‘Hope (igbekele) does not cause hunger for the adult’, or Hope sustains an adult of hunger.

The mysticism in the power of ‘hope’ to sustain somebody of hunger is noteworthy and an understanding of his explains the whole proverb. In Yoruba land, it is believed that when one has hope of having a better future, one can endure the present ‘hunger’ ( different forms of suffering or toiling) and face the work. But when there is no hope of such, most of one’s time will be devoted to what and how to get what to eat.

6. Ogun odun ti eko ti n l’oso, ihoho ni akara wa, means ‘Twenty years since the grilled maize pudding has been wearing clothes’, the been cake is still naked.’

‘Ogun odun’ (twenty years), metaphorically, means a long time ago in the Yoruba context of this proverb. The idea of the bean cake, and the grilled maize pudding (akara and eko) wearing clothes and being naked, is a semantic impossibility. However, it metaphorically refers to the achievements and social status , which is more elevated for eko than for akara because, clothes to the Yorubas, cover up one’s defects (asiri). In other words, the grilled maize pudding, has achieved so much over a long period of time while the bean cake, has achieved nothing. The maize pudding refers to one who feels superior to another person, in terms of achievements, or property possession, and the bean cake to the inferior person.

Apart from metaphors, Yoruba proverbs display another source of rich lexical meaning in the area of ambiguity, known as homonymy which refers to a situation where two or more words identical in pronunciation,

49 have different meanings. Ample examples of this abound in Yoruba proverbs because of the tonal property of the Yoruba language.

Below are some illustrations with proverbs.

7 a) ‘Owo kosi enia ko sunwon’. Money makes a good man. 7b) ‘Gbe omo wakimi, owo ni na ni’ the visit of a woman with a new baby means some expenses. 8a. Ehinkule l’ota wa ile paseni ngbe’. Man’s enemy remains outside and the actual traitor lives with him. 8b. Ile laa wo ka to somo l’oruko. ‘The condition or circumstance of the house is considered in naming the child’.

9a. Ona ofun ona orun ‘the path or road to the throat (desires) is the same path or road to heaven (death)’ OR ‘one’s livelihood can be the source (path) of one’s death’. 9b. Abere ona ki I si ’na Anyone who asks for direction does not miss his way. The underlined lexical items in the proverbs 7a-9b are identical in each of the pairs but have different meanings. Owo in 7a and b means ‘money’ and expenses of any sort respectively. In 8a and 8b, ile refers to ‘a’ close relative’ and the condition of a family respectively. As for 9a, ona can be interpreted as the ‘source’ or the ‘means’ and in 9b, the same word can be interpreted as ‘direction’. These different meanings are from the metaphorical processes

of each of the Yoruba proverbs. The Yoruba language can therefore be seen generally as a very rich language with a wealth of words, especially in its uses.

A related meaning relation which is common to tonal languages like Yoruba unlike stress – timed languages like English, is what Adewoyin (2004) refers to as heteronym. Every syllable in Yoruba bears one of these three tones on the vowel therein, high or acute (\), low or grave (/) and middle tone (usually unmarked). This is to show whether the vowels were to be sounded with raised, lowered or middle tone and this has to be mastered for competence in reading Yoruba language. For example, the differences in the meaning), awo; awo and awo (cult, plate and glasses) are as a result of the changes in tone marks. Also in a proverb,

10) Ise ni ogun ise means, Hardwork ( ise) is the antidote of poverty ( ise) . Thus, the first ise with the middle and low tones means ‘work’ or ‘hardwork’, while the second ise with the high and low tones means ‘poverty’.

This is further explained in the following proverbs;’

11) Ika ko dogba meaning ‘fingers are not equal’ 12) Ika to base loba nge’ meaning ‘the king punishes the finger that sins’.

In these two proverbs, literally they both mean ‘fingers’ but while it refers to people’s social status in the metonymical sense in (1), so that people can be contented with what they have and are; in (2), the owner of the finger’ or ‘the perpetrator’ is synedochically referred to because Yoruba’s believe in justice. Another popular example of metonymy which is the

associated meaning of a word is the use of ori (head) in the following proverb,

13) Ori eni lawure eni, which literally means ‘One’s head is one’s savior’. The ‘head’ here is referring to God, the supreme ruler or controller of man’s life. ‘Head’ according to the Yoruba is one’s personal God as used in this proverb. Here is another group of proverbs. 14) ‘Ika a ba onika, ire aba eni rere’ 15) ‘Ika ko fe karueru kaso, ori eni ni soni’.

‘Ika’ is ‘wickedness’ in (3) because the proverb means. Wickedness shall consume the wicked and goodness unto the righteous’ and ‘the wicked’ in (4) which means ‘the wicked does not want our burden lifted from us, only God can relieve one. Though both nominal items, one is an abstract noun referring to the act, and the other is a concrete noun referring to the person.

Furthermore, to illustrate the rhetorical nature of some Yoruba proverbs, such proverbs are very humorous and are used when the proverb is self – explanatory. Examples are:

15. Baba jona, en beere irugbon, kilokoko jona , ‘Father is burnt, you ask for his beard, what first caught fire; 16. Ewo lo kan lemmomu ninu itan aja meaning, ‘What is the business of the Islamic priest with the thigh of a dog? 17. Ewo lo san ninu omo bankale, okan, eeru, ekeji, erupe? ‘Which of Bankale ‘s children is better, one is ashes , the other is sand’

The use of the underlined lexical items and their implications are significant to the rhetorical efficacy of the Proverbs. The use of a man’s beard which is an integral part of him and a highly inflammable part in(1) the use of an Imam and a dog, as well as semantic relationship between the name that means ‘survive me’ and ‘sand’ / ‘ashes enhances the rhetorical efficacy. For (1), it is ridiculous to ask for a man’s beard after his whole body got burnt. This reflects Yoruba’s dislike for redundancies. In (2), the dog and the Muslim Imam are supposed to be linguistically incompatible in the Islamic sense, because good Muslims are not supposed to eat or have anything to do with unclean animals like dog, pig and the likes. it is then funny for dog meat to be shared out and the most fleshy part which is the thigh to be given to him. Yoruba have embarrassing styles of asking offenders or the guilty questions. In the third proverb, ‘Bankale’ the mother’s name means ‘survive’ me’ . How then can such children, whose characteristics or attributes are metaphorically expressed as ‘sand’ and ‘ashes’, with no concrete or well – meaning usefulness, survive the mother.

Finally, the use of pun, is another characteristic feature in Yoruba proverbs. Pun generally refers to a play on words and this is displayed in the following interesting examples:

18. “Won ni ki arugbo pon omosi ehin, o l’oun o lehin”

‘Ehin’ means ‘back’ while ‘ehin’ means ‘teeth’.

An old woman is asked to put a child on her back, she replied she had no teeth. This proverb is for those who give unreasonable excuses when asked to perform a duty by changing one’s line of thought in playing on ehin (back) and ehin (teeth) .

19. Ojumale kokuro loti, obimo o sooni imoru

The pun here is on the word oru which is the last three letters of ‘imoru’ (a muslim name) Oru is used as the palm wine gourd in Yoruba language. The proverb means why should a muslim who is not supposed to have anything to do with alcohol, name his child Imoru, a name that has a linguistic connection with oru , the palmwine gourd . In essence, the proverb means that whenever we forsake something, it should be totally. In more general terms, human beings should be sicere and avoid pretences. Another example is :

20. “Omo to a maje asamu. Kekere ni ti ise enu samu samu lastly, there is a play on the words ‘asamu’; (smart) and se enu samusamu (sharp). The proverb means ‘The morning show the day’. The prosperous boy in future show signs that lead to prosperity even at childhood.

As a way of illustrating the contemporary relevance of the Yoruba proverbs, apart from its use by people for communication, some literary works of contemporary writers in English have found it very useful in expressing ideas that are culturally meaningful. Ola Rotimi’s Kurunmi, Our Husband Has Gone Mad Again and Femi Ososfisan’s Collection of Play and Moruntodun , as well as other works of Niyi Osundare and Wole Soyinka. However, for the purpose of this study, the two works of Ola Rotimi are utilized.

Literary Relevance Of Yoruba Proverbs

For the discussion of the Literary relevance of Yoruba proverbs, the folk drama category of the dramatic genre has been chosen of the three major genres of literature. The two texts by Ola Rotimi are Kurunmi, and Our Husband Has Gone Mad Again. Kurunmi, a play written by Ola Rotimi a

Yoruba man. The play centers on Kurunmi, the Are – Ona – Kakanfo (the generalissimo of the Yoruba empire) and the Lord of Ijaye. He is proud of the traditions of the Yoruba people and he expresses this at the beginning of the play saying:

“My people, we too have tradition. This is what makes us men. This is what makes us people, distinct from mud’ (referring to other towns derogatorily, as mud ). He supports this with another proverb; ‘while the pride of bees is in the honey comb, the pride of the weaver bird shows in the skilful design of its nest’.

So the Ibadan people who supported the Alaafin, (king) of the Yoruba empire), for a change in the Yoruba tradition, whereby the first son of the Alaafin dies with him at his death were the bees (whose priorities were as trivial as food), while the Ijaye people that Kurunmi represents were the weaver bird; distinguished for their noble cause,. This was why kurunmi also said these proverbs: “The day the tall iroko tree looses it’s roots is the day the baby ant sits on his head’ and also “The day a set people lose their tradition is the day their death begins”. This proverb was to prove why they will not lose their tradition, and be doomed for it. Although this study does not support the callousness of the tradition, this is what makes Yoruba proverbs unique because they are different from ordinary speeches and the proverbs of any other language or tribe, as a result of the peculiarity of the vocabulary, the context and the meanings of the verbs. This is what justifies the wealth of the language and most interestingly, of the culture especially in the area of temperance, morality, respect for elders and good conduct in general. This is an act of patriotism because all the lessons learnt in these proverbs are inevitably

55 essential to the progress of any community. This spirit, I believe, has led most African dramatists to utilize their creative abilities along the traditional line to write folk drama in which the orality of oral texts like proverbs and incantations (mostly used as proverbs) is strengthened in literary texts.

In Kurumi, the proverbs employed by Ola Rotimi are ,to a large extent informative in familiarizing readers with so much about the Yoruba cultural values, and the importance and pride attached to it. This is done through Kurumi who knew that it was the tradition of the Ibadan people to fight in defense of the Supreme Head of the Oyo Kingdom whenever a war was aimed at his kingdom from within or without. He therefore found it absurd for Ibadan to ask for their (Ijaye) support to fight against Oyo because for Adelu ( who was supposed to have been buried with his father), to reign after his father is a mockery of tradition.

Also, when initially the Ijaye people realized that the war was needless, Kurumi was able to persuade them on the ground of traditions and his self – confidence based on his past glories in wars using the following proverbs.

The bull – frog that rivals the six of the elephant will burst”

This proverb refers to the Ijaye warriors as the elephant and the warriors from Ibadan as the bull – frog. The metaphors employed here explain the greatness of Kurumi and his warriors compared to the insignificant importance attached to the Ibadan people. Additionally, even when the Ibadan people refused to fight on Ijaye’s side, Kurumi predicated them as being wise and great in the following proverb.

“A goat gets wiser after an ear is cropped off”.

Due to the fact that goats are naturally stubborn even with their two ears, Kurunmi believes that they can only get, wiser when one of the ears is chopped off. Thus, he implies that the Ibadan people will soon regret their action and learn their lesson in a hard way. The examples of proverbs given so far, reflects the Yoruba custom of a less privileged, daring not to disrespect a well – to – do – or anybody of a honorable position especially great warriors of chiefs, exemplified in the comparison of a ‘rat’ and a ‘cat’.

Moreover, in “Kurunmi”, other characters like “Osundina” and Ogunmola” both of the Ibadan camp used the following proverbs respectively, to describe Kurunmi who is autocratic,

“it takes another monkey to see the ugly bottucks of a fellow monkey” and “the baby who dares to disturb his mother’s sleep, will also suffer the anguish of not sleeping” Others are Ogunkoroju and Areagoro of the Ijaye Camp who, while appealing to Ogun to see them through the war victoriously, they said, “however sharp aknife might be, it cannot cut it’s own handle”, taking Ijaye as the handle and the Ibadan people as ‘the sharp knife’, and “what the stomach desires to eat, should not cause belly – ache afterwards” respectively.The defeat of the Ijaye people is the belly ache, while the Ibadan people are desired food of the Ijaye people.

When some warriors disobeyed Ogunkoroju’s order; not to pursue the Ibadan people at their first encounter, Kurunmi rebuked them saying “it is a foolish daughter who thinks she knows so much that she can teach her own mother” thereby placing the disobedient warriors as foolish children having been warned by a more experienced warrior.

Also, as a result of the refusal of Egba warriors against Kurunmi’s advice not to cross River use over to the Ibadan Camp, many soldiers were killed and the Egba declared to go back home; Kurunmi says;

“A forster – mother is not like the real mother”. It is a general belief in Yoruba land that the agony of childbirth makes a mother’s affection warmer than a foster – mother’s .

In O ur Husband Has Gone Mad Again , also by Ola Rotimi, a number of proverbs are used in the text. For example Okonkwo tells Lejoka – Brown that

“A paddler doesn’t say a crocodile has an ugly lump on its snout, until he has safely crossed the river.” As a way of warning Lejoka – Brown to take things easy with Liza (his been-to-wife) when she returns from England, having betrayed his love for her by having two other wives. In the same vein, another proverb used to warn Liza of intemperance when she arouses a rebellious consciousness in Sikira is:

“it is too much indulgence, that makes the she – goat grow a long beard like her husband the he – goat. Therefore, Liza should be cautious of overstepping her boundary and causing any trouble in the home. As for the president of the Market Women’s Union, Sikira’s mother, she says in pidgin English.

“di cow dey no get tail nyash, na God na Gim de help an drive fly commot”

In other words “As for the cow that does not have a tail, it is God that helps it to drive away the disturbing files. The proverb was to assert her social power and influence inspite of her illiteracy. For Madam Ajanaku, a community leader, but an Owerri woman to make use of Yoruba proverbs so well is to show how much she has been influenced by her husband’s

58 culture as justified by her level of competence in the use of proverbs, though in the pidgin form. The explication of Yoruba proverbs in Ola Rotimi’s two texts is commendable as a show of linguistic patriotism. The act of linguistic patriotism is also evident in many other literary texts by Femi Osofisan, Niyi Osundare and Wole Soyinka, in no particular order.

Conclusion

The lexical semantic relevance of proverbs in the Yoruba society cannot be overlooked because Proverbs are instances of language use that are bound by time and space, and so cannot function in a vacuum to be meaningful. Therefore language is the ability to mean in the situation types or social contexts that are generated by culture (Kreidler 2002). This is evident in the functions that they are capable of performing as illustrated in this study. One, is the communicative function, though implicity but simply expressive for more enduring and universal applications. This is common in the use of incantations in the Yoruba society. Thus, proverbs have the ability to cope with relatively all human problems and thereby serve as guides to life’s problems. In other words , Proverbs therefore deal with the eternal and universal human concerns that confront everyone. Most importantly, proverbs function rhetorically because they are used primarly in deliberating on questions of practical social conduct. Therefore, proverbs can establish norms for action and behavior, and endure because of their rhetorically effective forms and substantive capacity to shape attitudes and actions.

Moreover, this study reveals that Language is a unique manifestation of culture because a word can has the cognitive as well as the cultural meanings as explicated in the Proverbs ; which reflect the cultural perceptions, values and behaviours of the Yoruba speech community.

Thus there is an inseparable connection between the Yoruba language and The Yoruba culture because the meaning of a word is in its use. Rather, Language is a powerful tool for creating our realities and understanding our personal identities. It helps us to express our world views and our presuppositions and form our values, through which we can influence others. In the various instances of pun, metonymy and synecdoche, the study corroborates the “the Sapir- Whorf hypothesis of cultural/linguistic relativism which postulates that variations in meaning are due to the fact that different cultures perceive the same concepts differently. Finally, as opined by Akindele and Adegbite 2004), the study endorsed that bilingualism directly implies biculturalism. The explication of the metaphorical expressions are particularly useful in familiarizing and integrating a linguistic student of Yoruba proverbs into the Yoruba culture and vice versa.

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THE EPIC IN NOLLYWOOD: COLLECTIVE KNOWLEDGE AND THE REAFFIRMATION OF CULTURAL HISTORY

OHWOVORIOLE, Felicia

Abstract Many epics are set in an atmosphere where gods, spirits, divinities and other supernatural elements abound. The supernatural interplays with reality to extol a hero or a great event. Isidore Okpewho (1979) demonstrates the value of the epic in Africa. African epics have been grouped into two categories namely the ‘feudal’ and the ‘clan’ epics. Feudal epics are distinctive of societies organised into hierarchical structure. The paper leans towards the clan epic which often presents heroes characterised by their excesses. The clan epic is also imbued with epic resources such as music, song, heroic exploits, struggles and the supernatural. There is the belief and recourse to the supernatural as it relates to control of natural events in traditional societies including Yoruba tradition. Epic historical films can be used to promote the story content of the cultural elements in a society. These epic movies take place in the historical past, often focusing on people who alter the course of history. The movies transport viewers to other worlds and can also be used to depict the African worldview, heroism and religious systems and how these elements reinforce modern socio-political systems. The major dimension of the paper is the examination of the epic story line and its exploration of two Nollywood epic movies; Oduduwa and Bashorun Gaa and how they relate to Yoruba cultural history. The study looks at the biography of the hero, his supernatural space and adventures in the epic context.

Introduction

According to Okpewho (1979:34) an oral epic is fundamentally a tale about the fantastic deeds of a man or men endowed with something more than human might and operating in something larger than the normal

63 human context and it is of significance in some stage of the cultural or political development of a people.. It is usually narrated or performed to the background of music by an unlettered singer working alone or with some assistance from a group of accompanists. Dean Miller, (2000:31) in defining myth, stress the grand themes emplaced there, tie the mythic hero in special ways to divine forces, plans and confrontations. Film adaptations of oral and written literary texts have flourished in Nigeria. The film industry otherwise known as Nollywood has made is possible for Nigerians from different traditions to share socio-cultural experiences. Many epic Nollywood movies attempt to authenticate identities through self-celebratory measures.

As observed by Krings and Okome (2013:1) Nollywood the Nigerian video film industry, has become the most visible form of cultural machine on the African continent. Nigerian video films travel the length and breadth of the continent connecting Africa, particularly Nigeria, to its diverse diasporas elsewhere. Satellite television, the internet, and piracy-at once Nollywood’s boon and bane- facilitate the spread of its films across linguistic, cultural and national boundaries. Scholars like Shehu 1995, Diawara 1996 have focussed on the transformation of African oral narratives to the screen. Though the theory of African film adaptation is relatively new we intend to examine the movies in terms of re- historicization of the past.

Campbell (1972) examines the transformation of the hero from childhood to adulthood. He also makes a distinction between the primordial hero and the human one through whom the world destiny is realized. The life cycle of the human hero is viewed from his childhood, the hero as warrior, the hero as lover, the hero as emperor and as tyrant, the hero as world redeemer, the hero as saint and the departure of the hero.

Kesteloot (1989) identifies two categories of epics, the feudal and the clan epics. Feudal epics are distinctive of societies organised into hierarchical professional castes bearing features analogous to those of European feudal societies. The Yoruba tradition is a rich source of epic materials. It is a tradition full of epic narratives. The ‘clan’ epics, on the other hand, are always very long narratives punctuated by musical accompaniment and enumerating the valorous exploits of a heroic figure. They take on a distinctly fantastical character. Ruth Finnegan (1970) doubts the existence of the epic in Africa and only acknowledges epic status in relation to mvet. Each epic transmits a cultural universe so vast that the working life of one man could easily be engulfed were he to devote himself to the task of establishing several versions, as should always be done in order to do justice to the literary texture of each oral work with its multiple interpreters. Some cultural features of the epic include traditional poetic features of oral delivery such as poetic lines, high frequency of dramatic dialogues and at times musical interludes and dances. The epic convention relies on exaggeration, an overstatement and representation of life as larger than life. The movies as noted by Soyinka rely on ‘technological gadgetry and spectacle’.

The epic is a hybrid genre in which the supernatural is mixed with true, the legend with history. Mesa M. Diabates observes: “The epic is situated between history and the myth. Recapitulating on historic fact, it attributes the entire cultural experience of a society to one character who has made a mark on his time…and derives all past and present values of that society from this character, thus rendering the epic a source of identity serving to distinguish that group from others”

For one another, the crystallization of all cultural attributes of a given society. The epic’s richness emanates from its cultural concentration. It is

65 the intertwined network of elements present in other genres (tale, myth, symbol, proverb, historical account, poetry etc) as well as the various levels of relationship to the world (mythical, religious, historical, sociological, and political, ethic.) which direct and give meaning to the narrative. For the epic is the genre which concentrates a maximum of cultural data and organizes it into a precise form involving both a semantic and pragmatic operation: that of symbolism and identity and that of calling this identity to life in the heart of the community it defines. The diversity of African epics is the result of the distinctive features of one people in relation to another. More than any other literary genre, epics are conditioned by the conception that each group has its own cultural or national identity. Thus one encounters a broad range of epics like Mwindo epic of the Banyanga, Lianja of Nkundo-Nenyo people of Zaire, the epic of Sundiata, Ozidi saga, etc. The epic may use a literary technique of not producing history chronologically but rather it is projected toward a cultural or ideological reinterpretation of those facts. The cultural precepts of a given community are therefore organized around the models created in this meaningful reconstruction of history and myth.

Anyone who has witnessed a performance of the African epic cannot remain insensitive to either the communal character or to the specific features of this cultural manifestation. To a great extent, this excitement or exaltation is created by the specific manner of performing recognized ideological themes and elements of the group’s collective knowledge. The epic implements a wide range of techniques to inspire and maintain an awareness of a common identity. Epic heroes are presented as excessive, outside of the norms. The epic contains the following standard features; narration: action focused around highly personalized heroes of archetypes unpredictable situations which present components of group identity either externally through socio-political/historical forms, or internally through

66 the intrinsic personality of the hero. Beyond those common features one finds a wide range of epic texts both in content and forms of expression, but whose particular traits do identify them as belonging to the epic genre. For the distinguishing character of the epic is derived less from the text than from its function as an act of the spoken word destined to re enact the founding of an ideological and cultural identity of common unity. One can attempt to distinguish the formal and structural properties of the epic from those of other genres practiced in a given culture, but such analysis commonly reveals only those attributes which the culture has chosen to utilize in order to enable the epic text to fulfill its ultimate goal and function efficiently. Thus the cultural importance of the epic becomes clearly apparent particularly as a medium, for cultural, social, political and national mobilization. The epic is very vital hence Eno Belinya declares that it is deeply rooted in the past but it is an art essentially turned toward the future. Hall Stuart (1997:1) Culture is about shared meanings and culture has always been regarded as the key repository of cultural values and meanings. Characteristics of an epic include;

1.begins in medias res

2.the setting is vast, covering many nations, the world or the universe

3.Begins with an invocation to a muse (epic invocation)

4.Begins with a statement of the theme

5.Includes the use of epithets

6.Contains long lists (epic catalogue)

7.Features long and formal speeches

8.Shows divine intervention on human affairs

9.features heroes that embody the values of civilization

10. often features the tragic hero’s descent into the underworld or hell

Mythic-Historical Epic (Oduduwa)

According to (Miller 2000: 31) the mythological epic and its archetypal thematic elevates the hero, who is made the shadow partner or the earthly avatar of divinity, to an awesome height. The heroes are often related to the gods. In the 21 st century a number of epic movies have equally been produced. One of such movies is the Yoruba epic movie – oduduwa which pictures the origin of the Yoruba race

Praepositio

As a typical epic the movie began with praepositio introducing the cause of the movie which is to appeal to the reasoning of the natives about the essence of their oneness. The first scene reflects a theme of fear and chaos with recurring attacks and oppression of the Waffi Warriors over the indigenes of Ile Ife. The community leaders of Ile-Ife headed by Obatala were incapable of protecting their subjects from the continual attack of their enemies. Beginning from the chief warlord, Ogun who was in charge of their security, the water goddess- Olokun, the head of commerce and women affair- Aje and Esu Laroye were all outsmarted by the fierce strength of the Waffi warriors.

Invocation

The failure of the Ife warlords and the consequent growing insecurity of the populace prompted the leaders to pray to Olodumare- the supreme God and consult the oracle for a possible solution. The oracle revealed to the chief priest- Agbomiregun of an approaching stranger coming to join the native settlers of Ile-Ife. The oracle described the coming stranger as a great man of essence and of proportional wisdom and magical powers that can match the strength of the Waffi warriors. However the oracle did not state his looks and if his coming would gear for peach and or further bondage. The unanswered questions raised uncertainty and further insecurities among the leaders, not the fear of attack but the fear of losing their leadership position to a stranger.

Enumeration

After so much time of waiting and a growing disbelief in the warlords, the stranger dramatically arrives from the cloud, trailing down on a long chain from heaven in royal clothing with a crown on his head. With the assistance of the chief priest as directed by the oracle a crop of the community leaders compromising of the warlords, Obatala, Ogun, Osun, Aje, Oluweri and Eus Laroye were already at hand to receive the stranger and make acquaintance with him. They however could not understand his language at first. But the chief priest on noticing it stood with the stranger and exchanged some magical writings on the floor and placed his index finger on his lips and asked him to speak. He responded in Ife language ‘My name is Oodua and I come in peace’

This dramatic arrival signals an answer from Olodumare a divine intervention in their frustrations. It equally made the people of Ife accept

69 him as their saviour. This would however not stop him from some rejection and skepticism from the ruling leader, Obatala. His envy undertones the entire scene breeding disunity.

In Medias Res

Although Oodua sustained perpetual victory over the Waffi warriors, brought relative peace and ancient civilization that spur his acceptance by the natives of Ile-Ife his coronation as King and his marriage to Olokun the themes of disunity and betrayal did not stop. It may seem in the daunting of Olokun by Osara. Olokun after ten years of barrenness had convinced Odua against his will to marry her friend, Osara to bear him heir. Overwhelmed by the endless daunting, Olokun with bitter tears sought the kings consent to allow her walk away from Ile-Ife. The king after so much persistence reluctantly consented to her request. Betrayal climaxed when the king was away to assist his cousins in troubled Mecca in the Far East. Esu took advantage of his privy to Obatala’s ambition to become king to steal the royal crown and become king himself.

After a lot of insistence by Obatala, the chief priest consented for the sake of peace to allow him reign in acting capacity pending the arrival of the king. However on the arrival of Odua and the dramatic re appearance of the stolen crown on his head that humbled Obatala and ended his refusal to vacate the throne, the theme of disunity ended. Obatala trailed the path of ancient heroes after that humbling incidence, when he gave up his ego and bade farewell to his faithful with a final admonition, “ I charge you to put all that happened behind you rally round your ruler and be proud of your race. I, Obatala I am home bound less my continual stay generate further controversies. Keep my memory alive always. I leave you in

70 peace.” With those words he disappeared into the oblivion as is typical of ancient heroes.

Epithet

Indeed, Obatala memory lives on. His repeated eulogy “Obatala Obatasi Oba taku taku” characterizes the epithet in the epic. Odua reigned in peace in Ile-Ife till old age with his only heir from Osara- Akanbi and many grand children. Oodua after handing over the throne to his youngest grandchild Oromiyon in the presence of his only heir and other grand children like Obatala disappeared into oblivion after saying “ Go into the world and rule the earth, be tolerance to yourselves and neighbours. “

The theme of death that characterized the epic is dramatic. Ancient heroes do not pass on in the presence of their followers as an indication of strength. Some disappeared into the oblivion others turned into objects. History has it that Esu turned into a stone worshipped by his followers, Olokun into a flowing river and Oromiyon into an oozing stuff that stands legendary in Ife till this day. Odudua as an epic has a profound effect upon the lives of the indigenes of Ile-Ife and the epic Yoruba race.

Oduduwa

The narrative indicates that Oduduwa denotes the essence of behavior or the reservoir of culture or manners. Oral history of the Yoruba recounts the coming of Oduduwa from the east when he arrived ancient Ife he and his group are believed to have conquered the component communities and to have evolved the palace structure with its effective centralized power and dynasty. He is referred to as the first Ooni of Ife and the progenitor of the Yoruba people; he sent his sons and daughters out with crowns to rile over all the other Yoruba kingdoms, which is why all royal Yoruba

71 lineages claim ambilineal descent from its line of kings and through it from Oduduwa. Upon the ending of Oduduwa’s time on earth, there was a disposal of his children form Ife to the outposts that they had previously founded in order for them to establish effective control over these places. Each is said to have maid his or her mark in the subsequent urbanization and consolidation of the Yoruba confederacy of kingdoms. Oranmiyan was the grandson and the most adventurous of the member’s of Oduduwa’s household taking the title of Alaafin. He is regarded as the founder of Oyo kingdom.

Historical-Epic (Bashorun Gaa)

The historical label seems to refer in some way to a narrative structure describing, or at least using as a model, real and human actors and their actions. The word ‘historical’ need not necessarily imply a strict transcription of ‘real’ events: it may simply be set in sharp contrast to the figures and forces of myth. The role of the supernatural is reduced here, though never completely eliminated, and the protagonist-hero can actually be placed in a more or less identifiable timeframe. Within this frame, and as his tale is told, his full humanity is never doubted, and his actions if enlarged and wonderful to behold, are essentially those of an extraordinary human being. (Miller 2000: 35)

The film Bashorun Gaa is a historical story of an evil domineering head of the Oyo king makers, Oloye Afobaje in the eighteenth. The story in the movie starts off with the execution of king Majeeogbe by the Oyomesi. Bashorun Gaa charges the king with misuse of power by disregarding the roles of the Ilori and asks for his head. After the death of king Majeogbe, Prince Abiodun adegolu is crowned king according to thwe counsel of

Bashorun and the consent of the Afobaje. The death of king majeogbe serves as a deterrent to oba adegoolu and he decides to display humility before Bashorun in order to curry his favour. Not long into his reingn Alaafin Adegoolu is notified of the mischief of the two sons of the Bashorun and the imprisonment of Saamu for reporting them. The king had intention of giving his only child Agbonrin to bashorun so that peace can reign and for her to successfully succeed him on the throne. Bashorun to avoid rivalry, beheads the princess for money ritual. When the news gets to Alaafin, he is greatly distraught and sought the are Ona kakanfo to avenge the death of his daughter by destroying Bashorun and his entire household; which mark the end of the wicked Bashorun Gaa

Bashorun Gaa was a notable nobleman and leader of military in the old Oyo Empire during 17 th /18 th century. He was instrumental to the military conquests during his time as prime minister. In 17 th century Oyo kingdom, the monarchical failings came with a succession of uncharitable kings to the exalted throne. Alaafins Odarawu, Kanran, Jayin, Ayibi and Osinyagoin the second halves of the 17th century were despotic. According to historical record, Odarawuwas bad tempered Kanran, an unmitigated tyrant, Jayin, effeminate and dissolute, Ayibi cruel and arbitrary and Osinyago worthless.

Internally, Bashorun Gaa as the head of the Oyo Mesi, the Oyo council of kingmakers acquired too much power in the process and became a Frankenstein monster in the kingdom. In office as prime minister between 1750 and 1774, BashorunGaa supervised the dethronement and execution of four successive Alaafins, Alaafin Labisi, Alaafin Awonbioju, Alaafin Agboluaye and Alaafin Majeogbe. He was a king maker and at the same time king destroyer, a great usurper, renowned for his juju powers, to eliminate him therefore became the consuming passion and chief concern

73 of the fifth Alaafin, while Gaa was yet prime minister. He became so powerful and notorious that all the previous Alaafins were afraid of him. Where he got the power he wielded under the throne was still a mystery he became so power drunk to the extent that he was forcing kings to commit suicide for not following his dictates.

The unwritten constitution which gave Bashorun (prime minister) a final say on the nomination of the new Alaafin and the control of king makers was so great that the Bashorun’s power rivaled that of the Alaafin himself, this of course was an open opportunity for BashorunGaa to have absolute control of the political machinery of the old Oyo kingdom of his time under his palm. However his notoriety reached a braking point when he murdered Agboniyin the only daughter of reigning Alaafin Aniodun. Alaafin Abiodun at his time decided to take the bull by its horns.

Notwithstanding the elimination of this tyrant prime minister cost so much of the state resources and time not without the Aare-one-kakan-fo (Yoruba generalissimo) Oyalabi from Ajase. He was overpowered and was killed; his children fled Oyo for places like Egbado (Yewa), Badagry, Coutonu and Dahomey, main locations where their father had contacts.

The Crimes of Bashorun Gaa

Bashorun Gaa was a classic tyrant of Yoruba pre colonial era. Bashorun Gaa was instrumental to the killings of four kings. He was therefore guilty of regicide. He wickedly supervised the dethronement of four kings by forcing them to commit suicide. The last king to be dethroned was executed under the supervisory instructions of Bashorun Gaa. In addition

74 to his extra judicial killing, he instructed the murder of the daughter of Alaafin Abiodun and later used the victim for money ritual.

Bashorun Gaa unconstitutionally hijacked all the political power and machinery of Oyo kingdom. All the homage, respects and the material benefits meant for the kings were diverted to his personality. This was a great crime against the royal political system and great assault to the gods of the land and past ancestors.

Bashorun Gaa was a crime instigator. He was fond of aiding, abetting and covering the crimes committed by the people of his household. The history recorded the serial killings committed by his sons and head slave. The criminals were protected by him and even punished those who reported the crime. He ordered the massacre of the family members of one of his wives who was alleged to have attempted to poison him.

Terrorism was another crime of BashorunGaa. During his reign as prime minister, he and his household were great terrorists. Innocent citizens were terrorized by them. People’s belongings and property were vandalized and maliciously damaged by the notorious members of the family. The houses and property of the innocent victims were set ablaze; wives of innocent citizens were forcefully taken away from them. Force labour was unnecessarily imposed on people and freedoms of people were taken away from them. The period was recorded as the most turbulent period in the history of Oyo kingdom

The End of Bashorun Gaa

The elimination of Bashorun Gaa was a difficult one. It cost the old Oyo kingdom many material resources, times and lives of innocent people.

Alaafin Abiodun and Oyo warriors in collaboration with Aare-Ona-Kaka- N-Fooyalabi were eventually able to close in on him and arrest him. He was tied to a stake at Akesan market and Alaafin Abiodun ordered that every citizen cut a pound of flesh from his body and dropped it in a huge fire in front of him. he was made to smell the odour of his own flesh, his note was not allowed to be cut and flesh from his left part of the chest was excluded too(to prevent him from dying quickly). The remains of his body were later burnt in fire to prevent the re incarnation of the wicked man.

The public execution of this man eventually brought up a popular saying in Yoruba land to warn those in power and the rulers who are tyrants. The saying goes thus; if you are audacious in doing evil, you can continue but if you remember the death of BashorunGaa be righteous in all your doings. Thus Bashorun Gaa was the last prime minister of the Oyo Empire. He is presented as a villain. He was an authoritarian and combative.

Reaffirmation of culture

According to Arulogun (1979:26) film is a powerful tool for the transmission of cultural values. He identifies four main areas where film can further the cause of cultural identit y.

1.As a propaganda tool. Film remains a vehicle employed by governments and others interested in the art of subtle diplomacy. Because of its popularity as an entertainment medium, it easily becomes a means of relaying and reinforcing information meant to promote a certain reality

2. Film also plays the role of stereotype: helping to shape perspectives on a people’s culture. The impressions which viewers develop about a people and their cultural values are greatly influenced by film portrayals.

3. Film as an educational medium: film covers issues in the school curricula or things about their country of origin which tell viewers about different countries and peoples.

4. Film also plays a role in promoting commerce. As noted by Opubor and Nwuneli (1979:13) film exposes Nigerians and outsiders to ‘the diverse and rich cultural heritage of the country.

The production of the movies reaffirms the occurrence of the epic form in Africa, presenting it as dynamic literature that is performed by present day narrators, actors and actresses. It is important that the epics have also moved from oral tales, to texts and transition to mass media through Nollywood movies. What is important also is that they have become an integral part of popular culture and the dissemination to countries outside Nigeria makes the creativity part of the world of literature.

Conclusion

As a pedagogical tool, oral epics from Africa offers textual support for a growing popular recognition of African epic poetry and its heroes. The movies also appeal to Africans in the diaspora and students of African and comparative or world literature.

Works Cited

Adepitan, Titi ‘Between drama and epic: toward a medium for ozidi’ Reasearch in African Literatures. 22/March/02.

Campbell, Joseph. The Hero With A Thousand Faces. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1972.

Hall, Stuart (ed) Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. London: Sage Publications Ltd. 1997.

Krings, Matthias and Okome, Onookome (eds) Global Nollywood, The Transnational Dimensions of An African Video Film Industry. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2013.

Seydou, Christiane. ‘The African Epic: A Means for Defining the Genre’ Translated by Katheryn Wright

Soyinka, Wole. ‘Neo-Tarzanism: The Poetics of Pseudo-Tradition’ Transition 48 (1975): 3844

Filmography

Bashorun Gaa . Written and Produced: Adebayo Faleti, Editor: Editors: Akkem Azeez, kayoed Faleti and Ayodeji Fatoki. D.O.P: Sunday Ogunyemi. Location: Oyo State. Language: Yoruba, 2012.

Oduduwa . Written: Oluwole Ojojolu, Produced: Olumide and Ephrain Arinze, Screen Play: Wale Ogunyemi and Ekenna Igwe, Director: Andy Amenechi, D.O.P: Sunday Ogunyemi and Steve Enahoro, Editor: Fidelis Ewata, Location: Lagos, Language: Yoruba, 2011.

L’ANGLAIS ET LE FRANÇAIS: QUELLES LEÇONS SOCIOLINGUISTIQUES PEUT-ON EN RETIRER ?

ISA, Bayo & ABDULMALIK, Ismail

Résumé

Le monde se globalise actuellement. L’un des instruments favorisant ce phénomène de globalisation c’est la langue. La langue, étant un instrument utile de communication, est essentielle dans le développement d’un pays et d’un individu. Le Nigeria, un pays anglophone et un géant d’Afrique qui est stratégiquement situé au milieu des pays francophones, a toujours besoin d’œuvrer vers l’intégration des peuples dans la sous- région. Il ne doit pas alors sous-estimer l’importance de la langue dans cette tâche. Ainsi l’anglais et le français deviennent importants. Il va sans dire que ces deux langues se présentent parfois d’une manière étrangère. Cette communication qui est basée sur la théorie de contact, tente d’examiner la leçon sociolinguistique du contact entre l’anglais et le français. L’étude du contact entre le français et l’anglais montre que les effets sociolinguistiques des relations entre ces “faux amis” peuvent être négatifs ou positifs selon des perspectives. Nous avons aussi appris qu’au niveau lexical, il n’y a pas de limite à ce que les interlocuteurs de langues différentes peuvent s’emprunter ou se transférer, s’ils en ont la bonne opportunité .

Mots-clés : contact, communautés linguistiques, retournement , faux-amis, cognats.

Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure (1976 : 29), considéré comme le père linguistique, dit que la langue « est fondamentalement (et non pas par accident ou par dépravation) un instrument de communication ». La langue n’existe qu’à partir du langage, qui est la faculté naturelle permettant à l’homme de pouvoir parler. Le langage humain est vocal et produit par des organes de la parole. Pour De Saussure (1976 :30), la langue et le langage ne se confondent pas puisque la langue est « …à la fois un produit social de la faculté du langage et un ensemble de conventions nécessaires, adoptées par le corps social pour permettre l’exercice de cette faculté chez les individus ». De Saussure a essayé d’élaborer une série de critères qui permet de bien connaître la langue et la parole. Ces critères définissent la langue et la parole de ces trois manières :

1. La langue se définit comme un code, en entendant par là la mise en correspondance entre des « images auditives » et des « concepts ». La parole, c’est l’intuition, la mise en œuvre de ce code par les sujets parlants. 2. La langue est une pure passivité. Sa position met en jeu les seules facultés « réceptives » de l’esprit, avant tout la mémoire. Corrélativement, toute activité liée au langage appartient à la parole… 3. La langue est un phénomène social alors que la parole est individuelle…. (De Saussure, 2002 : 156). Par ces définitions, nous constatons que la langue est un ensemble de structures composées d’éléments et de règles qui permettent de déchiffrer des traits consistants. On remarque aussi que la langue se différencie du discours et des actes de paroles puisqu’elle est acquise et transmise par la société à l’individu d’une génération à l’autre. C’est donc une affaire sociale.

L’anglais et le français sont des deux langues européennes et internationales. Quoique des langues des deux pays voisins, ces deux langues se présentent toujours comme des étrangers car, “If an Englishman has understood a Frenchman, he has understood the most foreign of foreigners. The nation that is nearest is now the farthest away” (GK Chesterson @ www.googlesearch.com). Divisés par environ quarante kilomètres de la Manche, la France et l’Angleterre sont des vieux amis, des voisins et rivaux de point de vue régional ou international.

Deux communautés linguistiques vivant côte à côte devaient se comprendre pour l’entente internationale. L’amitié doit exister parmi les communautés linguistiques voisines pour pouvoir faciliter l’échange mutuel. Cette amitié a des répercussions sur les langues que parlent ces communautés. Il existe plusieurs études comparatives pour étudier ce degré d’amitié ou les conséquences d’une telle amitié sur les langues de ces communautés. C’est à cette dernière perspective que nous visons dans cette étude.

Cet article vise donc à examiner jusqu'à quel point le contact entre l’anglais et le français affecte les locuteurs de ces deux langues. Notre intérêt spécifique est tourné vers les effets sociolinguistiques de ce contact. Cette étude tente de définir la notion des liens qui ont existé et qui existent encore entre l’anglais et le français, deux langues présentes dans la sphère linguistique nigériane : l’anglais en tant que langue officielle et le français en tant que langue étrangère.

La langue française et anglaise : Importances sociolinguistiques pour le Nigeria

Le français, étant une langue romaine, est issu du latin populaire et qui, sur le territoire de la Gaulle, avait peu à peu éliminé le Gaulois (langue celtique). Le français est aujourd’hui une langue internationale parlée presque partout dans le monde. Selon Battye et Hintze (cité par Ajiboye 2002 : 13), “French is 11th of the World’s most widely spoken languages coming after Chinese, English, Russian, Spanish, Hindu, Portuguese, German, Japanese, Bengali and Arabic”. Le monde moderne contemporain voit le français comme l’une des langues majeures importantes de laquelle dépend la civilisation future et l’avancement technologique.

Au Nigéria, le français a un statut de langue étrangère : « A part l’anglais, le français est la langue étrangère la plus importante au Nigéria; il est le seul que l’on apprend comme telle au niveau secondaire, au Collège d’Education et à l’université, les autres langues étrangères ne s’apprennent que dans certaines universités » (Bariki, 1999: 26). En plus de se statu de la langue française, c’est une langue des voisins et des ‘frères’.

Pour sa part, l’anglais est décrit comme une langue germanique occidentale dont les origines proviennent des dialectes anglo-frisons apportés sur l’île de Bretagne par les tribus germaniques qui sont venues s’y installer. La langue anglaise est fortement influencée ensuite, surtout au plan lexical, par les langues des envahisseurs scandinaves et normandes. Elle a beaucoup de locuteurs mondiaux après le chinois ; c’est la deuxième langue la plus parlée dans le monde entier (Ajiboye, 2002:13). Comme le français, elle n’a pas la même importance ou le

82 même visage pour ses locuteurs: c’est une langue maternelle pour certains et seconde ou étrangère pour d’autres.

Au Nigéria, la langue anglaise occupe une place particulièrement importante, étant donné l’histoire coloniale de ce pays. Le Nigéria, pays multilingue, l’a adoptée comme langue officielle. C’est aussi la langue par laquelle la nation fait ses affaires de gouvernement, d’éducation, de science et de technologie et de communication. Mais, le Nigeria a toujours besoin de ces deux langues pour des raisons de la sécurité, de l’intégration régionale, de libre circulation des citoyens de la sous-région, et de croissement économique. Souvent, est-il que le contact de ces deux langues pose des difficultés de point de vue de lexique que sémantique pour les locuteurs of francisants nigérians.

La théorie de contact : le cas de l’anglais et le français

Chaque fois que deux individus parlant différentes langues se rencontrent, il y a une tendance naturelle de chercher des façons de contourner les barrières communicatives qui les confrontent, en cherchant un compromis entre leurs choix de mots. Le contact de langues peut avoir une grande variété de conséquences linguistiques. Dans quelques situations, cela peut aboutir seulement à des emprunts de vocabulaire, alors que dans d’autres, on peut avoir la création entière de nouvelles langues. Ces deux positions sont liées à l’étendue du contact et au degré des influences d’une langue sur une autre. Ce sont les gens qui parlent les langues respectives qui ont recours à une variété de formes de mélange d’éléments des langues impliquées.

Les résultats possibles d’un tel contact sont différents selon deux grandes catégories de facteurs - internes (linguistique) et externes (sociale et

83 psychologique). Parmi les facteurs linguistiques pertinents est la nature de la relation entre les langues en contact, spécifiquement le degré de similarité typologique entre elles. Il y a aussi une variété de contraintes linguistiques qui sont spécifiques à la structure linguistique (le lexique, la phonologie, la morphologie, etc.). Des facteurs pertinents d’ordres sociaux ont trait à la durée et à l’intensité du contact entre les groupes, leur grandeur respective, le pouvoir ou les relations de prestige et les motifs d’interactions entre eux. Des facteurs sociopolitiques qui opèrent aux niveaux individuel et du groupe, tels que les attitudes vers les langues, les motivations à utiliser l’une ou l’autre, ainsi de suite, sont aussi importants.

Toutes les langues ont été influencées à un temps ou à un autre par le contact avec les autres. Dans certains cas, des changements extérieurement provoqués n’ont pas besoin d’interlocuteurs des langues différentes pour avoir un contact social réel. Par exemple, l’emprunt lexical peut être accompli à travers les livres, les professeurs, les écrivains, les lexicographes et les autres qui transmettent le nouveau vocabulaire aux autres, à travers la littérature, les textes religieux, les dictionnaires, ainsi de suite. Dans d’autres cas, l’interaction sociale prolongée entre les membres de communautés de paroles différentes peut aboutir aux degrés variés de changement structurel et au mélange dans une ou les autres langues impliquées.

Dans des cas extrêmes, le contact peut aboutir à une nouvelle création distincte des langues de départ. Certains changements de contact provoqués ont affecté l’anglais dans divers cadres de contact, conduisant aux résultats très différents dans chaque cas. On pourrait même demander si ces variétés sont vraiment des formes de l’anglais, et s’il en est ainsi, dans quel sens peut-on dire qu’ils appartiennent à la famille des dialectes anglais.

Le premier échantillon est un exemple de forme de pidgin anglais utilisé comme “lingua franca” parmi des groupes ethniques de différents milieux linguistiques (hawaïen, japonais, chinois, portugais, parmi d’autres) sur la plantation d’Hawaï pendant le dix-neuvième siècle. Cet exemple, particulier tiré de Winford (Winford @ http://www. blackwellpublishing…), est d’un enregistrement d’un japonais immigrant âgé. Comme tous les pidgins, ceci est une évidence de perte de morphologie flexionnelle, absence de catégorie grammaticale comme temps et aspects, et simplification totale ou réduction de l’appareil grammatical ainsi que du vocabulaire:

(1) Samtaim gud rod get, samtaim, olsom ben get, enguru get, no ? enikain seim. Sometimes good road get, sometimes like bend get, no? everything same. Olsem hyuman laif, olsem. Gud rodu get, enguru get, mantin get, no? awl, enikain. Like human life, all-same. Good road get, angle get, mountain get, no? all, any kind. Stawmu get, nais dey get- olsem. Enibadi, mi olsem, smawl taim. Storm get, nice day get – all-same. Anybody, me too, small time.

“Sometimes there is a good road, sometimes there’s, like, bends, corners, right? Everything is like that. Human life is just like that. There’s good roads, there’s sharp corners, there’s mountains, right? All sort of things, there’s storms, nice days – It’s like that for everybody, it was for me too, when I was young” (Bickerton 1981: 13).

(Quelquefois, il y a de bonnes routes, quelquefois il y a, comme, des virages, des tournants, bon? Tout est comme ça. La vie humaine est juste

comme ça. Il y a des bonnes routes, il y a des virages aigus, il y a des montagnes, bon ? Toutes sortes de choses, il y a des orages, bons jours – c’est comme ça pour tout le monde, c’était pour moi aussi, quand j’étais petit)(Notre traduction).

Le deuxième échantillon est pris de “Sranan Tongo (langue Suriname)”, une langue créole parlée en Suriname, qui a émergé comme un moyen de communication interethnique parmi des esclaves africains emmenés par milliers à la plantation côtière de ce pays du dix-septième au dix-huitième siècle. Comme les autres créoles, son lexique est tiré principalement de la langue des colonisateurs, alors que sa grammaire porte la marque d’une influence substantielle des langues natives des gens soumis qui l’ont créée. Cela, bien sûr, n’est qu’une façon simpliste de décrire le processus complexe de formation créole. Dans cet extrait, une vieille femme parle d’autrefois, quand les enfants respectaient les personnes âgées:

(2) Ma di mi ben e gro kon, mi no ben mag taigi wan bigi but when I PAST IMP grow come, I NEG PAST may tell one big suma wan worth. Uh? Efu mi seni a pikin a no go, en mama person one word. Uh? I send the child s/he NEG go, his mother yere, a e fon en. Taki sanede meki te owma seni yu, hear, she IMP beat him. Say why make when granny send you, Yu no go? You NEG go? Direct a e priti en skin gi en Immediately she IMP split 3p skin for 3p. (Winford @ http://www. blackwellpublishing…)

“But when I was growing up, I wasn’t allowed to say a word to an adult. Uh? If I sent a child (on an errand), and he/she didn’t go, and his/her mother heard this, she would spank the child. (She’d) say why didn’t you go when granny sent you? Right then she’d cut his/her skin for him/her”.

(Mais quand je grandissais, je n’étais pas permis de dire un mot à un adulte. Uh ? Si j’envoyais un enfant (en course), et il/elle ne va pas, et sa mère l’entendait, elle donnerait une fessé à l’enfant. Elle dirait pourquoi tu n’es pas allé quand mémé t’a envoyé ? Bien alors elle le punirait) (Notre propre traduction).

Des exemples comme ceux-ci peuvent être multipliés. En effet, il n’y a pas en principe de limites (sauf celles qui sont imposées par la grammaire universelle) à ce que l’interlocuteur de langues différentes adapte ou adaptera de l’un à l’autre quand la bonne occasion se présente. Comment expliquons-nous ce phénomène ? Quelles combinaisons d’influences sociales ou linguistiques conspirent à les produire ? Quel genre de situation promeut un type de conséquence au lieu d’un autre ? Des questions comme celles-ci font toutes parties du contenu de notre objectif : étudier les situations variées de contact entre le français et l’anglais, le phénomène qui résulte de l’interaction linguistique et les facteurs sociolinguistiques qui forment ses conséquences.

Implications sociolinguistiques du contact entre le français et l’anglais

Le contact culturel entre les deux peuples renseigne sur le contact linguistique. Quand en fait, on parle de contact, ce sont les peuples qui rentrent en contact, ce sont des cultures qui se rencontrent, et cette cohabitation laisse des influences sur les langues car “Languages don’t actually come into contact with each other. It is always the speakers of the languages who are in contact. Their attitudes towards each other will affect the way they speak”. (Language Contact @ http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/...)

L’influence réciproque observable entre les langues anglaise et française est donc fonction du degré et de la durée de contact des deux peuples ou cultures. En outre, certains registres du français sont, en partie, une réaction sociale à son environnement. Prenons en exemples, les expressions suivantes nées de l’interaction sociale des Français avec d’autres peuples : - filer à l’anglais = partir sans dire au revoir

- parler français comme une vache espagnole = parler très mal le français

- le téléphone arabe = transmission très rapide d’une information par bouche à oreille

- une douche écossaise = un traitement très contrasté (agréable, désagréable)

- une querelle d’Allemand = une querelle sans sujet sérieux.

- en file indienne = l’un derrière l’autre.

On voit donc qu’à travers l’expérience sociale que les Français ont eue avec d’autres peuples, nous avons des possibilités linguistiques intéressantes dans la langue. La plupart des langues ont été influencées dans un temps ou l’autre par contact, résultant à des degrés variés de transfert des traits d’une à l’autre. Nous retiendrons de ce fait que le contact dont nous parlions entre le français et l’anglais a conduit : • aux emprunts : Le phénomène est une résultante du contact qui consiste en un transfert des unités lexicales d’une langue vers une autre.

Le français et l’anglais se sont empruntés réciproquement au cours de leur histoire comme remarque ci-après « … l’anglais demeure (pour le français) « un vieux compagnon de route » (“Français contemporain”@ http://www.tlfq.ulaval. ca/...). En effet, depuis neuf siècles, les rapports entre l’anglais et le français ont toujours été « intimes » et les échanges ont toujours été déséquilibrés, d’abord à l’avantage du français, et aujourd’hui à celui de l’anglais…. ». On a donc deux tendances : - C’est d’abord le français qui a nourri le l’anglais de milliers de mots au point que “… de 50 à 60% du vocabulaire anglais est d’origine française”, (“Français contemporain”@ http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/...). - Aujourd’hui, plus précisément depuis le milieu du 20 e siècle, c’est au tour de l’anglais de nourrir le français: « … le processus s’est inversé à partir du milieu du XVIIIe siècle et les mots anglais ont alors nourri la langue française. Ensuite, depuis le milieu du XXe siècle, la tendance s’est considérablement accélérée à partir, cette fois-ci, des Etats-Unis d’Amérique » (“Français contemporain”@ http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/...).

Parmi les exemples importants de ce développement, on a des emprunts de l’anglais au français comme ‘Anatomy’, ‘muscle’, ‘entrance’, ‘invite’, ‘promenade’, ‘liaison’, ‘repartee’, ‘double’, ‘entendre’ et ‘faux pas’ au 17 e siècle et ‘bouquet’, ‘connoisseur’, ‘liqueur’, ‘enveloppe’, ‘nuance’ et ‘souvenir’ au 18 e siècle. Les emprunts de l’anglais au français à l’anglais au 19 e siècle inclus ‘cliché’, ‘chef’, ‘menu’, ‘restaurant’, ‘gourmet’ et ‘blasé’, mais ils sont dépassés par le nombre des emprunts français à l’anglais à cause de l’influence grandissante de Grande-Bretagne dans les domaines de l’industrie, des textiles, du sport et de la mode. Ces mots incluent ‘ballast’, ‘wagon’, ‘jersey’, mackintosh’ ‘smoking’, ‘handicap’, ‘match’, ‘record’, ‘dandy’ et ‘snob’.

Ce déséquilibre deviendra plus grand au 20 e siècle. Les emprunts de l’anglais au français tels que ‘garage’, ‘crêpe’ et ‘dressage’ sont dépassés par le nombre des emprunts français à l’anglais. Cela est évidemment à cause de la dominance des Etats-Unis dans les domaines du commerce, de la technologie et des média donnant lieu à des emprunts tels que ‘gadget’, ‘management’, ‘fast-food’, ‘hamburger’, ‘know-how’ et ‘CD’ .

Mais le succès de l’intégration des mots anglais au français est aussi dû, en grande partie au fait que beaucoup des nouveaux mots anglais tels que ‘clip’ ou ‘look’ sont courts, faciles à prononcer et à mémoriser relativement à leurs équivalents français. Mais si certains mots anglais adoptés au français remplacent simplement les actuels mots français, beaucoup prendraient un sens plus étroit que leur sens anglais originel et de cette façon, constitue une vraie addition au français.

Aujourd’hui, la grande majorité d’emprunts français en anglais existent toujours en français, et cela a créé un fort lien lexical visible entre les deux langues. Il y a beaucoup de cas d’emprunts synonymes avec les équivalents français (exemples : ‘question’, ‘culture’, ‘naturel’, ‘exception’ et ‘général’), bien qu’il soit rare de trouver mots paires ayant un sens pareil dans chaque contexte sauf avec la terminologie plus spécialiste (par exemple : psychologie/psychology, agriculture/agriculture, électricité/ electricity) . • au retournement lexical : Au sein des deux langues, et surtout de l’anglais, on observe des emprunts qu’on pourrait qualifier de retournement lexical ou de réimportation. Par ces termes, on entend des mots d’une langue A qu’une langue B avait emprunté et que la langue A vient réemprunter après quelques temps à la langue B. On observe donc un retour d’un mot à travers le processus de ré-emprunt à sa langue source.

Ce phénomène s’observe entre le français et l’anglais, ‘de vieux compagnons de route’. Walter décrit ce phénomène en ces termes : « … l’anglais, avec plusieurs siècles de retard, rend ainsi au français une partie des mots qu’il lui avait emprunté au Moyen Âge, comme on peut le voir dans de nombreux “allers-retours”, tels que nurse, venu de nourrice, humour, de humeur ou encore challenge qui est un mot de l’ancien français » (Walter @ http://alsic.revues.org/ index324.html ). D’autres exemples incluent : le mot ‘le budget’ qui vient du mot français ‘bougette’ signifiant ‘petit sac’ ‘le fioul’ signifiant (carburant) qui vient de ‘fouaille’ signifiant ‘bois ou feu’. ‘le tunnel’ vient de ‘tonnelle’ signifiant ‘arbour’, ‘le rail’ vient de ‘reille’ signifiant ‘barre de fer’, ‘le ticket’ vient d’’estiquet’ signifiant ‘billet’ ou ‘étiquette’, ‘le sport’ vient du vieux français ‘desport’ signifiant ‘plaisir’, etc.

• aux faux-amis : On qualifie de “faux amis”, les mots qui s’écrivent ou se prononcent de la même manière, mais ont un sens différent. Il existe beaucoup de faux amis entre le français et l’anglais. En exemples, on a : anglais sens français français sens anglais eventual final éventuel possible affair liaison amoureuse affaire business abuse insulter abuser to go too far bachelor célibataire bachelier graduate achievement réalisation achèvement to finish

Les emprunts français en anglais sont au cours des années exposés à d’autres influences que leurs équivalents français, et par conséquent, ont

acquis un sens très différent. C’est cela qui est responsable du phénomène de faux amis que l’on observe entre les deux langues. Les “faux amis” témoignent donc aussi d’un échange entre les deux langues, même si les mots ont suivi une évolution sémantique différente. • aux cognats : Par ‘cognats’, on entend les traces de consanguinité ou de parenté observables dans les deux langues. Grâce à la qualité des contacts entretenus par les deux peuples (Français et Anglais) au cours de leur histoire:

…d’une part, en raison de l’influence exercée par le français, l’anglais est devenu une langue fortement romanisée dans son vocabulaire ; d’autre part, le français a été relativement germanisé par le francique lors de la période romane, ce qui explique en partie certaines ressemblances étonnantes entre les langues française et anglaise (“Français contemporain”@ http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/... ).

Ainsi, “le français deviendra la langue la plus germanisée de toutes les langues romanes alors que l’anglais sera la plus romanisée des langues germaniques” (Histoire de la langue française @ http://www.salicslmc.ca/show). On peut affirmer que le français a donné de son sang ‘romain’ à l’anglais et l’anglais, en a fait de même de son sang ‘germain’ au français. Et ceci renforce le lien fort et visible existant entre les deux langues. Halbronn met en exergue ce lien quand il affirme que “… l’anglais serait une lune et le français son soleil, la lumière de l’une n’existant que par le reflet de la lumière de l’autre”. • Il faut aussi savoir que ce contact renvoie à la loyauté linguistique dans chaque cas. Chaque camp tend à préserver l’intégrité de sa langue et lutte contre l’invasion de l’autre.

A partir de 1972, des commissions ministérielles de terminologie et de néologie sont constituées dans le cas du français. Elles s'emploient à indiquer, parfois même à créer, les termes français qu'il convient d'employer pour éviter tel ou tel mot étranger, ou encore pour designer une nouvelle notion ou un nouvel objet encore non nommés. Ces termes s'imposent alors à l'administration. On ne dit plus "tie-break" mais 'jeu décisif', 'baladeur' remplace 'walkman', 'logiciel' se substitue à 'software', etc. C’est dans cette perspective qu’il faut comprendre la politique linguistique du français qui se cache derrière le propos suivant:

Jugeant que la concurrence de l'anglais, même dans la vie courante, représentait une réelle menace pour le français et que les importations anglo-américains dans notre lexique devenaient trop massives, les autorités gouvernementales ont été amenées, depuis une trentaine d'années, à compléter le dispositif traditionnel de régulation de la langue (Alabi, V. A. 1994 : 123). Les Français veulent protèger leur langue car “…The French do not want to see their language become more and more dilute in years to come. Their language is as important to them as their good food and wine, and it is something which will always be staunchly protected”. (The French Language”@ http://www.kwintessential.co. ) (… les Français ne veulent pas voir leur langue devenir de plus en plus diluée dans les années à venir. Leur langue leur est aussi importante que leur bonne nourriture et bière, et est quelque chose qui doit être farouchement protégée) (Notre traduction). Mais malgré cette loyauté, les deux langues ne cessent de se respecter et de s’exploiter mutuellement. En effet, le français et l’anglais ont toujours été dans une relation d’emprunteurs mutuels et continus. Voilà une vérité qui ne va disparaître du jour au lendemain malgré les tentatives de protection de la langue. Les locuteurs des langues ne cesseront de rentrer

93 en contact et la langue étant un phénomène dynamique, il y aura toujours des influences réciproques, ne serait-ce que minimes de la part des deux langues.

Conclusion

L’un des plus grands défis des linguistes est d’expliquer les mécanismes linguistiques et les forces sociales et les contraintes qui opèrent en commun pour déterminer le résultat particulier qui sortira du contact. L’étude du contact de langues peut conduire à beaucoup d’avantages, pratiques et théoriques. La recherche sur ses aspects sociaux peut conduire à des réflexions nouvelles sur les identités et les relations de groupes. La compréhension des forces sociales qui guident et limitent l’usage de la langue est très importante pour la compréhension des façons dont les langues changent. La recherche sur les aspects linguistiques du contact des langues conduit à la perspicacité sur la nature des systèmes linguistiques, des mécanismes par lesquels ils agissent réciproquement pour produire de nouvelles stratégies de communication et de la créativité des êtres humains quant à l’adoption de matériaux nouveaux et à l’adaptation des anciens.

Bibliographie

Ajiboye, T. (2002): “Nigeria and French: A Paradox of Closeness and Distance” in Fifty-Second Inaugural Lecture, University of Ilorin, January, 11-29.

Alabi, V. A. (1994): “The English Language in Second Language Contexts: The English Language in Nigeria” in New Introduction to English Language . Publication de la section anglaise, Université d’Ilorin, Ibadan, Y-Books, 185.

Bariki, O. (1999): “ Le français au Nigeria: histoire, statut et importance” in M. Nnoruka (ed). Cours de langue et de littérature française . Ilorin. 22-32.

Saussure, Ferdinand (de)(1976). Cours de linguistique générale . Lausanne et Paris: Payot.

---. (2002) « L'impression acoustique est-elle définissable? » in Écrits de linguistique générale. Paris: Gallimard.

Sites consultés

“Français contemporain” http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/ francophonie /HIST FR_s9_Fr-contemporain.htm ), consulté le 25/04/16. “Language Contact” ( http://www. sil.org/sociolx/LNG-Contact.html ) consulté le 25/04/16. English and its Relationship with French @ ( www.googlesearch.com ), consulté Consulté le 18/08/16. Halbronn, J. (2004) : “Modalités de l’emprunt linguistique” http://ramkat.free.fr/ghalb16. html ), consulté le 25/04/16. Mohammed Ali: http://www.realfrench.net/pdf/eng.pdf , consulté le 10/11/16. Reflections on the Relationship between Languages and the Economy as Applied to Canada: http://www.pch.gc.ca/offlangoff/perspectives/english/econo/part5a. htm , consulté le 24/11/16. Walter, Henriette (2005) : « L’intégration des mots venus d’ailleurs », Alsic , vol.8, no.1/2005, [en ligne], mis en ligne le 15 novembre 2005, URL : http://alsic.revues.org/index324. html , consulté le 01/05/16. Winford, Donald: “Introduction: The field of Contact Linguistics”, (http://www.Black wellpublishing.com/content/ BPL.../Winford- 001.pdf ) consulté le 25/04/16.

SOME SOCIOLINGUISTIC PHENOMENA IN SOME SELECTED FRANCOPHONE AFRICAN FICTIONS: A SOCIOCRITICAL REVIEW

ISA, Bayo & ABDULMALIK, Ismail

Abstract

Every literary text is constructed with language. An author uses the potentials of language to negotiate meaning(s) for his text(s) in order to carry the local colour and culture of the targeted people. Sociolinguistic phenomena are some of the useful tool towards achieving this end. These sociolinguistic phenomena include, but not limited to, code-mixing, code-switching, linguistic borrowing and or use of African variety of French which recently became very rampant in some francophone African fictions. The Some of the Francophone African authors who have employed in their works the identified styles include Sembene Ousmane, author of Guelwaar, Mongo Beti, who wrote Trop de soleil tue l’amour and Ahmadou Kourouma, who authored Allah n’est pas obligé. This article,therefore, , examines the incidence of some of these sociolinguistic phenomena in the three novels mentioned above using a socio-critical approach. We discovered that the rampancy of sociolinguistic phenomena in some francophone African fictions may not be unconnected with the desire of the authors to decolonize African language and to express solidarity with a particular social group. This shows that the use of some expressions associated with some real life settings authenticates the stories and compels belief . Yet the question that needs to be answered here is: Will the use of these sociolinguistic phenomena in their work lead to improvement or destruction of the French language?

Key-words: Linguistic borrowing, Code–switching, Code-mixing, African variety of French, Implications

Introduction Francophone African literature was dominated by the negritude movement during the colonial era. Although, some critics traced its beginnings to Rene Maran's publication of Batouala in 1921 (Chevrier 24). In the early 1930s, black students from the Caribbean and African French colonies rebelled against the assimilation policies of their education and vied to revalorize their common African cultural roots, which colonization had systematically devalued. Aimé Cesaire, Leon-Gontran Damas, and Leopold Sedar Senghor led this movement, which not only galvanized black students but appealed to prominent members of the French literary establishment, such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, André Gide, Marcel Griaule, Michel Leiris, and André Breton. From this revolt rose a whole body of writings (especially poetry) that celebrated the African roots of black cultures long considered manifestations of barbarism. Sartre's "Black Orpheus," the preface to Senghor's Anthologie de la nouvelle poèsie négre et malgache d'expression française published in1948, highlighted the main ideas of this literary movement.

In the post-independence era, the urgency of problems facing the new nations created the need to scrutinize the actions of the new leaders in Africa through denunciation of their nefarious activities. African writers thus went beyond racial issues to deal with problems specific to their communities. In their case, the use of European languages has raised questions on the essence of African literature and on being African. Some critics, such as the Kenyan writer, Ngugi wa Thiong'o, saw the Africans' experiences as unique to all and suggested their subsequent writings as falling into two categories, namely Europhone and African literatures.

During the years after independence, Francophone African literature has evolved along a trajectory similar to its English counterpart. In the 1960s, many writers dealt with the clash of cultures, disillusionment with the native elites, and the latter's gross mismanagement of public affairs. This trend culminated into what is known as "Afropessimism." The 1980s saw the rise of women writers, pioneered by the Senegalese novelist Mariama Ba, whose Une Si Longue Lettre in 1981 marked the watershed moment when women found and used their own voices. Award-winning authors such as Aminata Sow Fall, Werewere Liking, Calixthe Beyala, Ken Bugul, and Veronique Tadjo have become familiar names in literary circles.

In this article, we are taking a look at the concept of sociolinguistic phenomena in francophone African literature considering the fact that sociolinguistics itself is a discipline which studies the relationship between language and the social factors . We will equally analyze some of these phenomena in the three selected texts in order to bring out the extent to which these authors practice them. All these variables are linked to the thematic import of the works to see how the authors have merged their themes and style to project the desired sociolinguistic implications. Language is an important aspect of culture and therefore a social phenomenon that will always express the socio-cultural structure of the people.

These three selected texts, which are based on sociopolitical problems in the post-independence era in sub-Saharan Africa, bring to fore the rampancy of the use of sociolinguistic phenomena in francophone African fiction. Take for example, Allah n’est oblige, it is told in the first person and the framing conceit is that Birahima narrates the story with the aid of a Larousse , a Petit Robert , a Glossary of French Lexical Particularities in

Black Africa and a Harrap's , picked up in the course of his travels. This gives Kourouma license to use non-standard language and to infuse it with regional idioms and rhythms, though the full effect of this may not have survived translation.

Sociolinguistic Phenomena: The Question of Socio-critical Approach

According to George Yule, sociolinguistics “deals with the inter- relationships between language and society…, which has strong connection with anthropology, through the investigation of language and culture” (239). On his part, John Platt et al opine that sociolinguistics has a lot to do with “the study of language in relation to social factors, that is, social class, educational level and type of education, age, sex, ethnic origin, etc.”(262). In the like manner, Crystal posits that the field of sociolinguistics is preoccupied with the linguistic identity of social groups, standard and non-standard forms of language, the patterns and needs of national language use, social varieties and level of language, and the social basis of multilingualism (440-441). For William McGregor “sociolinguistics is concerned with language in its social context and explores the variation in languages associated with social phenomena such as the social group to which speakers and/or hearers belong” (5). Janet Holmes agrees that sociolinguistics is burdened with the identification of ways to describe and explain the interrelatedness of language and social context in which it is used (439).

In contrast, some scholars have attempted to show a difference between sociolinguistics and sociology of language. Florian Coulmas expresses her opinion of the difference between sociolinguistics, otherwise known as

99 micro-sociolinguistics and the sociology of language, also called macro- sociolinguistics:

Since sociolinguistics is a meeting ground for linguists and social scientists, some of whom seek to understand the social aspects of language while others are primarily concerned with linguistic aspects of society, it is not surprising that there are, as it were, two centres of gravity, known as micro- and macro- sociolinguistics in the narrow sense and sociology of language (n.p).

Similar to the above, Peter Trudgill understands macro-sociolinguistics as sociology of language which usually encompasses variationist linguistics, social dialectology, the sociology of language, and other areas involving the study of relatively large groups of speakers (1). He sees micro- sociolinguistics as a term which usually studies the face-to-face interaction such as discourse and conversational analysis, interactional sociolinguistics, and other areas of sociolinguistics involving the study of relatively small groups of speakers. Wardhaugh citing Hudson (1996) states the difference between the two in a very simple way by saying that “sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society whereas sociology of language is the study of society in relation to language” (13).

In spite of the differences between these two areas of language investigation –sociolinguistics and sociology of language, it is pertinent that we are reminded that neither of them can operate independent of the other. The new generation of African writers (especially those of West and central like Ahmadou Kourouma, Sembene Ousmane and Central like Mongo Beti) are daring in the subversion and appropriation of the

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European languages with which they produce their texts. They freely deploy different linguistic strategies to indigenize and domesticate the borrowed medium they employ.

Linguistic Borrowings, Code-Mixing and Code-Switching: Attempt at Definitions

First and foremost, the three sociolinguistic elements mentioned above are closely related, but still slightly differ from one another. Attempt at their definitions will shed more light on the similarities and the differences. However, they are part of the sociolinguistics phenomena in literature nowadays. According to Onyemelukwe, “Linguistic borrowing refers to the fusion of the language of literary creativity with some lexical items from other codes. Sometimes the borrowing is from autochthonous African languages” (256). These sociolinguistic phenomena became very rampart in some francophone African fictions these centuries. Linguistic borrowing occurs as a result of languages in contact and manifests prominently in vocabulary and lexical items in the form of borrowing. It could be from French to any other indigenous languages or vice visa. Sometimes, some of the francophone African writers borrow some lexical items from the autochthonous language while writing in French with or without explanatory notes as will be examplified in the cases of the authors selected for this study.

Code-mixing also sometimes referred to as « language interlading » is defined as the fact of sprinkling statement with lexical terms and expressions taken from one or more different codes while communication is taking place principally in a particular language. Giving a distinction between code-switching and code-mixing, one can say that code-switching does not entail the violation of the grammatical rules of the languages

101 involved in the speech event while code-mixing does so. Code-mixing exemplifies the most advanced degree of bilingualism to the extent that it requires considerable competence in the simultaneous processing of the grammatical rules of the language pair. Also for Sumarsih et al (79), code- mixing occurs when speakers mix or insert foreign words in a dominant language used. They also affirm that code-switching does not violate the rules of drafting sentences for second or more languages (79). Code- mixing is then intra-sentence.

Code-switching is the successive alternate use of two or more different languages within the same discourse. Ronald Wardhaugh regards code- switching as code-mixing (101). He explains that one can switch from one code to another or to mix codes even sometimes in very short utterances. The code created becomes a new code. It can come between sentences (inter-sentential) or within a single sentence (intra-sentential). It can come as a choice of the individual or as a major identity marker for a group of speakers who must deal with more than one language in their common pursuit. Citing Cal’s work published in 1998, Wardhaugh explains code- switching as “a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke, or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations” (101). Tendency abounds where some scholars treat or consider code-switching and code-mixing as the same sociolinguistic phenomena. However, today, in the sociolinguistic field, they are regarded as two different sociolinguistic phenomena (Adeniran, 1990 ; Lawal, 1991 ; Onyemelukwe, 1997). Code-switching is defined as the practice alternating successively from a code to another or more in the same oral or written statement. Traverso is

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of the same opinion when he affirms that code-switching “consists of passing from a language to another within an exchange ou statement” (10). As for Gumperz:

L’alternance codique dans la conversation peut se définir comme la juxtaposition à l’intérieur d’un même échange verbal, de passages où le discours appartient à deux systèmes ou sous-systèmes grammaticaux différents. Le plus souvent l’alternance prend la forme de deux phrases qui se suivent. Comme lorsqu’un locuteur utilise une seconde langue soit pour réitérer son message soit pour répondre à l’affirmation de quelqu’un d’autre.

This definition of Gumperz which appears more comprehensible seeks, among others, to find some response of linguistic phenomena such as code-switching. Why these practices? What lead to the practice? Note that Code-switching is at the level of inter-sentences and supra-sentence.

Linguistic Borrowing, Code-Switching and Code-Mixing in the Selected Texts

- Linguistic borrowing Let us look at linguistic borrowing from Ahmadou Kourouma context. Earlier in his novel, En attendant le vote des bêtes sauvages, the practice of linguistic borrowing is taken too far as we read in these examples:

Le fog et son Premier ministre levèrent le tso, la danse du chef et…Le maître du ké convoqua tous les jeunes…les affiliés au lila se regroupèrent…les membres du mwop se réunirent au marché et les adhérents au maso, la danse des femmes, s’attroupèrent

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aux différentes portes de la ville (138). (The underlining is ours).

The underlined words are borrowed from Manlike, the linguistic background of the author. Kourouma appears to have deliberately injected a large dose of these words in his description of Prime Minister among others to give his literary creation a local colour.

In Allah n’est pas obligé, linguistic borrowing abounds throughout the text. The classes of familiar words originally from an indigenous African language and those invented by coded language from the past are injected throughout the text. Below are some examples: - “Faforo” (8): a malinké pejorative term meaning « sex of the father ». - “Gnamokodé” (8) a malinké pejorative term meaning « a bastard or a child born out of wedlock » - “Bilakoro” (11): a malinké derogatry term meaning (in pejorative sens). - “Un koroté” (21): a popular term meaning « bad luck ». - “Un djibo” (22): name of a powerful bambara chief priest ; - « Gbaka » (50): terme populaire du nouchi ivoirien par lequel on désigne un minibus ou un minicar urbain (de fortune) au transport peu couteux. - « Bangala » (55) : Terme d’origine bambara ou malinké désignant le sexe de l’homme, la verge ou le pénis. - « Gnousou-gnoussou » (55): a coded language ancient term of the bambara indicating female sexuality. - « Makou » (55): an injunctive popular term of malinké meaning “silence” . - « Djoko-djoko » (62): a malinke term meaning « whether ». - « Ouya-ouya » (79) an ivorian nouchi term meaning « anything »

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- « Doni-doni » (82): a malinke term meaning « little by little » - « Gnona-gnona » (94): a malinke expression to mark the need to be in hurry « quick, quick » - « Le liriki » (164): an ivorian nouchi term indicating « money ». - « Bele-bele » (205) a malinké indicating, muscle, busty. - « Kasaya-kasaya » (206) : a nouchi term indicating « insane »

In Guelwaar, the title of the book is a borrowed wolof word, the predominant language of Sembene Ousmane’s Senegal. In this text, we observe the use of African language to present some French lexical items that are either not available in wolof or that are too difficult to explain. Below are some of the examples: -“ tubabs” (16): explained in notes as “Blanc, Européen”. - “ bolongs” (18) ; explained in notes as “ chenal ». - « tann » (18) explained in notes as « salins » - « Guelwaar-yi » (19) without explanation in the notes. - « Maam,». (40) without explanation. - « Ndianiw » (40). explained in notes as « pays de morts » - « demme » explained in notes as « anthropophage ». (44) - «xessal » (87) explained in notes as « éclaircissement de la peau ». - « le mboye» (103) explained in notes as « mot wolof : Harmattan ashanti ».

The list is by no means exhaustive. In Trop de soleil tue l’amour, Beti practices various forms of linguistic borrowing ranging from African to English languages. Below are some of the examples of African languages borrowed: - “Ye mabissi!” (14), which, unlike Sembene Ousmane, he did not deem it fit to explain in the notes either below or at the end of the novel. - “Ekye, répétait Nobert, tu es même comment” (185)

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- “Na wama!” (31) (116) explained in notes as “par ma mère” - “…, tu n’es pas peut-être khalife” (117) not explained in notes. - « Et alors ? se hasard le toubab » (193) (232)(155). - “Le feeling, tu sais ce que c’est ? » (44) - « Le taximan avait l’air d’un brave garçon” (61). - « Au contraire, …my God” (125). - « Bye-bye. » (146). - « tramp et cuckold » (166). (The underlining is ours)

Like in Guelwaar, the list is not exhaustive. However, it may interest one to note that many of these English borrowed words like “feeling, taximan, show, selfie” etc, have found their ways into the French dictionary like the latest edition of Grand Robert (2016) .

Code-Mixing - French and African Languages Ahmadou Kourouma in Allah n’est pas obligé code-mixes French and African languages. Below are some few examples: - C’était, faforo (le cul de mon père) !, le corps du mari de tantie Mahan. (sexe du père) (8) : a malinké pejorative term meaning « sex of the father ». - Par n’importe quelle malemort, gnamokodé (bâtardise) ! Gnamokodé (8) a malinké pejorative term meaning « a bastard or a child born out of wedlock » - parce que j’étais un bilakoro (16) : a malinké derogatry term meaning (in pejorative sens). - Ils ont lancé contre la jambe droite de ma maman un mauvais sort, un koroté (p.21) : a popular term meaning « bad luck ». - un djibo (…) trop fort, trop puissant (11) : name of a powerful bambara chief priest or harbalist; - « Les commerçantes ça grouille autour des gbakas » (50) : popular term in ivorian nouchi which is used to indicate a minibus or an urban minicar. - « Son bangala s’était rétréci » (25, 55, 65 etc.) : a bambara or malinké term which is used to indicate the sex of a man (penis).

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- « Elle était débraillée, elle n’avait plus de pagne et son caleçon cachait mal le gnoussou-gnoussou ». (55): an ancient bambara coded term describing female sexuality. (The underlining is ours).

Sembene Ousmane mostly code-switches in African languages in Guelwaar . Below are some of the examples: -“…la religion des tubabs” (16): explained in notes as “Blanc, Européen”. - “ …des dédales de bolongs” (18) ; explained in notes as “ chenal ». - « …les tann » (18) explained in notes as « salins » - « est la avec Guelwaar-yi » (19) without explanation in the notes. - « Elle est revenue de Ndianiw » (40). explained in notes as « pays de morts » - « Le nakka est l’offrande qui accompagne l’âme de mort… »(44) - « Il n’est pas bon d’être accusé de demme » explained in notes as « anthropophage ». (44) - « s’adonnait aux xessal » (87) explained in notes as « éclaircissement de la peau ». - « Du nord, le mboye soufflait… » (103) explained in notes as « mot wolof : Harmattan ashanti ». (The underlining is ours).

- French and English Languages Ahmadou Kourouma in Allah n’est pas obligé code-mixes French and English languages. Below are some of the examples: - Les small-soldiers avaient tout et tout (41) - « M’appelle Birahima. Suis p’tit nègre. Pas parce que suis black et gosse ». (7) - On l’appelait là-bas grigriman (41) Le choix fait par l’un des grigrimen… (97) - Les enfants-soldats, les small-soldiers ou children-soldiers ne sont pas payés (49)

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- Le petit, un vrai kid…(51) - L’enfant-soldat haut comme le stick d’un officier (52) - Et nous sommes restés quiets … (57) - … elle avait un sex-appeal voluptueux… (58) - Les Malinkés les appellent les bushmen… (59) - Les natives, c’est les nègres noirs africains indigènes du pays (123). (The underlining is ours).

In Trop du soleil tue l’amour, Beti practices a lot of French-English code- mixing. Examples below are taken from the text: - “Il y a eu un long échange de coups de feu, une sorte de gun party, comme dans le dénouement des westerns... (34). The author uses her to reinforce the idea of action western films that is usually characterized by shooting. Other examples abonds: - “Les four brothers dans Early Autumn…” (8). - “…All of me (…) just you, just me.” (10) (The underlining is ours).

The examples are so enormous in the text. What would strike the reader most is the fusion of other foreign codes such as French-Japan, French-Latin as we can see in these examples: - “Je ferais hara-ki….” (164). Hara-ki means suicide in Japan (Hara-ki @ www.google.fr ). - “…l’habeaus corpus” (35) is a Latin word as well as “le modus operandi” (58).

Code-Switching

- French and African Languages

In Allah n’est pas obligé , Kourouma carried out few code-switchings in indigenous African languages as in this example: - « Autrement dit, c’était comme moi, je ne pouvais pas y aller. Gnamokodé (bâtard) ! » (33), but he carried out a lot of code-switching in French and Foreign languages as in examples below:

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- French and Foreign Languages

- « de sorte que le slogan de ses partisans « No Taylor No peace », (37). French- English - “Allah Koubarou ” (15): popular malinke expression from arabic meanning « God is great ». - « Chi allah la ho »: arabic expression adopted to malinke to mean « If God wishes ». - « kif-kif » (42): familiar arabic expression adopted to malinke to mean « The same thing ». - « Mais Yacouba n’avait pas fini de prononcer les premiers « Allah koubarou, Allah koubarou » que nous avons vu arriver Sekou » (105), - …de multiplicateur de billets à Abidjan. Walahé ! (Arabic expression meaning ‘in the name of Allah’) !(106).

Sembene Ousmane code-switches mostly between Arabic, Wolof and French. Below are some examples: - « Soubhanalahi, Sef, je n’ai jamais vendu de cadavre ! » (28) - « Lahillaha Illaha !...J’ai manqué à toutes les convenances. » (88) - « Soubbanalahi ! s’exclama Ndoffene. » (89), (117). - “Allahu Akbar: Meussa Ciss” (150) (153). - “Le Assalaa-maleikum bien articulé...” (150).

Beti demonstrates the sociolinguistic phenomena in a more versatile way as regards use of English language to code-switch French. Here are some examples: - “Tu es l’homme dont j’ai besoin, en quelque sorte the right man at the right place, tu comprends ça?” (126). Beti demonstrates the multilingualism of his country of origin, the Cameroon. Other examples are as follow: -“ But she was’nt satisfied, she had to run around, tu entends ca? (167). Apart from French-English, French-Latin were equally code-switched as in the example that follows: - “Il faut s’y faire. O tempora, o mores.” (67). - “L’homme invisible entreprit de réciter….Ave Maria gratia plena… » (245).

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Consequently, it could be said that apart from these languages used in the three selected texts, the authors allow some characters to speak in what it now referred to as African Variety of French or ‘Africanized’ French. The following examples are pertinent to Allah n’est pas obligé and Trop de soleil tue l’amour . In Trop de soleil tue l’amour, here are some examples: - « Ouais, tu es même comment, papa ? fit Elisabeth en français africain » (106). - « Mouf ! débrouille-toi avec to sale toubab, toi-même sale type » (107). And the uses of popular style ad gutter language such as “pute” (87), “Merde, merde, merde” (95).

In Allah n’est pas obligé , the list is endless. Below are some examples:

- « Mon école n’est pas arrivée très loin » (7). - « J’ai coupé cours élémentaire deux » (7). - « Suis dix ou douze ans » (8). - « Je sais pas le nombre de mois que j’étais » - « Il t’a née avec les douleurs de l’ulcère » (15) - « Allah ne donne pas de fatigues sans raisons » (15)

While Beti and Ousmane shy away from neologism, Kourouma does a lot of it in his fictions. However, the three authors do a lot of sociolinguistic phenomena as we have discussed up till now. A pertinent question at this level arises: what could be the reason for these phenomena in recent times?

Some possible reasons for the Use of these Sociolinguistic Phenomena In francophone African literature, reasons for the insertion or use of these sociolinguistic phenomena are not far-fetched. The francophone African literature passed through a lot of phases. The earlier authors of this literature such as Camara Laye, Leopold Sedar Sengho, Sheikh Hamidou

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Kane, during colonial era, were mainly using standard French which they considered as the best medium of communicating African culture through literature. They are regarded as “classics”(Irele 123), “Purists or Conservatives” and “in the eyes of conservatives or purist, the French language has transcended the status of compulsory linguistic/literary medium to that of a first language L 1” (Onyemelukwe 201).

However, after independence of many African countries in 1960, the problem of national language arose and to which no answer was in sight. French language continues thus to be the medium of expression in literature. This gave rise to the use of these sociolinguistic phenomena in francophone African fiction. Three selected texts, Guelwaar, Allah n’est pas oblige and Trop de soleil tue l’amour are postcolonial texts. It shows the extent to which political freedom could also enhance linguistic freedom to certain extent.

In the same vein, the culture of the colonized African is liberated as some of lexical items inserted came from the untranslatable aspect of the African culture that the foreign languages are not being able to adequately take care. The insertion of African languages in postcolonial texts, sometimes in a metonymic way, thus stand for decolonized culture. According to Onyemelukwe, “fusing French with indigenous African languages, among other codes, is a way of promoting and globalizing African languages and culture” (262). Aside the above mentioned facts, the author’s linguistic background is one of the reasons that could vouch for the excesses of the occurrence of sociolinguistic phenomena in the literary texts. Mongo Beti’s multilingualism (Cameroon being a bilingual country) is demonstrated in Trop de soleil tue l’amour . By the multilingual syntactic fusion, Beti

111 seems to encourage the public to aim towards speaking more than one language. In the case of Kourouma in Allah n’est pas oblige and Sembene Ousmane in Guelwaar , the duo demonstrate the mastery use of what we called ‘linguistic cohabitation’, with the fusion of African autochthonous languages into French. The question that arises here is: How will the uses of these sociolinguistic elements in the francophone affect the Anglophone learner of French?

Implications for Anglophone learner of French On one hand, the ‘new generation’ of writers such as Sembene Ousmane, Mongo Beti, Ahmadou Kourouma etc., known as “deconstructionists” by some critic of francophone African literature, believe that even though French language as a medium of expression in francophone literature is still not contested, this language lacks in lexical items the representation of some aspect of African culture and tradition. To them such elements are untranslatable in any foreign language, hence the need for the recourse to the use of these sociolinguistic phenomena which are pertinent to the environment of the author. Take for example, Ahmadou Kourouma’s Allah n’est pas obligé where a lot of French language structures were rendered in French as in the following: - « Je sais pas le nombre de mois que j’étais » (11) which, would in standard French be « Je ne sais pas le nombre de mois que j’avais ». - « Il t’a née avec les douleurs de l’ulcère » (15) which, in standard French would be « Il t’a infligé l’ulcère comme épreuve ». - « …la nuit où elle a fini » (30) which, would be « La nuit où elle est décédée » in standard french. - « … égorgeait très souvent plein de sacrifices » (39) which, in standard French would be « … offrait des animaux en holocauste ». - « Il la marcha (la route) sans regarder … » (117) which, in standard French would be « Il prit la route à pied… »

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- « Tous les chasseurs ont donné adieu à Sœur…. « 190) which, in standard French would be « Tous les chasseurs ont rendu hommage à Sœur …, ont fait les adieux à sœur… ».

The implication for the learning of French here is negative. One of the tools that contribute immensely towards teaching and learning of language is literature. Any learner of French who studies Ahmadou Kourouma’s Allah n’est pas obligé could be misled that such ‘malinkinzed’ expressions of French are standard and as such will not be able to compete with his or her colleague abroad. On the other hand however, the earlier writers such as Camara Laye, who authored L’Enfant noir, Leopold Sedar Senghor, who wrote “Le Kaya-mangan” and Sheikh Hamidou Kane, who authored Aventure ambiguë are known as ‘purists’, ‘classics’ or ‘conservatives’ because they used standard French as medium of expression of African culture in their literature.

Studies show that the work of these authors promote and present them as being indeed positively disposed to the use of standard French (by standard French, we imply the use of purely academic French devoid of code-mixing, code-switching, linguistic borrowing and the use of Africa variety of French etc.), as a medium of expression in literature. Some critic such as Chevrier (49), Joachim (123) even accuse them of seeing French as a replacement for mother tongues. Their use of standard French language helped Anglophone leaner of the language to have a firsthand experience of the language through indigenous authors through studying their texts. This has greatly contributed to the promotion of the learning of French language in Anglophone country like Nigeria.

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In the same vein, the use of French to express and highlight some African cultural, customs, civilization and traditions promote and propagate in no small measure, African culture. It equally globalizes it to the tune of disabusing the mind of the western world who erroneously believed that African are “bête sauvages’, without origin, history and culture.

For a learner of French language of Anglophone extraction to overcome the deficiency brought about by the insertion of these sociolinguistic phenomena, efforts should be made to galvanize his or her knowledge through constant research on the linguistic features, structure and sociolinguistic background information of any of the “deconstructionists” writers.

Conclusion Language is a socio-cultural reality phenomena and this is why Paul Simpson supports the fact that “sociolinguistic code expresses through language, the historical, cultural and linguistic setting which frames a narrative”, because “it locates the narrative in time and place by drawing upon the forms of language which reflect the socio-cultural context” (21). This work is specifically designed to examine the sociolinguistic elements of the three novels selected with the aim of showing how they are exploited to project the unique messages of the authors and therefore, carry the local colour of the tone of writing. Above all, it seeks to reveal how the social context strengthens the linguistic repertoire of the characters.

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Wa Thiong’o Ngugi. “The Language of African Literature.” The Post- Colonial Studies Reader. Eds Bill, Aschroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. London: Routledge, 1995. Web. 10 Nov 2014.

Yule, George. The Study of Language (2nd ed). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

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Paradigm of Existence, Nationhood and Obsessive Materialism in Ben Okri’s The Famished Road

AKANO, Reuben Kehinde

Abstract

Ben Okri’s The Famished Road is a creative work selected for an x-ray of the living condition of the people inhabiting the third world especially of African descent. Of the micro reference is Nigeria as a country reputed to be the most populous nation in the continent. But it is discovered that inspite of the huge resources that Nigeria is endowed with, there is palpable discontentment registered in the countenance of the citizens. Also, the country’s woes can be blamed on the political class’ failure and bemused citizens whose crave for wealth and power or influence as individuals and groups is unethical and in conflict with national developmental strides. Key words : Art, Society, Politics, Development, Hope

Introduction Between Art and society is a synergy which essentially is geared towards benevolent humanity, development and prosperity as hallmarks ofnationhood. But where this end result or outcome is lacking or negatively impacted, certain variables or factors should be investigated. In most cases, the prevailing polity is culpable or suspect as we attempt to explain a negative social order. Nationhood can viewed from different perspectives interims of understanding and illuminating the concept. A question to be asked is what then does the word nationhood mean to the status of a union of a people or a nation as independent?The on-line

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Webster Dictionary defines nationhood as a people having a common origin, tradition and language and capable of forming or actually constituting a nation-state? It entails nationality or nationalism with a recourse to legal relationship involving allegiance on the part of an individual and usually protection, on the part of the state. More still, nationhood could mean an ethnic group constituting an element of a larger unit as a nation. Its plural form is nationalities – ethnicity, nation,race. A national is a member or citizen of a particular nation. From the above plethora of definitions, certain facts can be deduced from the above in regards to prominent terms such as ethnic independence, political freedom, economic buoyancy, nationalism. Others are language, history and identity are characteristics of nationhood.

While most West African countries do not qualify as nations in the strict sense of using the word, certain denominations could provide sides to nation’s emblem of these countries. Most countries are a collection of ethnic groups, colonial history, adoption of foreign national language such asFrench and English as official languageetc. In reality, regrettably, the hallmark of nationhood virtually in all African countries inmoderntime is slow growth, underdevelopment, political instability, economic recession, hyper-inflation, insecurity, cyber-crime, xenon phobia etc. whether ethnic nationalitiesconstituting nationhood or colonial imposition or contraption bringing them together as nation, in what way do not African countries exudenationhood in term of developmental strides, nationalism, racial pride etc. Nationhood in Africa has been epileptic,problematic,traumatic and pathetic.

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Myth, Literature and Social Vision In coming to terms with nationhood and existence, Ben. Okri engages the creative platform to dissect the plight of the third world countries especially Africa. His concern is actually that of the famished road in which the citizens of the African nations are travelling in a journey which seems unending, and yet a difficult one. Ben Okri captures thispitiable scenarioin his novel,The Famished Roadwhere he x-rays paradigm of existence and social abodes based on the status and number of the citizenry through the transposition of the Abiku saga.

The myth of Abiku, a Yoruba spirit child who must die and be born repeatedly is the aesthetic ingredient through which the author exposes the epileptic growth and development of most third world countries. The parabolic presentation has Lazarus or Azaro, an Abiku child at the centre of the narrative as he plays the role of the victim – protagonist and narrator. Abiku is a mythical child but the myth is a credible one because as JP Clark contends when an Abiku comes and goes a couple of times, a frustrated family gives the Abiku scars at birth so that it is now being made ugly. It will displease the gods and spirits to have him return to the spirit world. This makes the child stay alive and end the sorrow of the family that is burdened to bear that child over and over.

Abiku is associated with the evil spirit and the saga is real in Yoruba mythology. Ben Okri’s adoption of Abiku myth provides him with the creative stuff for the illumination of the real world of the living where existence or life has been epileptic and seemingly irredeemable or unstable. But what then is myth and how applicable is Abiku saga to the epilepsy of existence that Nigeria and her counterparts in Africa are experiencing? The word myth in its ordinariness connotesfalsehood, fable,

119 and fantasy,exaggerated or fabricated story. The online Webster dictionary gives a multiple definitions of Myth. It posits that “Myth is a popular belief or tradition that has grown up around something or someone especially one embodying the ideals and institutions of a society or segment of society. Conversely, myth is also defined as a usually traditional story of ostensibly historical events that serve to unfold part of the world view of a people or explain a practice, belief or natural phenomenon. Myth is coined or derived from the Greek word mythosand it is associated with societies as the primitive existence and status representing a body of tales of such communities. Myth can also be related to human behaviours, evolutionary trends, the creation and nature of the world. Akporobaro (49) defines myth as a kind of story ‘rudimentary narrative sequence normally traditional and anonymous, through which a given culture ratifies its racial customs or accents from the origin of human and naturalphenomenon, usually in supernatural or bodily imaginative terms. He goes further to define myth as fictional stories containing deeper truths exposing collective attitude to fundamental matters of life, death, divinity and existence. Myth, no doubt has been subjected to varied interpretations over time connoting different things to different people.

Hugh Holman (295-298) is not quite different from Akporobo defining Myth as vestiges of primordial ritual and ceremony to the repository of racial memories, or a structure of unconsciously held value systems or an expression of the general beliefs of a race, social class, nation or a unique embodiment of cosmic view. Anonymous stories having their roots in the primitive folk beliefs of races or nations and presenting supernatural episodes as a mean of interpreting natural events in an effort to make concrete and particular and special perception of man or cosmic view.

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Of particular interest to this paper is myth criticism which of course aggregates all of the above as meanings and connotations or interpretations of myth. Myth is a body of knowledge drawn from historical and beliefs archives of a people which relate their existence, attitudes, failure, accomplishes and assumptions etc.Myth criticism becomes relevant to our study of Ben Okri’sThe Famished Road because it embodies the utility of literature, mythic archetypes and universal narratives. As sourced from North Frye’s Anatomy of Criticism, myth criticism is capable of revealing the connectedness between the embedded imagery in narrative patterns as may be contained in the recurrent reservoir of archetypes. As contained in Frazer’s anthropological work, broadly speaking, myth criticism is a kind of literary interpretation that regards literary works as expressions or embodiments of recurrent mythic patterns and structures, or of “timeless” archetypes. Myth criticism which flourished in to 1950s and 1960s, is less interested in the specific qualities of a given work than in those features of its narrative structure or symbolism that seem to connect it to ancient myths and religions.

John Bascom (361-362) gives a rather encompassing definition of myth which illustrates the utilitarian adaptation of Abiku saga in The Famished Road. As racial products, myth are: Prose narratives which in the society in which they are told are considered to be truthful accounts of what happened in the remote part. They are accepted on faith; they are taught to be believed and can be cited as authority in answer to ignorance, doubtor disbelief. Specifically, with regards to the sensibility or credibility of myth, it is pertinent to raise the following questions. Is the world we live in a myth? Are the third world countries real as peopled by human beings like their developed counterpart? Narrowing down the concern, is Nigeria a myth in

121 view of its social, political and economic epilepsy and lethargic state?The definition of a nation is its giants leaps in socio-economic spheres aachievablethroughpolitical maturity and stability. At the centre of nationhood are moral and ethical standards. To underscore the importance of moral rights on the part of the citizenry, Nigeria’s National policy on education emphasizes“Citizenship Education as a basis for effective participation in, and contributions in nation-building (b) Character and moral training and the development of sound attitudes”.

Digging deeper, the National Policy on Education is articulate about the expectation from the citizenry interms of obligation and rights.The nation is desirable of “a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the dignity of labour, and appreciate those values such as respect for the worth and dignity of man, moral and spiritual values, interpersonal and human relations and a shared responsibility for the common good of society”. For a nation like Nigeria to achieve this, certain framework ought to be in place. The traditional ethics and cultural practices as inherent in the cultural activities of the multi ethnic groups of the country are pointers to moral, spiritual and religious standards which moderate nationals’ attitudes and assumptions. Ex-President OlusegunObasanjo attests to these traditional values in his speech at the launch of the campaign on National Rebirth at the Eagle Square, Abuja, on 10 th September 1999 that “our people are naturally helpful and considerate. Traditionally we have a communal and caring society. If our people have not exhibited those traits in their relationship with their neighbours and the state in recent times, it is perhaps because of some creeping alien influence or breaking up of communal ties”. Contrary to the qualities stated above, Nigerians behave otherwise and Nigeria, our dear country reaps the consequence. But what indices of

122 failure are there in the socio-political spectacle of Nigeria nay Africa that cataloguefailure and underdevelopment? Or is Nigeria a nation in the true sense? This issue of nationhood being questioned is not interms of heterogeneous or linguistic diversity of the ethnic groups. NnimoBassey Once captured the ugly scenario and failed nationhood in his essay “Nigeria is a Movie” (The Guardian, Sunday, December 25, 1983, P.8). Nigeria is a movie; a Saga in abandoned babies; abandoned projects, abandoned responsibility, abandoned economy, abandoned you and me. The hallmark of National Development as identified by Aloy Ejiogu (11) includes: Well-fed population; individual freedom and liberty; respect and recognition in the comity of nations; availability and affordability of essential goods and services; high GDP and income per capital; stable polity, security of life and property; food security; viable employment opportunities; and of course functional qualitative educational system.

Unfortunately, the reverse is the case in the third world countries of Africa in particular. It is a case of the famished citizenry trudging on on the famished road going by Ben Okri’s painting of the sombresituation staring everyone in the face. The extent to which literature impinges on social experience cannot be fathomed. This is partly due to the permanent value of the creative work and the inherent critical mode of literature. Literature is both utilitarian and formalistic. And so writers seize the creative platform to sensitize and orient the readers on social reality based on daily, historical, mythical or national occurrences.

The epileptic progress Nigeria records and most of the third world countries is the archetypal Abiku myth which narrative illuminates stratified classes of citizenry. The story is woven around the narrator-

123 protagonist, Lazarus or Azaro, an Abiku or spirit child who is plagued to be born repeatedly. Thus the iconic Abiku inThe FamishedRoadis the ravaged country with grave implication for the common man and peasants or masses who are being tormented by socio-political forces which sole aim is to ‘milk dry’ their clients. Azaro inhabits a ghetto with his parent as he is born into a family with low background. But for his compassion for his parents, who are hawker and labourer, Azaro is usually being tormented by his sibling spirits in the bid to persuade or force him to return to the spirit world where they reckon he truly belongs.

The narrative presents two worlds – the world of the spirit (meta-physical) and the world of real beings. Abiku can be a beacon of ill luck and fortune depending on the effectiveness of propitiation. As a spirit child, it is capable of dying and being born again in the process of which he torments his parents. But if an Abiku child is tendered and appeased, it is capable of bringing good fortune. It can even become sympathetic with the parent and stay forever. Madam Kofo alludes to the dual nature of Abiku child interms of benevolence and malevolence when she attempts luring Azaro to her shop. Madam Kofo owns a local bar but she suddenly becomes rich apparently because she makes unjustifiable money from her political party, the ‘party of the rich’. But by her power of witchcraft she also knows Azaro can as well bring ill-luck. Azaro’s father is in anguish as he goes through troubles caused by him. In an instance, Azaro shatters a blind old man’s window and the father has to pay for it.For this offence, Azaro is beaten as a measure of punishment. For being punished Azaro is discouraged and he decides to heed the call of his spirit-siblings. But a herbalist comes to the aid of Azaro’s parent as he rescues him. He now warns them to take good care of Azaro and to desist from beating him. He also warns them to stop fighting each other as such incessant quarrel is not pleasing to their child. As Azaro is brought back, father and mother

124 become close. Abiku too is showered with gifts by neighbours who are happy with his being back to life. In page 478, Ade, another Abiku spirit- child like Abiku speaks of Abiku’s symbol as he likens it to Nigeria, an Abiku (epileptic) country, it keeps coming and going. But just as Azaro is brought back to life, he is tendered and invigorated, Nigeria, the living nation will be made strong once and for all. It will also be loved by all and sundry as neighbours shower gifts on Azaro at the point of rejuvenation.

The metaphor for Ben Okri’s Abiku is the poverty stricken and politically epileptic African nations as the citizenry goes throughhopeless moments, depravity and poverty. Azaro (Abiku) is originally named Lazarus before being shortened to Azaro.The author’s vision resides in the amputated name of Lazarus (Azaro) and a hope of redemption awaits him. Azaro, the narrator ruminates to express the author’s philosophical insight.

They named me Lazarus but as I became a subject of much jest and as many were uneasy with connection between Lazarus and me, Mum shortened my name to Azaro. The parable is that of a country that is redeemable if given the right political direction. As Abiku’s parent become aware of their child and yearning to have him with them, they make spirited efforts to make him stay. Azaro reports to his father the pressure of a hydra-headed spirit calling him to join them in the world beyond. As he does this, the parent too, keep appealing to him to consider their plight.

“If a spirit calls you, Mum said, don’t go you hear? Think of us. Think of your father who hunts everyday to feed us and think of me who carried you in my womb for more than nine months and walks all the streets because of you.” Yes, think of you, dad added. (p. 306).

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Just as the Abiku siblings in the spirit world constitute the evil force, Ben Okri writes that they symbolize bad elements in society especially the misguided and materialistic politicians. Madam Kofo’s way of living and dangerous mutation is illustrative. For taste for material wealth in which she becomes obsessive, Madam Kofo joins politicians of the party of the rich. She moves about with thugs comprising male and female with which she harasses innocent and weak citizens. The society is polarized just as these political animals who belong to different camps.

Through her political thuggery, Madam Kofo becomes rich all of a sudden. She is estranged from the community as she grows in size and wealth. Madam Kofo is not alone as agents of the rich people’s party. The security agents like the policemen and political barons among others. Members of the party of the rich could not give good governance to the country because of their excessive avarice. They loot the country but fail to fulfill their electoral promises and the result is a case of arrested progress for the country. The strange cabal unleashes terror on the masses who dare to oppose them and resist their pressure to join them. One of such instance is the attack on Azaro’s father but for the intervention of an evangelistic woman who saved his life. Madam Kofo and her girls would not care what happens to the people who are opposed to their party. The likes of photographer need to find a hideout in order to save themselves. Jane captures the situation vividly especially in relation to the symbolism of Azaro, the spirit-child

Into this bewildering life, Azaro brings a spirit-eye around the corrupt policemen and market traders, of flit imps, ghosts and homunculi, demons and sad souls whom only he can see. These spirit-brothers tempt him to return to the world of unborn away from his hard-working parents and the

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mundane squabbles of political strife, caricatured here as a competition between “The party of the rich and” the party of the poor.”

Ben Okri’s Abiku myth refers to mythologized forces bedeviling the country and most African countries which seem to be beyond human understanding. Instead of good governance, it is a tale of socio-political woes here and there with no end in sight. These politicians in the rich party like Madam Kofo and the landlord of Azaro’s parent are no more than fraudsters, rapists, drug addicts, cultists, religious bigots, men of easy virtues, truants, liars, blackmailers, and thugs among others. This set of people as hired agents of political parties feed fat on looted fund and squander the nation’s resources amassed through their godfathers and barons. In turn, they engender nothing else but what Ejiogu identifies as (8).

Domestic indiscipline, violence and instability characterized by mindless wife battering, divorces and separation of spouses; growing incidence of armed robbery, assassinations, and other violent crimes like ritual killings

• Unhealthy and despicable rivalry for appointment and promotion in the public service.

• Senseless worship of, and mad rush for money wealth (i.e. militant materialism)

• Criminal neglect of public (government) property so as to later turn round to board them for sale to oneself and fronts.

• Conspicuous lack of sense of duty and senseless ethnicism, religious fanatism and bigotry.

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• Disrespect for constituted authority (often in the guise of asserting one’s fundamental rights)

• Scandalous practice of diverting public funds into private coffers and inflating government contracts.

• Distaste for spiritual things

• Recklessness on the highways often by teenage and/or unlicensed drivers.

The cause of political profligacy, corruption and thuggery and a country like ours is rooted in obsessive materialism or rabid taste for opulence. Ayo Banjo (5) defines materialism as a phenomenon that every society in the world has to cope with and it is naturally exacerbated by the amount of wealth in the society and the methods of distribution of that wealth. Tracing the beginning and remote cause and materialism, he further observes:

Medieval Europe had little problem with materialism because the accumulation of wealth was not particularly a preoccupation. This was still the case in many parts of Africa and other parts of the developing world. But with industrialization in Europe and the discovery of material wealth in parts of Africa, materialism has come to assume a global dimension, so much so that the idea of a global village is being promoted by people who want to have for themselves as much of the wealth of the entire world as possible.

Aside the global dimension of materialism, the society has become individualistic with the unbridled search for wealth. Members of the society in the artistic world of Ben Okri’s The Famished Road are not immune to the categories of vices identified above with regard to those

128 who want instant gratification, people of low conscience, who are manipulative; keen with awards; seeking status and power; extravagant; wealth seeking, among others. As Ben Okri concludes,

“There are many who are of this condition and do not know it. There are many nations, civilizations, ideas, half-discoveries, revolutions, art forms and historical events that are of this condition and do not know it. There are many people too…” (P. 481). The political situation is terrific as neither the rich nor the poor will be spared of the tragedy that may befall all. Madam Kofo’s bar is destroyed by political thugs and so are many citizens going through terrible experiences. The social flavour of the narrative finds its meaning in the Abiku of Africa or African Abiku with a telling realism on the citizenry. It is a tale of Africa’s socio-political journey but one with a redemptive sign. The optimistic note of the story is registered by ransomed life of Azaro which equally reflects in the life of his parent giving a ray of hope for the teeming famished populace.

Conclusion

Ben Okri’s The Famished Road has been discussed from the point of viewmythology and social vision. The utility of narrative by the lies in its allegorical reference to the socio-political and economic misfortune of Africa as a continent as the political forces that take the centre stage of the governance or administration of most countries are either inept or too corrupt. The resonance in tragic and traumatic for the citizenry. But an Abiku or Ogbanje can always be appeased and his spirit soothed to stay and live.For Africa too, her social and economic life can always be ransomed at the altar of visionary politics and progressive governance.

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Works Cited Okri, Ben, The Famished Road. Spectrum Books 1991. Print.

Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. London: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. 1870,770 www.http . Webster Dictionary.org.

Clark, JP. “Abiku” October 12,2013 on-line

Akporobaro, F.B.O. Introduction to African Oral Literature. Ikeja: Princeton: Publicity Company, 2005.p.49.

Holman, H. et al,A Handbook to Literature.(eds) New York: The Odyssey Press, 1960,pp.295-298. Print.

Northrop, Frye, Anatomy of Criticism. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1957.

Frazer, G .J.The Golden Bough.NEW York:Macmillan,1922. Print. Bascom, J.V. Myth and Literature: Contemporary Practice. (ed) London: University of Nebraska Press,1966, p.361. Print.

Federal Republic of Nigeria, National Policy on Education. Lagos: Government Printer, 1981.

Olusegun, Obasanjo, The Nigerian Declaration of Human Responsibilities. Abuja: National Orientation Agency September 10, 1999.

Nnimo Bassey “Nigeria is a Movie” The Guardian, Sunday, December 25, 1983, p.8.

Ejiogu, Aloy, Morality and National Development: A case of National Rebirth. Occasional Publication of the National Orientation Agency,no 2,2001. Print.

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Banjo, Ayo, The Wages of Obsessive Materialism (ed) Olatunji Oloruntimehin. Ibadan: Nigerian Academy of Letters,2008,p.5. Print.

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Nigerian English in an American Novel: Constructing Nigerian Identity in Mary Specht’s Migratory Animals

Romanus Aboh & Prince Wekpa

Abstract

Studies on literary discourse have drawn attention to the nexus of language and national identity construction. These studies explain the nationalistic impetus that informs writers’ thoughtful and skillful calibration of linguistic resources for the enunciationof national identity.It is in tune with the foregoing conjecture that we subject Mary Specht’s use of language in her novel, Migratory Animals, to critical and sociocultural analysis. Drawing insights from national identity construction theory, we argue thatSpecht, though an American, deploys Nigerian English expressions and Nigerian English-based Pidgin in her Migratory Animals to portray the life style of the Nigerian people. Such linguistic strategies conduce into the construction of Nigerian national identity because the linguistic expressions provide cinematic information about Nigeria’s sociocultural realities. Sodoing, Specht instantiates the idea that a writer does not have to be a citizen of a particular country for him or her to be able to depict what differentiates one nation from another. Therefore, language is instrumental to the construction of national identity. Keywords: identity, culture, Nigeria, Specht

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Introduction

One factor that has distinguished Nigerian literature from other world literatures is its writers’ nuanced use of English. Therefore, the specificity that details the particularity to which Nigerian writers use English in their creative discourse has been labeled Nigerianism. This suggests that even a gloss over the Nigerian novel will reveal a plethora of linguistic instantiations that are typically Nigerian which, by and large, act as linguistic means of enunciating a Nigerian national identity. It is in tune with this stream of reasoning that Aboh & Igwenyi write that “Nigerian authors succeed in leaving cultural marks that distinguish their English from other national varieties of English” (2015, pp. 62-63).But how these writers enact a particular identity, undoubtedly, is responsive to contextual conditions. In this regard, Abohwrites that “Language is the most important instrument through which a writer organises experiences and memories”(2014, p. 176). Aboh’s position has epistemological grounding and cultural validation since,through linguistic calibration of ideas, writers world over are, in one way or the other, involved in the construction of national identity. This postulate feeds deeply into the idea that a national language is the epicenter of national identity enactment.

Language fashions a mentality and so it gives its users a shared identity, something that binds them up in an inexplicable yet appealing way. It propagates a feeling of belonging that no any other language, outside the language of the users, can create. In the Nigerian context, for example, the use of language is not basically on the grammaticality, but on the mutual meaning Nigerians share. This is why when a Nigerian tells another Nigerian that s/he is “coming” while the person is actually going, the hearer will understand that the speaker only meant that s/he will be back. A non-Nigerian might not understand what the expression means. This

133 provides a compelling example of the significant role language plays in the construction of national identity.

Embedded in the above view is the supposition that language allows its users to express notions that are specifically known to them. Another example will suffice:if a Nigerian tells his/her friend that s/he is going for “knocking on the door”, the listener will definitely understand that the speaker is “describing the traditional Nigerian practice where an intending groom formally meets his bride-to-be family, extended family and well- wishers” (Aboh 2014, p. 177). The underlying notion of Aboh’s opinion is the fact that language articulates ideas which emanate from the socio- cultural and interpersonal transactions that the linguistic environment creates or permits. This is no doubt the reason the colonialists did all theycould to make their languages the language of the people they colonized. In making the colonized speak their own languages, the colonialists practicallyinferiorized the languages of the colonized, an act that conduced to the near-extermination of the colonized national identity.Identity is not language; there are diverse means by which the identity of a people could be expressed. But language articulates identity.Ways of dressing can express the identity of a nation, but the naming of that national dress culture is a linguistic exercise. Therefore, it is language that enables identity to be articulated.

It has been debated that, given the multiplicity of languages and the various cultures in Nigeria, constructing Nigeria’s identity remains a conundrum. But then, the emergence of world “Englishes” indicates that there is a variety of English known as Nigerian English whichexpresses a Nigerian national identity. Most probably, where such a linguistic calibration finds accurate functionality is within the pages of the Nigerian novel. This is no longer debatable and it will be superfluous to take up the

134 debate here since it has been variously addressed in the literature. But when one finds Nigerian English expressions and Nigerian English Pidgin-based expressions in an “American novel”,there is need to find out the rationale for such linguistic anthropology.

The author of Migratory Animals is an American who spent about eighteen months at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. On her return to America, she produced her first full-length novel, Migratory Animals. Reading the novel, we encounter a glut of expressions that can be considered Nigerian. The concern of this paper is to investigate how an American could, through the mechanism of language, express Nigerian identity. Therefore, the questions this paper sets out to answer are: can a non-Nigerian construct a Nigerian national identity? Does one need to “belong” to a language for the person to belong to a nation?

National Identity Construction

Erikson defines a nation-stateas “a state dominated by an ethnic group, whose markers ofidentity are frequently embedded in its official symbolism and legislation”(2010, p.119). If Erikson’s definition is to be followed closely, it will be quite difficult to describe Nigeria as a nationstate. This is not a farfetched conjecture because Nigeria is a culturally and ethnically diverse society that is historically shaped by colonialism. But this does not apply to Nigeria alone. There is hardly a homogenous country in the world today, marking the fluidity and arbitrariness of nationality or nationhood.

Despite the difficulty that is associated with the explication of a nation, constructing a national identity, throughout human ecology, has depended on language. Social constructionists, for example, hold the view that

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“language has been the marker for the ‘construction’ of a nationstate in order to be able to define “who we are” –to ‘construct’ our national identity”(Sofu2012, p.2). In the Nigerian multilingual and multicultural context, it is apparently difficult to talk about a homogenous language. To worsen the situation, English that is Nigeria’s official language is not indigenous to her. Be that as it may, there are certain linguistic commonalities that the diverse Nigerian subcultures share. In fact, as earlier pointed out, Nigeria uses a variety of English known as Nigerian English and the English has not only become her official language, but functions as an instrument of national cohesion.

Anderson’s convincing description of nation states, perhaps, describes Nigeria. He states:

[T]he nation…as an imagined community – and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign, … imagined as a community, because regardless of the actual inequality that might prevail in each, the nation is alwaysconceived as a deep horizontal comradeship (1991, p. 6-7).

Anderson’s conceptualization of a nation captures the intractability of nationhood. However, Nigeria cannot be said to be totally “an imagined community”, for, to a reasonable extent, the Nigerian nation is politicallyand psychologically real.It then can be said that “The nationstate is a construction made ‘sovereign’ by the nationalistic discourse within its own limits of one common language, history and people” (Sofu 2012, p. 2). Despite her linguistic limitation, Nigeria’s historical antecedent is enough unifying factor. Even at that, within nations like the United States of America and the United Kingdom where English is the native language, there are still regional varieties that have lexical and accentual differentiations. However, Joseph argues that within these varieties, there

136 are “certain patterns running through the linguistic construction of national identity worldwide, and they provide the matrix which the vicissitudes of local construction can be read and compared” (2004, p. 94). What can be deduced from these positions is the idea that shared language and history have remained invaluable materials that are deployed in the construction of national identity.

Culture is also pivotalto national identity construction.Put differently, cultural identity is an important index for the construction of national identity. It is actually easier for people who share the same or similar culture to co-exist. This is basically informed by the shared cultural mindset (Block, 2007). In corollary, a country with different cultures finds it exceedingly difficult to co-habit. For Nigeria, it can hardly be said that she has a uniform culture. Yet, as it is with the multiplicity of languages and shared linguistic communalities, Nigerians share some cultural similarities. In fact, owing to the number of years that Nigeria has existed as a nation, cultures have simmered into one another. This is why Nigerians can point to a non-Nigerian behaviour, that is,behaviour that does not align with the cultural pattern of the Nigerian people. Thus, national identity describes a sense of belonging to a people of a nation. Beyond cultural alignments, national identity construction focuses on broader principles such as religion, language and shared history – these are constitutive materials for the construction of national identity.

For the Nigerian, s/he speaks a minimum of two languages: English and an indigenous language. This “bilingualness” or inbetweennessconstructs hybrid identitiesfor the Nigerian. Despite this, Nigerians have a language which they use, and which defines them as Nigerians: Nigerian English expressions Nigerian Pidgin English. This is what this paper sets out to do – to examine how Specht uses Nigerian English expressions and Nigerian

137 pidgin-based expressions to articulate a Nigerian identity, indicating how these language varieties express the sociocultural sensibilities of the Nigerian people.Specht’s, through her strategic deployment of linguistic resources, recreatesideas and concepts that can be identified as typically Nigerian. This does not imply that she has not paid attention to other global issues – the construction of her American identity, for example, is visible. We are basically concerned about thereproduction of Nigerian identity through her use of language in her Migratory Animals . In this way, we reinforce our earlier claim that language stimulates national identity construction.

Nigerian English (NE) Expressions in Migratory Animals

Nigerian English expressions, as already noted, are those expressions that define the peculiarity that goes with the use of English in Nigeria. Some of these expressions, as found in Migratory Animals, are discussed presently.One noticeable feature of Nigerian English is that it is broadly characterized by semantic shift and extension. Importantly, the expanding or shifting of the semantic base of English resonates perfectly with the cultural pattern of the Nigerian people. The examples discussed in the introductory segment of this paper are clear-cut testimonies of the symbolic conjunction between the use of English in Nigeria and the cultural alignment of the Nigerian people. Put differently, the cultural epistemology of the Nigerian people defines the use of English in their physical environment.For example, cuisines have cultural variations—they may be obtainable in one culture but not in another. Expressions such as goat stew , pepper soup , Calabar stew and periwinkle snails are cultural collocations that are well known tomany Nigerians.Though these could be

138 seen as Nigerians’ linguistic ingenuity, they have beenoverused such that they have become foregrounded clichés.

The expression, pepper soup, for example,is a special type of consommé made with meat or fish and pepper but no oil. While most Nigerians have pepper soup at home, it is mainly served at bars. As the name suggests, it is usually very spicy. Goat stew is prepared with mutton or the offal of a goat. Calabar stew is a kind ofEfiksoup known as edikangikong and is nowconsumedin almost every part of Nigeria. Periwinkle snails are obtained from some of the Nigerian rivers and are used to make soup and other cohabiting foods such as yam potage and plantain potage. Beyond Specht’sexpose of Nigeria’s food technology, she takes her readers on an anthropological excursion into the culinary culture of Nigerians. Food is an elemental aspect of a people’s material culture. Symbolically, the various references to Nigeria’s food culture in the novel transform the author’s natural setting and enable her to enact a Nigerian identity. Using language as the gateway to Nigeria’s ethno-linguistic space,Spechtsucceeds in reproducing a pattern of life that is ontologically Nigerian. For example, the expression Calabar stew , as found below:

One of Kunle’s neighbors from Cross River State stuck her head in to ask if they’d eaten – “Done chop?” They spooned up her Calabar stew , sucking the periwinkle snails from the shells and scooping big chunks of leafy greens with balls of soft fufu made from boiled cassava (pp136-137).

The above provides cultural information about the Efik tribe of southern Cross River State; such anthropological insights tell one of the foodculture of a people. It calls to mind the fact that exotic food is a part of life of the Efik people of Nigeria. The sucking of periwinkle snails and balls of fufu are telling examples of the eating pattern of the people so described.

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In a similar anthropological cum historical excursion, the NE expression, Boys Quarters (BQ), refers to the quarters where (male) servants are housed. Boys Quarters is a vestige of colonialism that has continued to recur in Nigerian English usage. In Nigeria today, some people build a main house and a special, small apartment slightly cut off from the main residence and they call it BQ, a place reserved for the boys and possibly house helps. In other instances, it is reserved for non- members of the immediate family and visitors. Invariably, many present day Nigerian BQs do not have that subservient, dehumanizing colonial tinge. Flannery, Specht’s heroine, tells us what a BQ means: Kunle’s room was in a BQ, or “Boys Quarters,”a term for the small building adjacent to a residence that, during colonial times, had been used to house servants or “houseboys.” BQs – and his was no different – were usually a row of three or four rooms connected by a slab porch, which, since there wasn’t a proper kitchen, was where inhabitants set up hot plates and buckets of water (p. 135).

Besides providing architectural information about BQs and the fact that it is a colonial vestige, it tells us about students’ way of living in some Nigerian universities, specifically University of Ibadan where Specht was a Fulbright. Flannery is Kunle’s girlfriend and when she goes to see him, she is amazed how Kunle lives in a small apartment with two other postgraduate students. But perhaps an interesting aspect of such linguistic deployment is thatwhenever BQ is mentioned, many a Nigerian can tell what it means because it describes a familiar housing system. However, for some rightistNigerians, BQ is a relic of neocolonialism that continues to split society inhumanly along the dialectics of the haves and the have not that must be expunged from the housing system of Nigeria.But importantly, Specht has consciously unraveled the historical situation and

140 condition responsible for the creation of a linguistic expression that can be deemed as typically Nigerian. This position is corroborated by Kalpana. He notes that “…identity is stuck within the nation’s history, for individuals are at a point identified only if they have a location within the historical moment” (2015, p. 50). We can then say that Specht’s use of language symptomizes how writers use their artworks to give expressive force to national identity.

According to the backdrop provided by Specht’s narrative, it can be argued that Migratory Animals is anthropological in many waysbecause it insightfully details the culture of the Nigerian people. The Nigerian identity reproduced throughout the novel provides an objective ground for a valid discussion of national identity construction. The expression, village, has a narrowed meaning in Nigeria. It is reduced to a rural, undeveloped area as contrasted with an urban area, a city, so that my village means ‘my rural, undeveloped hometown from where my roots lie’. An important indicator of the use of my village is that it is used to connect a Nigerian to his or her roots. It has everything to do with identity and one’s place of birth. There is this saying in Nigeria that ‘Everybody comes from a village’, meaning that, however civilized, sophisticated or educated one is at present, one’s rootsare located in an uncivilized space. As it still obtains in many parts of Nigeria, it is in my village that kerosene lamp (a local lamp made with a reduced metal can with a wick in the middle that uses kerosene to burn) is found. Specht succinctly details village life in: Kunle’s village was beautiful in its way – a pastoral answer to the maddening crowds and jammed roads of the major Nigerian cities. Women carried water on their heads, to and fro from the wells. Cocks fought and chased each other while the occasional teenager

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kicked up dust on a motorbike, probably going nowhere, killing time…(p. 159)

For the Nigerian who has lived or been to the village, these are familiar elements of rusticglamour: women (not men)carry water on their heads, cocks fought and chase each other and pastoral . True to Specht’s narrative, it is in the village that Kunle’s mother uses a kerosene lamp as light to illuminate the kitchen and the compound. It is also in the village that mango treesare commonly found. Each of these expressions provides impressive examples of life in many Nigerian villages. It is expedient to mention here that village is not a Nigerian English word, but the way it is used in the novel tells us what a typical Nigerian village looks like.

Similarly, in her construction of Nigeria’s identity, Specht takes us further into the religious life of the Nigerian people. It has been stated earlier that religion can be calibrated for national identity construction. Redeemed is a clipped form of ‘The Redeemed Christian Church of God’, founded in Nigeria by a former mathematics lecturer at the University of Lagos. Specht tells us that

Kunle’s church was called Redeemed and consisted of a small congregation in a concrete strip mall. Back in Nigeria, Flannery’s favorite part of Sunday was watching Kunle press slacks and a white button-down oxford next to the ironing board in his boxers, stroking hot metal over cloth with a gentle precision (pp. 189- 190).

Specht cleverly highlights Nigerians’ religious consciousness. In the context of the narrative, Flannery and Kunleare in a middle of a conversation when he halts the conversation and tells her that he has to go because he has evening church service to attend. This excerpt is therefore

142 a clinical explication of the religious identity of the Nigerian people as represented by Kunle.The fact remains that cultural materials can be used to set a religious culture for a people,significantly demonstrating how religious beliefs and practices set people apart from one another. We can identify a nation by her religious alignment.This is the reason we often describe a nation either as Christian or Islamic.Moreover, apart from revealing to us that Kunle is a Christian, we are made to understand that The Redeemed Christian Church of God is one of the most popular churches in Nigeria. That said, a critical reading of the excerpt will reveal Specht’s attention drawn to the proliferation of churches in present day Nigeria – small congregation in strip mall . This details how some churches operate.

The expression, let me land , has semanticallybeen shifted to mean allow me to make my point or let me be through . This kind of English usage delineates a semantic distance between the native speakerand the Nigerian user of English. In fact,theexpression was used by a Nigerian academic who was arguing against the existence of Nigerian English. For the scholar, Nigerian English is an error, not a world variety. It was in the bid to buttress his point that he used the expression. And he was reminded that he was not on board anaeroplane that he needed to land. The fact is that Specht’s use of language demonstrates the way many Nigerians use English. This meaning maximization is now idiomatic in NE. It is often used when a speaker’s conversation turn is grabbed or interrupted. As noted earlier, it is a way of telling a listener, could you allow me to finish explaining my point? Contextually,Kunle reads through Flannery’s data, he becomes unhappy because she is elongating her stay only for a mere ‘cloud seeding’ (p.195). Feeling uncomfortable with it, he calls her to explain his disapproval but she interrupts and Kunle says, ‘let me land’ (195). Immediately, Flannery gives him back his conversational turn.

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Flannery, the American, understands what Kunle means because she had lived in Nigerian and knows what Nigerians mean when they say ‘let me land’.

Having drawn attention to the use of some Nigerian English expressions in the construction of Nigeria’s national identity, we turn attention to the deployment of Nigerian Pidgin in relation to the enunciation of Nigerian identity.

Nigerian Pidgin Expressions in Migratory Animals

Nigerian Pidgin is English-based; it draws from the vocabulary of the English language and from indigenous languages to form a new language that is only intelligible to a Nigerian. In drawing attention to the various modifications Nigerian Pidgin has undergone and its communicative function, Balogun writes that “The dynamic and generative capacities of Nigerian Pidgin to create from a finite set of lexical items have continued to foster communicative process and interaction among Nigerians. It has also afforded mutual interest and understanding between indigenous citizens and foreigners” (2013, p. 90). Originating mainly from southern Nigeria, Nigerian Pidgin is mostlyused in informal transactions. It is a vehicle for the formulation of intimacy. Generally, it serves consistently as Nigeria’s lingua franca and the easiest to use as a medium of communicationamong the diverse ethnic groups in Nigeria. Some Nigerian Pidgin expressions used in Migratory Animals are examined presently. The expression Body no be firewood, has several significations. Specht narrates:

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There was a saying in Nigerian pidgin: “Body no be firewood,” meaning that a body is not meant to be put through all the searing pains and horrors of this life. But when she’d first heard Kunle use the phrase, she thought he was talking about romantic sparks, the burn of physical attraction. Love turning your body into sticks of firewood. (p. 42) The context to which the phrase, Body no be firewood , is put determines its meaning. It can be used by someone who has been stressed or strained to mean that his/her body, unlike firewood, is not meant to be subjected to unbearable suffering; and also more often used by someone who feels that his/her psychological impulse needs only be balanced by sexual satisfaction, implying that his/her body is not as sexually indifferent as firewood. This Nigerian Pidgin expression, basically, comes off among youths who are thought to havehigh sexual libido. Between the two possible meanings, each is usually distinguished from the other in the matter of context. Flannery has suspected earlier that Kunle, using such an expression, means his sparkling love—as firewood does when burning— towards her but later realizes that it is the meaning inexample one offered above that is intended. She understands this more in the stressful situation she finds herself.

One noticeable featureof Nigerian pidgin is that it is “liberal”. Sometimes, its syntactic meaning can be deduced from its subtle, witty and metaphorical combination of the individual words. This can be seen in the transaction between Flannery and Kunle: “I’m sorry I’m not in a better state. It’s not often I get house calls from Americans. How do you find Nigeria?” This was a question everyone asked Flannery and two other Americans working with her. “I like it here. I’m

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still here”. “You try small, small. But for how much longer”? he asked. (p.136)

The expression, You try small small, has its cultural embedding: the reduplication, small small , is used to commend someone who has been able to perform, though not completely, a given task so that small small gives the signal that such commendation is commensurate to the impartial completion of a duty. Not only that, the expression can also subtly mean a commendation given to someone who has just carried out a duty for the first time, and so may not have possibly done so toowell. Inthe context of Kunle and Flannery, the expression shows a purely commendable progress, cheering Flannery to do more. She is commended for her first time experience in Nigeria as she tries to live up to it.

One inference that can be drawn from Specht’s Migratory Animals is her cultural tapestry. She taps into the communal life style of the Nigerian people through her constructive use of Nigerian Pidgin.It is true that Nigeriansexist communally. Consequently, it behoves on a member of a community to want to know how other members of the commune are faring.Despite the fact that most Nigerians ways of life have given way to western influences, some communal fragments are still noticeable among contemporary Nigerians as articulated in Nigerian pidgin. As pointed out earlier, there are questions asked about one another’s welfare, health status and, in fact, well-being in general. These cultural tenets arebackgroundedpidgin expressions such as Done chop? (136)(p.136), How body? (p. 138) and Body fine-o (p.138).In a sense, while Done chop? is a question that ordinarily asks whether one has eaten or not, it implies more than just a question. It usually comes from a caring friend, relative or even someone of distant intimacy to another person. Specht tells us how:

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One of Kunle’s neighbors from Cross River State stuck her head in to ask if they’d eaten – “Done chop?” (p.136)

The question, Done chop? (Have you eaten?), exemplifies the communal practice of Africa as well as details the charitable things Nigerians do for one another. Through her strategic deployment of the Nigerian pidgin expression, Spechtportrays the life of living together and sharing possessions and responsibilities. Corroborating this postulate, Amaowrites thatNigeria pidgin is also acknowledged as a formidable stride in the re- creation of Nigerian and African socio-cultural identity (p. 45).

Similarly, How body? with its corresponding response Body fine-o is a question that requests not just the respondent’s physiological well-being (as could be inferred from the linguistic contextof the sentence) but his/her total well-being, which includes psychological, social, economic, financial, mental health and, in fact, family relationship, so that the answer Body fine-o could be synonymous with the English version All is well , not just My body is in good condition . This further illustrates the point that the syntax of Nigerian Pidgin expressionsis nearly always built up metaphorically to embrace the cultural definitions of the Nigerian society. Some of these expressions are pure transliterations of indigenous languages. In the novel, the very first words out of Kunle’s mouth when Flannery calls him on phone are How body? and she responds Body fine-o. From this question-response transaction, Kunle is certain that, all things being equal, Flannery is doing well or does not have some major problem.Being aware of the pragmaticism that goes with such linguistic axiom, Flannery, though in America, enacts a Nigerian identity.

Every point Specht uses a Nigerian Pidgin expression seems significant to the discourse of national identity construction. Kunle’s village is a stark

147 contrast to the noisy, busy and crowded Nigerian cities. Back home in Kunle’s village, Flannery will always have Kunle’s mother shake her head much to the indignation of Flannery’s consistently going out.The likes of Flannery are called wakawaka . The term could also either be derogatory or jocular.Itis derogatory when used to describe a prostitute, or jocular when used, for example, as used in the novel, to refer to one who is unstable at home. This, therefore, chiefly explains whyKunle’s mother calls Flannery wakawaka (p.159). This word has entered Nigerian Pidgin and is formed through reduplication for emphasis. Thus, waka means “to walk” or “walk”, but wakawaka with its situatednessone who walks a lot. The meaning of Nigerian English Pidgin words and expressions are best understood in their context of use. The few examples discussed in this paper show how Specht interlaces American English with Nigeria pidgin expressions to tell the stories of Nigerians.

Conclusion In this paper, we examined Specht’s deployment of linguistic resources in the construction of Nigeria’s national identity. Both by political configuration and nationhood by birth, Specht does not qualify as a Nigerian, and her use of Nigerian English in her novel is only informed by the fact that she had lived in Nigeria for some time. In terms of Nigerian English expression, the paper reveals that some of the expressions found in Specht’s Migratory Animals are naturally Nigerian or Nigeria- created.These are actually native English words but have been variously used and foregrounded in Nigerian Englishsuch that they have becomecharacteristically Nigerian. It is also discovered that although there are many languages and cultures in Nigeria, there are shared linguistic commonalities which indicate a Nigerian identity is already on its

148 construction.An interesting position of this paper is that even though ‘a Nigerian identity remains deeply contested (given the multiplicities of languages and cultures), it can be argued that‘a Nigerian identity’isconstantly being negotiated, keenlydiscussed, and persuasively claimed in more compellingways and situations that may not categorically be understood even by Nigerians.

References

Aboh, R. (2014). Neologic practices: Conflation of language and cultural identity inNigerian novels. Ndunode, Calabar Journal of the Humanities , 11(1): 171-181.

Aboh, R. &Igwenyi, E. (2015).“Proverbial and Metaphorical Expressions as Conversational Strategies in Select Chinua Achebe’s and ChimamandaNgoziAdichie’s Novels”. Gandhigram Literary Review , 4: 57- 70.

Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism . London and New York: Verso. Amao, T. (2012).The use of pidgin English as a medium of social discourse among Osun State University students African Nebula , 5: 42-52.

Balogun, T. A. (2013). In defense of Nigerian pidgin. Journal of Languages and Culture , 4(5): 90-98.

Block, D. (2007) Second language identities , London: Continuum.

Eriksen, T. H. (2010). Ethnicity and nationalism: Anthropological perspectives , 3rd Edn. New York: Pluto Press.

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Joseph, J. E. (2004). Language and identity: National, ethnic and religious . New York: Palgrave.

Kalpana, H. (2015). Reading identity and culture: Postcolonial perspectives in selected South Asian fiction Gandhigram Literary Review , 4: 40-56.

Sofu, V. O. (2012). The effect of national language on identity construction: The case of Turkish immigrants in Germany.Yildiz Technical University, Specht, M. H. (2015). Migratory animals . New York: Harper Perennial.

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Language and the Brain: The Speech Error and Repair Mechanism

Okata G.N. & Owolabi J.O.

Abstract Speech is ultimately a product of the brain. Neuro-linguistics is concerned with brain mechanisms and the anatomical structures that underlie linguistic competence and performance and effective use of language yielded a bridge to the existing lacuna. Language is a vehicle that transports thoughts, feelings, emotions, ideas from one entity to another for the purpose of communication. In discourse, errors are always committed and repaired. Participants resort to repair mechanisms when they orientate to turn-taking procedure or have some hitch in their speech. Repair Mechanism is a process that occurs when a speaker realizes an error and repeat what has been said with some sort of correction. The mistakes can be corrected by the speaker or other participants through polite interruption. Speech errors are often corrected by the use of slot fillers and hedges such as; arm, um, uh, err, ah, like, right and you know and sometimes speakers usually repeat, add, replace, or even abandon some constructions in the utterances for some mental reasons. The mechanism of speech error and repair mechanism is largely controlled by the brain. Self-repairs are self-initiated corrections of one’s own speech within the same speaking turn. It is a normal phenomenon in spontaneous speech, and is produced in response to a linguistic problem, such as the inability to retrieve lexical items, and the incorrect use of pronunciation, lexis or syntax. In the process of speech event, the brain is at alert and automatically locates the points of errors and deciphers a possible correction mechanism. This review article is a conscientious attempt to establish the link between brain and speech making with respect to speech error and repair mechanism towards evaluating its effects on speech quality.

Key Words: Language, Speech, Brain, Error, Repair Mechanism

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Introduction The understanding of the complexities of human brain and cognitive abilities and their relationship with the use of language has been of great concern to linguists. The questions; what is the nature of the brain? What is the nature of human language and what is the relationship between the two is as old as history. Nevertheless, philosophers and scientists have grappled with these questions and others over the centuries. Fromkin et al (2011) posits that the idea that the brain is the source of human language and cognition goes back to more than two decades. Philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle recognized the brains crucial function in cognition of language. However, other philosophers of the same period showed greater insight. A good example is the quote by Hippocratic Treatises on the Sacred Disease of 377B.C.E which states that “the brain is the messenger of the understanding -and the organ whereby-in an especial manner we acquire wisdom and knowledge. Conversely, the study of how language functions in the process of a speech event is crucial to the understanding of the brain/mind relationship. According to Lauria (1984), “the innate features of the language capacity must be a set of biological structures, selected in the course of the evolution of the human brain”

According to Ananya [2013], the human brain is divided into two hemispheres based on certain functional features. The left hemisphere is the “logical brain” and is involved in language and analysis and the right hemisphere –“the creative” which is involved in daydreaming and imagination. He maintained that researches on speech and language show that around 97% of people, language is represented in the left hemisphere. However, in about 19% of left-handed people, the areas responsible for language are in the right hemisphere and that as many as 68% of them have some language abilities in both the left and the right hemispheres.

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The neural networks are established over time as an individual learns and experiences things, while language and speech skills are acquired after birth. To him, the human genome codes for the speech ability evolves as the brain is trained and the Broca’s area of the human brain is responsible for speech production.This on the brain is the cerebral cortex Brodmann’s area xxx

Damasio of University of Southern California (1981) posits that the functional asymmetry of the human brain is unequivocal, and so is its anatomical asymmetry. The structural differencesbetween the left and the right hemispheres are visible. Themost striking asymmetries occur in language-related cortices.It is tempting to assume that such anatomical differences arean index of the neuro-biological underpinnings of language.

Language Language is generally seen as be the ability to acquireand use complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so. It can also be viewed as a body of words and the systems for their use common to a people who are of the same community or nation. According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, languageis a spoken or written word of a particular kind. It is a means of expressing ideas or feelings which is specie specific to man. Language can therefore, be simply defined as a vehicle that transports thoughts, feelings, emotions, ideas from one entity to another for the purpose of communication. This can be in form of oral, written, sign or body language and must be acceptable by the members of a speech community (Osisanwo, 2008).Scholars at different times have viewed language from different dimensions depending on their point of elevation; hence, Halliday (1975), posits that language could be defined in

153 various ways depending on whether one is interested in dialects and those who speak them, words and their histories, the differences in language as an art medium, uses of language and the like. Osisanwo (2008)sees language as a human vocal noise or the arbitrary graphic representation of this noise, used systematically and conventionally by members of a speech community for purposes of communication. However, in every facet of human endeavor that involves speech, otherwise known as the practical use of language, error abounds. These errors are sometimes spontaneous while the speaker can be oblivious of the occurrence. On the other hand, the speaker is usually conscious of the error and thus makes a deliberate effort to correct the errors in the course of interaction or conversation. Various human interactions are characterized by turn-taking which is a process by which interactants allocate the right or obligation to participate in an interactional activity. It is a term for the manner in which orderly conversation normally takes place. Knowing when it is acceptable or obligatory to take a turn in a conversation. This knowledge involves knowing how to recognize appropriate turn- exchange points or the transitional relevant point (TRP) and how long to pause between turns.

According to Osisanwo (2008), a conversation occurs when at least two people are talking. For it to be a conversation, each person must talk one after the other. There must be a string of at least two turns. Even if the second person does not talk, he must show a sign of having heard the utterance by carrying out an action such as nodding with head, gaping or staring in disbelief or winking in response or silence. Schegloff (1972) from his own perspective, views conversation as a ‘chaining principle’ where the formula ababab can be used to represent the conversational sequence and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are parties to the conversation. For Yule (1985), conversation can be an exchange, which takes place between two people;

154 hence, conversation is therefore the talk that occurs within two or more interlocutors.

Error Detection in Conversation

According to Hilroy & Hilroy (1985), speech errors are the mistakes made when a turn is going on. They could be factual errors or errors of construction, most often, not deliberately made. Speech errors are sometimes said to include hesitations, repetitions and the use of slot fillers such as “er”, “well”, “em”, “I mean”, “you know ”, etc. To them, such errors can be corrected by self through restatement, withdrawal of statement or repetition. The mistakes can be corrected by the other participants through polite interruptions.Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson (1974) as quoted by Mazur (2006) also identified a technique by which participants may repair or correct any mistake in interaction. They call this technique. “Repair Mechanism” To them also; Conversational errors include hesitations, repetitions, mispronunciation and the use of “ fillers” such as “mm”, “uhum”, “er”, “well”, “you know”, “ I mean,” etc.Schiffrin (1987) described these fillers as “discourse markers”. He maintains that slot fillers are highly systematic and serve a range of clear function in spoken language. To him, “they are errors only if conversation is judged from the normative stand-point of written language”. When participants orientate to turn taking procedure or have some hitch in their speech, they resort to repair mechanisms. There are two ways by which mistakes made during conversation may be rectified: one, the speaker may self-correct and two, the speaker may not recognize his mistake until other co-participant directs his attention to it. Sacks et al., (1974). In discourse, errors are always committed and repaired. Most often, the errors are unintended; the locutionary act of the turn may be misheard. So

155 also the illocutionary act may be misunderstood. Participants resort to repair mechanisms when they orientate to turn-taking procedure or have some hitch in their speech. Repair Mechanism is, therefore, a process that occurs when a speaker realizes an error and repeats what has been said with some sort of correction. The mistakes can be corrected by the speaker or other participants through polite interruption. Speech errors are often corrected by the use of slot fillers –apparently meaningless words, phrases or sounds that mark a pauses or hesitations in speech. Some common slot fillers are um, uh, err, ah, like, right and you know .Sometimes speakers usually repeat, add, replace, or even abandon some constructions in the utterances for some mental reasons. It is pertinent to note that in as much as speech is concerned primarily by the distinctive organs of speech which includes the lungs, the wind pipe, vocal cavity, buchal and nasal cavity, the mechanism of speech error and repair mechanism is largely controlled by the brain facet known as the central nervous system in man.

According to Langbrain– Language and Brain: neurocognitive Linguistics of 18 Nov. 2010, the ability of humans to speak and to understand speech requires an enormous amount of brain resources. The article further stated thatthese resources have to manage information about many thousands of words and many syntactic constructions and their interconnections, not just to one another but to meanings and to the structures that allow one to recognize the sounds of speech and to move the muscles of the mouths to produce speech. This complex combination of brain structures can be called the brain’s linguistic systems. It allows a person not only to talk and to understand speech but also to read and write. It also supplies the power to think as well as the power to acquire new knowledge and abilities and to learn how to speak in the first place. The linguistic system is in the two cerebral hemispheres, comprising mainly the cortex (gray matter) and the

156 white matter(Langbrain, 2002-2009). The white matter contains billions of fibers providing interconnections among different areas of the cortex, while the linguistic system occupies a central position in mental structure, connected to the cognitive system. They maintain that a people’s linguistic information is in their brains and the linguistic network has a significant relationship to the neural network of the brain

Positing from the standpoint that language is the window of the mind and the fact that the linguistic system has to be richly connected to other cognitive systems represented throughout the cerebral cortex, language is employed in discussing an enormous range of differentkinds and aspects of human experience and endeavor which has its roots and base in the brains. The linguistic system occupies a central position in the mental structure, connected to the cognitive systems that register all other experiences thus building a bridge between neural networks and linguistic networks. This bridge gives answers on the explanation of how linguistic information is organized, used and learned. A careful observation reveals that one can learn about the structure of the brain just from the linguistic evidences (Langbrain, 2002-2009).

The process of speech error and repair mechanism can further be illustrated with the following diagram;

A Simplified diagram of speech error and speech repair process;

Conversation problem detected ( Problem detected )

(Speech interruption) (Hessitation) (Self-Repair produced )

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Time intervals in Speech Error and Repair mechanism

Inner Speech Monitoring (The Brian)

Error detected

Send signal to interrupt speech Repair-planning

Speech Interruption Repair Produced

(Adapted from Blackmer& Milton, 1991)

Among linguists and others who have all concerned themselves with the phenomenon of “correction” or repair, a distinction is commonly drawn between “self-correction” and “other-correction”, i.e., correction by speaker of that which is being corrected and correction by some other.

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Sociologists take an interest in such a distinction; its terms- self and other have long been understood as central to the study of social organisation and social interaction. For our concern in this paper, “self” and “other” are two classes of participants in interactive session. What speakers avoid doing is as important as what they do. Self -correction of speech can be identified in this paper as “give” and “take” in conversation from the point of both the speaker and the addressee.

Self- Repair Mechanism

Self-repairs are self-initiated corrections of one’s own speech within the same speaking turn. They are a normal phenomenon in spontaneous speech, and are produced in response to a linguistic problem, such as the inability to retrieve lexical items, and the incorrect use of pronunciation, lexis or syntax. These problems can be overtly detected, but they can also be detected in inner or pre-articulatory speech by some form of speech monitoring mechanism inherent in the speech production process and controlled by the brain.

According to Laver (1969), repairs can be produced with the related problem being partlyproduced where speakers cut their speech off in the midst of aword. Alternatively, speakers may produce hesitation in theirspeech, such as filled pauses (e.g. ah, ahm, ehm, er), silent, pauses and prolonged segments.

There are two ways by which errors committed in conversation may be corrected. First, the repair may be made by the speaker himself- self repair (Schegloff et al., 1977 in Dairo & Onadeko 2008). Self-correction or repair occurs at both internal and external spheres. It is internal especially when the brain successfully comes up with the target correct version or its substitute after a series of fillers and gaps during which the brain’s choice

159 is being questioned. On the other hand, the correction is considered external if the speaker corrects himself after he has produced the undesired utterance. (Dairo&Onadeko, 2008). Below is an example:

Doctor: When did you first start noticing that you –em, er-were having attacks of coldness

Patient: I’ve always been very cold feet and hands

Doctor: MOST OF YOUR LIFE (high key)

Patient: Yes, I would say so doctor

(Coulthard& Montgomery, 1981)

Another Repair Mechanism According to Onadeko (1979), on the other hand, the speaker might not recognize his mistakes until his coparticipant calls his attention to it. Below is an example;

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Speaker the man was unlawfully arrested and detained in connection with the willful damage of the belongings

participant Building

Speaker I am referring to the building sir and thank you

participant The building and the belongings are not the same. (The Speaker does not recognize his error. He waits for a participant in the ongoing talk to correct him).

In a communicative event, addressers and the addressees are involved in a give-and-take “game”. The hearer can help correct the speaker’s error and vice versa. This brings to bear the notion of cooperative principle.

Cooperative Principles (CP) in Conversation

Conversation is cooperative in the sense that speakers and listeners tend to accept each other for what they claim to be: that is, they accept the face that the other offers. To Wardhaugh (2008 p276),

face may vary according to circumstances, for at one time the face you offer me may be that of a “close friend”, or another occasion a ‘teacher,’ andon a thirdoccasion a ‘young woman,’ but it is a facewhich I will generally accept. I will judge your wordsagainst the face you are presenting, and it is very likelythat we will both agree that you are at a particular momentpresenting a certain face to me and I am presenting a certainface to you.

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According to him, one party may violate that norm in that one can refuse to accept the other for what that person claims to be and deny the person’s right to the face he is attempting to present and/or even challenge him about it. Similarly, I may also regard your face as inappropriate or insincere, but say nothing, reserving my judgments about your demeanor and keep words to myself. The second course of action is the more usual; challenging someone about the face he or she is presenting is usually avoided, and those who make a regular practice of it quickly find themselves unwelcome almost everywhere – even to each other. According to Brown & Levinson (1968), there are basically two types of acts of face ; face saving act and face threatening act. Conversation therefore involves a considerable amount of role-playing. We choose a role for ourselves in each conversation and discover the role or roles the other or the others are playing, and then proceed to construct a little dramatic encounter, much of which involves respecting others’ faces. The CP has the function of controlling what we say so that it contributes to some assumed illocutionary goal(s). The CP enables one participant in a conversation to communicate on the assumption that the other participant is being cooperative. According to Leech (1982) as quoted by Dairo&Onadeko (2008 p.46), CP is needed to help to account for the relation between sense and force.

Subsequently, however, research on linguistic politeness has called Brown & Levinson’s model into question in several ways. Research about social interaction in Asian societies (Matsumoto, 1988; Ide, 1989 and Mao, 1994), as quoted by Johnstone (2010) suggested that Brown & Levinson’s concept of “negative face” or the desire to be unimpeded, was better adapted to Euro-American social reality than to social reality in general. While negative face may be relevant in individualistic societies, in which people are thought to be relatively autonomous, it may be relevant in more

162 collective societies where there is concern for the interests of the group, rather than one’s own interest. Scholars like Ellen (2001) & Watts (2003) argue that Brown & Levinson’s way of using the notion of “face” is, more generally, based on the culturally particular idea that speakers have pre- existing selves that they bring into interaction.

In addition to adapting their discourse to expectations about human needs and political behaviour in interaction, people adapt their behaviour to the actual linguistic behaviour of the people they are talking to, or their image of the people for whom they are designing discourse. For Giles &Powerland (1982), styles of speaking often converge toward the styles of interlocutors with whom speakers identify and “diverge” from those interlocutors with whom they do not identify.

They went ahead to argue that the listener’s task is made a little easier by the fact that the vocal clues marking the individual physical, psychological, and social characteristics of the speaker are numerous.’ In other words, there is likely to be a variety of linguistic clues to help the listener. Obviously, listeners will vary in their ability to detect such clues, just as speakers will vary in their ability to present or maintain faces. Consequently, they find here one area of human activity in which there may be a wide range of human abilities so that, whereas X may be said to be “sensitive” to others, Y may appear “insincere” and Z may be completely “deviant” and all because of the ‘faces’ they present to the world and the amount of success they achieve in their chosen roles. (2008). In this vein, interlocutors exhibit deferent reactionary trend to an utterance and one of the very common is the act of silence,

CP has been found not to stand the test of time in real language use. Leech points out Larkin & O’Malley’s (1973 p6) criticism of CP as not working

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“because the majority of declarative sentences do not have an information- bearing function”. Similarly, he notes that Keenan (1974) has said that CP is “not universal to language”, Leech, however, rejects their criticism on the ground that CP should not be quantified rather the CP opens up the idea of the study in socio-pragmatic conversations to find how different language communities look at this maxim. He further suggested Politeness Principle (PP) as capable of bailing CP out of trouble with the following example:

A. We’ll all miss Bill and Agatha, won’t we? B. We’ll all miss Bill.

Speaker B apparently fails to observe the maxim of quantity: when speaker A asks B to confirm A’s opinion, B merely confirms part of it, and pointedly ignores the rest. From this we derive an implicature. B is of the opinion that we will not all Miss Agatha. We arrive at this not solely on the basis of the CP, for B could have added” … but not Agatha” without being untruthful, irrelevant or unclear (Leech:1982). We conclude by saying B could have been more informative, but only at the cost of being more impolite to a third party, that B therefore, suppressed the desired information in order to uphold the PP.

The Politeness Principle (PP)

Politeness principle concerns a relationship between two participants whom we call self and other just like speaker (S) and hearer (H) in a conversation. The other also applies to other people designated as third person-pronoun. The PP maintains the social equilibrium and the friendly relations which enable us to assume that our interlocutors are being cooperative in the first place. According to Leech (1982), “Unless you are

164 polite to your neighbor, the channel of communication between you will break down, and you will no longer be able to borrow his mower.” But where the Speaker (S) and Hearer (H) are engaged in a collaborative activity in which exchange of information is equally important to both of them, politeness can take the back seat. Such situations can be noticed at UNO, OAU, ECOWAS meetings where speakers address themselves to the truth of the goings-on.

Politeness principle includes tact, generosity, approbation and modesty maxims. Positing from the stand point of Leech (1982), the tact maxim applies to Searle’s directives and commissives categories of illocutions. Tact maxim refers in their propositional content X, for some action to be performed by the hearer and speaker. This action he argues, may be called A, S assumes to be its cost or benefit to S or H. On this basis, X (‘You will peel these yams’) may be placed on a cost-benefit scale as in the exchange below:

*Peel those yams cost to H less polite

*Hand me the newspaper

*Sit down

….

*Have another sandwich benefit to H more polite

(Maiyanga 2009 p.81)

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On this scale at an indeterminate point, (depending on the context) the relevant value becomes benefit to H rather than cost to H., thus as we go along keeping the imperative mood there is a general increase in politeness: that is why “peel those yams” is less polite than “Have another sandwich”. The notions of cost-benefit and praise – dispraise scales are essential to tact, generosity, approbation and modesty maxims while agreement and sympathy maxims deal with unipolar scale. The statements of these maxims have been simplified for convenience (Leech 1982 p132):

1. Tack maxim (in impositives and commissives)

(a) Minimize cost to other / (b) maximize benefit to other. 2. Generosity maxim (in appositives and commissives)

(b) minimize maxim / in expressive and assertive )

3. Approbation maxim (in expressive and assertive)

(a) minimize dispraise of other /

(b) maximize praise of other)

4. Modesty maxim (in expressive & assertive)

(a) minimize praise or self / (b) maximize dispraise of self).

5. Agreement maxim (in assertive)

(a) Minimize disagreement between self and other /

(b) maximize agreement between self and other)

6. Sympathy maxim (in assertive)

(a) Minimize antipathy between self and others

(b) maximize sympathy between self and others.

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A talk or conversation must start off from somewhere or from somebody. These are the two or more people taking part in a conversation. They are also referred to as speaker and addressee or interlocutors or co- interactants. Similarly, co-participants ought to be brief and avoid unnecessary prolixity or the use of many words and these underscores the various maxims of talk in a conversation.

Conversational Implicatures

Grice introduced the term implicature into the philosophy of language in his William James’ lectures in 1967/68 (cf Lyons 1977b). This word is widely used by linguists today. Implication is normally used in philosophical semantics to refer to the truth-functional relation of material implication and this in turn is distinguished from strict implication or entailment. Stepping down from philosophical semantics, the notion of implicature rests upon a distinction between what is actually said and what is implied (but not entailed) in saying what is said. Before these deductions, however, certain conditions like the cooperative principle (CP) and politeness principles (PP) must be satisfied.

Grice notes two kinds of implications – conventional and conversational. For this paper, our interest shall be focused in the latter one following Lyons’ (1977b p.87) observation that “conventional implicature depends upon something while conversational implicature derives from set of more general condition which determine the proper conduct of conversation”. Grice formulated condition from which implicature derives. These are quantity, quality, relations, and manner.

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Grice’s Maxims

Implicatures

These are implied meanings, which happen all the time in conversation. It is usually the context that ensures that the implied meaning is understood. If you were in hurry and a friend called out, 'Look, there's a bus', you would understand it to mean 'Quick, let's catch it' and would not reply, 'Oh yes, so there is and that 'Don't you find it hot in here?' means 'I wonder if the windows can be opened'. Much humor is created by ignoring the conventional implication. Observers can easily mistake insults between friends to be offensive rather than affectionate. But perhaps friendly insults are an implicit way of discharging a touch of enmity. Why do good friends enjoy insulting each other? The frequency with which implicatures occur and the predictability with which they are correctly understood is further evidence of the deep-seated cooperativeness in human conversation. One certain way to be annoying is to not pick up implied meanings that are clearly intended. Sadly, people with mental and social handicaps have difficulty with implied meanings as do second language learners unfamiliar with everyday idioms.

Quantity: By quantity we mean, one should make one’s contribution as informative as required. In addition, one should not make one’s contribution more informative than is required.

Quality: one’s contribution should be that that is true. That is, we do not say what we believe to be false. Nor do we say that for which we lack adequate evidence.

Relation: we have to be relevant.

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Manner: we have to be ‘perspicuous’ that is, we ought to be clear and be understood. That is to say further that we have to avoid obscurity of expression or ambiguity.

Although Lyons (1977 p.89a) criticizes Grice’s maxims for its generality and vagueness because we cannot quantify semantic information, their important explanatory role in the semantic analysis of texts makes his maxims relevant to this paper. In addition, those maxims function as descriptive terms for language rather than social and expression function of language. Conversation makes use of the cooperative principle; speakers and listeners are guided-by considerations of quantity, quality, and so on, and the process of implicature which allows them to figure out relationships between the said and the unsaid. Grice’s principles therefore, form a fundamental part of any understanding of conversation as a cooperative activity. To him, for a conversation to flow, there must exist the above maxims.

As Laver &Trudgil (1979 p29) observe, “Being a listener to speech is not unlike being a detective. The listener not only has to establish what it was that was said, but also has to construct, from an assortment of clues, the affective state of the speaker and a profile of his identity.” The last two phrases, “the affective state of the speaker” and “a profile of his identity”, are much the same as what I have called “face”, for they are concerned with what the speaker is trying to communicate about him or herself on a particular occasion. Laver &Trudgil add that, “the listener’s task is made a little easier by the fact that the vocal clues marking the individual physical, psychological, and social characteristics of the speaker are numerous”.

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Statements of Theory

Form the available literatures we theorize as follows: [1] Fillers will be based on adopted selections [2] Fillers are means of making recalls and reorientation of thought lines while maintaining the line of expression [3] Speech error repairs involves complex cyclic and back-and-forth interactions between the limbic system which is the functional mind; the frontal cortex that is responsible for logical and creative thought processing and the speech area of the cortex for output. [4] Fillers are habitual audible breaks … and there could be inaudible breaks.

Conclusion

In conclusion, although the physical basis of language lies in the lips, the tongue, or the ear. Ultimately, language is brain-based. Moreover, the primary language organ is the mind. Hence in the process of speech event, the brain is at alert and automatically locates the points of errors and deciphers a possible correction mechanism.

References

1. Ananya, M. “Language and the Human Brain” – News medical www.news-medical.net/ …/ language-and the Human Brain 4 Nov. 2013. 2. Antonio and Damasio, “Brain and Creativity” Institute and Department of Neuroscience; University of Southern California: Academic Press. 1981.

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3. Brain:neurocognitive Linguistics of 18 Nov. 2010. According to the book PATHWAYS OF THE BRAIN of Rice University 2002-2009. (http:www.rice.edu/about/crnotice.html). 4. Fromkin, V. (2013). An introduction to Language. Great Britain: Butler &Tanner Ltd. 5. Fromkin, V., R. Rodman & N. Hyams (2011). An Introduction to Language. 964 Canada: Wadsworth, Lachina Publishing Services. 6. Halliday, M.A.K.(1975). Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold Ltd. 7. Hilroy&Hilroy (1985 Hilroy, J. &Hilroy, L. Planned and Unplanned Speech Events Authority in Language. London: R. & KP. 1985 8. Johnstone E. (2010) Planned Speech on Related issues in Steinberg and Kobovits (eds). Semantics. Cambridge: CUP. 2010. 9. Langbrain (2002-2009). Langbrain. Language and Brain: Neurocognitive Linguistics. Rice University, Texas, USA. www.ruf.rice.edu/lnbrain/main.htm . Accessed, 12th September, 2016. 10. Lauria, S. E. (1984), A Slot Machine, A Broken Test Tube, an Autobiography . Cambridge. MIT Press. 11. Maiyanga A. (2009). “A Contrastive Lexicology of Eight Semantic Fields of IGALA and ENGLISH” . An Unpublished M. A. Thesis of the University of Ibadan 2009. 12. Mazur (2006) Mazur, M. Conversation Analysis for Educational Technologists: Theoretical and Methodolical issues for Researching the

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structures, Processes, and Meaning”http:www.acct.org/edtech/eds1/40.pdf 2006. 13. Merriam Webster dictionary 14. Onadeko (1979), Onadeko T. A discourse Analysis and Conversational Strategies in Magistrate Courts in Nigeria . Ago-Iwoye, 2002. 15. Osisanwo, W. (2008). Introduction to Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics. Lagos: Ebute Meta FemolusFetop Publishers. 2008. Schegloff E. and Jefferson “Opening and Closings” In Turner, R. (eds) Ethnomethodology , Harmondsworth; Penguim, 233-264.1972. 16. Sacks, H., E. Schegloff and G. Jefferson. “An analysis of the course of a joke telling in conversation”. In Bauman, R. and J. Scherzer (eds) The Ethnography of speaking. London: Cambridge University press, 13:279-301.1974 17. Schegloff , E. “Sequencing in Conversational Opening” In Gumperz, J. and E Hymes (eds.) Directions in Sociolinguistics, New York: Holt, 346-380.1972 18. Schenkein, J. (ed.) Studies in the organization of conversational interaction, New York Academic Press (1974/78) 1988; Originally from: “A Simplest Systematics for the Organization of Turn-taking in Conversation”. Language, 50(4): 696-735. 19. Schiffrin, Deborah, 1987. Discourse markers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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20. The Study of language (2 nd Edition), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2000. 21. Wardhaugh (2008 :276), Wardhaugh, R. Proper English: Myths and Misunderstandings about Language . Oxford: Blackwell. 1999. 22. Yule (1996:108), Yule, G. Pragmatics . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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POSTULATS DES UNIVERSAUX ET LA PROBLÉMATIQUE DES CONSTRUCTIONS À DOUBLE OBJET

KPAROU, Hanoukoume Cyril

Résumé Dans l’analyse des structures prototypes SVOO (sujet – verbe – objet – objet),plusieurs hypothèses restrictives ont été émises. Les premiers chercheurs à aborderle sujet ont proposé cinq postulats qu’ils estiment faire partie des universaux syntaxiques en tant que principes de la Grammaire Universelle. Deux de ces principes sont remis en cause par certaines langues. En analysant les données du français (langue romane) et du lama (languegur), on constate qu’il y a un défi à relever quant à l’universalité de ces hypothèses. Tout comme le français qui a un CDO (Construction à Double Objet) marqué par la présence d’un morphème à caractère datif, le lama illustre un type de CDO avec un marqueur morphologique, mais à caractère complétif, intermédiaire entre les deux objets. Cependant, une spécificité du lama est que l’ordre des deux objets est interchangeable sans modification de sens.À la lumière de cette analyse, il apparait que les principes de la restriction de l’ordre fixe et la présence d’un marqueur formel intermédiaire (ou lié à un objet comme en français), n’ont pas la légitimité d’universaux.

Mots clés :CDO, COP, Programme Minimaliste, ordre syntaxique, universaux.

Introduction La détermination d’une construction à double objet repose traditionnellement sur cinq postulats restrictifs qui peuvent se résumer comme suit : (i) les deux arguments objets sont obligatoires (ii) les deux arguments objets ont des rôles sémantiques uniformes et

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universels

(iii) la catégorie syntaxique des objets est un DP (iv) l’ordre des objets est fixe (v) il n’existe pas de marqueur formel pour aucun des deux objets.

Sinon la CDO devient une COP (Construction à Objet Prépositionnel). Ces postulats sont émis après des analyses de la CDO dans des langues européennes, surtout l’anglais (cfJaeggli (1982), Michaelis et Hapselmath (2003)). En comparaison avec l’anglais, toutes les autres langues qui ne manifestent pas de tels postulats sont dites sans CDO, le cas du français est patent à l’issu de la comparaison, telles que les données suivantes :

(1) a. John sent Bill a stamp b. John sent a stamp to Bill (2) a. *John a envoyé Bill un timbre b. John a envoyé un timbre à Bill

Puisque le français n’est pas capable de construire la structure SVOO sans la préposition à équivalente à to anglais (ce qui justifie l’agrammaticalité de la phrase (2a), elle a été prématurément classée comme langue sans CDO. Bien sûr que des recherches assez récentes ont démontré que le français est une langue à CDO, en commençant par Kayne (1975) qui remet en cause le statut prépositionnel de à en français, puis Fournier (2010 :120) qui affirme :« Jean a donné le livre à Marie est une CDO ».

En lama, le défi semble converger d’avec le français, mais cependant à propos du morphème ka . Ce morphème qui s’interpose entre les compléments d’un verben’est pas de nature adpositionnelle. L’étude de la relation que ce morphème entretient avec les deux objets éclairera sur sa nature et son fonctionnement.

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Le deuxième défi concerne l’ordre syntaxique des deux objets. Est-il rigide en lama ? S’il est impossible en d’autres langues (l’anglais et le français par exemple) de renverser l’ordre des objets sans que la phrase ne devienne une COP, le lama défie le postulat de l’ordre rigide en montrant qu’il n’est pas universel.

Cet article explique les fondements de la CDO en lama. D’abord, trois postulats à caractère universel seront analysés. Il s’agit de la notion d’arguments obligatoires, l’uniformité des rôles thématiques et la catégorie syntaxique des DP. En deuxième position, il sera question de deux postulats remis en cause à la lumière des données du lama. Il s’agira principalement de la question de l’inexistence de marqueur formel des deux objets et leur ordre syntaxique (dit rigide).

Trois postulats universels de la CDO Des cinq postulats restrictifs de la construction à double objet dans les langues du monde, je retiens trois comme étant universels, eu égard aux données du lama. Les sous-sections ci-dessous présentent d’abord ce qu’on peut comprendre par arguments obligatoires dans la CDO, ensuite, la notion d’un DP obligatoire comme objet et enfin, l’hypothèse de l’UTAH (Uniformity of Thêta rolesAssignmentHypothesis), soit l’hypothèse de l’uniformité des rôles thématiques.

Deux objets obligatoires de la CDO La notion d’argument obligatoire se rapporte à la valence verbale. Pour Fournier (2010), parler d’argument obligatoire implique que le sens du prédicat en soit forcement dépendant. C’est-à-dire que le sens de l’argument en question fasse partie de l’entrée lexicale du verbe. Dans

176 l’exemple (3) ci-dessous, c’est les objets yo « enfant » et túná « poisons » qui complètent le sens de háa (Inf : háʋ́ « donner »). Si l’un de ses arguments manque, on assiste à des phrases sous-spécifiées ou ambigües comme (3 et 4).

(2) a. Alikaháayó ká túná /Alika/donner INAC/enfant/COMP/poisson PL/ « Alika donne des poissons à l’enfant » b. [VP[V[DP[DP]]]]

(3) a. Alikaháayó /Alika/donnerINAC/enfant/ « Alika donne à l’enfant/ Alika donne l’enfant »

b. [VP[V[DP]]] →Ambigüe

(4) a. Alikaháatúná /Alika/donnerINAC/poisson PL/ « Alika donne des poissons/Alika donne aux poissons » b. [VP[V[DP]]] →Ambigüe

L’absence d’un second objet en (3 et 4) rend la phrase ambigüe (cf. plus bas la question de l’ordre syntaxique), car elle donne lieu à deux interprétations. Au cas où l’objet yo est codé comme THEME (en 3), la question sur l’objet DATIF (bénéficiaire) s’ensuit comme (5). Mais au cas où l’argument yo est encodé comme bénéficière, la question se portera sur le THEME comme (6).

(5) ɩ háa ka anó ? /3s/donner INACP/G3s/IndP INTER/ « Il le donne à qui ? » (6) ɩ háa ka wɔ ?

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/3s/donner INACP/G3s/IndN INTER/ « Que lui donne – t – il ? »

L’absence d’un second objet en (4) rend l’information incomplète. L’information sur le destinataire manque et posera la question comme l’exemple (7).

(7) ɩ háayaanó ? /3s/donner INACP/G2p/IndN INTER/ « il les donne à qui ? »

Les verbes qui motivent la CDO sont ditransitifs. Selon l’hypothèse de la sélection des ELs (Eléments Lexicaux), le verbe effectue une sélection binaire selon le principe de la récursivité (Chomsky 1995, 2001 ; Wu 2011). Pour rendre compte des phrases telles que (3 et 4) qui ne sont pas agrammaticales pour autant, Cummins et Roberge (2005) parlent d’objet implicite pour décrire l’objet non réalisé contextuellement. Pour ces auteurs, un objet implicite ou nulest un objet vide à l’interface FPh (Forme Phonologique). Fournier (2010) ajoute qu’un tel objet est cependant impliqué dans l’événementdécrit par le VPmalgré son absence, ce qui le différencie d’un argument externe. La CDO est donc une structure syntaxique motivée par une prédication verbale ditransitive. C’est la ditransitivité qui est rendue par le critère de deux objets obligatoires. Après une claire appréhension de la notion d’argument obligatoire, une autre question urge quant à la nature de ces arguments. À quoi le critère du « DP obligatoire » fait-il référence ?

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Le postulat des DP obligatoires Le DP (Determinent Phrase) est la projection fonctionnelle du déterminant. C’est une approche qui se substitue au NP comme argument de V. Tang (2000 :4) fait une remarque à propos du DP comme suis :

“I will make the assumption that what we called Noun Phrases earlier in the handout are actually Determiner Phrases i.e. they are headed by D. Henceforth I will treat nominal expressions like the king of France, red balloons, you, and Sweden as DPs.” Selon cet auteur, l’ex-syntagme nominal est devenu syntagme déterminant. Il y a une grande différence de fond entre les deux terminologies que nous n’allons pas aborder dans cet article. On note seulement qu’on privilégie le DP qui est une projection fonctionnelle (dont la tête D (déterminant) est une catégorie fonctionnelle) aux dépens duNP qui a une tête lexicale N (Nom). Si nous concevons ce qu’est un DP, nous concevrons d’avantages ce que cela importe qu’un argument de V dans le cadre de la CDO soit obligatoirement un DP. Ce qui signifie qu’il y a possibilité pour un V d’avoir un argument autre qu’un DP.

Quand on considère le cas de l’exemple (8), on peut appréhender les exigences de cette restriction. Le verbalsíír « dire » dans cet exemple a bien sûr deux arguments objets : ɩ yal « sa femme » et sɛ ɩ́ hátə́ máán « qu’elle pile du riz ». Cependant, c’est seulement le premier qui est un DP. Le deuxième argument est lui-même une phrase, du ressort de la subordination.

(8) Alikasíír ɩ́ yalsɛ ɩ́ hátə́ máán /Alika/dire HYP/Poss3s/femme/que/3s/piler HYP/riz/ « Alika a dit à son épouse de piler du riz»

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(9) Alikasíír ɩ́ yal ká tɛ́m /Alika/dire HYP/3s/femme/COMP/parole/ « Alika a dit le problème à son épouse »

La phrase (8) malgré la présence de deux arguments objets, ne peut pas être analysée comme une CDO, car, le deuxième objet n’est pas un DP. C’est donc pour éviter les exemples comme (8) qui explique le bien fondé de la restriction sur la nature des arguments. Après cet aperçu sur la nature de l’argument objet, le prochain volet vient à point nommé pour expliciter le critère des rôles thêta.

UTAH ou l’uniformité de la grille thématique Le rôle sémantique est le sens qui se rattache à un argument du verbe dans sa participation à l’expression de l’événement dénoté par le verbe (Kparou 2011, Creissels 2006). Dans l’expression d’une CDO, chaque argument a un rôle sémantique unique, ce qui lui confère une autonomie référentielle. Dans la foulée de la théorie de l’uniformité des rôles sémantiques, plus communément appelé UTAH (Uniformity of Thêta-role Assignment Hypothesis), Baker (1988) a émis un principe qui demeure jusqu’alors efficace. Selon lui, à chaque argumentdu verbe s’associe un et un seul rôle-θ et chaque rôle-θ se rattache à un et un seul argument dans la même construction verbale. Ainsi, dans une CDO, l’argument externe est un AGENT 1 (il peut aussi s’agir d’une FORCE), tandis que les arguments internes direct et indirect

1Le rôle d’AGENT proprement dit requiert le trait [+Animé]. De plus, un DP agent doit être responsable (conscient) d’une action (le LION tue la gazelle). L’AGENT ne doit, ni être confondu à l’EXPERIENT qui, lui, subit un procès (le LION souffre de la grippe), ni être confondu au rôle de FORCE qui régit un procès inanimé (le VENT a brisé l’arbre), (cf. Kparou 2011). Le rôle de FORCE a été introduit pour la première fois par Creissels (2006).

180 sont respectivement THEME (PATIENT ou THEME) et RECEPTEUR (RECEPTEUR ou BENEFICIAIRE). Dans les exemples ci-dessous, (10) est une CDO, car, à chaque argument se rattache un rôle-θ et chaque rôle-θ est dénoté par un argument. Ainsi, le sujet est un AGENT, le premier DP objet est RECEPTEUR et le deuxième DP objet est THEME.

(10) afal AGENT lɛ́ɛ̄ yal RECEPTEUR ká mə́lá THEME /homme/servir INACP/femme/KA/sorgho/ « L’homme sert (du grenier) du sorgho à la femme »

L’exemple (10) diffère de (11), bien que la composition soit formellement le même en apparence. Le sujet est bien sûr un AGENT, mais le deuxième DP interne n’a pas de rôle-θ propre, car il qualifie le premier DP interne qui est un PATIENT. L’analyse de (11) s’applique à (12).

Dans les deux cas, l’interprétation requise montre les deuxièmes DP sont des compléments des premiers DP qui assument seuls la légitimité d’objet, donc complément de V.

2 (11) yɩ́rá AGENT yáā Alika PATIENT KA mɩ́ɩĺ /personne PL/appeler INACP/Alika/KA/voleur/ « Les gens appellent Alika un voleur »

(12) AsɩnɽaAGENT yá ɩ́ yal PATIENT KA atʋ́ʋ́r /Asinda/appeler HYP/Poss3s/femme/KA/sorcier/ « Asinda a traité sa femme de sorcière »

2 Il est aussi possible d’interpréter (11) et (12) comme des CDO. Dans ce cas, (11) aura pour glose « les gens appellent un voleur pour Alika » et (12) « Asinda a appelé un sorcier à sa femme ». Le contexte pragmatique est à cet effet déterminant.

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L’approche de l’UTAH est fondamentalepour distinguer les cas comme (11) et (12) des CDO. Selon fournier (2010), le critère de l’uniformité des rôle-θ dans l’analyse de la CDO estuniversel. En définitive, trois critères sont fondamentaux dans la détermination d’une CDO en lama. J’assume que les principes de la ditransitivité, du DP obligatoire comme objet et l’uniformité des rôles sémantiques peuvent être élevés au rang d’universaux de la CDO. Les sections suivantes analysent et discutent les postulats remis en cause eu égard aux données du lama.

La question du marqueur formel entre le prédicat verbal et le complément objet

Comme mentionné dans l’introduction, les restrictions des CDO ont reçu leurs premières créances après l’analyse des données de l’anglais. Dans une phrase comme (13), il n’y a aucun marqueur entre le verbe sent et ses arguments his son et a telegram . C’est le prototype d’une CDO (en anglais). En même temps, (13) s’oppose à (14). Cette dernière introduit le deuxième objet au moyen d’une préposition. Le fait que la préposition to soit nécessaire à l’introduction du second objet, (14) perd la propriété de CDO aux dépens de celle de COP (construction à objet prépositionnel). En règle générale, les CDO en anglais ont leurs contreparties COP.

(13) Bill sent his son a telegram (14) Bill sent a telegram to his son

Ceci permet de comprendre qu’en parlant de marqueur formel entre le V et le DP objet, le principe vise en effet à exclure les constructions avec une P comme (14).

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Une question qui surgit est de savoir si tout marqueur entre V et DP est nécessairement une P. Étant donné que chaque langue a un système paramétrique, seule une analyse conséquente peut permettre de répondre à cette question.

Le lama fait cas de figure avec un marqueur intermédiaire entre les deux arguments OO (Objet – Objet), disons, il y a un marqueur formel entre le verbe et le deuxième objet. Dans les données suivantes, le morphème KA est un intermédiaire entre les deux OO. Avant de statuer sur la nature de ces constructions, à savoir si elles sont des CDO ou des COP, il faille déterminer la nature de KA. Autrement dit, KA est-il une pré/postposition ? les douze phrases ci-dessous peuvent être analysées pour donner des résultats conséquents.

(15) Alikacɩ́lyó ká húrú /Alika/remettre HYP/enfant/KA/sac/ « Alika a remis un sac à l’enfant »

(16) Alika há yó ká lɛ́n /Alika/donner HYP/enfant/KA/sagesse/ « Alika conseille l’enfant/Alika donne des conseils à l’enfant »

(17) yélə́m fá n͂ ɩ́mpʋ́rɛrá ka wɔ́rásə́ /aveugle/quémander HYP/passant PL/KA/argent/ « L’aveugle quémande de l’argent aux passants »

(18) wúró sírú apatərciná ka tɛ́m /roi/dire INACP/notable PL/KA/parole/ « Le roi dit un problème aux notables »

(19) Alikacɩ́lyó ká húrú ka ntaʋtɛ ka tɔ́nrɛ /Alika/remettre HYP/enfant/KA/sac/KA/matin/sous/KA/cour/dans/ « Alika a remis un sac à l’enfant le matin dans la cour intérieure»

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(20) Alika há yó ká lɛ́n ka sártə́ /Alika/donner HYP/enfant/KA/sagesse/KA/bien/ « Alika conseille bien l’enfant »

(21) Alika há yó ká lɛ́n ka lɛ́lɛ /Alika/donner HYP/enfant/KA/sagesse/KA/vite/ « Alika conseille vite l’enfant »

(22) Alikacɩ́lyó ká húrú /Alika/remettre HYP/enfant/KA/sac/ « Alika a remis un sac à l’enfant »

(23) *Alikacɩ́l ká húrú /Alika/remettre HYP/KA/sac/

(24) *Alikacɩ́l ká yó /Alika/remettre HYP/KA/enfant/

(25) Alikacɩ́lhúrú /Alika/remettre HYP/KA/sac/ « Alika a remis un sac »

(26) Alikacɩ́lyó /Alika/remettre HYP/enfant/ « Alika a remis à l’enfant »

(27) Alikacɩ́lhúrú ká yó /Alika/remettre HYP/sac/KA/enfant/ « Alika a remis un sac à l’enfant »

Le morphème KA se distingue de P (pré/postposition) pour plusieurs raisons, illustrées dans les exemples ci-dessus. (i) KA apparait dans le même contexte qu’un P (tɛ « sous ») en (19). (ii) Visiblement, les P en lama sont post DP (cf. (19) ntaʋtɛ « matin », tɔ́nrɛ « dans la cours »), ce qui n’est pas le cas de KA.

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(iii) Le fait que KA introduise aussi les adverbes en (20) (sartə́ « bien ») et (21) (lɛlɛ « vite ») montre qu’il n’est pas une P, cette dernière ayant toujours un complément DP (iv) KA n’apparait jamais dans une construction à un seul objet, ce qui explique l’agrammaticalité des phrases (23) et (24). Contrairement à (23) et (24) qui sont agrammaticales à cause de la présence de KA, (25) et (26) sont acceptables. (v) L’inversion des objets rendue possible sans déplacement de KA en (27) montre qu’il ne marque pas un DP (pour le transformer en PP) mais il sert d’intermédiaire entre plusieurs arguments d’un V (compléments et adjoints y compris). À l’issu de cette analyse, il ressort que KA n’a pas les attributs d’une P. En définitive, je postule que KA (a) n’est pas un marqueur formel entre le verbe et son complément (cf. les caractéristiques (iii, iv et v) et par conséquent, (b) sa présence ne transforme pas un DP en une PP, encore moins une CDO en une COP. Les constructions ditransitives impliquant la présence de KA sont donc par nature des CDO.

L’ordre des deux objets est-il rigide ? Le postulat de l’ordre des objets a été introduit à la faveur de l’anglais. Dans l’exemple (10)repris ci-dessous en (28), les deux DP objets que sont his son et a telegram ne peuvent changer d’ordre. En les numérotant, DP1 (his son ) précède toujours DP2 ( atelegram ), si on veut conserver la structure CDO. Le changement de cet ordre fait intervenir une préposition (to), ce qui conduit à la phrase (30) qui n’est plus qu’une COP (cf section 2). Par conséquent, (29) est agrammaticale à cause de l’ordre DP2 – DP1. Elle peut être interprétable à moins qu’on attribue un sens métaphorique à

185 a telegram pour qu’il ait les caractéristiques d’un RECEPTEURcapable de recevoir his son .

(28) Bill sent his son a telegram (29) *Bill sent a telegram his son (30) Bill sent a telegram to his son

À l’issu de cette analyse, il revient que l’ordre des objets dans la CDO est fixe en anglais. Cependant, le cas de l’anglais (et peut être d’autres langues) suffit-il pour en faire un critère universel ? Le cas du lama que nous présentons est un défi au postulat de l’ordre rigide des DP internes au VP dans la CDO. Les exemples suivants, qui ont fait objet d’une autre analyse plus haut, illustrent un cas d’inversion de l’ordre des DP objets sans modification de sens. En considérant (31) et (32), le DP1 interne est yó « enfant », le DP2 interne est húrú « sac ». On a dans le premier cas l’ordre V-DP1-DP2. Dans le deuxième cas, l’ordre est plutôt V-DP2-DP1.

(31) Alikacɩ́lyó ká húrú -/Alika/remettre HYP/enfant/KA/sac/ « Alika a remis un sac à l’enfant »

(32) Alikacɩ́lhúrú ká yó /Alika/remettre HYP/sac/KA/enfant/ « Alika a remis un sac à l’enfant »

Le renversement de l’ordre des DP internes s’effectue sans recours à d’autres morphèmes intermédiaires, c’est-à-dire que la CDO garde les constituants reconnus dans la section 2 comme essentiels de ladite structure en lama. Le lama ne fait pas intervenir par exemple une P (qui serait une postposition).

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Donc, l’inversion de l’ordre des objets en lama ne transforme pas une CDO en COP. L’ordre des objets dans la CDO en cette langue n’est pas fixe. Dans la section suivante, il sera question de savoir comment le sens de la CDO n’est pas transformé par le renversement de l’ordre des DP objets. Par rapport à la stratégie de conservation référentielle dont dispose la langue, il faille relever des cas d’exception où la conservation de l’ordre des objets dans une CDO est nécessaire.

Pourquoi l’ordre des DP objets ne régit-il pas le sens d’une CDO en lama ?

La conservation du sens dans une CDO malgré le renversement de l’ordre des DP objets est redevable à la grille sémantique. Il a été démontré dans la section 1 qu’à chaque DP se rattache un rôle sémantique. Les rôles d’arguments associés à la construction d’une CDOsont : AGENT pour le sujet, THEMEet RECEPTEUR (ou BENEFICIAIRE) pour l’objet accusatif et l’objet oblique. Selon Fournier (2010), ces rôles sont universels. Les rôles sémantiques ne changent pas quand on renverse leur ordre d’alignement dans le VP à l’interne. Si nous revenons aux exemples précédents en les présentant avec leurs rôles sémantiques, on obtient les données (33) et (34).

(33) Alika [AGENT]cɩ́lyó [RECEPTEUR] ká húrú [THEME] /Alika/remettre HYP/enfant/KA/sac/ « Alika a remis un sac à l’enfant »

(34) Alika [AGENT] cɩ́lhúrú [THEME] ká yó [RECEPTEUR] /Alika/remettre HYP/sac/KA/enfant/ « Alika a remis un sac à l’enfant »

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Ces exemples montrent que les DPhúrú « sac » et yó « enfant » ont des rôles sémantiques respectifs de THEME et de RECEPTEUR. Quelque soit leur ordre, le codage sémantique permet de les distinguer. La conservation du sémantisme dans la CDO est donc mue par la grille sémantique. Mais les rôles sémantiques sont aussi motivés par des traits internes aux DP. La section suivante analyse ces traits qui contribuent à maintenir l’équilibre sémantique aux côtés des rôles, lesquels facteurs conduisent quelques fois à des ambigüités.

Traits internes des DP et la problématique des CDO ambigües.

Une CDOambigüe requiert une double interprétation. En lama, deux facteurs fondamentaux motivent l’ambigüité syntaxique dans une CDO. Il y a d’une part, les contraintes sélectionnelles des DP pleins et d’autre part, l’uniformité du codage morphologique dans les DP pronominaux.

Contraintes sélectionnelles des DP objets dans la CDO Les rôles sémantiques sont motivés par les contraintes sélectionnelles. Ainsi, pour qu’un DP assume le rôle de RECEPTEUR, il faut qu’il ait des caractéristiques internes qui lui permettent de recevoir le THEME. De même, il faut qu’un DP ait les caractéristiques qui motivent sa réception par le RECEPTEUR.

(35) yaltʋ́sə́ mə́tə́ ka yó /femme/mettre dans la bouche HYP/pâte/KA/enfant/ « la femme a mis la pâte dans la bouche de l’enfant »

(36) yaltʋ́sə́ yó ka mə́tə́ /femme/mettre dans la bouche HYP/enfant/KA/pâte/

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« la femme a mis la pâte dans la bouche de l’enfant »

La phrase (35) est une CDO en lama. L’inversion de l’ordre des objets de (35) donne une autre CDO en (36) avec le même codage sémantique. Le rôle sémantique de RECEPTEUR se rattache à yó « enfant » quelque soit sa position (immédiate ou médiate du verbe). De même, le rôle de THEME se rattache à mə́tə́ « pâte » indépendamment de sa position. Cette interprétation automatique s’explique par les traits sélectionnels internes à ces DP. Le DPyo « enfant » est doté du trait [+Animé] qui le prédispose à être un RECEPTEUR au détriment du DPmə́tə́ « pâte » qui requiert le trait [-Animé]. De manière plus explicite, c’est l’animé yo qui peut manger l’inanimé mətə et non le contraire.

Les DP internes peuvent avoir des traits sélectionnels semblables. Puisque l’ordre des OO n’influence pas l’interprétation d’une CDO, la similarité des traits sélectionnelsconduit un temps soit peu à l’ambigüité. Le cas de (37) illustre une CDO ambigüe. Dans cet exemple, les DPya « femme » et yó « enfant » ont tous le trait [+ Animé]. Tous deux sont susceptibles d’être encodés comme RECEPTEUR. La phrase (37)a peut donc être interprétée comme (37)b ou c. le choix entre les deux références reste dépendant du contexte pragmatique.

(37) a. Alikacɩlyalkayo /Alika/remettre HYP/femme/KA/enfant/ b. Alikacɩlyal [RECEPTEUR] kayo [THEME] « Alika a confié l’enfant à la dame » c. Alikacɩlyal [THEME] kayo [RECEPTEUR] « Alika a confié la dame à l’enfant »

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Un autre cas d’ambiguité dans la CDO évoqué dans l’introduction de cette section reste la pronominalisation des deux OO.

La question des DP pronominaux dans la CDO La pronominalisation des DP objets peut être un facteur d’ambigüité dans la CDO. Un point remarquable est que le morphème complétif KA n’est plus utile une fois que l’un des DP objets est un pronominal. Ainsi, la présence de KA en (38a) est à opposer à son absence en b. La forme /ka/ observée en b, c et d est un pronominal prototype du singulier du genre G3. L’ambigüité dans ce cas est d’ordre analytique, car l’interlocuteur, grâce au contexte, arrive à encoder les antécédents des pronoms. Le problème réel se trouve dans la ressemblance du trait de genre; les objets yó « enfant » et yɩ́lɔ́ « sifflet » sont tous du genre menu (que nous étiquetons G3) dont le trait prototypique est [+ Menu].

(38) a. Alikacɩ́lyó ká yɩ́lɔ́ /Alika/remettre HYP/enfant/KA/sifflet/ « Alika remet un sifflet à l’enfant » b. Alikacɩ́lká yɩ́lɔ́ /Alika/remettreHYP/G3s/sifflet/ « Alika lui [enfant] remet le sifflet » c. Alikacɩ́lká yó /Alika/remettre HYP/G3s/enfant/ « Alika le [sifflet] remet à l’enfant »

d. Alikacɩ́lká ká « Alika le lui remet »

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d’. Alikacɩ́l ká [enfant] ká [sifflet] d’’. Alikacɩ́l ká [sifflet] ká [enfant]

Quand un objet est pronominalisé, la référence est sans équivoque comme (38) b et c. Au cas où les deux DP sont des pronoms comme (38) d, il est quasiment impossible de déterminer leur ordre. Même le contexte ne peut pas permettre de dénouer le problème. Seul le locuteur peut savoir à quel DP précis chaque pronominal se réfère.

6. Structure formelle de la CDO

Si on considère une CDO comme une structure formée fondamentalement de deux éléments appartenant à deux catégories syntaxiques, tels que X un V et Y son complément, la structure formelle d’une CDO en lama se présente comme suit :

(39) XP

X YP1

Y1 YP2

α Y2

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Il existe un élément α et α c-commande Y2 (αest nœud sœur de Y2 sous YP2). Cette structure en (39) est illustrée par l’exemple (40).

(40) a. Alika [ VP [VP háa [ DP1 yó [ DP2 ká húru ́]]]] Alika/donner INAC/enfant/KA/sac/ « Alika donne du sifflet à l’enfant » b.

V DP1

DP 1 DP2

DP 2 CONJ

háa yó KÁ húru

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V DP1

DP1 RÉCEPTEUR DP2 THÈME

CONJ DP2

háa yó KÁ húru

d. VP

. V DP1

DP1 THÈME DP2 RÉCEPTEUR

CONJ DP 2

háa húru KÁ yó

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La présentation (b) illustre une structure simplifiée de la CDO, l’exemple (c) représente une CDO avec la grille thématique argumentale et (d) est l’inversion des objets de V.

Conclusion Trois principes qui régissent la Construction à Double Objet (CDO) sont à caractère universel, eu égard aux données du lama. Il s’agit des principes de deux objets obligatoires, de la nature de l’objet qui ne peut être autre qu’unDP et de l’existence des rôles uniformes et universels se rattachant à ces DP. En revanche, l’analyse remet en cause deux autres principes, à savoir, l’inexistence d’élément formel entre le verbe et l’argument objet, et l’ordre rigide des deux objets du verbe. Comme il a été analysé, la CDO en lama admet la présence du morphème KA, intermédiaire entre les deux objets. Les mêmes données ont montré que l’ordre des DP objets n’est pas respecté. En définitive, nous retenons trois critères fondamentaux : (i) deux objets obligatoires, (ii) tous les deux objets doivent être des DP tels que [VP[DP[DP]]] et (iii) les deux objets doivent avoir des rôles sémantiques universels.

Références / bibliographiques

Adger, David et Peter Svenonius. 2010. Features in MinimalistSyntax. Queen Mary , University of London and CASTL , University of Troms. Chomsky, Noam. 2000. Minimalist inquiries: the framework. Step by step: essays on minimalist syntax in honor of HowardLasnik (pp. 89- 155). Cambridge, Massachusetts : MIT Press.

Creissels, Denis. 2006. Syntaxe générale, une introduction typologique, v1. Paris : Lavoisier.

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Cummins, Sarah, etYves Roberge. 2005. A Modular Account of Null Objects in French. Syntax , 8, 44-64.

Dowty, David. 2000. The Dual Analysis of Adjuncts/ Complements in Categorial Grammar. ZAS Papers in Linguistics, 17, 2000, Ohio State University.

Jaeggli, Osvaldo. 1982. Topics in Romance Syntax. Dordrecht, Holland : Foris.

Kayne, Richard S. 1975. French Syntax: The Transformational Cycle . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Kayne, Richard S. 1999. Prepositional Complementizers as Attractors. Probus , 11, 39-73.

Larson, Richard K. 1990. Double Objects Revisited: Reply to Jackendoff. LinguisticInquiry , 21, 589-632.

Michaelis, Suzanne, et Martin Haspelmath. 2003. Ditransitive Constructions: CreoleLanguages in a Cross-Linguistic Perspective. Creolica 05-00,1-16.

Nakamura, Takuya. 2012. Une construction à double complément du verbe faire : attribut de l’objet indirect ? Congrès Mondial de Linguistique Française – CMLF 2012, Université Paris-Est, LIGM (UMR 8049 CNRS). http://www.shs-conferences.org Ourso, MeterwaAkayaou . 2013. Casse-tête chinois pour l’hypothèse de l’intégrité lexicale. Particip’Action, Revue Interafricaine de littérature, linguistique et philosophie , Université de Lomé, vol5, N02, Janvier 2013, Pp207 – 226.

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Sikora, Dorota. 2009. Les verbes de manière de mouvement en polonais et en français. Eléments pour une étude comparée des propriétés structurelles de prédicats . Thèse de Doctorat, Université de Nancy 2.

Strik, Nelleke. 2008. Syntaxe et acquisition des phrases interrogatives en français et en néerlandais : une étude contrastive . Thèse de Doctorat, Université Paris 8 – Saint Denis.Tellier, Christian. 2002. Eléments de syntaxe du français. Méthodes d’analyse en grammaire generative . Montréal : PUM.

Tang, Sze-Wing. 2000. Some Minimal Notes On Minimalism. Linguistic Society of Hong Kong Newsletter , 36, 7 - 10. (2000). The Hong Kong PolytechnicUniversity.

Wu, Tong. 2011. La relativisation prénominale . Thèse de Doctorat, Université Paris III.

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THE LITERARY REPRESENTATION OF SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCES IN CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE’S DR. FAUSTUS

ADEBUA, Babatunde Olanrewaju

Abstract

Many writers are consciously or unconsciously engaged in spirituality and the relationship of man with the godhead. Some writers have been adjudged deeply spiritual, others have been regarded as ambiguous and ambivalent, and others have also have raised doubts about beliefs that have already been entrenched in the human psyche. This paper applies the Freudian and Fryean psychoanalytic schema in the examination of the literary representation of spiritual experiences in Christophe Marlowe's Dr. Faustus.In the analysis, the focus is on the depth of philosophical thought, psychological insight and narrative vision of the playwright to illuminate Marlowe's perception of religion, divinity, eternity, martyrdom, fate and belief. The paper concludes that Marlowe's Dr. Faustus is rich in its perception of the human psychological landscape, conceptualization of human nature, imaginative scope and emotional depth, particularly in its representation of spiritual experiences in the text. Key Words: Spirituality, Freudian, Fryean, Representation, Literary.

Introduction

Many acclaimed writers have explored notions of spirituality in relation to man and the universe. By spirituality, we refer to notions of spiritual and godly relationship withinthescope human experience and in the religious

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domain. Several writers have also espoused religio-metaphysical ideas, beliefs and cosmic interaction with the unseen in their works.

These writers often exhibit a rich vein of philosophical thought and psychological insight about the impact and import of spirituality on the affairs of man. They also exude a lucid narrative vision about god, spirituality, religion, divinity, eternity, martyrdom, fate and belief.Writers like Tolstoy, is regarded as being deeply and intensely spiritual, Dostoyevsky is perceived as being ambiguous and ambivalent about spirituality, while Beckett raises doubts about pre-conceived notions about hope, redemption and salvation (Akporobaro, 2013).

Panichas (2009) while examining these ideas suggested in reference to Fyodor Dostoyevsky's art for instance that: A writer of high caliber who explains man's religious complex, his world and his fate, must exude a religious ambiance impelling, spiritual whose meaning is metaphysically justified in the aesthetic form of the work.

From the above comment by Panichas, the religiosity of a work of art must not only be implied but must be intrinsically embedded in the aesthetic form of the work. Spirituality in itself lends itself to several meanings. LoveandTalbot (1999) try to synthesize a number of definitions of spirituality taken from, literature,theology, social science, and other fields. According to that effort, spirituality had been defined in the following manner:

• An internal process of seeking personal authenticity, genuineness, and wholeness as an aspect of identity development.

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• The development of greater connectedness to self and others through relationships and with the community. • The process of deriving meaning, purpose and direction in one's life • The increasing openness to exploring a relationship with an intangible and pervasive power or essence or centre of value that exists beyond human existence and rational human knowing. From the foregoing, the inference is that in spirituality, there is an existence beyond the corporeal, rational and visible universe. There is also a desire to attempt an understanding of that which lies beyond our physical world. Also, the notion of a Supreme Being is inherent in the definition albeit that what that Supreme Being is, is vaguely composed and mixed. A spiritually developed person may well identify that Supreme Being as a god. Whereas a spiritually developed non- religious person may not be able to tangibly identify that which exists beyond human knowledge.

Additionally, the definitions make reference to both the internal (psychological) and the external (physical) manifestation of spirituality. According to Parks (2000):

Spirituality is more of a personal than public search for meaning, transcendence, wholeness, purpose and apprehension of spirit as the animated essence at the core of life.

She goes further to describe spirituality as:

Immanent (within the individual) and transcendent (beyond the individual).... the experience and activity of faith, lies beyond the range of ordinary perception and experience and thus, is ultimately unknowable, and it remains within us and the particulars of our experience.

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Hence, spiritual experiences can be placed within the domain of human personal experience as man seeks to find answers to some of the transcendental problemsthat face humanity. As generalist as the above notions may sound, there appears to be a connectbetween the objectives of a writer whose creation is suffused with poignant internal struggles, as he grapples with inner feelings and turmoil's about his cosmology and the desire to come to terms with the effect that religio-metaphysical relationships have on his existence. However, the writer presents his views as a fictional picture either as prose fiction, drama or poetry. The construction of the fictional world of the author, his theological perspectives and the response elicited by his work is pertinent to this paper.

Williams (2008) in his introduction to Dostoyevsky; Language, Faith and Fiction opines that:

The world we inhabits as readers ...one in which the question of what human beings owe to one another-the question standing behind these contemporary issues- is left painfully and shockingly open and their seems to be no obvious place to stand from which we can construct a clear moral landscape. He also as a matter of conjecture suggests that:

Some works insistently and unashamedly press home the question of what else might be possible if we-characters and readers-saw the world in another light, the light provided by faith in the face of extreme failure suffering and desolation.

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In many of such works, there is the underlying tension between believing and not believing in the existence of a supreme being who hand great influence on the lives of people. For instance, in Dostoyevsky's final novel, Brothers Karamazov , we see Dostoyevsky tilting towards the school of theology that suggests "the Death of God" because he never gave credibility in his fiction to faith and hope for the future. In the novel, Ivan creates a picture or self-portrait of a God that is dead for him, which he believes is dead for us too. The god of terror and fear which allows the torture of children is the only one we are able to find. In the text under study, Christophe Marlowe's Dr. Faustus , the complexities of these relationships are explored and exposed through the application of salient aspects of psychoanalysis of the Freudian and Fryean variant.

Conceptual Clarifications The following conceptual clarifications with enhance the understanding of this paper:

Archetypes: Inherited ideas or ways of thinking generated by the experiences of the human race that exist in unconscious of an individual. They are universal or recurring images and patterns of motifs representing typical human experience that often appear in literature. They unite the conscious and the unconscious helping to make an individual whole. Collective Unconscious: The inherited collective experience of the human race. Ego: In Freudian terms, the part of the psyche that mediates between the inner self and the external world. As such, the ego helps regulate the id by postponing the id's urges or by diverting them into socially acceptable actions.

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Id: An unconscious part of the Psyche that is the source of psychic energy and desires. It operates for the soul purpose of finding pleasure through gratification of its instinctual needs. Superego: The part of the psyche that provides discipline and restraint by forcing unacceptable desires back into the unconscious. It is formed early on by parents and later by social institutions and other models. (Dobie2009:72)

Freudian and Mythological Analysis Model The adoption of Freudian analysis to the psychobiography of the text and author includes the identification of the struggles of the character, experiences and thoughts through the following strategies as outlined by Dobie (2009): • Revealing what is happening in the characters unconscious as suggested by images symbols and interior monologues. • Identify the nature of the characters conflicts; find out if the character is normal or neurotic. • Look out for changes in the outlook or behavior of a character that signal that some struggle has been resolved for good or ill. • Examine whether a character operates according to the pleasure principle, the morality principle or the reality principle. • Explain the character's typical behaviorby determining whether the personality is "balanced" or dominated by the Id or the superego. • Check dream sequences to elucidate nr repressed material the dreams are putting in symbolic form. • Find fixations and trace them to childhood incidents or issues that went unsatisfied or unresolved. • Note any conflicts or events in the author's life that are reflected in the text.

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Complimentary to this is Freudian model is the Fryean Archetypal Model which gives insight about both literature and human nature that other approaches fail to provide. It considers a work in terms of its psychological, aesthetic and culture aspects, making such analysis a powerful union of three perspectives. In achieving this, the following will be explored: • Showing how characters follow well established patterns of behavior and to recreate well-known archetypal figures • looking at similarities and contrasts in the personal conscious and personal unconscious to determine whether they reflect the same desires and impulses or are in conflict. • Locating instances in which the collective unconscious of a character is revealed perhaps through a dream or vision. • Identifying archetypal images and situations and explain how they write together to create meaning. • Examining instances in which the persona, animal/animus, and shadow of a character are revealed, including instances of reflection and projection (Dobie, 2009)

The relevant aspects of Freudian and mythological criticism model will be adopted and applied to the analysis of Dr. Faustus to engender a search into the inner recesses of the mind of Faustus and other characters, and through that, a mirror into religo-metaphysical landscape of Marlowe's mind can be identified. With this, Marlowe's stance on spirituality can be deducted from the characters he had developed in his work.

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The Literary Representation of Spirituality in Dr. Faustus Christopher Marlowe's Dr. Faustus is a dramatic offering of one of the most durable myths in western culture the study told by Faust of a German doctor who sells his soul to the devil in exchange for knowledge and power. Young Elizabethanplaywright Marlowe is quick to recognize in the story of Faust's temptation and fall the elements of a great tragedy. (DoverThrift, 1994)

The intention in this segment of the paper is to engage with the text by deducing authorial intent and find new insights into the text through the application of the principles of literary psychoanalytic criticism to explore and investigate the intentions and outcomes of the playwright's ideas and views on spirituality as presented in the work.

The play is structured as a one act play with sixteen scenes, preceded by a prologue. The dramatics personae are predominantly male except for the Duchess of Vanholt and the apparition of Helen of Troy the paramour of Alexander the Great. At the beginning of the play we encounter Faustus apparently bored and sick of the pursuit of knowledge believing that he was already thoroughly educated in worldly subjects, desiring to acquire the powers of God himself. He commented;

"Be a physician, Faustus; heap up gold, and be eternized for some wondrous cure. Why, Faustus hast thou not attained the end? Is it not thy common talk sound aphorisms? (Faustus Sc.l,Pg. 3)

This is the first incidence in the play that gives a pointer to the spiritual dimension Marlowe through Faustus, is leading us towards. According to

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Ellis-Fermor (1966:74), the human lust for power has reached a new height in Faustus, and to attain what he desires, the easiest means are demonic.

This despair, boredom and melancholic state of mind, in which Faustus finds himself, influences his decision to seek the help of infernal powers. He is frustratedwith the limits of human science, reason understanding and knowledge. Dr. Faustus's chief character flaw is his quest for things outside the limits of human knowledge and comprehension. There is an internal conflict within the persona of Faustus through the struggle between the Id and superego and the interaction of his Ego in the train of rational and reasonable human thinking. The reader learns from this little distortion that we must be content with what is rather than what we want the world to be.

Psychoanalytically speaking, the battles between the id and the superego pervade the play text. It is this conflict that causes severe turmoil in Faustus's moral conscience. Throughout the play Faustus struggles with himself while Lucifer and Mephistopheles struggle with him. He struggles with his peers, and the seven deadly sins ultimately the decisions taken are his and the consequences of those decisions are also borne by him.

Starting from his decision to enlist Lucifer's help in the quest for knowledge, Faustus is prodded along by his friends, Valdes and Cornelius, who are themselves versed in the dark arts and magic. Faustus is easily persuaded as he hadalready taken the decision himself. Despite this pressure from his peers, Faustus makes the choice to conjure of his own free will: Valdes: Faustus, these books they wit, and our experience shall make all nations canonize

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us...so shall the subjects, of every element be always serviceable to us three...

Faustus: Valdes, as resolute am I on this as thou to live, therefore object it not (Faustus Sc 1, Pg7) It is pertinent to query Marlowe's persistent concern with the quest for power in the text and in Faustus situation. What relationship does Faustus have with authorities presented in the text? Many critics have offered the opinion that Faustus did not respect constituted authority and was indeed rebellious towards them.- However, a more critical reading of the text shows that he often shows deference and tenderness towards constituted authority. Though he was defiant towards the arrogant Pope Adrian, he was deferential and submissive towards the Pope's rivals, Emperor Carolus and Pope Bruno:

Chorus: These gracious words must royal Carolus, shall make poor Faustus to his utmost power both love and serve the German Emperor and lay his life at holy Bruno's feet (Faustus Scvii, pg4)

The presupposition here is that Faustus was cloning the Edenic reversal where Adam and Eve forsook the injunction asking them not to eat of the tree of knowledge if they did not want to lose their lives. However, Faustus did not have high regard for Pope Adrian but had a tender spot for the German Emperor. It is evident that Faustus was undergoing intense internal psychological conflict because he was the one that desired more than the world could give. Mephistopheles, the agent of Lucifer tried to dissuade Faustus from this line of action, but Faustus rejects this plea and willingly submits his soul for the supernatural power and knowledge

206 offered in exchange. Mephistopheles in the text could also be compared to the Edenic serpent. The difference in their roles is that Mephistopheles tried to dissuade Faustus but he was determined to carry his plan through. In the Eden scenarios, the serpent used cunning to sway Adam and Eve from obeying God and thereby putting themselves under the care and authority of Lucifer.

Cole (1995:122-141) argues that in spite of this dangerous quest for knowledge and supernatural powers, Dr. Faustus does not controvert Christianity. In fact he is of the opinion that he play is "thoroughly Christian in conception and import". Pointing out that Faustus sins knowingly, does not repent and suffers eternal damnation. This is consistent with human nature and Christian theology. Another core spiritual experience, Faustus undergoes is Faustus' struggle with Lucifer and by inference the good and the bad angel. In Christianity, Lucifer is the chief enemy of man. No matter how nicely packaged, Christianity does not see any good in anything Lucifer has to offer. It is also a Christian belief that there is a contention between the spirit of God and the spirit of Lucifer in the inner recesses of man's mind. This constant struggle represents that between the id and the superego.

In the text, when Faustus turned to magic in his quest for knowledge, the good angel tries to dissuade him while the bad angel encourages him:

G. ANG: O Faustus lay that down book aside and gaze not upon it lest it tempt the soul and heap God's heavy wrath upon they head. Read, read the scriptures: that is Blasphemy.

E.Ang: Go forward Faustus in that infamous art, wherein all natures treasure is contain'd: be thou on earth

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as Jove is in the sky, Lord and commander of these elements (Faustus Sc 1, Pg5)

The critical issue here is not the subtle coercion of the angels, but Faustus response to their entreaties. In his reply Faustus is already set in his desires. The intervention of the angels did not significantly affect this obsession of seeking knowledge outside the realms of human comprehension:

Faustus: How am I glutted with concert of this! Shall I make spirits fetch me what I please, calve me of all ambiguities. Perform shat desperate enterprise I will? I'll have them fly to India for gold, ransack the ocean for orient pearl, and search all corners of the newfound world for: pleasant fruits and princely delicates... (Faustus Scl, Pg6)

The ego and conceit of Faustus is very evident here. Faustus inner self comes to play as a discontent ambitious and self-conceited personality is presented to the reader. This personality trait is also evident in the interpretation of the bible by Faustus. Clearly Faustus reads the bible out of context to suit his purpose. Faustus is obviously a learned man in divinity but he overlooks the obvious meanings of bible passages. For instance a look at Faustus's interpretation of Romans 6:23 will suffice to examine his philosophical standpoint on the biblical passage.

Faustus: the reward of sin is death that’s hard. If we say we have no sin we deceive ourselves, and there is no truth in us. Why then, belike we

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must sin and so, consequently die: ay, we must die an everlasting death (Faustus SC l,Pg4)

Faustus conveniently ignores the second part of the passage; he reads "the wages of sin is death" but does not finish with" but the gift of God is eternal life". The biblical quotation Faustus mentions refers to the concepts of sin and death. The entire drama deals with problems of sin, death and immortality. One of the things Faustus a trying to escape is the limitations of death. Though he alleges that he does not believe in death, he spends most of his time trying got escape from it. One of the ways he devised to escape death is by resorting not necromancy. Whathe does not realize is that by resorting to necromancy, he will die a spiritual death also.

Throughout the text, allegorical and religious imagery and language are employed by Marlowe to externalize the internal conflicts that Faustus is undergoing. The two angels for example symbolize the two forces struggling for the soul of Faustus. They appear at critical moments in the play when Faustus is trying to examine and rationalize his decisions. After the two angels departed from Faustus, we had a vision of what he intended to do with his new magical powers. However, Faustus never does anything significant only trivial acts like petty tricks and conjuring instead of more powerful and noble deeds (Faustus Sc.X, pg41). Basically, Faustus is very confident that the new magical powers will bring about his salvation; he never realized that they will bring about his damnation. He even refers to the books of necromancy as heavenly (scene X, pg.ll) whereas in reality they are satanic. He asks Valdes and Cornelius to make him 'blest' with this knowledge not realizing that instead of blessing him, it spelt his doom.

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Dr. Faustus's deal with Lucifer through his servant Mephistopheles is characterized by Faustus refection of god and Christian ideals. Despite numerous opportunities to turn back and seek redemption, Dr Faustus is totally consumed by his desire to know and learn beyond the boundaries of human knowledge. Each decision taken by Faustus in the fulfillment of the evil pact pushes Dr. Faustus further away from the possibility of redemption. By examining the exact native of their agreement, however, it is evident that the pact can never be beneficial toFaustus. Remember that at the outset of the play Mephistopheles attempts to dissuade Faustus from the cause he dared to embark on, but Faustus died not heed this warning. On realization at a point that he had gone the wrong way he tried to repent:

Faustus : when I behold the heaves then I repent, and curse thee wicked Mephistopheles, became thou hast deprived me of those joys.

Meph : why Faustus, thinkest thou heaven is such a glorious thing? I tell thee it is not half so fair as thou or any man that breaths on earth.

Faustu s: how proves thou that?

Meph: Twas made for man therefore is man more excellent

Faustus : if it was made for man, it was made for me; I will renounce this magic and repent (Faustus Sc III pg. 25)

From the above, Mephistopheles had changed tack and is now dissuading Faustus from returning to God through repentance and renunciation of sins. It also validates Marlowe spiritual and philosophical standpoint. It is

210 an affirmation that it is difficult to escape from the clutches of evil back to the grace of god.

Also, immediately this discussion peters out, the angels return to continue in the struggle to wrestle for Faustus' soul. The good angels urges him to repent while the bad angels prods him in the opposite direction (Faustus SC VI pp.25-26) when Faustus desired to know who created the world the servant of Lucifer refused to answer (ScVI,p.27). Lucifer and his cohorts are in awe of the efficacious and redeeming power of God whom they rebelled against, but Faustus personality and ego have prevented him from seeing this obvious fact.

In support of this fact, Lucifer, Beelzebub and Mephistopheles appear to Faustus when in anguish he proclaimed:

Faustus : Ah Christ, my savior seek to save distressed Faustus' soul

Lucifer responded to this cry in the manner:

Luc: Christ cannot save your soul. There is none but I have interest in the same

Faustus : O, who art thou that look'st so terrible?

Luc: I am Lucifer, and this is my comparison-prince in hell

Faustus: O Faustus! They are come to fetch away thy soul

Luc: we come to tell thee thou dost injure us; thou talk'st of Christ contrary to thy promise; thou should'st not

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think of god; think of the devil, and of has dam, too (Faustus Sc.vi, Pg 27-28)

Clearly, Lucifer and his companions are in awe of Christ, to the extent that the mention of Jesus causes disorder in their ranks. These incidents were pointers to the fact that Marlowe's views in many instances are consistent with biblical theology: The bible, explicitly states that:

At the name of Jesus every knee will bow all things in heaven, all things on earth, all things under the earth and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the father (Philippians 2: 10-11)

However, in Faustus' neurotic state, he is unconscious of Lucifer's deference to Christ, and pursues his dreams relentlessly. Another level of the spiritual dimensions of the play, which can be psychoanalytically explicated, is the introduction of the seven deadly sins. Theyrepresent another occurrence of the constant struggle between the id and the superego. The id possesses most of the sins: pride, covetousness, envy, wrath, glutting and lechery. All six of these seven deadly sins show characteristics that are strong and powerful. For example pride explains what he can do to a woman:

I can creep into every corner of a wench sometimes, like periwig. I sit upon her brow; next, like a necklace, I hang about her neck, ten like a fan of feathers, I kiss her (Faustus VI, pg28) Obviously, pride feels powerful enough to take any woman he wants and perform with her any way he wants. Another great representation of the id is lechery to list whose power is not in her words but in her presences to

212 the extent that even Lucifer has to send her away quickly(Faustus. Sc.vi, Pg 29).

On the other pedestal is sloth, which does not have a strong personality but sits and sleeps and does nothing. He is so lazy that even Lucifer is upset with him (Faustus Sc. VIpg.28). This laziness depicts the superego. While all the other sins are aggressive, it is an idle sin that affect the souls of man into doing nothing in the face of challenges and temptations.

The deadly sins, being residents of hell bring to the fore the chaotic state of hell, which is akin to the state of neurosis that has affected the mind of Faustus. Hell lacks ego, which is the balance between the id and the superego. Each sin fights the other to win another soul from heaven leading to disorder and the chaotic state of hell.

Conclusion Though Dr. Faustus is regarded as a tragedy by many critics, it appears on the strength of this analysis, to be flawed in some way. In Aristotle's, famous treatise the Poetics, a tragedy must have a beginning, middle and end. However, Dr Faustus does not seem to have a true middle in which the protagonist grows, changes or learns something.

The cause of this can be adduced to the psychological turmoil and dilemmas Faustus faces. This affects the formation of the character. Faustus is set in his ways and the internal conflicts do not change his perceptions significantly. Instead he exemplified the biblical great controversy between Christ and Lucifer. Faustus is affected by his

213 associations, his believes, the seven deadly sins, Mephistopheles, Beelzebub and Lucifer.

If Marlowe wanted to shock his reader, he succeeded with Dr. Faustus. In Marlowe's time, the representations of Faustus spell-making and dealings with the devil would have seemed shocking, dangerous and even blasphemous.In today's world, it is still difficult to ask questions about the limits of human knowledge, our relationship to the universe and to the Christian belief systems. Marlowe wanted to entertain his reader, but he also wanted them to think about what they have read.

To some critics Marlowe re-incarnated his atheistic worldview in Faustus. Faustus is a divided soul torn between several binaries such as a divided soul, competing curiosity, needs and interests. Some of these binaries include the goodversus the bad angel, God and the devil, magic versus science. These critics are perhaps looking at Marlowe's rejection of his writing career for a secular life, where he lived recklessly and dies quickly. While not totally agreeing with these views, Faustus remains the closest opportunity to know Marlowe, atheist or not.

Ultimately, the play has proved to be rich in psychoanalytic structures through which the literary experienced have been perused. The struggle between the id and the superego, reaction to authority, imageries and symbols of rejection, oedipal complexes and inner warfare, are very evident in the text. Marlowe has exhibited vivid philosophical and psychological imagination, structural cohesion, strong emotions language and character formation in Dr Faustus to exhibit his perspectives on spirituality.

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REFERENCES

Abram, M (1971). A Glossary of Literary Terms. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston

Adam, E. (2011) "A psychoanalytic approach to the study of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness" in From Theory to Practice, M.E. Sotunsa (ed)

Cole, D (1995). Dr Faustus: Tragedy in the Allegorical Tradition, Christopher Marlowe and their Renaissance of Tragedy. USA: Praeger publishers. Pp 122-147.

Dobie, A (2009) Theory into Practice: An Introduction to Literary Criticism. Boston:Cengage Learning Wadsworth.

Dostoyevsky, F. (1991) The Brothers Karamazov. London: Wadsworth Edition Limited. Esslin, M. (1977) Anatomy of Drama. USA: Hill and Wang.

Falke, C (2010). Intersections in Christianity and Critical Theory. London: Pangrams Macmillan

Femor, E (1966) Christopher Marlowe's Dr. Faustus: Text and Major Criticism ed. Irving Ribner. New York: Odyssey Press.

Freud, S (1966) Lecture xxv: Anxiety: Introductory lecturers on psychoanalysis Terms. James Strachey. New York: Norton

Kurzwell, R and W. Philips (1983) Literature and Psychoanalysis. New York: Columbia University Press.

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Love, P.O. & Talbot, D(l 999). Defining Spiritual Development: A Missing Consideration for Student Affairs. NASPA journal, 37(1) 361-375.

Marlowe, C (1994) Dr Faustus. New York: Dover publications Inc.

Miller, J (1963) The disappearance of God: Five Nineteenth Century Writers. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Northrop, F (1957) Anatomy of Criticism. New Jersey: Princeton University Press

Panichas, G. (2005) Dostoyevsky's Spiritual Art. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers

Parks, S (2000) Big questions, Worthy Dreams: Mentoring Young Adults in the Search for Meaning Purpose and Faith. San Francisco. Jossey-Bass. Williams, R (2008) Dostoyevsky: Language Faith and Fiction, London: Baylor University Press.

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MODALITY AND ATTITUDE IN OSUNDARE’S TWO PLAYS : A STYLISTIC STUDY

IDOWU, Olubunmi

Abstract

Stylistic studies have been done mostly to deal with the complexity of striking linguistic choices used in literary texts to define their various genres, dialects or registers. However, not many of such studies have examined the nature of modality and attitude to define the author in terms of his language and style. Therefore, this study investigates the linguistic concept of modality in Niyi Osundare’s The Man walked Away and The wedding Car. They both exhibit the coexistence of the uncaring and oppressive rich with the hopelessly oppressed poor .This investigation explicates striking unique aspects of his literary style and reveal some sociological features of the dramatic text such as the recognizable contexts, participants, subject matters and the language functions. This approach projects Osundare as a social critic who exhibits apt, explicit and relevant use of language in addressing the social ills of the Nigerian society and defines him as his style. A stylistic analysis of random but purposively selected claims from the drama texts through the linguistic concept of modality will reveal the attitudes of the author and the Nigerian citizenry to prevalent socioeconomic and cultural issues of corruption, materialism, social injustice and oppression bad governance and unemployment in Nigeria. This study also provides the opportunities to match language structures through the parameters of modality with their social functions. Thus, the modality of obligation, usuality, probability and willingness reflect the opinion and attitude of the author and the society that he satirizes. Keywords: Modality, Obligation, Willingness, Probability, Usuality

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Introduction

Stylistics is the systematic interpretation of texts with respect to their language forms, tone and effects. It is a branch of applied linguistics which is highly descriptive. It explores the distinctive linguistic style ranging from the nature of appearance or lettering (graphology), patterns of speech sounds and combinations (phonology), choice of words and preferred sentence structures (morphology and syntax) that a text employs ( Jeffries and Mcintyre 2010). Thus, it does not function independently, but historically bridges the gap between linguistics and literary criticism. By implication, stylistics explicates the functionality of language within different forms of linguistic texts which may be literary or non-literary such as poetry, drama, prose, cartoons, advertisements or news (Simpson 1997; Brumfit 1980).

As a practical and descriptive discipline, one of the major goals of stylistics is to establish the basic principles that are capable of explaining the linguistic choices that are employed by individuals or social groups in order to determine their different literary genres, registers, idiolect, or dialect. In addition, stylistics justifies the use of certain linguistic forms with respect to their accompanying effects within the variety of effects. Consequently, stylistics is a systematic discipline that explains the workings of language use in different genres or varieties of texts and at different levels of language use to reveal the style of the text (Chloupek and Nekvapil 2016).

Generally speaking, language is an important tool for expressions in all human interactions. These expressions are referred to as “claims or commitments” (Toolan 2010). In some linguistic interactions, these claims and commitments are in form of absolute statements such as,

218 a) Nigeria is in Africa. b) Nigeria is not in Africa c) My teacher is happy d) My teacher is not happy; While in many others , the absolute sentences (positive or negative) can be modified to express the different opinions and attitudes of the language user through the different forms of modality. For instance the claims above can be modalized as follows: e) Nigeria is certainly in Africa. b) Nigeria should not be in Africa c) My teacher would be happy d) My teacher is not usually happy.

These syntactic structures are not absolute either positively or negatively but are modalized or qualified to some in- between structures based on the implications of the underlined modal forms that express certainty, obligation, willingness and usuality. Thus, modality is a tool that describes how syntactic structures (claims and commitments) make use of modal verbs to express language users’ opinions and attitudes within a communicative event.

Modality is a multifaceted term that can be interpreted in a number of ways within different academic disciplines and socio-cultural environments to mean different concepts. Linguistically, it refers to the various opportunities or ways that are available to a language user within an instance of language use to express a point of view reflect an opinion or

219 attitude (Lyons 1978:452). In other words, modality is the linguistic way of complementing or modifying an opinion or claim (proposition). Using the SFG approach for qualifying or modifying these claims and commitments, there are four parameters that can be used to categorize a statement as either an obligation, a probability , an expression of willingness or usuality It is interesting to note that almost all the utterances we make can be categorized to as any of the different kinds of modalities. For example, a) I should be in Lagos tomorrow b) I want to see my parents c) They may be returning home from Ghana by noon. d) They always leave for the village immediately they arrive in Lagos. The Claims and Commitments in (a-d) above employ the underlined modal verbs to qualify as statements of obligation , willingness , probability and usuality respectively. This categorization depends on the strength or weakness of the modal verbs in the utterances to reflect an attitude within that utterance, or express an opinion about a proposition. For instance in a), ‘should’ expresses the modality of obligation; ‘want to’ in b) reflects willingness on the part of the speaker to see his or her parents; ‘may’ in c) shows probability; and ‘always’ in d) typically reflects a habit or usuality. Unlike the absolute syntactic structures, the underlined modal verbs in a-d above are useful in determining the strength or weakness of the statements. Closely related to the use of modal verbs as discussed earlier to modify or qualify claims and commitments, are the evaluative devices such as the evaluative verbs; evaluative adverbs and adjectives and generic sentences.

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Methodology

For the purpose of this study, Osundare’s Two Plays which comprises two drama texts titled Th e Man Walked Away and The Wedding Car are investigated for their stylistic values of modality and attitude. These texts have been chosen for this study because of all the literary genres, a dramatic piece is more realistic and readily associated with than prose or poetry. This is apparent in the major theme of economic hardship which involves some other minor themes such as suffering in the midst of plenty, poverty, favoritism , social vices such as corruption , unequal distribution of resources, oppression, materialism, social injustice, bad governance, selfishness and self aggrandizement. This socioeconomic situation is typical of the Nigerian society in the 21 st century particularly, and generally of the African continent.

The investigation of these themes reveals not only the prevalence of the social ills, but also shows the attitudes of Nigerians including the author’s, in order to determine possible ways of eradicating them. In order to accomplish this task, the study investigates random but purposively selected utterances of the characters, to discover how the stylistic tool of modality has been employed in the various claims and commitments of Characters in the plays to project their themes. Thus, the stylistic investigation based on the SFG model, establishes the importance of matching linguistic forms with their functions in the specific instances of language use. For the purpose of achieving a comprehensive analysis, the use of evaluative verbs, adverbs and adjectives, as well as generic statements in the two drama texts are also examined as they complement the modalization of the various claims and commitment.

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A Synopsis of Two Plays

Two plays is a collection of two dramatic texts namely; The Man Walked Away and The Wedding Car. The two plays are written by Niyi Osundare , a nationally and internationally acclaimed Nigerian poet and playwright. They constitute part of the several plays written by the United States- based Professor of English that project his passion for writing and speaking on the culture, politics and economy of Nigeria and of the entire world, by extension. The man walked away is a dramatic piece that focuses on a poor family of five who find it extremely difficult to meet their basic needs due to the unemployment of the parents and the inequality in the distribution of the national resources in their society. The parents, Deyi and Abeke are not gainfully employed, and so cannot pay their house rents as at when due, or furnish their house decently, provide good meals or sound education for his children, Toyin and Sola even when they are exceptionally brilliant and win educational scholarships. In the face of their incapability to meet the multitude of needs, Deyi lost his job with no hope of reemployment or getting a new job, and he commits suicide.

Paradoxically in the same Nigerian setting , The Wedding Car is another play that showcases the unpatriotic corrupt public servants and their pompous, insensitive and wasteful nature inspite of the suffering of the teeming masses. Using chief Ninalowo-Chamberlain who is a politician and businessman as the protagonist, the author presents how morally degenerated and selfish Nigerians have become. He unlawfully imported a brand new Mercedes car to drive his daughter on her wedding day which was celebrated by several other forms of extravagance and excessive spending. Ultimately, in the midst of the wedding celebration, he was arrested for importing the car without due clearance from the Nigerian

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Customs Authorities. The next section which is on the stylistic analysis of the dramatic texts explores the workings of each of the parameters for modalization of the purposively selected utterances and stage directions in the texts. The various ways in which they project the various themes and their consequent effects on the interpretation of the texts will also be examined.

Modality and Attitudes In Two Plays

The investigation of the linguistic concept of modality in T wo plays involves the explication of the obligatory, certain, probable or willing attitudes and opinions the playwright and characters of the plays on the prevailing social ills that constitute the focus of the two drama texts. For the analysis, the various parameters in The Man Walked Away and The Wedding Car are examined consecutively in the stage directions and the randomly, but purposively selected utterances of principal characters. Thus, this study redefines linguistic claims and commitment to include stage directions. The plays exhibit the paradox of irredeemable poverty and suffering in the midst of extravagant wastefulness to reflect the socioeconomic and political situation of Nigeria, and Africa as a whole.

Stage directions

This is a unique feature of the dramatic genre that is used to make additional comments apart from the utterances of the characters. Except occasionally, the directions are usually in italics. Stage directions set the stage or initiate the discussions of the characters. They provide extra information on the complementary actions that propel the plot of the play before, during and after characters’ utterances. As a dramatic text, the list of the cast before each of the plays forms part of the stage directions.

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In Osundare’s presentation of the characters in The man Walked Away, the description of the characters through evaluative devices is significant. DEYI, the protagonist was described as a middle aged, medium sized man who works as a machine operator at Pantibury Overseas Limited; ABEKE, his wife, as a strikingly beautiful woman in her early thirties. The use of the evaluative adjectives which are compound and detailed in nature do not only make for accuracy , but also sharply contrast with the descriptions of the RICH MAN as a short and corpulent man, the LANDLORD as a short shylock- like figure and ‘IYA AGBA’ as a tall and overbearing woman in her fifties.

This contrast lends itself to an understanding of how differently the author feels and the impressions he tends to create in the minds of the readers. While the descriptions of Deyi and Abeke are amiable, complementary and productive, those of the Rich man, ‘Iya Agba’ and the landlord are repelling, oppressive, uncaring and undesired. In addition, the presentation of the two children and their estimated ages reflects an acceptable spacing that complements the moderation and temperance of the typical Deyi and Abeke of the Nigerian society. The spacing serves as the basis for why their socioeconomic condition is sympathetic especially, with the impossibility of Toyin to proceed to college education, and much more, in the face of the materialism of ‘iya agba’, the insensitivity of the Deyi’s manager and the landlord as well as the excessive wastefulness of the rich man. Stylistically, the choices of these detailed and compound adjectives are highly evaluative and enhance the modality of the text to reflect the author`s opinion on the political, cultural and economic circumstances of the context of the plays.

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Similarly significant is the description of the home of Deyi and Abeke who constitute the focus of this play. Osundare gives so much detail about every item as follows, a) …The right entrance covered with faded, over used curtain b) …a rickety couch so worn out that the inside foam leans out

in several places.

c) …an old bicycle with the front wheel and tyre removed and

the rear tyre in an advanced stage of puncture.

d) …an ancient manual sewing machine .The machine

rattles on …complain so noisily, like an old man with a toothless gum. The detailed but disgusting and highly unimaginable descriptions are so presented to exhibit how undesirable, disgusting, sympathetic and hopeless Deyi’s situation is. Equally significant is the author’s use of the evaluative adjectives and verbs precisely to show how disgusting and deteriorated the condition of the poor in the Nigerian society is. He aptly and effectively employs the evaluative devices to the extent that he personifies the machine as rattling and complaining noisily; the foams as peeping, and the bicycle as leaning, out of fatigue as heightened by the state of the tyres and wheels. Thus stylistically, the use of the evaluative verbs and adverbs does not only reflect the author`s attitude and opinion about the items described, but helps to modify or qualify readers` opinion, and solicit readers’ compassion for the helpless poor and desire for a positive change. Consequently, the syntactic structures are highly functional.

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Also worthy of mention is that in spite of the degenerated condition of the sewing machine, Abeke addresses it to perform its obligatory function when he uses the negative obligatory claims as follows;

`You even don`t need to complain noisily

... But chew or swallow, you will sew this small piece for me`.

Abeke continues her monologue to express her wishes against her present condition.

Using the modality of certainty as strengthened by the underlined obligatory ‘will’ above, she adds ,

I know you do more skipping than sewing but

you will surely sew this for me. Yes you will.

The modality of certainty and obligation as employed in these claims by the underlined verbs and modal verbs reflects the resilience of Nigerians to survive against all odds. Similarly, even an adolescent of twelve ,Toyin was not discouraged by the poverty of her family but expresses her strong desire and willingness to attend college especially, when the school must have fulfilled her obligation of giving her a scholarship as the brightest pupil thus,

...the school will pay half of my fees and my parents

the other half .

226 and when asked about her response she says ,

‘I said that I like the bursary ….my dad will be

able to pay the other half …so Toyin will be in a college…I

will go ..and become a doctor or a lawyer or an engineer Also important is the preponderant use of the modality of usuality in TheMan Walked Away , especially to express the metaphors of the Yoruba proverbs and popular sayings as follows

Hunger and the stomach are not friends____(19

More instances of usuality are expressed in Deyi’s rhetorical questions to his wife;

Do you call him a man who packs his family in this

hovel competing hard with rats and cockroaches? Do you

call him a man who for weeks has not produced a

simple house-keeping kobo for his family? Do you call

him a man whose daughter tops the class but

cannot send her to college? Do you call him a man that

one who plies the labour offices everyday and the only

offer he gets is a ‘come tomorrow’ order? Do you call

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him a man who cannot provide a single bar of soap for his family?

When Sola was hungry, he approached Abeke unsurely and as usual, she answers,

‘Alright, go and play. When I finish my talk with mama

Agba I will cook and then you can eat. (18)

Similarly, to reflect Deyi’s irredeemable state of poverty, he moans thus;

That manhood is gone; it evaporated the day I lost my job.

My manhood was crushed under the might of the personnel manager’s pen.

The few occurrences of probability are instances of characters’ hope for a better future. For instances, Abeke replies her mother‘s condemnation of Deyi as,

‘Deyi may not have big cars and costly apparels, he has us’

‘I do not know what these children could become tomorrow’

With the modality of willingness, ‘Iya Agba’ expresses her desire,

I would have preferred to have a different son-in-law … Many men, including Alhaji Robo, would have made

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you an Alhaja, who rolls in money, selling; lace, damask and jacquard at Gbagi. Jeremiah…who owns six houses along Jakute Road?

The evaluative verbs, ‘roll’ and ‘owns’ sharply contrast with the state of lack and hopelessness of Abeke’s family.

In The wedding car , Osundare utilizes the modal expressions of obligation to express the social expectations of the oppressed poor as represented by Jemina and Lazarus on one hand, and those of the the exploiting rich who are insensitive to the plights of the poor on the other hand. For instance, Chief Chamberlain announces the arrival of the brand new white Mercedes Benz that he plans will drive his daughter on her wedding day, and he says;

‘There it is. I have always nursed the hope that my daughter will answer the wedding bell in the most expensive car in the country. You can see the colour is white. I like white. It is the colour of angels.’ For him,

‘As a businessman and politician, I know nobody holds expensive parties for nothing. Yes, nobody, because our people say, for every finger you point, there are three others in your direction. When a businessman floats a party, he invites other businessmen with extensive connections. So parties and other ceremonies provide a forum for contact; and contract. For us businessmen, parties are a sacrifice, and an investment; we count our profits, when the empty bottles are back in cartons. Now, before you get me wrong, let me add that there are other reasons for making my daughter’s wedding so elaborate…I am sure you know I have won a fifty

229 million naira contract…This party is partly a celebration of that.

Also, in the wedding car, he creates characters like Lazarus and Jemina whose situations have no ray of hope. As expressed by the modality of usuality by the likes of Jemina and Lazarus, the Nigerian poor man can only dream to be relieved of his psychological trauma. In fact, they see themselves as slaves, who work continuously without relaxation .They are the last to sleep ,the first to wake up , the ones to cook for business breakfast , contract luncheons , christening feasts , house warming parties, funeral feasts and if none of these is holding, they are on a loan to cook for other friends, yet can only eat the left over. Unfortunately for all the suffering, they are only paid two thousand naira a month, which buys only two bottles of whisky for the rich man, but is barely enough to cater for the needs of their relatives. Even when they complain, they are threatened of outright loss of the job.

Furthermore, apart from these moments of complaint, they employ the modality of usuality thus:

The price of everything has gone up. Garri is untouchable ,

only rich people and senators now eat rice .Yet whenever

you ask for more pay, what you get is threat, threat,

threat.(posing). ‘More pay ? What work do you do that you now

want a thousand naira a month ? If you are not careful I will just

send you away .You know there are thousands out there wishing

to work for half your salary.’

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Thus, the existing overwhelmingly unbearable socioeconomic situation of the country is made apparent through the underlined evaluative verbal, adverbial elements.

Furthermore, using the modal verb, ‘will’, the author employs the utterances of Lazarus to express hope and better future as he ponders;

When I grow up and I have my own children ,

I will do everything to educate them in- college,

in university ,even if I will have to sell my clothes

to do it .No ,my children will not carry the urine

and shit of other people and be kicked in the arse

like a donkey .When they shout ‘houseboy!’ ,my

son will not answer ‘Yes Sir.’

This is to complement his earlier hopeful anticipation:

Next time I come to this world, I will not do any

silly servant work .No, I have done all my slave

work in this life . I too want to be master (posing)

with a well –nourished big belly sitting on my belt,

a beautiful house (surveys the room) in a quiet corner

of the town , complete with a gate and a gateman,

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a large board saying :’BEWARE OF THE DOG ‘ ,and a

dozen servants taking messages to uncountable concubines .

Listen to me, God, I too want to know what it is like at the

owner‘s corner of a Mercedes Benz’

The author also expresses his opinion and expected ideals about the prevailing socioeconomic situation through the utterances of ‘Alagba Ogunpade’ and Madam Ngozi Ogunpade. Here are a few instances;

Alagba Ogunpade: But I understand champagne is banned.

Madam Ogunpade: Why are weddings so expensive these

days? Many families have gone into crippling

debt to finance weddings. The whole drama lasts

less than two hours but the young couple may

spend the first ten years of their life together trying

to clear the debt. It’s sheer madness, and I think

something ought to be done about it .Our people

should be taught the difference between wedding

and marriage.

Alagba Ogunpade: Life is already poorer because of them. People

embezzle public funds to finance weddings. Not

long ago , a young man commited armed robbery

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to raise money for his wedding. In addition, the author’s use of the underlined evaluative verbs and adverbs in the following exhibit how the conscience of the low-class in the society have been smeared with corruption and bought over for the excuse of ‘breaking the poverty cycle’. Thus, Deremi says,

You have spoken well, Lasun. But there are crucial problems in adulthood which frustrate the dreams of adolescence . you know I would have married Toyin. I loved her … But … Like me, Toyin is the daughter of very poor parents with a train of brothers and sister to support and educate . Add her six brothers and sisters to my own eight … Remember we would have our own kids. So I thought, to break the poverty cycle, it will be better to marry somebody with greater means , and whom I also love . Fortunately, a few are still firm on the ideal principles of not mortgaging their conscience like Lasun & Tunji who make these claims

Lasun: Only goodness knows whether that will break

what you call the poverty cycle. But one thing is

certain: there is no way you can share in that

wealth without losing your ideals in fact, from the

way you look and talk you are already a tainted man ...

Tunji: I think your fears are genuine, Lasun. We bend our

results once in a while , but I think some kinds of

compromise are a recipe for death and betrayal.

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A sure way to self-destruction. Linguistically speaking, the underlined evaluative items are satirical of Deremi’s betrayal of the high ideals that they all held while in College. These claims show that it is good to be untainted by the prevailing corrupt practices in our society and uphold one’s integrity in the face of the over whelming challenges of life . Fortunately, the play ends with the arrest of Chief Chamberlain to give some hope for the possibility of eradicating corruption.

Conclusion

This study has adequately investigated an exotic wealth of linguistic resources of modality employed in Two Plays to show that the style of a man is the man. The passionate presentations of the undesirable, pitiable socio-economic situation of Deyi which is a reflection of the Nigerian society and the African at large to arouse sympathy and call for a change are reflections of Osundare interest in publiclly addressing such sociological issues with a view to strive for a more humane society. His love for the suffering masses most likely informs his choice of a hopeless character like Deyi in The Man Walked Away . Similarly, his choice of Chief Ninalowo as the protagonist of the wedding car, is a reflection of his disgust for oppression and his hope for a better and hopeful Nigeria, where fairness and justice will reign.

The creative ingenuity of the author is evident in his use of stage directions. The presentation and detailed description of the cast and other forms of stage directions, which are unique to the dramatic genre of literature, provide a useful data for investigating not only the attitude and opinion of the readers to the plays; but also an opportunity to study the

234 personae personality of the author which is germane to stylistic studies. Thus, an idiolect of Osundare is hereby created.

Also important is the fact that as a stylistic study, this work has been able to discover the unique linguistic forms and their social functions to define them as dramatic, determine the creative efficiency of the author to ascertain his style. By implication, these discoveries have contributed in one way or the other to the meaning and the stylistic relevance of the texts through the four parameters of modality. Similarly, the effects of the linguistic resources of modality on the understanding of the reader, his perception of the writer and his rationale for what and how he has written on a particular subject matter are explicit.

Finally, the stylistic consequences of the various parameters employed to satirize the social vices of a typical African country like Nigeria in Two plays by Niyi Osundare are evidences of the function of style to create his view point and define his personality. In addition, the explication of the unique linguistic resources in this text show that they are not mere language labels, but tools for contributing to the meaning of the text and for displaying the brilliance and ingenuity of the text to conform to its genre in terms of actual utterances of characters and stage directions. Thus, this study has further clarified the concept of stylistics as that which studies language structure and functions.

References

Primary Text Osundare, Niyi (2005) Two plays. Ibadan: University Press Plc.

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Secondary Texts Brunfit, Christopher J. (1980) Literature and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press Chapman Raymond. Chloupek, Jan and Nekvapil, Jiri (ed.) (2016) Studies in Functional Stylistics. John Benjamin Publishing Company. Fabb, N. (2002) Language and Literary Structure: The Linguistic Analysis of Form in Verse and Narrative. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). Introduction to Functional Grammar . 3rd Edition. London: Arnold. Jeffries, Lesley and McIntyre, Daniel (2010) Stylistics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Lyons, J. (1978). Semantics. Vols.I and II . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Montgomery, M. et. al. (2006). Ways of Reading . 3rd ed. London: Routledge. Simpson, P.(1997) Language Through Literature: An Introduction . London : Routledge. Toolan, Michael (2010). Language in Literature: An Introduction to Stylistics . London: Hodder Education.

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EXAMINING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE PUBLIC COMPLAINTS COMMISSION AND THE CODE OF CONDUCT TRIBUNAL IN THE DELIVERY OF JUSTICE IN NIGERIA

James, Louisa, LL.M & Ekundayo, Vera

Abstract

The Public Complaints Commission and the Code of Conduct Bureau and Tribunal together with the courts, constitute what we called the judiciary. This studies aims at examining these governmental agencies with a view to ascertaining the extent of their effectiveness as court compliments, but however, reveals that due to the adversarial nature of the public Complaints Commission, its decision is not capable of being enforced. The research has adopted the analytical methodology of study for the purpose of this work. The paper therefore recommends amongst others that the commission should be upgraded to have adjudicatory powers to rather than adversarial jurisdiction.

Introduction

The idea behind Administrative Adjudication is one that can be juxtaposed with that of delegated legislation. Delegated Legislation makes it possible for other bodies aside the legislative arm of government to make laws. Because of the complexity of modern day government, one would notice that the legislature often delegates some of its duties to the executive sometimes called subsidiary legislation; hence the court sometimes

237 delegates some of its duties to other bodies. This way, administrative adjudication relieves the court by making provision for administrative bodies to resolve conflicts or disputes. Just as delegated legislation is inevitable, so is the issue of administrative adjudication. Both the Public Complaints Commission (PCC) and the Code of Conduct Bureau (CCB) are ideologies that are accommodated as exceptions to the doctrine of separation of powers. The PCC and the CCB are both avenues through which Administrative Adjudication can be achieved. Administrative Adjudication is an inherent part of the machinery of justice, and as already stated, is a concept based on the check of powers between the three arms of government as provided for by the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria under sections 4, 5, and 6.

Although it is the preserve and traditional functions of the courts to adjudicate and dispense justice, tribunals also contribute in the dispensation of justice, and it is often believed that both courts and tribunals make up the judiciary. This is a clear pointer to the fact that the society has changed rapidly and also, the law which is not static, also changes to meet the dynamics of the society. The Public Complaints Commission is a statutorily created body which came about due to the need to address specific issues and to handle such matters which are of no serious relevance. On the other hand, the CCB looks into issues of non- compliance or breach of the Code of Conduct by public officers. The vision statement of the PCC is to protect the dignity of man by the enthronement of the rule of law. The establishment of the PCC and the CCBT shows that there is a legal development and reform in the judicial structure of Nigeria. These bodies have specific jurisdictions and deal with specific matters. While it may be rightly said that the Public Complaints Commission deals with petty issues, the Code of Conduct Bureau deal with issues that are grand by nature.

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The Code of Conduct Bureau and the Public Complaints Commission in no doubt play complimentary roles to court process. However, for a basic understanding, it is trite law that in every academic discourse, every major concept that is relevant to the topic be elucidated. It is therefore, the intendment of this paper to categorically distill the functions and duties of the Public Complaints Commission and the Code of Conduct Bureau, after which we sieve their differences and the contributions they have made to the Administration of Justice in Nigeria.

Definition of Terms:

Corruption: According to Aluko1 3, corruption is the “act of illegality diverting resources (particularly financial resources) meant for the good of the citizenry in a defined geographical area by a privileged individual or a group, for personal use, presumably for self aggradisement.

Odekunle 4 ,did a categorization of corruption based on five criteria namely: political, economic/commercial, administrative/professional, organized and working class.

Garner 5 further explains that corruption is an act of doing something with intent to give some advantage inconsistent with official duties and the rights of others. Osborn’s Law Dictionary sums up corrupt practices as:”

3 Aluko, J.; Corruption in the Local Government System in Nigeria; p. 2. Also cited in Adam, and James, L. Enhancing the Regime of Anti-Corruption Crusade in Nigeria through the Instrumentality of International Law; Babcock Socio-Legal Journal vol. 1, No. 3, October, 2013; SLSS(pubs.); Babcock University, Nigeria, p. 12. 4 Id. Note 1 5 Garner, Bryan A. ; Black’s Law Dictionary,Thompson West, Minnesota.

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Treating, undue influence, personation or the procuring thereof, bribery or making a false declaration as to election expenses in connection with parliamentary or other election”

Justice: Justice is a borderless concept. Like corruption, it cuts across faiths, religions denominations and political systems and its impact is felt by all and sundry. Justice is the fountain of society, and its administration the sole purpose of government 6.

A nebulous idea lacking in precision, justice is an abstract concept easier described than defined. The Black’s Law Dictionary describes justice as referring to the proper administration of laws: the constant and perpetual disposition of legal matters or disputes to render to every man his due 7

The elements of justice were further clarified by justice Oputa (of blessed memory ) as:

The quality of being righteous, honesty impartiality and fairness, sound reason, validity, rightfulness, the use of authority and power to uphold .What is right just and lawful. The administration of law in the process of adjudication, and the procedure of the courts reward of virtue and punishment of vice 8. Administration of Justice: Administration of justice deals with judicial institutions and how they operate. The term Administration of justice

4 Wokocha,A.R., Corruption and the Administration of Justice in Nigeria;Babcock Socio-Legal Journal, Vol. 1, No.3, October, 2013, SLSS (Pubs.); Babcock University, Nigeria, p.280 7 Black’s Law Dictionary, 8 th Edition,2004 West Group p.881. Also cited in Wokocha, R.A; Id. note 4. 8 Oputa, C.A. In the Eyes of the Law; Friends Publishers, 1992, p.28. Also cited in Wokocha, R.A. Id. Note 4.

240 relates to the machinery and process of disseminating justice in society. Administration of Justice therefore, pertains to the institutional implementation of justice; the equitable distribution of the benefits and burdens of society, through the day to day enactment and dissemination of right, duties and benefits, the judicious adjudication of conflicts and interest in society 9

The Public Complaint Commission: Ese Malemi 10 puts it thus:

The Public Complaints Commission is an independent and non-partisan body that receives complaints from the public and makes contact with the alleged wrong doer in order to resolve the matter amicably.

The Code of Conduct Bureau: The Code of Conduct Bureau was also established to monitor and ensure that the behavior and conduct of public officers are well deserving and meeting the deserved standards 11

The Public Complaints Commission

The Public Complaints Commission is an agency of government which is set up to look into the acts which are detrimental in nature, done to the citizens by the Public officers. This idea originated from, was developed and borrowed from the Scandinavian countries (countries within the

9 Wokocha,A.R; Id. At pp.281 & 282. 10 Malemi, E.; Administrative Law, 4 th ed.Lagos; Princeton Publishing Company, Ikeja, Lagos, 2013, p.312. 11 Agbebaku, A.C. &Ehiemua, O.R.; The Law, Anti-Corruption Initiatives and National Development: A Critique.Paper presented at the 49 th Nigerian Association of Law Teachers Conference (NALT) 2016 at Nasarawa State University Faculty of Law, Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria, on 22 nd to 27 th May, 2016.

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Nordic or Southern Peninsular Region, such as New Zealand, Finland, Denmark and Norway, but to mention a few) in 1809 and was adopted” Mutatis Mutandis” , that is with necessary changes being made. 12 In Nigeria it is called the Public Complaints Commission; in Soviet Union, it is called Procurator General, in Great Britain, it is called Parliamentary Commission of Administration and in Tanzania, it is called Permanent Commission of Inquiry. The idea behind the PCC was basically to-

(i)Ensure that there is good governance;

(ii)Citizens are not taken undue influence of;

The PCC like other slippery concepts gives room for so many assertions. Ese Malemi, puts it thus:

Justice, the British Arm of International Community of Jurists 14 pointed out that:

The Public Complaints Commission is set up to look into issues that will not necessarily raise public interest and which the court will not be reasonable to look into it. E.L.Oshunkunle, who was a Commissioner had this to say:

12 Malemi, E.;Id. Note 8. 13 Id. Note 10. 14 Justice the British Section of the International Community of Jurists in 1990. Also quoted in Malemi, E.; Id. At 316.

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The Public Complaints Commission was set up to serve as a court to the poor man who is unable to bear the expenses of a normal court process.

The Ombudsman which is also known as a public agency serves merely as advisory body and was established pursuant to the Public Complaints Commission Act CAP. P.37 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria (LFN) 2004.

The Structure of the Public Complaint Commission Act : Section 1(1) makes provision that there shall be a Chief Commissioner and other Commissioners as may be prescribed by an Act of the National Assembly.

Section 1(2) ensures the establishment of the PCC in all the states of the federation.

Powers of the Commission: Section 5(1a) - they shall have the power to investigate any Ministry, Department in the Federal or State levels;

(b)-They shall have the power to investigate any Ministry or Department at the local government area set up in any state in the Federation;

(c)They shall have the power to investigate any statutory body/corporation in the state;

(d) Any company set up pursuant to the Companies and Allied Matters Act (CAMA). Section 5 of the Act makes provision for the powers of the Commission. Such powers are however, not absolute; hence section 6(1) of the Act limits such powers.

Limitations to the Powers of the Ombudsman: Section 6(a)-The Commission shall not have the power to try any matter outside its terms of reference;

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(b)-Any matter pending before the National Assembly;

(c)-Any matter pending before a court of law;

(d)-Anything purported to have been done by members of the Armed Forces/Police Act;

(e)-Anything done before July 29, 1975;

(f)-Anything whereby the party has not exhausted the remedies available.

The Code of Conduct Bureau and Tribunal

The Code of Conduct Bureau and Tribunal like the Ombudsman, does not exist in isolation. The basis for its existence was in tandem with the Code of Conduct and Tribunal Act CAP. C.15 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria (LFN) 2004. The Code of Conduct Bureau and Tribunal Act is one of the Anti- Corruption regulations in Nigeria alongside others like the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) and the Independent and Corrupt practices Commission(ICPC) but to mention a few. This is in line with the Nigerian Anti-Corruption and Transparency fight . The Code of Conduct Bureau and Tribunal are given a constitutional significance and most of its provisions are founded or foundated on existing principles of law, most especially, provisions relating to breach of trust in the law of Equity.

The Code of Conduct Bureau and Tribunal Act, CAP. C15 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 2004 is a Code of Conduct for Public Officers. This body was established to look into the issue of non-compliance by the public officers mentioned in Paragraph 7 of the Code for public officers contained in the fifth schedule to the 1999 Constitution (as amended in 2011). The Code of Conduct Bureau was also established to monitor and

244 ensure that the behavior and conduct of public officers are well deserving and meeting the deserved standards 15 It is equally interesting to note that the Code of Conduct Bureau and Tribunal Act is the first major legislation stipulating offences and sanctions against public corruption and a breach of the ethics of public offices. Also to be noted as an overwhelming significance of the regime of the CCB is the fact that it is provided for in the Constitution. This implies that the Act providing for the CCB cannot be amended by an Act of the National Assembly without first amending the Constitution. In Paragraph 7, the public officers to which this section relates are mentioned to include the President, the Vice- President, Governors, Ministers and so many others. Section 172 of the 1999 Constitution requires that every person in the Public Service of the Federation and of the States shall observe and conform to the Code of Conduct.

The Code of Conduct which these public officers are required to observe and to conform to is contained in the Fifth Schedule to the Constitution. The Constitution, in various sections, elucidates on the Code of Conduct Bureau. Public officers are required to observe and to conform to its provision. The Code of Conduct, which specifies regulations for Public officers, is aimed at ensuring accountability and transparency in Public Service. For instance, it provides that an officer shall not put himself in a position where his personal interest conflicts with his duties and responsibilities in paragraph 1, Part 1 of the fifth schedule to the 1999 Constitution. Section 272 expressly states that: “Every Public officer shall abide by the Code of Conduct “. In this respect, it is imperative to have a shift in this discussion by x-raying the structure of the Act in order to see how it operates.

15 Agbebaku,A.C. & Ehiemua, O.R.; id at p. 6.

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Structure of the Code of Conduct and Tribunal Act

Section 1 (1) affirms the establishment of the Code of Conduct Bureau which shall consist of a chairman and other members appointed by the President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

Section 2- categorically provides for its Aims and Objectives which are tailored towards a creation of a standard of behavior and discipline for public officers.

In section 3, the functions of the Bureau were highlighted to include amongst others:

(i)Receive declaration of assets:

(ii)Take into custody the assets declaration;

(iii)Examine the assets declaration;

(iv)Receive complaints from the public.

It must be noted that section 3 is highly permissible. The over permissive nature of this provision relating to the mode or method of such declaration of assets by public officials that is ; on assumption of office, or after four years or at the expiration of their tenure leaves room for much to be desired. The result has always been that either such declarations are not taken at all or taken at the whims and caprices of such public officials and are sometimes never examined or even verified. In these instances, the cases of James Ibori and Gbenga Daniel (former Governors of Delta and Ogun States respectively are noteworthy). In both instances, the punishment of returning assets and prohibition for operating foreign account applied. This is a move in the right direction. Other corrupt government officials who have milked public funds have been compelled

246 to remit certain percentages of such stolen monies to the government through the process of plea bargain.

Section 5 regulates conflict of interest by emphatically stating that an officer should not stand in a position of conflict of interest and duties.

Section 23 clearly provides for the power of the Tribunal which is seen lucidly in Paragraph 18 (2) of Part 1 of the Fifth Schedule to the 1999 Constitution and this includes:

2(a)-Removal from office;

2(b)-Removal for a period of not less than ten (10) years;

2 c-Returns of the collected assets.

Notwithstanding the provision on conflict of interest, instances abound where there are flagrant disregard of this rule. For instance, during “ Obasanjo’s second term as President (2003-2007) the President, in gross violation of the Code of Conduct Act opened for himself a private university, Bells University in Ota, Ogun State of Nigeria. He further violated the same law when he did a public launching of the said University library and invited all states governors and local government chairmen, directors of public parastatals, contractors of the federal government of Nigeria, political leaders and the private business men and the general public all during his tenure as President of Nigeria” 16 .

16 Adam, E. & James, L.; Enhancing the Regime Anti-Corruption Crusade in Nigeria through the Instrumentality of International Law; Babcock Socio-Legal Journal vol. 1, No. 3, October, 2013; SLSS(pubs.); Babcock University, Nigeria, p. 36.

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The provision of section 23 of the Act is highly commendable. As a radical and progressive provision aimed at estopping or preventing public office holders who have benefitted from the “dividends of corruption” from aspiring for public office, it places a check on their reckless and nefarious attitude. To be applauded also, is the mode of appointments of members of the Commission, Bureau and Chairman of the Tribunal, which is usually done by the National Assembly and the President respectively. But in the case of members of the tribunal, the power to appoint and discipline lies in the Tribunal itself. The Tribunal is to be at the same level with the High Court and appeal shall lie as of right from such decisions or from any punishment imposed on a person to the court of Appeal. Whichever way one looks at it, the involvement of such high profile officials from the two arms of government in the process of appointment, is an indication that great importance is attached to these adjudicatory bodies .

The Contributions of the Public Complaints Commission and the Code of Conduct Bureau in the Administration of Justice in Nigeria The importance of the PCC and CCB in justice system delivery in Nigeria cannot be over-emphasized. Their existence has actually brought about reasonable changes in the administration of justice in the country. The establishment of such agencies by the government is a strong development in Nigeria’s legal system. Both the PCC and the CCB have generally lessened the burden of the court and have made meaningful contributions to the dispensation of justice in Nigeria. They have helped to put some members of the public on their toes, most especially, office holders who feel they are covered by the Immunity Clause provision of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 (as amended in

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2011) 17 . The Bureau and the tribunal have aided the court in a lot of ways to ensure that justice is served. The compelling of public officers, who are exempted from legal proceedings before its tribunal, being its greatest achievement. The Code of Conduct Bureau has contributed in no little way to the course of justice by insisting that their ‘immuned excellencies’ or government officials who cannot be called to order appear before it; an audacity that has tied the hands of the court for too long. The recent classical case of Bukola Saraki (Senate President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria) who was quizzed by the EFCC for false declaration of assets during his tenure as Governor of Kwara State brings to fore this giant stride achievement of the Bureau.

Derivatively, the functions of the PCC and the CCB, can be seen to be a relief to the administration of justice by courts of law. It has already been observed that section 6(6)(a) of the 1999 Constitution justifies the existence and functions of these specialized bodies as complements to court system. Both the PCC and the CCB have really engaged our society in various ways and in recent times. Take for instance, one of the justifications for setting up this august body- the PCC, is its provision for redress for citizens who on a normal day 18 cannot afford the expenses of a regular court. This is an integral part of justice administration in our society as justice is manifestly seen to be brought to the ‘door post’ of a common man. Indeed, justice delayed is justice denied; and justice rushed is justice crushed. Engaging the PCC as a ‘justice provider’ is a cheaper means of bringing a matter before an adjudicatory body by a common man. Through such bodies as the PCC and the CCB, heavy legal fees are not required before an action can be instituted or even commenced. The

17 section 308 of the stated Constitution. 18 See generally, Malemi, E. Id.

249 wisdom behind the establishment of the Commission is to avoid the cumbersome and complex proceedings in court. It also has gone far in ensuring that the complexity of court proceedings are avoided in relatively minor issues especially as its remedy system is Alternative Dispute Resolution. In this regard, the PCC is referred to as “A Grass root Arbiter’. It has been observed that some cases which are too vague for the hearing of a court have been settled by the PCC. This has helped the court to focus on more pressing issues bothering the society. It is quite evident to see that the establishment of these ad-hoc bodies has indeed complemented the efforts of our traditional courts. By providing another avenue for specific purposes, not only has the pressure been reduced on our regular courts, but also, more expertise and specialized knowledge have been provided. Additionally, the ability of such bodies to experiment and to handle matters in which there is no precedent to follow is not only a clear advantage, but also a complement to the efforts of our courts.

Taking into cognizance the delay often experienced by parties in an attempt to enforce their rights, these bodies with inferior or limited jurisdiction have helped in the speedy disposal of cases. Our court systems are notoriously known for prolonging cases through numerous , vexatious and frivolous adjournments. Such delays were manifested in the cases of Ariori v. Elemo 19 Ajani v. Gani ; but in particular, this principle was enunciated in the case of Awolowo v. Shagari 20 Where Shagari’s tenure had ended before the matter was finally determined. In some of these instances, key witnesses had died, some of the documents lost, investigation interrupted by several factors, the judges handling such matters are either transferred, upgraded to a higher court, retired or even

19 (1983) 1 All NLR,1. 20 Quoted in Oluyide,P.A.;Administrative Law, University Press PLC, Ibadan,2007.

250 dead, leading to a loss of confidence in the judiciary by members of the general public. This has eroded the long standing principle that the judiciary is indeed the last resort and the hope of the common man.

On the part of the CCB, its function is to ensure that those government officials maintain a high standard of moral and do not contravene the Code of Conduct ethics. In the performance of this duty, a great deal has been achieved to ensure that corruption is tackled to its barest minimum. The CCB serves as a platform for probing and questioning the actions and inactions of administrative agencies and public institutions, and even individuals who occupy public offices, most especially as it relates to corrupt practices.

Corruption is not new to man. It existed from time immemorial and has assumed a worrisome and an alarming dimension. The alarming nature of corruption in Nigeria is such that the British Prime Minister, David Cameron rebranded Nigeria and Afghanistan as “fantastically the two most corrupt countries in the world” 21 The embarrassment which this derogatory statement has caused Nigerians, but most especially its President, Mohammadu Buhari has far reaching implications on the territorial integrity of the nation as a whole. At this juncture it must be

21 British Prime Minister- David Cameron made this embarrassing statement publicly during the 90 th birthday of the Queen while briefing her on the forth coming Anti- Corruption Submit which was to be hosted in London as reported by several Newspapers including the Nation, Daily Trust Newspaper e.t.c.. On 11 th May,2016. Also cited in Alemika et al.; Analysis of Criminology Theories of Crime and Penological Concept of Punishment Paper presented at the 49 th Nigerian Association of Law Teachers Conference (NALT) 2016 at Ebonyi State University Faculty of Law, Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria, on 22 nd to 27 th May, 2016. p.2.

251 noted that anti-corruption crusade is at the spine of the Buhari administration. Here is his opinion on corruption:

Corruption is a hydra-headed monster and a cankerworm that undermines the fabric of all societies. It does not differentiate between developed and developing countries. It constitutes a serious threat to good governance, rule of law, peace and stability, as well as development programmes aimed at tackling poverty and economic backwardness. 22

Aside the fact that this is a warning signal, corruption is generally seen as a dangerous, negative and unhealthy behavior that affects every strata of human endeavour such as education, agriculture, health sector; the height of it leads to retrogression, insecurity and moral degradation in any given society. Corruption has often taken its toll on its victims in the affected areas by increasing massive poverty, under-development and terrorism, it has also accounted for long suffering and the rottenness and insecurity such as armed robbery, terrorism and kidnapping often experienced in our society. Central to the issue of corruption, is its ambivalent nature which makes its definition even more daunting. In this respect, the words of Brownberger are instructive: “the word corruption is not amenable to easy definition. It varies across cultures, time frame, geographical bounds, and criminal justice of individual state” 23 In other words, corruption means different things to different people depending on their perception, ideology, exposure and standing in life. The World Bank and Transparency International, a renowned International anti-corruption organization, defines corruption as “the abuse of public office for private

22 23 William, N. Brownsberger; “ Development and Government Corruption- Materialism and Political Fragmentation in Nigeria”, The Journal of African Studies 21.2 (1983) P.215-233.Also cited in Alemika, E.I et.al, id.at p. 4.

252 gains for the benefit of the holder of the office or some third party” 24 . By way of a working definition, therefore, corruption, could be defined as the engagement of a public officer in an unwholesome and an unethical behavior, conduct or even practice which tends to enrich or benefit such an individual or his privies at the expense of the generality of the society. In view of the afore-mentioned, it is evidently clear that, corruption is a multi-faceted as well as a multi-dimensional phenomenon. This therefore implies that corruption covers a vast range of activities ranging from mis- appropriation,to mis-application or even diversion of funds, criminal conspiracy, breach of trust, money laundering and financial crimes, examination and electoral malpractices, extortion, including abuse of office and the list goes on and on.

Today, Nigeria has reached a consensus on the need to rid ourselves of this cankerworm called corruption. In reality, no benefits accrue to those who engage in unethical practices which lead to corruption. The dearth of decay which corruption has brought to Nigeria is frightening as well as disturbing to both the beneficiaries and victims of corruption. The time has therefore come that the Legislature by an Act of Parliament may cause an enactment for attack on corruption. It is in answer to this cry that Anti- Corruption Regulatory frameworks such the EFCC, ICPC, THE Penal and the Criminal Codes as well as the Money Laundering Act were established. Not only that, corruption is such a familiar norm that it has assumed a global warfare, hence the first International Legal Instrument- the United Nations Convention against corruption (UNTAC), was established. This will further enhance the fight against corruption across National boundaries. In Nigeria, corruption existed in the various

24 Ogundiya,I.S., “Corruption in Nigeria: Theoritical Perspectives and Some Explainations, the Anthropologist, Vol.11,N o.4.p.281-292.

253 dispensations, ranging from colonial, military to civilian or democratic era, and it is often believed that, during the ‘dark days’ of the military- where there was an incursion in politics, corruption was more or less institutionalized. In this regard, the words of Asogwah are insightful: “….The military exhibited corruption more than the civilian political class which they claimed to have to correct.” 25 The establishment of the various anti-corruption programmes such as MAMSER, WAI as well as WAIC put in place during the military are moves in the right direction. But as commendable as such anti- corruption drives were, they were not potent enough to eradicate the “corruption tendencies” in the military. Corruption therefore, is a fall out of abuse of office.

Differences Between the PCC and the CCB.

Although the PCC and the CCB play complimentary role to the court in the administration of justice in Nigeria, the two of them are fundamentally and substantially different in some material means

(1)PCC is internationally recognized; while CCB is a Nigerian initiative,

(2)PCC was established under the PCC Act cap. P37 LFN, 2004; CCB was established under CAP. C15 LFN 2OO4.

(3)PCC is a mere advisory body; CCB has a tribunal that implements its decision.

25 Asogwah,F. and Obetta, E.V., “Pseudo Legal Cum Political Interference in the Prosecution of Economic and Financial Crimes and its Impact on Nigeria Economy Paper presented at the 49 th Nigerian Association of Law Teachers Conference (NALT) 2016 at Nasara State University Faculty of Law, Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria, on 22 nd to 27 th May, 2016.

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(4)While the National Assembly appoints members of the PCC, the President appoints for the CCB.

(5)The decision of CCB is not subject to Prerogative of Mercy; while that of PCC is subject to prerogative of mercy.

(6)The PCC is a court for the poor and common man to help against grievances done by public officials, the CCB serves as a means of trying the governors and president.

(7)In terms of membership, while the PCC is composed of the Chief Commissioner and other Commissioners, the CCB is composed of the Chairman and 10 (ten) others.

The granting of pardon or amnesty by the President of the federal Republic of Nigeria to condemned criminals is recognized by our Constitution. More often than not, the prerogative to pardon is often exercised negatively. Politicians have often used this means as a way of gratifying their friends whose atrocities have caught up with the long arm of the law; thus defeating the very purpose for which this discretion is created in the first instance. This negative exercise of discretion was evident in the case of Buhari ( a onetime senator of the Federal Republic of Nigeria) who was granted pardon for falsification of result. That the prerogative of mercy is not extended to corrupt officials who have been indicted by the Code of Conduct Bureau is not only comforting but encouraging. This is an indication that Nigeria as a country does not condone corruption and that no matter how exalted a person may be, he is not above the law. We must therefore be prepared to kill corruption-rather than letting it kill us as a nation.

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Conclusion

In conclusion, administration is complex and as such, the operation of control has to move along with these complexities. Both the Public Complaint Commission and the Code of Conduct Bureau as adjudicatory bodies are charged with functions and responsibilities. Although there are areas of similarities between them, but it cannot be disputed that they are distinct and work separately, mainly for the purpose of public interest and the betterment of the society. While one ensures that citizens are not treated without regard, the other ensures that any erring public officer is to be tried and must conform to the provisions of the statute that established his office. Both the PCC and the CCB have quasi-judicial powers and can entertain matters that are trite before the court; but it is the duty of the judiciary to endeavour that, inferior courts and tribunals strictly adhere to the long worshipped doctrine of natural justice. Hence the PCC and CCB working singly or collectively act as a bulwark against impropriety.

Reccommendations :

(1)In this movement of abhorrent corruption, there should be co-ordination between the CCB and other Anti-Corruption and institutional frameworks for tackling corruption. This way, pending High profile cases of corrupt officials such as that of Adamu Muazu, Joshua Dariye , Saminu Turaki, Ayodele Fayose, Chief Orji Uzo Kalu, Sambo Dasuki, Alex Badeh, Steve Oransaye, Allison Madueke, Ray D okpesi and Dr. Chimaroke Nnamani that are clearly outside the jurisdiction of the EFCC and the ICPC could actually be forwarded to the CCB for prosecution. Where such efforts are harnessed, combined and harmonized, the synergy will not only enhance such anti-corruption drive, but will better serve the society.

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(2) Crucial to the performance of these governmental agencies is the need for effective education. Public and media attention should place major emphasis as part of this focus. Not many Nigerians are aware that certain inalienable rights that are sacrosanct to them and which have been trampled upon by such public officials can actually be enforced not in an action in court, but by these specialized courts established to accommodate and investigate complaints from such members of the public and deal accordingly with the wrongdoers. Many Nigerians have resorted to die in silence and if they must be brought out of their shells, there must be effective education and frequent enlightenment campaigns on our streets, neighborhoods, market places, city towns and halls.

(3)As earlier noted, the powers vested on the PCC under section 5 are not absolute but limited. Moving forward, this paper therefore recommends that, the powers of the Commission be increased/upgraded to meet the peculiar needs of the common man. It should be given adjudicatory and not merely advisory powers. The PCC like the CCBT, should be allowed to impose sanctions.

(4)The appointment of members of the CCB is not free from political influence and manipulations. This factor has been partly responsible for weak delivery of justice in Nigeria. If this body must occupy its rightful place, there should be a check on their mode of appointment. This way, their independence and impartiality can be guaranteed.

(5)There should be adequate funding. Where they are starved of funds, they cannot perform maximally.

(6) For administrative convenience, the CCB should not only be a federal thing; more offices should be created in the six geo-political zones in the country.

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(6) In order to enhance their capacity to handle petty cases and fight corruption, the PCC and the CCB should be manually and technologically equipped.

(7) Corruption in Nigeria strives and escalates because our value systems have been perverted. Nigeria is tired of leadership without value. In order to effectively fight corruption and stamp it out of Nigeria, we must have the right attitude; corruption itself being an attitudinal problem and an opportunity crime. In other to get to the root cause, this fight against corruption must be combative and the approach internalized and inculcated into our school curriculum, starting with our lowest levels of education such as the primary schools to tertiary institutions such as colleges of Education, polytechniques and Universities. In this clarion call, all hands must be on deck; our schools, churches and other agents of socialization must take heed and be pro-active.

(8)The CCB must wake up from its moribund state and take up its responsilities with all sense of seriousness. Members of the Bureau must do away with every form of apathy relating to assets declaration by public officers. This non-challant attitude has contributed to some of the lapses experienced in our justice system delivery.

(9) Justice should not be pre-meditated and politically motivated. The long arm of the law must be applied rationally and not selectively. The rule of law itself is emphatic about equality before the law and there should be no “sacred cows”. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in section 42 rightly provided for the right from freedom against discrimination. In this respect, the obnoxious provision of section 308 that gives the executive the impunity to disregard and contravene the Code of Conduct ethics should be amended. The Senate President’s case, Bukola Saraki is a classical example.

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(10)Policy aims and objectives are not engaging. Policy summersault or failure is traceable to the non inclusion of stakeholders in the process of formulation and implementation of such policies. Moving forward therefore, this paper recommends that government should operate an all inclusive policy where inputs from the general public as well as from the various stakeholders are taken into consideration.

(11)The fight against corruption should be more concerted. There must be a strong political will by the government to increase state capacity; a situation whereby VIPs are made more accountable. For where there is a will, there is a way.

(12)Mediocrity and incompetence are major sources of corruption. Government must consciously and vigorously embark on personality shopping in order to discover and bring to limelight people of sound character and integrity. Nigeria must come to terms with the reality that it is only when we have the right set of people that expectation can match performance.

(13) Nigeria can borrow lessons from the experience of Austria. who in the bid to heal the wounds of corruption and its devastations upon its nation, established an International Anti-Corruption Academy in Vienna where special skills on crime detection and corruption related issues are realized and best potentials developed. This kind of initiative where encouraged, will not only bring about an avenue where knowledge is exchanged, but fosters career progression and development, but, will further bridge the gap between theory and practice.

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YORUBA ORAL NARRATIVES: CONTEXT, IMPLICATIONS AND PROSPECTS.

Rabiu, Iyanda.O & Adisa, Akinkorede S

Abstract

Every human community narrates stories. This accounts for human beings to be regarded as story telling beings. These cultural stories serve as a regurgitating store house from where individuals or members of a particular society learn about the events, culture or norms of his people that have lived. They also constitute the traditional code of conduct governing everyday living patterns of societal life. The oral narratives have enabled the Yoruba society to develop a complex social system characterized by collectivism and egalitarian norms. The Yoruba educate, entertain and preserve their cultural etiquettes with the aid of these various forms of oral performance. With the aid of diverse narratives, these people progress, maintain discipline and remain indivisible element living in unity to date. This paper tries to examine the various forms of the oral narratives, the usage etiquette, types, ways, conditions and the prospect of these forms in the era of accelerated globalization. To conclude this paper, problems militating against proper and effective usage of this genre of literature were highlighted and ways of surmounting this cultural embellishment were proffered. Key words ; Culture, Deity, Fables, Norms, Proverbs, Yoruba.

Introduction

Human beings are story telling animals. The need to create narrative texts –

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whether linguistic, theatrical, pictorial, filmic, or by means of any other sign system…is intrinsic to human existence . (Waugh 273). Before computers, before video games, before cable television, before television, before the internet, and all the technological inventions, the Yoruba like many other ethnic group, lived with ease and enjoyed themselves with various forms of narratives. These narratives serve as instrument for entertainment, for educating and also for cultural preservations. Literature is part of a country's culture, heritage and history. It gives us insight into who we were, those who had lived before us and the happenings in our community. It could be regarded as the entryway to the past and the passage to our futures. Literature helps to understand our surroundings and provides us with a delightful source of entertainment. This helps us to be improved in our everyday activities and interpersonal relations. All these attributes could be ascribed to literature and serve as characterization of literature.

Literature has been defined differently, we do not want to dissipate much energy on the definition, but wish to settle with Aduke Adebayo (2010) who refers to literature as imaginative works dealing with human and other beings, in which the aesthetic function predominates. Literature can offer an insight into social commentary and critique. It can tell us a lot about a particular society through the use of characterization and plot, and the themes in the story or narration as the case with oral narratives and novel at the instance of the written form. Literature, oral or written, is almost like history, and one can learn a lot about history and the general views of the time. In every human evolution, the process of successful social change depends upon the artistic needs of the new generations and their continuous effort to re-construct or recreate the perception of their

261 dynasties, which inspires a greater sense of independence, self-confidence and self-respect. It also contains philosophical ideas as well, as well as narrative styles and how the use of language and narrative changed over the ages. Literature could be regarded as the vessel of common sense in the point that it houses many words of wisdom and through it one may be lead right on many occasions, by learning from those who had lived before. This may be given by using animals to depict their acts and the resultant effects. As given by Aduke Adebayo (2010) aesthetic use of language constitutes one of numerous principal factors that distinguishes literature from all other forms of writings. Literature remains the best ways to understand the culture of the owner of such a literature. Olugboyega 2002, cites Eagleton 1983 that orates on literature that, like religion literature works primarily by emotion and experience and so was admirably well-fitted to carry through the ideological task which religion left off. It is quite clear that literature teaches the new generations how the generations before lived and how they solved their difficulties.

Theoretical framework; Faction Literary Theory

We want to make use of faction literary theory to buttress our findings in this study. The term oral narrative is meant to be believed to be real. The originality of the stories in oral traditions is not known. The effect is felt and cannot be replaced by any other thing in the culture. A faction is, indeed, a blending of fact and fiction (as is the word itself). Faction is formed from two words, fact and fiction. Fact is real while fiction is imaginary work of art. Faction, according to alchemipedia,2010 denotes works that present factual contents in the form of a fictional novel. Faction could then be defined as a literary and cinematic genre in which real events are used as a basis for a fictional narrative or dramatization.

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Blending of fact and fiction in Yoruba oral narratives is not all that exceptional, and narrators often indicate to audience very clearly what the stories are by sorting it out at the introductory aspect of his/her narrations. However, it is generally assumed that the narrators of such accounts believe them to be truthful at the time of their composition and performance. Legends, myths, proverbs and fables among others are fictional account of real events or real people who had lived in that community. The stories are told at least has heard by the predecessors which are stick close to reality. Oral narratives are passed from generation to another and nobody claims authority or ownership of any of such stories. Audience are meant to believe the stories. The specific place and exact time of these events are not known and nobody in the community ask any question as regards that. The primary objectives, the didactic aspect and entertainment are taken care of and respected by all.

Let us now examine this Yoruba fable;

The tortoise and the king. The fable of a tortoise and a king is so popular among the Yoruba. The story goes thus; once upon a time, there was particular problem in the town where tortoise lives. The oracle consulted revealed that tortoise must go on exile to an unknown territory before the town could witness peace, and that it would be crowned as king wherever it stopped. The oracle also warned tortoise to be very careful not to be killed in the course of its journey. On a particular day, it set out of the town, with a swollen face, leaving from known to unknown. Everybody wished him bye-bye, not for any other reason, but for the peace of the town. Tortoise embarked on this journey to unknown place. After a long journey and far distance home, night come. It became difficult to continue the journey for that day. Tortoise need to place its head somewhere as nature demand of him. Luckily for him, he got to a town. He requested to

263 be hosted by some indigenes of this town but they refused and directed him to the palace. He then requested for the palace as the king has power to grant such a request. This traveler requested for permission to be allowed over the night in this particular town. The king felt the agony of this traveler, and persuaded his chiefs to allow tortoise to spend the night as the latter promised to continue with his journey as early as possible. Tortoise was accommodated for the night. This is against the wish of the oracles and the ancestors, it has been forbidden for a long time in that town to host any stranger over the night. The king and the populace warned him not to talk whenever it perceived the song of a bird in the night. The bird is acknowledged to be from the ancestors despite the fact that it killed a member of that community each night it came to town.

As the populace could not be totally convinced of this august visitor, tortoise, because of its antecedents, and the anxiety of the unknown, they placed seven heavy mortals on him. This is to prevent it from getting out. Tortoise agreed to this instruction at the presence of all. Over the night, the supposed sacred bird came and sang its usual song. Tortoise disregarded this instruction. He talked and managed to remove all the impending obstacles. As the bird saw it, they struggled for a while before the bird swallowed the tortoise. The tortoise with a knife in its pocket, killed this bird and came out. As this was achieved, tortoise resumed to the same place where he was kept, and slept off. Early in the morning, the king came to see the visitor, as he saw the mortals in the usual place, on the tortoise, the king went back without observing anything. The chief security of the king came and saw the bird motionless, so disorganized, ran to meet other chiefs. All chiefs were present to see the bird lifeless.

The king was also intimated of the situation, should not see the corpse as it constitutes a taboo for king to see such. Tortoise was still under the

264 mortals, they removed these mortals with deep sense of resentment. The death of this bird was considered as a bad omen for the entire community. How such could have happened remained a misery. They asked from the tortoise if it has any useful information as regards the situation. Tortoise claimed that it slept off and could not notice or say anything as regards the case. Tortoise refused to open up the killing of the bird. They could not disturb this stranger too much as he was kept under seven heavy mortals to prevent him from getting out, in anticipation that the bird came, they still saw it at the same place. To appease the gods and the ancestors, the killer of the bird must be known and made to pay for the unscrupulous action. The king and the tortoise were the people that kept the night in the palace area, therefore they should be able to open up on who killed that bird. Tortoise claimed that the king killed the bird and the king also accused the tortoise. In a bid to identify the culprit, tortoise proffered a solution which the whole town consented to.

A very hot pap was prepared for the duo, king and tortoise, to drink. All the chiefs and entire populace were in attendance. Tortoise was served the hot palp first. As he collected the palp, he started singing and moved across all the places. He showed this very hot palp to the audience with a song. This took him several minutes before he could reach out to all in attendance. By the time he got to all the audience, the palp was already cool. He drank without any problem. The king is the next to drink the palp, he was served hot as did to the tortoise. The king drank as he was served. The king’s internal system was immediately destroyed with the hotness of this palp. The king died on the spot. Tortoise was crowned the king immediately. Looking at this fable, it is basically fiction. How possible could a tortoise played on any human being not to talk of a king, the head of a town. The image created is like real situation. The

265 protagonists, the weak and the powerful could be found in every community.

Oral Narratives and the Yoruba

The Yoruba

Yoruba refers to a group of cultures linked by a common language. They occupy an area bounded by the Niger River, and including what is now known as the southwestern Nigeria, and part of the Republic of Benin and Togo. They share the same socio-cultural belief system in common. They also held much conviction in their ancestors and traditional religions. The original religion, traditions and cultures of the Yoruba like all other people of Africa have been declining over the past century as a result of influences of interventionism by the white, Western acculturation and sweet-talking by Christianity and Islam. These factors affected negatively many daily aspects of life as the Yoruba much cherished culture could no more be properly recognized. The western cultures now wrongly affecting their daily life and constituting nuisance in their communities. The reason for this is not any other thing than that the natural, cultural and political atmospheric conditions are not the same. The much cherished Yoruba culture now remains polluted. It will be an advantage and better for the Yoruba to be concerned with the traditional ways of imparting knowledge, educating and preserving cultures of the Yoruba before the influx of foreign intervention, religions, technological and several other modern inventions. The western cultures should not be allowed to sweep the long- age traditions.

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Oral narratives Oral literature is perceived as the primary culture of the predominant traditional people. The search for new ideas, the interpretation of cultural and literary events are ceaseless human activities and every step forward seeking alternative lifestyle and broadening knowledge demands a new way of thinking which enables man to re- assess the existing values and modes of behaviour. Oral literature is the collective expression of these people’s beliefs, cultural celebrations and custom for the purpose of preparing and inculcating in them the required norms to tackle the reality around them. The Yoruba treat their ancestors with great respect, as might be expected in a culture with only oral records of the past. This way of treating their elders or ancestors constitutes some of the factors for unity and progress in their community. The Yoruba are fond of stories like fables, myths, and legends. all these serve as rules governing their existence and mode of operation. The Yoruba narrate fables to teach the young ones of the moral etiquette and also about their culture. The essential point is not so much that the fables are educational, imparting values to the young ones alone, but that the ground and framework of every story is the values of everyday, ordinary, human domain. What is tested, experimented with and sometimes imaginatively circulated is the morality of communal living, based on common decency, humanity and generosity. This is the scope and the field of the discourse of fables among the Yoruba so also in some other cultures. Oral narratives are considered as the facilitator of a general way of life across societies. Proverb is also a very essential concise message to teach moral or to caution the addressee.

Proverbs are succinct sayings with moral lessons. “A proverb is a short, generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed, and memorable

267 form and which is handed down from generation to generation. Another common definition is from Lord John Russell (c. 1850) that opines that as “a proverb is the wit of one, and the wisdom of many.” The structure and beliefs of the Yoruba make them hold the experience of their ancestors in high esteem. Experience of the ancestors are summed up as proverb. The nowadays western school structure is not the solitary upholder of the intellectual, physical, social, emotional, aesthetic, moral and spiritual development of the Yoruba children. These oral narratives play dominant role in the moral upbringing of these children. Western education has only changed the orientation which is alien to the cultural life of the Yoruba. The implication is now obvious to the elite in Yoruba society that academic knowledge without any foundation in the culture of the people is useless. The importance of cultural environment on the education of a child cannot be ruled out. This is the only way whereby the education received can be put into practice and applied in everyday situation.

To the Yoruba, the main idea of traditional education has always been to foster good character in the individual and to make the child a useful member of the community. Every child is expected to be omolúàbi , a well tutored person, with good character, respect for old age and tradition, loyalty, prompt response to the needy and the infirm, sympathy, morality, intelligence and sociability. Many, if not all these ways of life, have eroded the community. Awoniyi (1975: 375), as cited by Akinyemi 2003 opines that 'nothing mortifies a Yoruba more than to say that her/his child is àbí ìkó (a child that is born but not trained). A child is better àkó ò gbà (a child that is taught but does not absorb the knowledge), where the responsibility is that of the child and not her/his parents'. This is to say that àbí ìkó , is the fault of the parents, meaning that such parents are also morally bankrupt. But the case where the child is àkó ò gbà , the parents did all at their disposal but the child refuses to yield to the instruction of

268 his/her parents. This is the problem of such a child and not a total disgrace to the parents contrary to the latter, àbí ìkó .

The Yoruba treasure reasonably their traditional ways of life and thoughts, especially myths, legends, proverbs and other thoughtful sayings in order to get true knowledge. This also serve, as sustainable socialization process, national pride, cultural and identity empowerment so also moral values. It then becomes paramount for every member of the community to respect and learn from such an experience. The considerate saying guides the behavioral pattern of the members. For example, a proverb, àto ore àtì ìkà gbogbo rè ni ó ní èsan. This connotes that all deeds will be rewarded. This saying could serve better than many modern rules or constitution. The Yoruba people respect this proverb and everybody will intend to do good so as to reap well. The proverb shows that whatever you do, it is on yourself and for yourself. You realize it in that same direction it is done. This guides their doings either in their private life or in public.

Another proverb, ìjakùmò kìí rìnde òsán eni a bíi re kìí rìnru . A well and dignified person should not meander in the night. This is a warning to the people of the community that night and any other acts that may be inimical is not welcomed and every dignified person should behave normally. Nothing embarked upon in the night may be considered a dignified thing, therefore it is better you do things that will be appreciated by all during the daylight. Keeping late at night without any cogent reason is not cherished by the Yoruba. As soon as this particular proverb is rendered, it sounds meaningful to the addressee and such a person quickly acts in a noble way. This proverb also shows the genealogy of the person, that child of distinguished descendants should comport himself/herself in a dignified manner always. It is not expected of any child with a dignified background to act defiantly. In an attempt not to bring disrepute to the

269 family’s image and name, one is required to behave properly. Another proverb, eni tí a kò fé ní ìlú kìí jó lójú agbo, an unwelcomed person in town should not dance in public. Meaning one should not attract unnecessary attention. This is to counsel people to desist from what is not meaningful or what is of no importance. Action should be taken with adequate proportion and necessity. Several other proverbs are used to warn people and to guide them in their undertakings. This is to make the society be at peace, it allows mutual coexistence and progress. Legend is another oral narrative pattern among the Yoruba.

Legends are narratives that people tell as true stories. B. Feldman and R. J. Richardson according to Ogunjimi and Na’Allah (1991), perceive legend as, ...true history or real life is the legend which for practical purposes...means a story that strains back at a real event but in which the historic details cannot – thanks to the oral mode of transmission – avoid the taint of fictive colouring . Sometimes the details are difficult to confirm, but usually the story names people and identifies locations. It contains an exaggerated or unrealisable account of some actually or possibly historical person or event. The person telling the story usually does not claim to be an eyewitness to the events, but heard it from someone who know someone who heard it from someone who was really there but no name would be given. Legends often contain a moral or a lesson and are told to teach a moral lesson, like knowing right from the wrong, or to uphold the values of the community. It also enhances the strength of historical stability. Despite the fact that it deals with things or story of the past it is not a history. It involves some supernatural being which makes it doubtful. According to Ogunjimi and Na’Allah, the historical features of legends imply political, military, and cultural actions which are related to messianic accomplishments.

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Okpewho (1983) classifies legends into two, historic legend and mythic legend. We want to see this as mere explanation that the two are interwoven in the sense that every legend contains the two scopes. Legends must be historic, it remains in the memory of the people of the region or culture and also its mythical. The legend of Moremi, how she delivered the people of Ile-Ife from the Igbo warriors that used to overwhelm and capture them in the olden days could be seen to be part of history. The method she used to attack the Igbo warriors in an attempt to protect her people could be said to be supernatural or mythical. This woman’s action made her heroic and raised her to a demi-dieu or legendary among her people to date. This also reiterates the belief of the Yoruba in the gods and goddesses. It is also an established fact that to reward or fulfil covenant is something very important in every situation of such.

In the Yoruba community, legends are told to remember some ancestors and to appreciate their commitment to the well-being of the people of their era. The role played by the ancestors are so vital and given a vraisemblance image in the Yoruba oral narratives. All these are told to sustain their cultural belief among other significant factors. The main idea of Moremi may be to instill sense of belonging to the people of the community. It makes the younger generations to love their motherland and do all which may be humanly possible to assist in the development of such an area.

Myths have been defined differently by anthropologists and literary writers. Ilesanmi, 2009 and Akporobaro (2006) agree on the meaning of myth as, …as a kind of story or rudimentary narrative sequence, normally additional and anonymous

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through which a given culture ratifies its social customs or accounts for the origin of human and natural phenomena, usually on supernatural or boldly in imaginative terms.

Myths could be summarized to mean a traditional, typically ancient story dealing with supernatural beings, ancestors, or heroes that serve as a fundamental type in the worldview of a people, as by explaining aspects of the natural world or delineating the psychology, customs, or ideals of society. Ogunjimi and Na’Allah (1991) quote Bolaji Idowu defining myth as explanatory answers to the question posed to Man by the very facts of his confrontation with the physical universe and his awareness of the world though unseen, is yet sufficiently palpable to be real to him. The duo, Ogunjimi and Na’Allah, in their own view arrived at explaining myth to be originated in the remote past, they are very fundamental in the link between man and the invisible forces, important in creating a socio- psychology of existence and strategic in fostering social changes.

Myths are concerned with the Supreme Being, lesser gods and spirit. The ancestors, Man and several other natural elements are involved. The authenticity of these stories may not be known, but the people are meant to believe without questioning. Myth cuts across all traditions or racial origins. The myth of Bayagida in the Hausa community, the myth of creation in the Zulu, the myth of creation in Igbo etc. These myths and others contain elements of fantasy but still regulate man’s psycho-social behavior in relation to their environments as they are attached to the ancestors and gods. To sum it up in the world of Sayre, (2011:22) myths tend to mirror the culture’s moral and political systems, its social organization, and it’s most influential beliefs. The Yoruba use all these to foster harmony and promote development in their milieu.

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Proverbs, legends, myths, fables and several other oral literary genres help to instill discipline, to educate and to preserve the culture of the Yoruba. All these attributes may be similar and or may be seen in other different societies. Oral narratives function as medium to serve the importance of building the society free from error of judgment, corruption and misconduct.

They all assist as medium for transmitting historical knowledge and as an inseparable part of history in the making. Oral narratives have a timeless quality in that they reflect truths of all time of a particular historic moment. The resultant effects of this is what made the Yoruba society rich and diverse in her culture before the intervention by Christian and Islamic missionaries. The arrival of these imported cultures could not be totally adjudicated to be a blessing in terms of the cultural aspects of the Yoruba. The present pattern of life could be said to be a multicolored one which is of no substance. It could not be an overstatement to say that such alien culture results in the present socio disturbances and political uphill in the community. The so called western cultures could not be properly absorbed so also the traditional ones.

Problems militating against Yoruba oral narratives

Oral literature, including stories, dramas, riddles, histories, myths, songs, proverbs, and other expressions, is frequently employed to educate and entertain the Yoruba children in particular and the Africa in general. The effects of this oral literature in the Yoruba society is the main focus of this paper. Oral antiquities, myths, and proverbs additionally serve to remind

273 whole communities of their ancestors' heroic performances, their past, and the practices for their civilizations and traditions.

The present age where the whole world is turning to a global village is a very forceful factor militating against the proper use of these oral narratives among other cultural elements which the present epoch does not take into cognizance. The advancement in technology also does not help the matter at all. The way in which different people across cultures reproduce the present hegemonisation could also be considered challenging. Globalization is significantly affecting every mode of life. The well cherished traditional culture has turned to be alien and barbaric among the present generation. This is not a good news for any meaningful development. Globalization should not be at the detriment of one culture. As we want to appreciate making use of the positive and constructive areas of the trend, we do not subscribe to the neglect of the cultures.

The impact of the western religions, Christians and Islam, has done much harm to the culture before the new trend of globalization arrives to add insult on the injury created by the foreign religions. Yoruba oral literature as other African oral literature, as historical art brings to light human glories, plights, conflicts, alternative values, the way people fight for survival and their search for new identity. The language of oral literary criticism must include contradictions and resolutions, good and evil, what is beautiful and what is ugly. All these features are considered idolism with the western religions. The audience to benefit from the didactic aesthetic of oral narratives are no more readily available. Majority have relocated to the urban areas. They regard all these cultural and moral based elements as paganism, thereby making the oral narratives fade fast in the Yoruba society.

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The technological development and invention coupled with the rural/urban migration is also a very forceful point among the factors that affect the existence and performance of Yoruba oral narratives. The issue of rural urban migration could not be discounted in this age. Many factors could be responsible for this movement of people from one area to another. People move from the rural area where there is little or no technological development to the urban areas. The movement may be economical, social or political.

Oral narrative resides in the rural areas. After leaving this area, this important aspect is discarded. After the day’s work it serves as a means of entertainment for relaxation for the people in rural areas. In the urban areas it is the television, you tube, Facebook, internet etc. that engage the time of the inhabitants. Despite the fact that the moral level of these foreign components cannot be compared, those in the urban area considered it more pertinent than the indigenous oral narratives that embedded all the societal norms and cultural attributes. Wiredu (1980) and Balogun (2014) are of the view that;

The contemporary African is in the middle of the transition from a traditional to a modern society. This process of modernization entails changes not only in the physical environment but also in the mental outlook of the peoples, manifested both in their explicit beliefs and in their customs and their ordinary daily habits and pursuits. We want to be at variance from this point of view. Change in the physical outlook may be accepted, but changing from the traditional mode of living, beliefs and all the cultural embodiments may not be totally realizable. Does transition from one idea of any nation go along with the cultural elements? Is the new idea not a culture of another nation? The

275 traditional elements must be retained in all totality; the societal existence is attached. It is this cultural element that constitutes the pillar with which any society is built. The so-called western culture continues to serve as nuisance in the community. Its genuineness and originality may not be comprehended and constitute a concern in the new environment. This will definitely hinder human development which is ultimately entwined with how we make meaning out of existence. Looking at the present ways and manner of our societies, it could be as a result of the abridged cultures. The youths pretend to be like a white at the detriment of the local cultures, they do not achieve this. They lost contact with their own indigenous ways of life. They are now at a cross roads not properly acceptable into any of the cultures.

Conclusion

This paper has x-rayed the types of oral narratives in Yoruba. It has also examined some problems militating against its existence and proper uses. The role of non-governmental agencies could not be discarded. They need to come in to assist the cultures to be sustained. As United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO aims to project cultures among other objectives, the idea of the present hegemonisation should be properly examined and necessary adjustment made to forestall damage to the cultural elements of the Yoruba. The National Orientation Agency (NOA) also should rise to the need to protect the oral narratives as this could play a vital role in sustaining the moral instrument.

The present issue of terrorism across the continents where many lives and properties are being destroyed could be easily arrested and laid to rest. As many could be as a result of the foreign influence, governments at all levels in the Yoruba speaking areas and the Yoruba lovers should put all

276 hands on deck to arrest the fading away of this useful and beneficial cultural glory of the ancestors. The need to educate the advocates of western religions on the differences between culture and religions also needs to be put in place. The churches and mosques should be used as the venue for this sensitization. These places of worship, churches and mosques, should consider the oral traditions and some other cultural things as helper and not as antagonist to their teachings. Not all cultural elements or traditions are symbol of adoration. The Federal and state Ministries of Youth, Sports and Culture should do all at its disposal towards making the importance of cultures remain and continue to play its roles in every society.

References Adeoye C. L. 1979. Asà àti ìse yorùbá. University Press Limited. Ibadan. Afe, A. E. 2013. Taboos and the maintenance of social order in the old Ondo province, Southwestern Nigeria. African Research Review, Ethiopia. Akintunde Akinyemi 2003. Yoruba oral literature: A source of indigenous education for children. In Journal of African Cultural Studies. Vol. 16 No. 2. Akporobaro, F. B. O. 2006. Introduction to African oral literature. Princeton Publishing Company. Lagos. Alabi, I. O. 2002. Appreciating the uses of literature: a Yorùbá example. An inaugural lecture delivered at the University of Lagos. Lagos. University of Lagos. Alade A. L. 2007 .Taboo and superstition, Lagos.

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Alain Rey. 1998. Le Robert Micro Dicorobert Inc. Montréal Canada. Arifalo S.O. and Okajare S.T. 2005. The changing role of traditional rulers and the challenges of governance in contemporary Nigeria: Yoruba land in historical perspective, Akure. Awolalu J.O and Dopamu P.A. 1976 West African Traditional Religion, Ibadan. Balogun O.A. 2014. Philosophy and an African culture: Alight in the darkness. 68 Inaugural Lecture. Olabisi Onabanjo University. Ago Iwoye. Hal Horton. 1989.Yoruba Religion and Myth in English 32, African postcolonial literature in English in the postcolonial web. Ilesanmi T.M. Oath taking as the psychology of mutual mistrust in Nigeria. Orita Ibadan, Journal of Religious Studies, Department of Religious Studies University of Ibadan. Ogunjimi, B. and Na’allah A.R. 1991.. Introduction to African Oral Literature . Vol. I - prose Ilorin. Unilorin press.

Olarinmoye, A. W. 2013. The Images of Women in Yoruba Folktales. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol. 3 No. 4 [Special Issue – February]. Wiredu, K. 1980. Philosophy and an African culture. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. www.alchemipedia.blogspot.com 2010/05 assessed August 20, 2016

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LE MILITANTISME DANS LE DOCKER NOIR (1956) DE SEMBÈNE OUSMANE .

BABATUNDE, Samuel Olufemi

Résumé

Notons que la littérature africaine d'expression française est de l'origine une littérature de protestation, de propagande et de revendication contre le système colonial ou postcoloniale, contre les dirigeants africains qui ont repris la direction de leur pays après l'indépendance. Chez Sembène, il est tout à fait évident que la vie se concerne d'action et de réaction. Cela fait partie de la nature humaine qui se développe pour avoir une meilleure vie et pour aspirer à la liberté. Ainsi, Sembène Ousmane avait connu les douleurs de la colonisation et des horreurs et la tromperie de la postindépendance en Afrique. Ces expériences, comme d'autres écrivains africains de son temps, motivent nécessairement ses œuvres littéraires. Dans ses écrits, il a non seulement abhorré l'oppression sous toutes ses ramifications, mais il les confronte aussi avec le feu d'un révolutionnaire. L' insigne de Sembène et sa confrontation ouverte dans sa tradition littéraire démontrent son militantisme que cette étude va révéler dans Le Docker noir. Ce travail, examine aussi le militantisme comme élément de l’engagement dans les procédés littéraires de Sembène Ousmane.

Mots-Clés : Militantisme, engagement, colonisation, oppression, prolétaires, ouvriers, syndical, dockers.

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Introduction

Dans l’histoire de la littérature africaine francophone, le Sénégal a produit beaucoup d’écrivains comme : Boubacar Boris Diop, Abdoulaye Sadji , Mariama Bâ , Amadou Lamine Sall, Pape Moussa Samba, Oumar Sankharé, Ousmane Socé , Fatou Ndiaye Sow , Aminata Sow Fall, Cheikh Anta Diop, Léopold Sédar Senghor, David Diop, Birago Diop et Sembène Ousmane pour mentionner peu. Parmi eux, il y a quelques-uns qui sont dignes de note à savoir: L.S. Senghor, Birago Diop, David Diop et surtout Sembène Ousmane. Signalons que dans la plupart des œuvres de Sembène Ousmane, le Sénégal est traité comme objet littéraire et cinématographique. Nous nous sommes demandé si le militant marxiste pouvait s'accommoder d'une présentation objective du réel sénégalais. Sembène apporte sa contribution à la création artistique dans le contexte culturel de son époque. Il s'inspire principalement des réalités sénégalaises. Les héros et les décors exotiques des œuvres de fiction de son époque ou des décennies précédentes sont bousculés par notre auteur. Il est le véritable créateur du roman ou du film social et politique au Sénégal, en essayant d'exprimer notamment des moments de civilisation. Certes, pour Sembène, l'avenir doit permettre l'établissement d'un régime socialiste, mais son œuvre pose des problèmes et des interrogations qui invitent au dépassement de la réalité. Voire son univers romanesque, il vive par la confrontation de forces contradictoires. Sembène fait, pour ainsi dire, de l'art ou du récit romanesque et cinématographique une épopée. Les dimensions historique, sociologique, géographique, économique du Sénégal constituent avant tout un tremplin; elles servent à construire un univers imaginaire.

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Dans Le Docker noir qui constitue une œuvre autobiographique de son enfance à Yoff et à Dakar au Sénégal et puis, ses expériences de vie de docker et de syndicaliste à Marseille en France pendant une douzaine d’années (1948-1960).

Sembène Ousmane pose nettement le problème du racisme pratiqué dans certains milieux de la bourgeoisie française. Poussé par la misère, lot de la plupart des Africains à Marseille, et soucieux de mener une vie décente, Diaw Falla décide d’écrire un livre qu’il intitule « Le dernier voyage du négrier Sirius ». Il confie le manuscrit, pour publication, à une romancière célèbre, Ginette Tontisane. Après plusieurs mois d’attente, le livre est publié et remporte le Grand prix de la littérature. Mais il est signé Ginette Tontisane. Enragé et déçu par le comportement malhonnête de la romancière, Diaw Falla se rend à Paris pour avoir des explications ou mieux pour extérioriser son mécontentement. Là, il tue accidentellement et involontairement la romancière au cours d’une violente dispute.

Après le drame, il est comme un fou. Il se promène le long de la Seine, puis rentre à Marseille. Catherine fait tout pour le consoler, mais en vain. Diaw Falla est inconsolable. Informée de l’assassinat, la police, après investigation, localise la place où se trouve le criminel, l’arrête. Yaye Salimata, la mère de Diaw Falla, vivant à Dakar, est en détresse parce que son fils aîné, emprisonné en France, doit comparaître en cour d’assises pour répondre du crime commis sur une romancière, Ginette Tontisane. À Marseille, la maîtresse de Diaw Falla, Catherine, qui porte une grossesse de Diaw Falla, est aussi torturée par cette inquiétude. Elle habite une unique pièce avec son père, négrophobe, qui n’aime pas Diaw

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Falla. La même situation est manifeste à la blanchisserie de « Maman ». Là, les copains de Diaw Falla s’interrogent, eux aussi, sur le sort de leur camarade.

Dans sa cellule, en prison, Diaw Falla se morfond dans l’angoisse. Puis, le jour J arrive. On l’amène au tribunal. Le procès commence. Après le défilé de plusieurs témoins qui sont tous racistes et négrophobes, Diaw Falla, interrogé, prouve qu’il est l’auteur du livre « Le dernier voyage du négrier Sirius ». Mais le président du tribunal n’est pas convaincu de l’innocence de Diaw Falla. Pour lui, un homme de couleur ne peut prétendre écrire un livre qui a gagné le Grand prix. Il rend un verdict implacable: Diaw Falla écope le maximum: les travaux forcés à perpétuité. En apprenant la nouvelle à Dakar, sa mère meurt de soucis. Sa femme, chassée par son père adoptif, fait la prostitution pour nourrir leur fils. Diaw Falla, en prison, refuse de formuler une demande en cassation. Il médite sur le sens de la vie et le devenir de l’Afrique.

Sembène est un écrivain qui est sensible aux réalités sociales et psychologiques des noirs vivant pendant la période de transition entre l’époque coloniale et l’époque des indépendances. En conséquence, Sembène s’est donné pour tâche de les interpréter en s’engageant et en militant contre toutes formes d’exploitation des noirs par les blancs. C’est pourquoi il est resté l’homme révolté, ennemi farouche de toute forme d’obscurantisme et d’oppression, défenseur de la femme africaine.

Signalons qu'il existe plusieurs types de militantisme qui se manifeste sous plusieurs formes. Sembène Ousmane se sert du militantisme littéraire et écrit ses livres pour encourager les ouvriers à lutter contre l’oppression ou l’exploitation de l’homme

282 noir. Il poursuit, en mettant en relief la lutte des ouvriers, un objectif : le changement des conditions de vie des ouvriers ; dans certains textes, il se sert de sa plume pour inviter les travailleurs à ne pas renoncer à leur combat contre les patrons blancs qui les exploitent, à utiliser toutes les stratégies possibles, la révolte, la grève, la manifestation, la violence, pour obtenir gain de cause dans la lutte qui les oppose à leurs patrons ; et dans d’autres textes, il se sert encore de sa plume pour inviter le peuple à se dresser contre la nouvelle bourgeoisie africaine, bande d’opportunistes et de parvenus, qui se donne comme objectif : l’exploitation de leurs propres frères et sœurs.

Dans ce travail, nous allons d'abord examiner le concept de militantisme selon quelques théoriciens littéraires et selon Sembène Ousmane lui-même. Puis nous allons montrer comment le militantisme se manifeste dans le romans de notre études et finalement nous allons conclure en donnant nos points de vues sur le sujet.

Définitions du militantisme

Le lexème « militantisme » est polysémique. Son sens et sa signification changent et varient, dans l’espace et le temps, selon les critiques. Nous nous attacherons uniquement aux définitions de Rosa Luxemburg et Larousse dans le Dictionnaire général pour la maîtrise de la langue française , la culture classique et contemporaine. Rosa Luxemburg se sert des concepts développés par Karl Marx, adopte un point de vue d’internationalisme intégral et s’oppose radicalement à toute forme de nationalisme, pour

283 fonder sa philosophie. Pour elle, le « militantisme » sous-entend « l’attitude d’un homme qui met fin à la domination nationale, comme à l'exploitation, à l'inégalité des sexes et à l'oppression raciale », (Luxemburg 1998 : 28). En pratique, elle pense que la révolution sera l'œuvre des masses et non le produit d'une « avant- garde éclairée » qui ne peut que se transformer en une dictature, « celle d'une poignée de politiciens, non celle du prolétariat », (Idem ).

De cette définition de Rosa Luxemburg, il ressort que le militantisme veut dire, en bref, la lutte contre la domination, l’exploitation des sexes et l’oppression raciale.

De son côté, Larousse (1994 : 1017), dans le Dictionnaire général pour la maîtrise de la langue française , la culture classique et contemporaine , définit le militantisme comme « attitude des militants actifs dans les organisations politiques ou syndicales ». Et par militant, il entend « qui lutte, milite pour une idée, une opinion ; adhérent d’une organisation politique, syndicale, sociale, qui participe activement à la vie de cette organisation ».

Retenons de ces définitions que le militantisme est l’attitude d’un militant qui lutte ou mène un combat pour une cause sociale, ou politique en vue de l’amélioration de sa condition de vie. Dans le cadre des théoriciens africains, nous allons considérer les points de vue de Modibo Keita et Joseph Ki-Zerbo.

Modibo Keita, militant panafricaniste et tiers-mondiste, pionnier du non-alignement, était non seulement un défenseur des mouvements d'émancipation, mais aussi un défenseur de la paix

284 entre les peuples. Par militantisme, Modibo Keita (2005 : 82) entend « pugnacité, persévérance, courage, sacrifices et dignité qui caractérisaient son combat politique et syndical ». En d’autres termes, par militantisme, il veut dire l’attitude d’un homme qui défend ses idéaux et se bat, contre vents et marées, pour le triomphe de sa vision d’indépendance, de justice de liberté et de paix.

À l’époque coloniale, Modibo Keita a mené, depuis 1937, des activités dans plusieurs mouvements et associations : Animateur du groupe « Art et Théâtre », et il s’est moqué, dans des piécettes, de la bourgeoisie et des représentants de l'autorité coloniale.

Selon la vision de Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Professeur et personnalité militante, il a développé sa philosophie, à partir de la science. Il a joué un rôle non négligeable, pesé sensiblement, pour l’émancipation de l’homme noir et le développement de son continent, à travers son engagement et son militantisme. Il a milité pour une éducation africaine rénovée, pour la promotion, le développement véritable et harmonieux de l’Afrique au bénéfice des peuples africains et voltaïques. Selon Joseph Ki-Zerbo (1964 : 25), le « militantisme » veut dire « la lutte pour l’émancipation de l’homme noir et le développement de l’Afrique ».

Modibo Keita et Joseph Ki-Zerbo usent la même éthique pour définir le mot « militantisme ». Pour eux, le lexème « militantisme » signifie : « La lutte que l’homme doit mener pour changer les conditions de sa vie sociale et politique, ou encore la lutte pour l’indépendance, la liberté, la justice et la paix ».

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Sembène Ousmane, défenseur des opprimés et des prolétaires, donne aussi son point de vue, d’une manière nette et claire. Pour lui, le « militantisme » signifie « la lutte inlassable contre la colonisation et la révolution du peuple pour réclamer leurs droits et leur liberté confisquées par des dirigeants oppresseurs », (Sembène 1989 : 35).

Observateur invétéré des réalités quotidiennes, et témoin oculaire de la vie misérable des travailleurs africains, Sembène Ousmane n’écrit pas pour le plaisir d’écrire, il ne fait pas de « l’art pour l’art », comme disait Léopold Sédar Senghor. Il écrit plutôt pour communiquer avec son lecteur, pour s’adresser aux peuples, aux démunis, aux prolétaires, il écrit pour les sensibiliser et les conscientiser. Il écrit avec l’intention de transformer le monde, de provoquer « une révolution totale » qui donnerait naissance à un monde où riches ou pauvres vivraient « la vraie vie », « la bonne vie ».

Pour les théoriciens africains, le militantisme signifie la lutte que les ouvriers ou les pauvres mènent pour l’amélioration de leurs conditions de vie sociale ou politique.

Dans l’optique de notre travail ici, le militantisme veut dire l’attitude d’un militant, d’un individu qui mène un combat pour l’amélioration de ses conditions de vie, un combat pour l’indépendance, la justice, la liberté et la paix. Notons aussi que les concepts « engagement » et « militantisme » dans notre étude, sont deux concepts inséparables. En d’autres termes, nous examinerons l’engagement comme élément qui se trouve dans le militantisme ou militantisme comme élément de l’engagement.

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Types de militantisme

On distingue plusieurs types de militantisme, mais on retient seulement quelques-uns, notamment : militantisme social, militantisme politique, et militantisme moral.

Par militantisme social , nous entendons l’attitude d’un individu ou des peuples qui se battent contre la colonisation ou le néo- colonialisme, l’exploitation de l’homme par l’homme, les inégalités raciales pour l’amélioration des conditions de vie sociale. Dans le même ordre d’idées, le militantisme politique est la lutte que les hommes mènent contre une idéologie politique, voulant ainsi un engagement du gouvernement. On appelle militantisme moral , l'activité de militants basée sur des solidarités autres que celles des organisations ou des idéologies politiques : lutte contre le Sida, défense de l'environnement, droit des consommateurs.

Manifestations sociales, culturelles et politiques du militantisme dans un œuvre romanesque.

À l’instar de l’engagement, le militantisme peut, dans une œuvre romanesque, se manifester sous diverses formes, mais nous retenons seulement les plus importantes qui sont : la propagande, la manifestation, la violence, la grève, la désobéissance civile, le mouvement social ou collectif, le syndicalisme.

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La propagande

La propagande est définie, par Larousse (1994 : 1275) comme : « Action symétrique exercée sur l’opinion pour faire accepter certaines idées ou doctrines, notamment dans le domaine politique et social ».

Selon Jacques Ellul (1962 : 6), la propagande peut aussi chercher à faire adhérer l'individu et les masses à un ensemble d'idées et de valeurs, à les mobiliser, bref à les intégrer dans une société donnée. On parle dans ce cas de « propagande sociologique » ou encore « d'intégration » par opposition à « d'agitation ».

La propagande poursuit généralement des objectifs de nature politique, et les propagandistes cherchent à aiguiller l'opinion publique pour modifier les actions et les espérances des personnes ciblées.

La manifestation .

Par manifestation, nous entendons, un acte politique collectif, qui se traduit notamment par un défilé de protestation, qui peut avoir différents objectifs, parmi lesquels : lutte contre le racisme, amélioration des conditions de vie, souvent à l'appel des syndicats, ou à l'occasion de grèves. Par exemple Les Bouts de bois de Dieu de Sembène Ousmane.

La manifestation vise à influer sur l’opinion, à influencer le pouvoir politique et, ce faisant, à contribuer à la naissance de

288 politiques publiques menant à la satisfaction des revendications qu’elle exprime.

La grève

La grève est une action collective consistant en une cessation concertée du travail par les salariés d'une entreprise, d'un secteur économique, d'une catégorie professionnelle ou par extension de toute autre personne productive, souvent à l'initiative de syndicats. Cette action vise à appuyer les revendications des salariés en faisant pression sur les supérieurs hiérarchiques ou l'employeur (chef d'entreprise ou patron), par la perte de production que la cessation de travail entraîne. Il s'agit d'une épreuve de force : le gréviste n'est pas rémunéré alors que l'entreprise ne produit plus et perd de l'argent. Les exemples sont légion. Par exemple, Les Bouts de bois de Dieu de Sembène Ousmane, L’Impair de la Nation de Joseph Epoka Mwantuali, La mort faite homme de Pius Ngandu Nkashama.

La désobéissance civile

Créé par l'américain Henry David Thoreau, dans son essai intitulé Résistance au gouvernement civil , publié en 1849, à la suite de son refus de payer une taxe destinée à financer la guerre contre le Mexique, le terme «désobéissance civile » signifie « le refus de se soumettre à une loi, un règlement, une organisation ou un pouvoir jugé inique par ceux qui le contestent ». ( Thoreau 1849 : 790 ).

Aujourd'hui, le concept s'est étendu à de nombreuses personnes exerçant des actions cherchant notamment à être relayées

289 médiatiquement des altermondialistes ou celles des mouvements anti-publics; certains ne voient dans ces actions que la dégradation de biens, d'autres y voient un acte salutaire de désobéissance civile, visant à faire modifier la politique des autorités.

Le mouvement social ou collectif

Dans son livre intitulé La Voix et le Regard , le sociologue Alain Touraine (1978 : 175) définit le mouvement social ou collectif comme « un mouvement social qui désigne une mobilisation porteuse d'un projet de société alternatif ». Pour Erik Neveu (1996 : 52), un mouvement social désigne une « forme d'action collective concertée en faveur d'une cause ». Signalons qu’un mouvement social se distingue du groupe de pression et du lobbying . Participer à un mouvement collectif suppose de la part de celui qui y prend part un certain engagement. Aussi cette participation peut-elle être plus large que ce que l’on entendait traditionnellement par militantisme jusque dans les années 70. Le militantisme, qui a été longtemps un militantisme de classe, soutenu par l’adhésion à un parti politique ou un syndicat, a beaucoup évolué aujourd’hui.

Le syndicalisme

Le syndicalisme est le mouvement qui vise à unifier au sein de groupes sociaux, les syndicats des professionnels pour défendre des intérêts collectifs. Le terme « syndicalisme » s'applique, dans son sens le plus courant, à l'action au sein des syndicats de salariés, et par extension, à celle des organisations syndicales estudiantines,

290 lycéennes et professionnelles. De nos jours, les syndicats sont encore présents dans les milieux professionnels.

La violence

La violence est l’utilisation de force physique ou psychologique pour contraindre, dominer, causer des dommages ou la mort. Elle implique des coups, des blessures, de la souffrance.

On en distingue, la violence politique, celle qui regroupe tous les actes violents que leurs auteurs légitiment au nom d'un objectif politique (révolution, résistance à l'oppression, droit à l'insurrection, tyrannicide); la violence interpersonnelle, celle qui met en cause les relations interpersonnelles entre patron et employé, parent et enfant, entre amis, entre collègues. C’est un phénomène qui se manifeste sous de multiples formes : abus de pouvoir, agression physique, intimidation verbale, menaces voilées, insultes, et humiliation.

À la lumière des faits que nous venons d’évoquer ci-haut, nous pouvons conclure que, d’un côté, si l’engagement, pour les théoriciens européens, est une action de s’engager dans un combat, pour une cause sociale ou politique, de l’autre, pour les théoriciens africains, l’engagement est aussi synonyme de l’action, de combat contre l’oppresseur, contre la nouvelle bourgeoisie, contre les coutumes caduques et toutes sortes d’exploitation de l’homme noir. Quant au militantisme, pour les théoriciens européens ou africains, le mot signifie l’attitude d’un homme qui met fin à la domination nationale, à l'exploitation, à l'inégalité des sexes et à l'oppression raciale. Ou encore l’attitude d’un militant, d’un

291 individu (ou de peuple) qui mène un combat pour l’amélioration des conditions de sa vie, la lutte pour l’indépendance, la justice, la liberté et la paix.

Dans son premier roman, Le Docker noir (1956), Sembène Ousmane met l’accent sur l’individu et critique le racisme dans la société française, à l’époque coloniale. Après lecture minutieuse de ce roman, le lecteur peut découvrir, en filigrane, que cet ouvrages est bâti sur une thématique, ou mieux une dialectique, « militantisme ». Comment alors cette dialectique s’applique-t-elle ou se présente-t-elle dans Le Docker noir ? Nous allons répondre à cette question maintenant.

Présentation du militantisme dans Le Docker noir .

Nous allons focaliser sur le militantisme à travers le conflit, la révolte, la violence, la grève, et la solidarité dans les deux romans de notre travail .

Le conflit

Dans Le Docker noir , le conflit occupe une place considérable. Il y est toujours omniprésent en filigrane, et se présente sous diverses formes: conflit entre deux individus, conflit sociologique, notamment celui entre la race blanche et la race noire, conflit entre la nouvelle élite africaine et le peuple qu’elle est censée diriger, conflit entre le français et les langues africaines.

Conflit entre deux individus

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À l’époque coloniale et après l’accession à l’indépendance politique par les pays africains, les écrivains africains ont exposé et stigmatisé, dans la plupart de leurs ouvrages, les méfaits du système colonial. Ils y ont revendiqué non seulement la dignité humaine de l’homme noir ou la réhabilitation de la culture noire bafouée par les colonisateurs, mais aussi la justice et l’égalité entre la race blanche et la race noire.

À l’instar de ses confrères africains, Sembène Ousmane, dans les deux romans de notre corpus, examine aussi le thème du conflit. Dans Le Docker noir , il met sur scène deux personnages en conflit, Diaw Falla, un Africain d’origine sénégalaise et Ginette Tontisane, une Blanche d’origine française. L’écrivain trouve une astuce romanesque pour justifier l’origine de ce conflit d’intérêt qui éclate entre ces deux individus, le livre de l’Africain intitulé Le dernier voyage du négrier Sirius . D’un côté, Diaw Falla fonde son espoir sur la vente de son livre pour mener une vie décente en Europe, et, de l’autre, Ginette Tontisane préfère vendre le livre et utiliser l’argent pour ses besoins personnels. Cette divergence de vue dégénère en un conflit. Cet antagonisme qui, dès le départ, a mis en opposition deux individus, finit par prendre, au fil des jours, l’allure d’un conflit entre les immigrés noirs, et les autochtones blancs, un conflit entre deux races: la race noire et la race blanche, comme le témoigne le narrateur à travers la position du témoin, au tribunal:

-Eh !oui. Dans notre quartier, il n’y a pas d’Arabes, ni de Noirs. La première fois qu’il est venu, je l’ai vu regarder la plaque. Quand je lui dis qu’il n’y avait pas d’hommes comme lui, il m’a répondu : « Je sais où je vais » et, sans

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même s’excuser, il entra. Je me tenais sur la porte. -Combien de fois était-il venu ? -Souvent. Puisqu’il y avait des locataires qui me demandaient : « Le Noir habite-t-il ici ? Une fois, je l’ai croisé dans l’escalier, il m’a tiré la langue. Puis il a ri comme un fou. Une autre fois, je l’ai suivi pour savoir où il allait ». - […] Pouvez-vous me dire quelles étaient ses relations avec la victime, amicales ou intimes ? - Je ne peux pas croire qu’elles soient intimes…Mademoiselle Ginette était l’honnêteté en personne. S’il avance des choses, c’est pour salir sa mémoire , ( DN, 47-48 ).

Conflit entre la race noire et la race blanche

En mettant en relief le conflit entre Diaw Falla et Ginette Tontisane, Sembène Ousmane aborde malicieusement, dans Le Docker noir, non seulement le thème de la rencontre culturelle entre l’Afrique et l’Europe, mais aussi celui du conflit sociologique qui a mis en opposition, à l’époque coloniale, la race blanche et la race noire ainsi que ses effets néfastes sur l’Africain. Il le démontre lors du jugement de Diaw Falla. Écoutons le narrateur, à travers le témoignage du médecin légiste :

Avec ses lunettes d’écaille suspendues à son nez crochu, le premier de l’après-midi, fut un homme, d’une soixantaine d’années, le médecin

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légiste Copet. Il se campa à la barre, son crâne était nu… il jura de dire la vérité, rien que la vérité. -Docteur, c’est vous qui avez établi l’acte de décès. Qu’est-ce qui a causé la mort ? fit le Président ? -La mort a été occasionnée par le heurt de la tête contre l’angle d’un meuble, qui a provoqué une hémorragie cérébrale….La victime n’est pas morte sur le coup mais quelques secondes après, ( DN, 53-54 ). Écoutons encore le narrateur, à travers le témoignage de M. André Vellin, professeur à la faculté de Médecine :

-On vous a chargé d’examiner l’état mental de l’accusé. Quelles sont vos conclusions ? -Diaw Falla ne présente aucun trouble mental. Il est sans doute possible très intelligent. L’indifférence qu’il feint, montre une supériorité de caractère. -Vous paraît-il un obsédé sexuel ? -Chez les Noirs, c’est une chose naturelle, et surtout quand il s’agit d’une femme blanche. Ils sont fascinés par la blancheur de la peau qui est plus attirante que celle des négresses, ( DN, 54 ). Si les autochtones, à travers leurs avis, défendent Ginette Tontisane, les immigrés, par contre, particulièrement le Guinéen,

295 soutient la cause de Diaw Falla. Écoutons le narrateur, à travers le témoignage de l’ami de Diaw Falla:

-Avez-vous lu le manuscrit ? -Quelques pages, quand je suis allé à son hôtel. -Pourquoi n’avez-vous pas fait ces déclarations à la police ? -Ils ne m’ont jamais convoqué […] -Vous êtes Guinéen ? -Oui, mais nous sommes des Africains. -Vous dites que c’est lui l’auteur du livre, peut- être n’est-ce pas le même ? -Il ne saurait pas y avoir de différence entre le manuscrit et le texte publié. -Vous accusez Ginette Tontisane ? -Vous me demandez de dire la vérité, je ne peux pas dire le contraire de ce que je sais, (DN, 65-66). À travers les témoignages de ces deux groupes opposés, Sembène Ousmane met le doigt sur la plaie, en montrant au lecteur les raisons profondes qui justifient la condamnation de l’Africain, comme le souligne Henry Riou:

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Mon client par la seule couleur de son épiderme, semble faire la preuve de sa culpabilité […] L’accusation repose sur la haine qu’ont provoquée les journaux, qui ont déformé les faits, ( DN,72). Pour renchérir sa pensée, il expose le comportement des colonisateurs blancs : « Le racisme n’est qu’une forme de la haine » ( DN, 73 ). Pour Henry Riou, le cas de Diaw Falla, plus victime que criminel, n’est pas uniquement une lutte entre voleur et volé, mais plutôt un conflit entre deux races qui s'affrontent, des siècles de haine qui se mesurent.

En bon stratège, Sembène Ousmane se sert de son personnage fictif, un Blanc, pour informer le lecteur que le peuple dominant s'est forgé une identité qui va instaurer une « violence symbolique », selon les termes de Pierre Bourdieu (2002: 166), sur le peuple dominé. En plus, il informe le lecteur que le rapport entre le colonisateur et le colonisé est problématique. Cela dans ce sens qu’il entraîne toujours des conséquences néfastes sur le colonisé. Alors, l’homme noir est toujours victime d’injustice parce qu’il a été colonisé par l’homme blanc.

Dans Le Docker noir , Sembène Ousmane, avec l’expérience de son passé traumatique à Marseille, exploite et explore rationnellement le rapport conflictuel entre le colonisateur et le colonisé, démontre comment le colonisé est, dans la plupart des cas, un homme profondément meurtri, traumatisé. Henry Riou souligne le fait que son client n’a pas traduit la voleuse en justice pour deux raisons : « C’est qu’il pensait qu’on ne le croirait pas : double complexe d’infériorité, du à sa race et sa position sociale » ( DN, 72).

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Observateur du vécu quotidien de l’Africain, Sembène Ousmane a un souci: éveiller la conscience de l’homme noir en invitant celui- ci à une prise de conscience. Ainsi, d’un ouvrage à l’autre, il livre à son lecteur son opinion et insiste sur le fait que le conflit entre les colonisateurs et les colonisés est non seulement individuel ou racial, mais aussi linguistique/culturel, un conflit entre le français et les langues africaines.

Conflit entre le français et les langues africaines.

Dans Le Docker noir , Sembène Ousmane présente au lecteur une facette du conflit culturel, à savoir le rapport entre le français, langue officielle dans beaucoup de pays africains, notamment le Sénégal, et les langues africaines.

Docker au port de Marseille et soucieux de son avenir, Diaw Falla parvient à rédiger, en français, après tant d’efforts et de sacrifices, un roman qu’il intitule Le dernier voyage du négrier Sirius. Il va passer en vain d’un éditeur à l’autre pour la publication de son manuscrit. Parce qu’il est Noir et prolétaire, il est incapable de mener une activité littéraire qui, du reste, est un exercice intellectuel. Ainsi, il remet le manuscrit à Ginette Tontisane. Plus tard, il se rend compte que, édité, le livre porte le nom de Ginette Tontisane. Escroqué par la Blanche, enragé, Diaw Falla tue la romancière blanche. Devant le tribunal, Diaw Falla, par son témoignage, démontre qu’il est l’auteur du livre volé. Mais les témoins et le Président du tribunal estiment que le Noir est incapable d’écrire un ouvrage qui remporte le prix littéraire. Pour les Blancs, le livre volé est l’œuvre de Ginette Tontisane parce

298 qu’elle est française, elle parle et écrit correctement le français. Cette divergence de vue entre Blancs et Noir n’est que la facette du conflit entre les colonisateurs et les colonisés.

Enfin de compte, Diaw Falla comprend qu’il ne suffit pas de maîtriser le français de France pour être accepté comme homme en France. Il comprend aussi que le racisme empêche tout dialogue des cultures, tout contact humain. Ainsi Diaw Falla et les autres émigrés, conscients du fait qu’ils sont considérés par les colonisateurs comme des parias de la société française, vont se solidariser, au port de Marseille, s’unir et former une communauté où le Malgache, l’Arabe et le Noir emploient les idiomes les plus divers : diola, ouolof ou français, langue dans laquelle chacun parvient à se faire comprendre, malgré les différents accents et les entorses à la langue sur les plans syntaxiques, phonologiques, grammatical, comme l’atteste cet Arabe : « Piting de la bon’ mère et de la race, hurla un Arabe, tenant son pied. T’y m’marche sur l’i pied encore z’ ist lié piti doigt », ( DN, 96 ).

Le conflit entre le français et les langues africaines, dans Le Docker noir , est aussi perceptible lorsque Yaye Salimata, qui a donné à Diaw Falla une bonne éducation, conformément aux exigences de la vie communautaire fondée sur le travail, apprend, avec amertume et surprise, que ce dernier est arrêté en France et qu’il risque la condamnation à mort. La nuit, à la lueur de la bougie, elle regarde les journaux qu’elle a rassemblés, qui parlent de son fils mais qui ne lui apportent aucune information puisque « les écritures n’avaient aucune valeur pour elle car elle ne pouvait pas les déchiffrer, mais sur chaque journal, elle voyait la photo de son petit », ( DN, 14 ).

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Pour Yaye Salimata, le français devient un obstacle, un mur. C’est ainsi qu’elle finit par maugréer : « Si j’avais leur maudite langue, je pourrais lire ce qu’ils ont écrit », ( DN, 15 ). Sa douleur est profonde. Dans ce sens qu’elle voit la photo de son fils avec « les cheveux semblables à un champ de blé après l’inondation, les paupières boursouflées, les pommettes saillantes, la bouche mal fermée, les vêtements fripés », ( DN , 34 ). Elle est convaincue que l’Europe a métamorphosé son enfant. Ainsi, elle se pose des questions : est-elle elle-même victime d’une illusion optique ? Son fils est-il victime d’une machination des Blancs ? Elle n’est pas informée et elle n’est pas capable de découvrir la vérité sur l’arrestation de son fils parce qu’elle est analphabète.

Dans Le Docker noir , la communication est impossible, « elle est bloquée par le Français qui ne considère pas l’Arabe, le Noir comme un alter ego, comme un interlocuteur, un partenaire », ( Ismaïla Diagne 2004 : 96 ). Pour créer les conditions d’un dialogue entre les Français et les Africains, Sembène Ousmane pense qu’il faudra nécessairement, sans complexe et sans complaisance, préciser le statut de la langue française dans les anciennes colonies.

Sembène Ousmane insiste sur la promotion des langues africaines. C’est ainsi qu’il multiplie les exemples, dans ses écrits, pour sensibiliser les Africains, et pour leur montrer le bien-fondé de l’emploi des langues africaines.

Comme nous pouvons le remarquer, l’écrivain sénégalais soutient énergiquement la promotion des langues africaines parce qu’il estime, comme son compère Ahmadou Kourouma, que le français, langue étrangère et de communication, est un obstacle, une barrière pour la communication entre l’écrivain africain et son lecteur.

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C’est pourquoi il préfère faire recours aux langues africaines, particulièrement le wolof, dans la mesure où celle-ci lui permet de bien exprimer ses pensées, ses émotions et de mieux dépeindre les réalités africaines.

Rappelons que dans sa production littéraire, l’écrivain sénégalais condamne le discours occidental et les idées préconçues par l’Occident concernant l’Afrique: sa bestialité, sa mentalité aberrante, ses habitudes d'inexactitude ou d’obsession sexuelle. Ainsi, il préconise la révolte comme voie à suivre pour combattre l’antagonisme séculaire qui a mis en opposition les colonisateurs blancs et les colonisés noirs. Dans la mesure où la révolte demeure non seulement une arme efficace pour les colonisés, mais aussi un moyen efficace à utiliser par les opprimés en vue de provoquer des changements dans la vie des peuples africains brimés. De plus, elle constitue également une voie obligée, pour accéder de force à la liberté et à la justice.

La révolte

Sembène Ousmane suit la situation des colonisés, d’une époque à l’autre, jette un regard critique sur le vécu quotidien de ses confrères africains et dépeint ses personnages masculins ou féminins selon l’image qu’il se fait de la société africaine à ces trois moments historiques : l’époque coloniale, l’aube de l’indépendance et la période postcoloniale.

Dans Le Docker noir , le romancier présente la situation dramatique de l’Africain pendant la période coloniale. Il décrit son protagoniste, Diaw Falla, en lutte contre le système colonial, lutte qui, pour cet Africain, se justifie par des raisons culturelles et

301 politiques. Pour l’Européen, comme nous l’avons signalé dans les lignes précédentes, selon les théories d’ Homi Bhabha et d’Edouard Said, le Blanc est supérieur, le Noir est inférieur. C’est pourquoi la culture et l’impérialisme servent de point d’appui au Blanc pour justifier ses actes à l’égard du Noir.

Dans son premier ouvrage, Sembène Ousmane dénonce les injustices raciales à l’époque coloniale où le Blanc, dominant, se croit supérieur, considère le Noir, dominé, comme son inférieur. Il se sert d’un exemple frappant pour étayer son opinion: celui de l’immigré noir, Diaw Falla.

Cet Africain se trouve dans une situation embarrassante, lors du vol de son manuscrit. Il se sent comme un esclave parce qu’il n’a pas le droit de réclamer ses droits, même s’il s’estime avoir raison. C’est ainsi qu’il se révolte contre l’acte posé par la romancière française, le vol et la publication de son manuscrit. La révolte de Diaw Falla contre la romancière est perceptible à la fois comme le refus d’accepter les brimades dont les hommes de couleur sont victimes en pays hôte (la France), refus de la domination des colonisateurs blancs sur les colonisés noirs.

Le comportement de Diaw Falla, dans Le Docker noir , traduit la révolte d’un homme meurtri, un homme qui fait apparaître sa douleur intérieure. Malgré son statut d’immigré, il tient à lever sa voix pour revendiquer ses droits d’auteur et le droit de vivre dignement en France. Il tient à briser le mythe d’infériorité bâti autour de l’homme noir, celui incarné par le Blanc et selon lequel l’homme noir est frappé d’une incapacité somatique, d’où son incapacité à pouvoir inventer. De ce fait, Diaw Falla lutte en vue de se libérer de l’emprise coloniale. À la fin du jugement, au

302 tribunal, comme nous l’avons souligné au premier chapitre, l’auteur met le lecteur devant une situation douloureuse, malheureuse, mais significative : contre toute attente et en dépit de sa tentative visant à se libérer du joug colonial, Diaw Falla reste écroué, reconnu coupable du vol du livre, tandis que Ginette Tontisane est considérée comme l’auteure du roman qui a remporté le prix littéraire.

Sembène Ousmane accorde à la révolte une place importante dans ses écrits. C’est pourquoi, il y revient constamment, suite aux réalités quotidiennes vécues par les colonisés noirs aussi bien à l’époque coloniale qu’à l’époque postcoloniale.

À part la révolte, Sembène Ousmane montre, une fois de plus, aux prolétaires, une autre voie efficace qui peut facilement les aider à changer et améliorer les conditions de leur vie : la grève.

La grève

Dans Le Docker noir , Sembène Ousmane aborde le thème de la grève quand il fait allusion à l’acte posé par les travailleurs noirs au port de Marseille.

Sur instructions de leurs patrons blancs, les dockers noirs doivent travailler, sans cesse, pendant plusieurs jours successifs, sous la pluie battante et sans arrêt. Déçus par l’attitude des colonisateurs, et surtout par les conditions de travail dans lesquelles ils doivent exécuter cette besogne, les ouvriers noirs décident d’arrêter le travail, sur instigation de leur leader. Diaw Falla s’adresse aux travailleurs et « tous approuvaient ce qu’il disait, enfin de compte, sur le bateau personne ne travaillait »(DN, 143). Et la grève « ne

303 s’était pas uniquement abattue sur un seul navire. Les deux autres à côté en étaient atteints aussi »(DN, 148). Alassane, ancien navigateur et docker, emboîte le pas à Diaw Falla, en prodiguant de sages conseils aux travailleurs noirs: « Ici, vous vivez en Europe, vous devriez marcher avec les ouvriers, puisque vous constituez une minorité […] Il faut lutter en plein jour »(DN , 108).

Par le biais du narrateur, nous apprenons qu’Alassane est un vieux navigateur. Ce dernier connaît les réalités du monde européen. C’est ainsi qu’il tient à informer et à sensibiliser ses confrères africains qui sont néophytes dans ce milieu. Il veut leur dire, implicitement, qu’il existe une grande différence de conception de vie entre l’Européen et l’Africain. Pour ce, il demande à ses confrères africains de se solidariser, s’unir et lutter s’ils veulent bien vivre en Europe, ce nouveau milieu. Pour convaincre ses confrères et leur montrer l’importance de la grève, Alassane ajoute:

On ne cessera pas de vous prendre pour des enfants, tant que vous n’essaierez pas de comprendre, de saisir les événements en cours. Ne mettez pas votre couleur en cause, acceptez vos responsabilités d’aujourd’hui et celles de demain. Il y a une solution et vous refusez de la voir, ( DN, 109). Sénégalais, imprégné de cet esprit révolutionnaire, avocat des opprimés, Sembène Ousmane veut toujours toucher le lecteur, le sensibiliser et l’inviter à une prise de conscience. C’est ainsi qu’il préconise la grève aux travailleurs comme stratégie pour combattre le colonialisme et le néocolonialisme. Pour lui, l’action et la lutte sont des outils efficaces et solides que les colonisés doivent impérativement utiliser pour combattre les colonisateurs s’ils

304 veulent améliorer les conditions de leur vie. Il estime que la grève, pour être efficace, doit être accompagnée de la violence.

Dans Le Docker noir , Diaw Falla, chômeur et incapable de payer son loyer, est dérangé et persécuté moralement, menacé par la propriétaire. Impatiente, celle-ci veut confisquer les vêtements du locataire. Fâché, l’Africain vend ses habits. Au moment où il s’apprête à payer son loyer, une Marie-couche-toi-là se présente et demande de lui acheter à boire. À cette demande, Diaw Falla réagit méchamment et lui tient des propos discourtois. Un Blanc, mécontent de la conduite de l’Africain envers la Blanche, lui reproche son impolitesse. Diaw Falla saisit cette opportunité et réagit avec violence :

Il n’avait pas achevé de parler qu’il lui donna un coup de tête et le renversa. Les femmes, affolées, couraient de toutes parts en criant […] En proie à une colère aigue, Falla martelait sa victime, (DN , 165). C’est pratiquement dans une situation analogue que l’immigré a tué Ginette Tontisane. Écoutons le narrateur :

C’était plus qu’une lutte entre voleur et volé, deux races s’affrontaient des siècles de haine se mesuraient […] Son étreinte se faisait de plus en plus forte. Elle gémissait, comme prise dans un étau. Lui il n’éprouvait aucun plaisir à ce qu’il faisait, mais il fallait qu’il l’humilie, (DN , 193). Diaw Falla a exprimé sa colère non seulement à l’endroit de la Blanche, mais aussi à l’égard de son collègue noir, ami des colonisateurs, qui maltraite les Noirs:

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D’un reflexe rapide, la tête la première, il [Diaw Falla] entra dans son adversaire et s’y colla comme un rémora. De sa main droite, il fouillait les fesses de N’Gor avec son outil. Le chef d’équipe saignait abondamment. Profitant de son état, Diaw le harcelait de coups […] Le sang coulait du nez , (DN, 151-152). Sembène Ousmane, à travers l’acte violent, met en lumière sa foi en la violence, et préconise la lutte sanglante pour libérer l’homme exploité non seulement du colonialisme, mais aussi du néocolonialisme. Il recommande aux colonisés la solidarité dans la lutte qu’ils mènent contre les colonisateurs blancs ou noirs.

La solidarité

La solidarité est un sentiment qui pousse les hommes à s’entraider, à s’accorder une aide mutuelle. Elle est indispensable pour la cohésion d’une communauté. De plus, elle doit se manifester, pour l’efficacité et la réussite de l’action entreprise par les membres d’une communauté, dans le bonheur comme dans le malheur, pendant la période des vaches grasses comme pendant la période des vaches maigres.

Dans son œuvre romanesque, Sembène Ousmane se sert de cette valeur africaine pour sensibiliser et conscientiser les Africains du bien-fondé de la solidarité. Le lecteur peut déceler, après lecture des ouvrages de cet auteur, l’essence de l’entraide entre Africains vivant à l’étranger, et ceux qui vivent en Afrique.

Dans Le Docker noir , la solidarité est omniprésente. L’écrivain sénégalais pense que cette valeur africaine est importante pour la

306 cohésion d’une communauté, et son mot d’ordre est clair : « Nous n’avons à compter que sur nous. Serrons-nous les coudes. Il nous faudra beaucoup de courage et de patience pour sortir de ce mauvais sort », (DN , 108).Ainsi, pour convaincre son lecteur, il se sert d’un cas malheureux survenu aux Africains qui vivent en Europe.

Lors de la mort inopinée d’un Africain à Marseille, les Noirs ont fait montre d’un sentiment d’affection entre eux et d’entraide mutuelle. Ils n’ont pas abandonné le corps de leur frère, entendu au sens large du terme. En Afrique, le mot frère a une connotation large. Il ne signifie pas seulement une personne issue d’une même famille, mais aussi il signifie une personne du même clan, de la même tribu, d’une même province ou même d’un même pays. C’est dans ce contexte que les Noirs se sont solidarisés pour enterrer avec honneur leur confrère. Écoutons Diaw Falla :

Je vous salue d’abord, commença Diaw. Avant de vous dire ce que je ramène, il y a un fait plus important, notre camarade est mort. Tout est fait, et c’est demain dans l’après-midi qu’il sera enterré. Un autocar viendra vous chercher à deux heures devant le cinéma de la rue des Dominicains , (DN , 101-102). Selon l’auteur du Docker noir , dans la communauté africaine, l’entente et l’affection mutuelle doivent exister. Parce que l’individu ne vit pas pour lui-même. Bien au contraire, il vit dans un grand ensemble où ils se doivent mutuellement de l’aide. C’est pourquoi, il salue le geste de Diaw Falla. Dans la mesure où ce geste symbolise le respect qui caractérise les Africains, tout

307 comme d’autres peuples. Après la salutation, il montre que Diaw Falla, après avoir rempli cette formalité communautaire, peut annoncer la nouvelle : « Un fait important, notre camarade est mort », (DN, 102).

Dans ce contexte, Sembène Ousmane met en relief le rôle que la solidarité peut jouer dans une communauté quand il montre au lecteur les préparatifs qui ont entouré l’inhumation d’Ousmane à Marseille: « Tout est fait […] c’est demain dans l’après-midi qu’il sera enterré , un auto car viendra vous chercher à deux heures devant le cinéma de la rue des Dominicains , ( Idem ).

En donnant tous ces détails, l’écrivain, par le biais de son narrateur, invite implicitement le lecteur à comprendre le bien- fondé de la solidarité pour les membres de cette communauté noire. En cas de décès, ils se supportent moralement et financièrement en se côtisant de l’argent pour enterrer avec honneur celui qui a partagé, avec eux, les moments de joie et de peine ensemble. En s’adressant à ses confrères, Diaw Falla renchérit sa pensée :

Pour couvrir les frais de l’enterrement, il a fallu une quête… L’argent que nous avons eu de trop, nous n’avons pas à le jeter par les fenêtres…On peut par contre le distribuer aux plus indigents, (Ibidem ). Sembène Ousmane fait voir au lecteur, qu’après l’intervention de quelques membres, les Africains enterrent leur frère, et le surplus d’argent récolté a été remis aux démunis qui souffrent en Europe. Par ce geste, il révèle au lecteur l’importance de la vie communautaire pour l’Africain. Celui-ci vit dans un pays étranger,

308 et il est caractérisé non seulement par le sentiment d’entraide, mais aussi par le sens d’hospitalité.

Conclusion

Notre travail a pour sujet «Le Militantisme dans Le Docker noir (1956) de Sembène Ousmane». Nous avons poursuivi dans le développement de cette communication d’analyser la dialectique de Sembène Ousmane, « l’éminent romancier sénégalais », (Anny Wynchank 2012: 149), à travers les manifestations sociales, culturelles et politiques de l’engagement et du militantisme (le conflit, la révolte, la grève, la violence et la solidarité). Nous avons montrer que le défenseur des opprimés et des prolétaires, tout comme André Malraux, dans La Condition humaine et/ou Les Conquérants , est un écrivain qui s’est engagé, à travers ses écrits, pendant cinq décennies de sa carrière littéraire, dans la lutte des démunis, des colonisés, des prolétaires contre les colonisateurs, et il a milité, par ses prises de position, pour la libération des «damnés de la terre » de l’emprise coloniale, et de la dictature de la nouvelle bourgeoisie africaine.

De plus, il a proposé aux prolétaires les pistes, ou mieux, les stratégies qui peuvent les aider non seulement à combattre les oppresseurs, mais aussi à mettre un terme au conflit séculaire qui a mis en opposition colonisateurs/exploiteurs et colonisés/exploités, patrons et travailleurs, pour que les démunis ou dépossédés puissent se libérer de l’emprise coloniale ou de la dictature de nouveaux colons africains.

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Pour mettre fin à cet antagonisme qui a mis en opposition les colonisateurs et les colonisés, les patrons et les ouvriers, Sembène Ousmane a proposé aux colonisés ou aux prolétaires des stratégies: la révolte. Pour Sembène Ousmane, la révolte est une arme efficace que les prolétaires doivent utiliser dans le combat qu’ils mènent contre les colonisateurs/blancs ou noirs. Cette révolte ne peut être efficace que si elle est concrétisée par la grève, et celle-ci doit être accompagnée par la violence. Et la violence donnera un bon résultat si elle est entretenue par la solidarité entre les prolétaires. Sans ces stratégies, les exploiteurs continueront toujours à maltraiter, à dominer et à exploiter les prolétaires. Et ceux-ci resteront éternellement sous le joug de leurs patrons et, de plus, continueront à vivre dans la misère.

Pour finir, nous constatons que notre romancier militant- syndicaliste, a beaucoup milité, contre vents et marées, dans ses prises de position, pour l’indépendance, la libération de l’homme noir du joug colonial ou néocolonial, pour l’unité africaine, et pour l’émancipation de la femme africaine dans son pays, le Sénégal en particulier et dans les pays de l'Afrique y compris le monde noir en général. Il est vrai que Sembène Ousmane, éveilleur de la conscience africaine, est mort, et sa mort est une grande perte de l’intelligence africaine, mais son œuvre, qui constitue pour les Africains, un trésor, un héritage inépuisable, doit demeurer et se poursuivre. Et que les dictateurs, nouveaux colons africains, doivent cesser de maltraiter leurs propres frères et sœurs africains. Qu’ils cessent aussi de considérer les démunis, les «damnés de la terre» comme des parias de la société. Qu’ils suivent plutôt les conseils de ce grand romancier africain, pour promouvoir notre culture, la culture africaine.

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Bibliographie Ade-Ojo, S.1980. «André Malraux et Sembène Ousmane: créateurs des romans prolétariens historiques ? », in Peuples Noirs, Peuples Africains, vol.no. 17, pp. 117-134. Ade-Ojo, S.1985. « Revolt, Violence and Dutyin Ousmane Sembène , God’s Bits of Wood » in Nigeria magazine , vol.no.53, July-Sept., pp.58-68. Bestman, M.T.1974. « L’esthétique romanesque de Sembène Ousmane », in Études Littéraires, vol.no.7, pp . 395-403. Bilali, S. 1979. « Sembène Ousmane: Un écrivain Profond et lucide de notre temps », in Libération Afrique1 , p. 21. Bové, B. 2011. «Sembène Ousmane (1923-2007), une biographie» in Sembène Ousmane (1923-2007), Africultures , pp.26-45. Fanon, F. 1974. Les Damnés de la terre . Paris: Maspero. Huannou, A. 1974. « Sembène Ousmane, cinéaste et écrivain sénégalais », in L’Afrique Littéraire et Artistique . vol. 32, no. 33, pp. 24-28. Ki-Zerbo, J. 1964. Le Monde africain noir . Paris: Hatier ------1972. Histoire de l'Afrique noire . Paris: Hatier. Larousse. 1961. Grand Larousse Encyclopédique . Vol. 4. Paris: Librairie Larousse. Luxemburg, R. 1899. Réforme sociale ou révolution . Paris: Maspero. Sada N. et al. 1995. « Interview with Sembène Ousmane», in Research in African Literatures, vol. no.26, pp .174-178.

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Sada, N. 2009. Sembène Ousmane: Une vie . Canada: Uniiversity of Victoria. Samba, G. 2007. Ousmane Sembène: Une conscience africaine. Paris: Hémisphères. ------2010. Ousmane Sembène: The making of a militant artist . Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Sembène, O. 1956. Le Docker noir. Paris: Nouvelles Editions Debresse. Tidjani-Serpos, N. 1978. « Roman et société: La femme africaine comme personnage des Bouts de bois de Dieu de Sembène Ousmane », in Présence Africaine, vol.no.108 , pp.122-137.

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PORTRAYAL OF CORRUPTION IN FEMI OSOFISAN’S BIRTHDAYS ARE NOT FOR DYING

TOBALASE, Adegbite O.

Abstract

Corruption has been said to be the endemic malady that has eaten deep into the fabrics of the African nation. Nigeria has had varying experiences both in the past and presently. The Nigerian government and several of its agencies are on a widespread effort to curb the excessive corrupt nature of its leaders in various arms of government. The new government singing a ‘Change’mantrahas placed war against corruption at the front burner of its agenda. This paper is an appraisal of Femi Osofisan’s play Birthdays Are Not for Dying with a view to exposing all corrupt practices of leadership at different facets of the nation by a young man of another generation. This play was purposively selected for its portrayal, to a large extent, of the issue that forms the focus of this research. The method of investigation is analytical and descriptive, adopting the formalist literary approach toanalyze the characters, their actions and speeches. The study identifies various levels of corruption and the roles played by several leaders in ensuring its entrenchment in society. The research concludes by proposing the use of action and protest against corrupt practices of leaders by the youths of the nation.

Keywords : Corruption, bad leadership, social protest, youth revolt,

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Introduction

Corruption is one of the biggest global issues, ahead of extreme poverty, unemployment, the rising cost of food and energy, climate change, and terrorism. It is thought to be one of the principal causes of poverty around the globe. Its significance in the contemporary world cannot be overestimated. 26 Corruption is a term that is found in every society of the world and Nigeria is no exception, it is usually defined as an act that is capable of depriving nations, organisations and individuals of what is rightfully theirs. Scholars have proffered several definitions of this endemic practice. The World Bank 27 uses a straight forward definition on corruption as ' the abuse of public office for private gain' 28 .Transparency International 29 on it part defines it as 't he abuse of entrusted power for private gain. ' It is defined as ‘misuse of entrusted power for private gains’ in the Danish Penal Code 30 . SIDA 31 captures it as: 'when institutions, organisations, companies or individuals profit inappropriately from their position in the operations and thereby cause damage or loss. This includes giving and receiving bribes, extortion, favouritism and nepotism, embezzlement, fraud, conflict of interest, and illegal monetary contributions to political parties. '

26 Leslie Holmes (2015) Corruption: A very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. 27 A body that regulates financial activities in the world 28 The literature contains many definitions of corruption, as writers either seek a comprehensive term or focus on a single aspect. In the words of the Bank's General Counsel, Ibrahim Shihata, 29 Transparency International http://www.transparancy.de/mission.html (Assessed July. 25th, 2016) 30 Danish International Agency (DANIDA) 31 Swedish International Development Corporation Agency (SIDA)

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A survey of 3,600 firms in 69 countries carried out for the 1997 World Development Report provides further evidence of the widespread existence and negative effects of corruption. As noted in the report:

The survey confirmed that corruption was an important—and widespread —problem for investors. Overall, more than 40 percent of entrepreneurs reported having to pay bribes to get things done as a matter of course. . . . Further, more than half the respondents worldwide thought that paying a bribe was not a guarantee that the service would actually be delivered as agreed, and many lived in fear that they would simply be asked for more by another official. . . . The consequences of corruption often do not end with paying off officials and getting on with business. Government arbitrariness entangles firms in a web of time- consuming and economically unproductive relations. . . i

Fifty-five years into Nigeria’s independence, the country is still bedeviled with corruption, which in turns causes extreme poverty, unemployment, the rising cost of food and energy, unavailability of social amenities, climate change, and terrorism as stated above. Some writers say that corruption is endemic in all governments, and that it is not peculiar to any continent, region and ethnic group. It cuts across faiths, religious denominations and political systems and affects both young and old, man and woman alike. Corruption is found in democratic and dictatorial politics; feudal , capitalist and socialist economies. Christian , Muslim , and Traditional cultures are equally bedeviled by corruption. And corrupt practices did not begin today; the history is as old as the world; it has been ubiquitous in complex societies from ancient Egypt,Israel , Rome, and Greece down to the present 32 . This does not, however, mean that the magnitude of corruption is equal in every society as some countries are

32 (Lipset and Lenz 2000, pp.112-113)

315 more corrupt than others. Nigeria ranks high among corrupt countries in Africa. As George Orwell notes in his widely read book, Animal Farm 33 : All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others (June 1996, p.109).

Femi Osofisan captures the incessant corruption in the Nigerian society in “Birthdays Are Not for Dying”. KunleAremo is the heir to a large fortune at the center of which is a business corporation. He however can only take charge of the company at the attainment of the age of thirty years. He works assiduously with accountants, auditors and lawyers to affirm the state of affairs in the company and the results were shocking: the company was deeply embedded in corruption and this he believes led to his father’s early death

They’re worse than murderers, Councilor! They killed my father! They deserve it all Why do you keep thinking your father could not have protected himself? What makes you think he could not have acted if he wanted? (Restless Breed, 129)

On Kunle’s thirtieth birthday, he decides to assume the presidency of the company as stated in the father’s will. Kunle decides to use the celebration of his birthday to achieve two things: clean up the corruption, fraud, and sycophancy that have become endemic in the company; celebrate his achievement in wiping out corruption. At this discovery, he is determined to rid the company of all forms of corruption, no matter the price he needs to pay, even his life. His mother firmly opposes him, implores him to ignore his father's will and give up the company as she is certain that his idealism will lock him in a fight she is convinced he can never win against

33 Orwell, George. Animal Farm………..

316 all the other Directors who have interests in the company. She tries to dissuade him against his plan but he would not hear a word of it

Kunle: Mother, if you’ve seen the lawyer, then you know I have an important meeting before the party starts. And I am the host, I shouldn’t be late.

Mother: You’re as pig-head as you father! He too, he never listened to me, and they met him suddenly on the crest of his life’s journey, just as I warned they would, and they stopped him dead –

Kunle: Mama, father died of peptic ulcer…….

Mama: Thank you. Thank you Mr. Peptic ulcer! When you meet your own share of it at the meeting you’re attending tonight, it will be me, Bose, and Segun, your poor son who’ll be carrying the coffin. (Restless Breed, 105)

This scene points to the fact that Mama was aware of the level of corruption in the company and that Corruption is bigger than one man. Kunle’s father paid with his life when he attempted to stop it and she is convinced the same fate will befall Kunle if he should go ahead with his plan. Mama’s character is that of those who will rather allow corruption continue than lose dear ones for the war against it. Councilor is another character who though is not corrupt but will also do nothing to stop it. Kunle thought he would be able to go into partnership with the only member of the team who had no record of corruption but was disappointed when his offer was turned down despite his willingness to give seventy per cent equity to Councilor.

Kunle: I want to know, councilor. How would you like coming in as my partner?

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A full-fledged partnership. Fifty – fifty….. (Restless Breed, 128)

Councilor: How far are you willing to go if I refuse fifty percent?

Kunle: Sixty, sir. I’m kidding, seventy! Seventy percent. (Restless Breed, 129)

……all you have to do is just sign over there (Restless Breed, 128)

Councilor: …..And see what I’ll do with your papers! [ He tears them up to Kunle’s utter disbelief ]

Kunle: Councilor – oh my head – Councilor, I understand now! You’re just no better than them! Your hands are clean, you don’t steal money yourself, but you’ll do nothing to stop those who dip their fingers in the wallet behind everybody’s back. You are an accomplice, sir, as guilty as the rest! For with people like you, nothing will ever change. You’re born to fold your arms behind your back and close your eyes and connive at crime. And that’s how you’ll die, conniving and pretending, and calling it kindness! (Restless Breed, 130)

These extracts confirm the kind of persons Kunle and Councilor are. Kunle does not mind losing the controlling shares as long as he is sure it will put an end to corruption and ensure the sustenance and growth of the company. Councilor on the other part will not be a party to the eradication of corruption. He is of the opinion that Kunle had disgraced men old enough to be

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his fathers and is not willing to be seen joining him in their disgrace. He will rather have the company die than help and be seen as a traitor by his corrupt friends.

Kunle: I don’t want my father’s business to die. And I can’t handle it myself, as you know.

Councillor: Then I am sorry for you, my son. You should have thought of that much earlier. Before you started whipping old men right and left like cattle in Sango. (Restless Breed, 129)

Osofisan creates three categories of characters in this play: 1.) the corrupt - Chief Samuel Seminiyi (Kunle’s father-in-law), Rtd. Major Peter Ajala, Honourable O. O. Fakunle and Alhaji Nassir Kofoworola; 2.) Not corrupt but doing nothing to stop corruption - Councilor LekanBamgbade and Mama; 3.) Fighter against corruption – KunleAremo.

With the creation of the corrupt characters, Osofisan portrays the presence of corruption in all strata of society. Chief represent local chiefs and title holders who are supposedly closest to the grassroots and should know the sufferings of the masses and fight for them; Major Ajala, the military - trained to be disciplined and to fight for the defense of the people; HonorableFakunle represent the servicing Politicians who were elected into office to represent the interest of the masses that voted them into office; Alhaji Kofoworola represent the cleric, the category of persons that should preach the gospel of godliness, fairness and equity.

The opposite is what is seen of these characters as the people who should defend, encourage, fight for the needs of the needy and less privileged are the same ones stealing from the poor and taking the little they have away from them without conscience. We see Honorable try to defend his

319 corrupt ways by saying every wealthy man in the country got wealth through corruption.

Let me start with you then, since you are in a hurry, Honorable. For a week now I’ve been studying the company accounts. The accountant and the lawyer, I must say, have been very helpful. They helped me discover a lot of things. As you know, my father was illiterate. He let a lot of things pass; he never did bother with statistics. But I do. And I have found out how you, Honorable, have made it out so cleverly, that the soap company which is our subsidiary pays you alone a sum of fifty thousand naira every week. Not directly of course. We pay it to one Odedare Enterprises. And Odedare Enterprises is registered in the name of one person I assume I don’t have to disclose?

Fraud! Fraud! What is fraud, tell me! Is it what everybody does or not? Every bloody rich man in this country got his wealth by what you call fraud! And you know it! So what have I done wrong? (Restless Breed, 123)

Honourable is correct to say that every ‘bloody’ rich man got wealth through fraud and this is again confirmed in the recent happening in Nigeria’s financial sector – Banks. It has been exposed how bank MDs use shareholders monies for their personal gains. There is even the scenario where a bank MD also uses subsidiaries to siphon funds from the bank using different aliases just like Honorable. There are also similar cases in almost all the sectors of the Nigerian economy. The story of Nigeria Ports Authority is still fresh in the memories of the citizens. The same way the banks funds are being retrieved through legal procedures was the same as applied by Femi Osofisan.

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I’ve dismissed you from the Board. The lawyer will start judicial processes tomorrow to recover our money. (Restless Breed, 124)

Alhaji even turned out to be worse than Honorable as Kunle did not deem it fit to even take him to court but openly disgraced him using the press. Alhaji’s dismissal was with immediate effect as he is described as a rogue without second thoughts on the effect of his action on even friends.

A rogue! A complete heartless rogue, who could plunder a friend without compunction. I won’t even bother to take you to court. I’ll just disgrace you before the whole country, and dare you to go to court. (Restless Breed, 124)

Alhaji is the first to out rightly challenge Kunle physically when he hits him in the chest with his ring, assumed to be charmed, as he promises Kunle that his face will also show in the pages of newspapers in the obituary column. This act confirms Alhaji’s person as described by Kunle as ‘without compunction’. He believes that if he must go down, so must whoever is responsible irrespective of whatever witness was around to testify against him should the case degenerate further. He wants a pound for a flesh as Kunle must pay for his audacity to challenge his corrupt acts and destroy what he has worked several years to build.

Corruption to Alhaji and Major is a right as they employ all kinds of means to make money whether from friends, government or even family. To them, it is a game of winner takes all while the loser can go to blazes, or jump into the lagoon.

You can’t do this, you know. We built this company with your father. We employed all kinds of means. It is

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the age we live in. we can’t change the rules. Everyone plunders, whether from friends or strangers or the government! It’s all in the game. The winner takes the loot; the loser goes to the gutter, or into the asylum. We played the game and we won. Your father was no different. He had his teeth out just like any other – (Restless Breed, 125)

The Major sees corruption as a game that every rich man plays and the smarter rogue is the winner. He also says it is a norm in the present age and that the rules cannot be changed. Thus anyone who attempts to change the rules must be destroyed. Looking at the rate at which military dictators have amassed wealth to themselves, Major is seen as a prototype. Generals SanniAbacha and Ibrahim Babangida are examples of men that Major replicates. International reports have reported the country’s past military leaders as being in the fore front of corruption as the coffers of the nation is looted without an iota of consideration for the needy citizens on the street who do not have access to basic amenities like electricity, portable water, education, social infrastructures etc. These oppressed citizens cannot even afford one good meal in a day. Nigerian leaders have become vampires that suck on the blood of the poor while their children have the best of everything – schools, health care. They and their families travel abroad while the country’s education and health sectors are in shambles. Schools are on strike in Nigeria for over four months yet leader goes abroad to commission a school and this even makes news as an achievement. Leaders’ traveling abroad for medical checkup makes news as it is officially publicized yet the country’s health infrastructures are in shambles.

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Chief is not any better than the rest as he claims he has not stolen from Kunle’s father yet uses company funds to pay for health treatment of mistress abroad.

Kunle: Madam Feyisope, the Manageress of Ireti Stores was trapped in that fire which gutted her store last month. She’s been sent to a very expensive hospital in Switzerland.

Chief: And then?

Kunle: You still want me to go on? Madam Feyisope is your mistress. You set up the stores for her five years ago. And our Company has been paying her expenses in Switzerland. Father, I could decide to stop paying. (Restless Breed, 127)

Several of Nigeria’s leaders are also in the game of buying luxurious cars, houses and setting up businesses for girlfriends and mistresses with national funds. Several cases of this have been seen among the bourgeoisies of the country. Several have even used bank accounts of mistresses to siphon huge sum while several have equally awarded contracts using company names of mistresses and girlfriends.

Chief also flagrantly disregards the regulations of the company by associating openly with political parties.

Associating openly with a political party. In gross contravention of company regulations. Every official is strictly forbidden to take part in open, partisan politics, or the penalty is instant dismissal…. (Restless Breed, 126)

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These days, several public officers not only associate with political parties but even publicly donate funds and sponsor political parties. This they term as investments that yield dividends when the party or supported candidate gets into power. The country also has had several issues and stories of god-fatherism in politics. Chief is Kunle father-in-law, thus it was a shock that he also was affected. Osofisan is simply saying here that the fight against corruption must be total, irrespective of relationship of persons concerned. It is also revealed that Kunle’s marriage to Bose was a machination of both parents to protect their business interests.

… Two years ago, he had an interesting discussion with my father, in this very room. That discussion eventually led to a wedding….

I can’t recognize you!

… But two years ago, two old men came here and decided that their business was more important than someone else’s honour. My manhood was at stake, all my friends were anxious, but those two men met and put their feet down…. (Restless Breed, 126)

This is also seen happening in present day society, leaders give out their daughters in marriage to political and business associates and Governors alike. The President of Nigeria has already given two of his daughters out in marriage to servicing Governors. A replication of what Osofisan captured years back. The rule of the game has indeed not changed.

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Conclusion Corruption is not a victimless crime. It is theft, stealing, or robbery, and it inflicts real harm on people, societies and the world at large 34 . The victims in this case are Kunle’s dad, who had to die as a result; Kunle himself, who is made fatherless at a very young age, as well as his mum, who has become widowed. An important element of the injury it does is moral as well as material: that is, victims are outraged in their sense of justice and human dignity, as well as severely burdened economically. It is the insult embedded in many acts of corruption that often drives victims to extreme responses as seen in the instance of Kunle taking varying actions against these corrupt elders and leaders in his society.

The writer’s portrayal of characters and their varying corrupt actions is in conformity with the various definitions of corruption captured in the work, therefore confirming that the characters are indeed corrupt in thought and in actions. Corruption remains within the society as even youths are daily getting more involved in internet frauds and advanced free frauds (419).

As part of measures to put checks on corrupt practices, the public needs to be educated on the advantages of good governance and participate in promoting it. The public itself bears a large share of responsibility for insisting on honesty and integrity in government and business by making

34 A Seminar paper titled: Corruption, Protest and Militancy held at St. George ’s House, Windsor, June 25-27 2015. Sponsored by the LSE Justice and Security Research Programme, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and the World Peace Foundation (pg. 2)

325 their leaders accountable to them, the electorate. The people needs to learnto voice out against all acts of corruption; not to sell or let anybody buy their vote; not to pay bribes themselves; to report incidents of corruption to the authorities; and to teach their children the right values; e.g. that integrity is good and corruption is bad 35 . All of these have been captured by Osofisan in this play. Through the writing of this play, the public is better enlightened about corrupt practices of leaders; it is revealed that bribe, if paid will come back to hunt both giver and receiver; Kunle is willing to tow the line of righteousness by condemning all forms of corruption in whatever guise in its totality. Osofisan believes the only way out is a change of attitude and total reorientation of the citizens, starting with you and me. Like Kunle, Nigerians must remain dogged and uncompromising as any posture of less severity will definitely not accomplish the crusade against corruption.

Osofisan propagates the use of action and protest against corrupt practices and that every offender must be brought to book. He also reveals the risks involved in fighting against corruption, which could be disastrous or rewarding. However, irrespective of the end result of fighting corruption, the fight must be embarked upon.

35 Statement of Mr. PinoArlacchi at the Opening session of ISPAC Conference on “Responding to the Challenge of Corruption”, Milano November 19, 1999 In Prevention: An Effective Tool to Reduce Corruption , Vienna, December 1999

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Works Cited

Lipset, Seymour Martin, and Gabriel Salman Lenz.‘Corruption, Culture, and Markets’ , In Culture Matters .Lawrence E. Harrison, and Samuel P. Huntington, (eds.), New York: Basic Books, 2000, p.112.

Orwell, George. Animal Farm . England: Longman Group Limited, 1945

Osofisan, Femi. “Birthdays are not for Dying” In Osofisan, Femi (ed) Restless Breeds (4 Short Plays) . Washington: Howard UniversityPress, 1982.

United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention (UNODCCP), Prevention: An Effective Tool to Reduce Corruption , Vienna: United Nations, 1999.

Victor E. Dike.Democracy and Political Life in Nigeria, Nigeria: Ahmadu Bello University Press, 2001.

World Bank, World Development Report: The State in a Changing World , New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. http://www.transparancy.de/mission.html (Assessed July. 25th, 2016)

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