“We Were Leftist Anyway”

CEU eTD Collection LEFT-WING POLITIZATION OF ALEVIS INTHE1960sAND1970s OFALEVIS POLITIZATION LEFT-WING In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Second Reader: Assistant Professor Balazs Trencsenyi “WE WERE LEFTISTS ANYWAY”?“WE WERELEFTISTS : Submitted to Central European University European toCentral Submitted Supervisor: Professor Nadia Al-Bagdadi History Department Budapest, Hungary Master of Arts Master IN TURKEY Emine Aksoy 2008 By CEU eTD Collection Abstract transformed intotransformed an Alevi movementin 1990s the beingbased on religious differences. community left in politicized the this 70sandhow bythe1960sand politicized community traditional and areligious as Alevism how display to also but Alevis, and left the between left. Thereforeinterpretation of Alevi tradition andhistory was declared as the ideological source inof the thissocialist thesis, classwithinAt same theleft-wing. Alevi the time, poems and to hymns,adapted religious I seek struggle, not were politicized they how understanding of intention the with literature or periodicals just becameto demonstrate socio-cultural leftbackground andhowthey materials,encountered propagandist common property totheir wasrelated interview the during interest my Basically in Istanbul. field research this mutualof theinvolved intheleftistmovements during the 1960sand during 1970swas conducted my leftrelationship duringcollecting memoirs and usingsemi interviews in-depth structured with eight Alevipeople these years.movements aqualitativeleftist during Forthispurpose, period. through this study, Re- sidesrevolutionary took ideologies, with left, andthe actively became engaged in various this study examines and how why Aleviyouth the devoted egalitarianthemselves to Alevispolarization in left-right in during the andAdditionally, 1970s theTurkey. 1960s The primary aim of this thesis is to explore the strong left-wing tendency among tendency left-wing strong the explore to is thesis this of aim primary The ii CEU eTD Collection To mybrother, To iii Lütfi Aksoy CEU eTD Collection Acknowledgements Department of History for my years. theinformative Department and role throughout of History graduate guiding University and the Central expressto the European my like to gratitude deepest interviewees for sharing theirthoughtsand feelingswith me sincerely.Finally, Iwould Ta for her precious support during the hardesttimesmy of study. Iam very Ali grateful to Degree with invaluabletheir Iwould assistance. like tothank myfriend to AyçaArk friends, especially all Iwishtoexpresshis valuable suggestion my my and assistance. to gratitude deepest to Eszterforinvaluable their supervision and suggestions. Iam Vlad also thankful to Naumescufor Spat andmy life. Iam tomyindebted greatly Nadia supervisors Al-Bagdadi and BalazsTrencsenyi Zsolt Udvarvolgyi forAksoy making I go,and mefeelsafe wherever for supporting in mein every decision members; family my extended to gratefulness whomy special offer also contributedFirst of likeall,express Iwould my to gratitude tomydeepest mother MeryemAksoy. I to my MA ú ar forar his invaluablemy and during help fieldwork. Iam support all my grateful to iv ù akir Aksoy, Mustafa Aksoy, akir ÕOÕ ç CEU eTD Collection B I B L I O G R A P H Y...... 57 Conclusion...... 54 CHAPTER IV: The Leftist Movement and Alevis in the 1960s and 1970s...... 40 CHAPTER III: Analyzing In-Depth Interviews...... 28 CHAPTER II: The Alevis inTurkey: Historical (16 Overview CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK...... 7 ...... 1 Introduction Acknowledgements...... iv ii ...... Abstract Table ofContents 4.3 The Revival of Alevism and the Reconstruction of Collective Identity...... 50 4.2 The Alevi Youth of the 1960s and ...... 45 1970s and the Left 4.1 The Leftist Movement ...... 41 in the 1960s and 1970s 3.4 Analyzing the Interviews...... 35 3.3 Description of Interviewees...... 30 3.2 Questionnaire...... 29 3.1 Method and Researching ...... 28 Techniques 2.4 The Alevi Migration and Urbanization from ...... 25 the 1950s onward 2.3 Alevis during the Republican Era: A Holy Alliance of the ...... 22 Secular Turkey 2.2 Kizilbash/Alevis: “Heretical Rebel of the Ottoman Empire”...... 18 2.1 The Religious and Social Aspects of Kizilbash/Alevis...... 16 1.2 The Alevis in Scholarly Literature...... 9 1.1 The State and Religion...... 7 th - 20 th cnuy ...... 16 century) CEU eTD Collection Introduction Present” “Alevis inTurkeyandComparableSyncretistic Religious Communitiespast and East inthe the Near in Syncretistic Religious Communities in theNear East,Collected Papers of the International Symposium Kurdish Alevis. 2 (December1999) p. 74. percent of Alevis) of the country Zaza-speaking 20 (some population or Kurdish followersnumber the of among great Sunnis the after Turkey’s population and, constituted country’s the largest religioussecond community 15 millionNumbering about Alevisthemselvespeople, for account some 25percentof 30 percentunofficial Alevis estimates, 15 of comprise to total the population of Turkey. to According Alevis. and Sunnis Turkey: in groups Muslim main two are There within. topics controversial several these includes also tendency among Alevisduring left-right init wing the polarization 1970s, the1960sand left-wing strong the discusses thesis this Since migration. and urbanization politics, secularization asnationalism, such history issues Turkish of controversial several touches subject Alevis asa research interest. political and of academic a subject as have appeared Alevis this development, to Parallel trend. from this be separated cannot Alevicase the have in anincreasing trend become from andpolitical academic circles 1970s the onward, the contrary, Alevi is used to cover a large number speaking Alevis. of different heterodox communities, in Turkey inin Turkey Sinceand thesubjectsEurope. of manifesting themselves anddemanding and their religious cultural in rights 1990s the both 1 Martin van Bruinessen, Daivd Zeidan, Daivd Therefore, the term “Alevi” does not refer to a homogeneous religious group. On refer a homogeneous religious group. to term “Alevi” doesnot the Therefore, Alevis, as a specific community, became a center of attention since they began they since acenterof attention became community, Alevis, asaspecific . Leiden: Brill, 1997, p.1. in The Alevi of Anatolia 1 . Although Alevis . Although predominantly speakingalso thereare a Turkish are Kelh-Bodrogi,Krisztina, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele Ankeand Otter-Beaujean.(Eds) “Asl ÕQÕ inkar eden haramzadedir!” TheDebateonthe Ethnicthe Identity of . in 2 and small numbers of Azerbaijani Turkish and Arabic and Turkish Azerbaijani of numbers small and Middle East Review of International Affairs, 1 nationalism , ethnicity Vol. 3, No. 4 or ethnic groups CEU eTD Collection men and women carry out ritual dances ( who belong to a holy lineage at which religious poems ( Instead they have their own religious Cem ceremonies recall the names of Hasan and Hüseyin and Twelver Imam. Twelver and Hüseyin and of Hasan names the recall by holy menwith attending both men and women.It is part of the purpose of this ritual to pray to Ali, to 7 (Eds.) Mecca- which for them merely represent the external ( external the merely represent them for Mecca- which 6 5 4 p.1. September, by the by inner ( fourth caliph, and rituals andinstitutions. Alevis Ali, venerate cousin the of MohammedtheProphet andthe Twelver Imam. fromIn additiondifferent religions to these, and cultures, Alevis Shi’ism claimhas an important to possess impact on itsthe basic cults, from Sunni Islam Sunni from they have no historical ties with Anatolian Alevi groups. community, Alawi Syria’s of extension the are they Since Adana. and Hatay especially speaking Alevi community inhabitstraditionally some provinces Anatoliaof Southern Arabic The Iran. modern of Shi’ism Twelver ‘orthodox’ the from little differs Alevism Turkish,Azerbaijani whose speaking Kars therearecommunities eastern province of in Moreover, the Coast. Mediterranean the existon Cepni of and Tahtaci settlement significantnumber of Alevi inhabits Central andEastern Turkey Anatolia. Some tribal 3 much practices differ for a large number of‘Alevi’ Abdal,including Tahtaci,is Yörük. Bektashis, Cepni, ‘ablanketterm Nusayris, different heterodox communities, whose actual beliefs and ritual The ceremony of Cem orAyin-i Cem is seen the basic ritual of the Alevi cosmology which is presided over Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi, details. the for I Chapter See Martin van Bruinessen, van Martin Ibid. Turkey’s Alevi Enigma, A Comprehensive Overview bat shari’a The religion of Alevis of religion The Õ ni ) meaning of the Islamic revelation, they neglect the religious duties described – i.e. daily prayers, the fast in Ramadan, alms tax, and the pilgrimage to 5 . Although Alevism receives some religious and cultural components Atatürk and the Alevis: AHoly Alliance? Kurds, Turks and the Alevi revival in Turkey. in revival Alevi andthe Turks Kurds, 3 . Alevi communities are scattered around Turkey. However, a aroundTurkey. However, arescattered . Alevicommunities 4 , though islamicized,some, though to considerably extent differs semah 2 ). . Leiden: Brill, 2003, p.1. 7 , officiated by men’ ( ‘holy . in Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden nefes zahiri ) in Turkish are sung and in ) meaning ) of faith the Middle East ReportMiddle East , July- , dede 6 ) . CEU eTD Collection the 1960s the and 1970sthe Alevi youth sidestook with leftthe andbecame ‘actively engaged in polarization of left-right period the during Meanwhile, more secularized. Alevis became organization forms its life with specific Alevis of religious of gradually collapsed and strict Sunnis,from whom they remained socially separated for centuries’ 1950s onwardthem ‘broughtinto and contact, closer indirect sometimes competition, with the of middle the from cities the into migration mass Their centers. urban to migration hand,other while lived traditional Sunni suspicions on,Alevis underwenta mass historiography theinheritors as of originalthe Central Asian Turkish Shamanism. the On and his Furthermore they came toberegime. innationalist presented Turkish initially they Kemal Atatürk religiousand equaled emancipation secularization greeted inTurkish new inbroughtState achapter 1923, Alevihistory. On onehand the identity identity served toprotect in group the hostilea environment. 1996, p. 8. distinct socio-religious entity a as outlines clear more and more gained Alevism and solidified increasingly became (Sunni Islam) heterodoxy (Alevism) andorthodoxy between centuries boundary the mountainous regions-insurvived following asarural In the community. the remote – marginalizedAlevisDue tothese territorially socially got experiences, andand they persecution. torepeated heavily subjected Alevis victory, resultwas Ottoman were so an Saffavid,Kizilbash/Alevisup took Safavids’the side.After aseriesbattles of end the Safavids who were enemiesThey of werethe seen Ottomans. not only as heretical During by thethe Sunniwar Ottoman between Empire, the but Ottomanalso allies ofand the 9 8 Martin van Bruinessen, Ibid., p.2. Under the new conditions of urbanity and modernity the traditional socio-religious The 20 Alevis first appeared inAlevis firstappeared the 16 th century, with the collapse of the Sultanate and the creation of secular the of creation the and Sultanate the of collapse the with century, Kurds, TurksKurds, revival andtheAlevi in Turkey 8 . Taqiyya, th century nameof century under the the concealment of one’s own religious or social 3 , MiddleEast Report, Kizilbash 9 . July-September (Redhead). CEU eTD Collection 12 Volume 8Left).Istanbul: Ileti Socialism inTurkey) in 11 Beller-Hann (ed.) The Past as Resource in the Turkic Speaking World. Wüzburg: Egon, 2008, p. 5. 10 ones’ militant some including movements leftist Kurdish) (Turkish various in 70s, wasconducted during in my myfield duringBasically interest research Istanbul. the interviewsinvolvedleftist with movements in eight Alevipeople the 1960sand during the qualitative study,memoirs through collecting in-depth and structured semi using became and actively invariousmovementsengaged leftistleft, during this period. Forthis purpose, a the with sides took ideologies, revolutionary egalitarian to themselves community. Tothis end, this study aims examineto how and why the Alevi youth devoted explicitly, whether this tendency came from religious or socio-economic dynamics of this From this point, among thewing Alevisduring left-right in polarization the 1960sand1970sinTurkey. I will address where this strong discourse. egalitarian Marxist to sensitive became left wing tendency hand,other Alevis,had been who economically underdeveloped andmarginalized, came from, moremovementsproto-communist who considered the Alevis astheir ‘natural allies’ left-wing and Alevis. The left wing movements defined the Alevi rebellions of the past as began toflourish in atmosphere.this The 1960s and 1970switnessed theencounter of the and social democratic political andparties studentclubsmade also their and appearance formations. The Left influential becamevery for the first time in Turkey and was most liberal the in course the history,of Turkey’s new hadallowed socialist too. leftismhad Alevis general world influenced the which prevailedall over the tendency to Martin vanBruinessen, Martin MuratBelge, Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi,, RoleThe of Kerbelain the(Re-) Constructionof Alevism Turkey. in Ildiko in The main of purpose researchthis is tounderstand the left strong wing tendency 1960 the whichcame the new1961Constitution, after Furthermore, Türkiye’de Sosyalizm Tarihinin Ana Çizgileri, Modern Türkiye’de Siyasi Dü Ibid. ú p. im Press, 2007,p.34. 11. 4 ú ünce Cilt 8 Sol Cilt (The Main Characteristics ofthe Characteristics Main (The (Political Thought in 11 . The socialist ModernTurkey coup d’état 12 History of . On the On . 10 . The . CEU eTD Collection different now. Although it took me a long time to realize urgeto melong dynamicsbehindthe the itnow. Although time to a differenttook my thesis less subject, a mind before.on related than iseven clear is Butsomething Master’s a writing after later, years seventeen Nevertheless, identity. my of part hidden in this interested became I automatically Then myself. to it keep should I why reason nobody in in either school or street” the I didnot know anything about Alevism and the memories. Once Iremembermy tellingyouparents that“We me should areAlevi but tell 1960s and 1970sin to fillorder in of one blankthese spaces within Alevistudies. finding reason(s) the behind out therelationshipbetween Alevis the leftduring and the thisdedicate to research Idecidedto subject, in this interested becomeSince Ihave extreme intheamount increase blankspaces studies, still withinthesestudies of remain. movementin 1990s the beingbased on religious differences. by and70s the1960s and howthis community politicized transformed into anAlevi left in the politicized was community traditional and areligious as Alevism how display to mutual seek notjust todemonstrate this Alevis but between also leftand the relationship and history was declared common property asof leftthe Re-interpretation these years.during of Alevi the tradition the ideological source of the left. Therefore in inboth make 1960sandinthe to 1970s aretrospectiveorder comparison. this thesis, I their investigated politicized political Moreover Ialso left withindiscourse own wing. the materials,left andliterature understandwing propagandist to periodicals how they or were interview was totheir andrelated how they socio-cultural background with encountered 13 See Chapter I for the details the for I Chapter See The other side my of personal concern goes back toone of my childhood Alevi Alevi have beenincreasingstudies inthelast decades two became socialisthymns, struggle, adapted to class Alevi and poems religious 5 13 . Considering the CEU eTD Collection process process Alevi of revival. leftistmovements.devoted themselves Moreover,this tothe provides chapter briefly the and Alevisin 1960s the and 1970sandbriefly analyzes the left theAlevi youth and who left the between focuses encounter the on Four Chapter framings. andtheir interviewees the describe and thesis the of the mainsource constitute interviews that in-depth the Two has a closer look at the religion of Alevisabout stateand the religion literature scholarly review and gives Alevi on Chapter studies. and their history. Chapter Three analyzes criticallyableidentity to the relationships. andanalyze power now am I that say can I identity. Alevi the and Alevism of meaning the fix and stabilize The structure of this study is as follows: Chapter One discusses some arguments some discusses One Chapter follows: is as study of this structure The 6 CEU eTD Collection the Turkish Religion, Protestantism of Islam and the Alevism) Istanbul: Ileti 15 14 mundane religions insist on their initial claims to reach masses: or urban masses and different variations in statues. However, he states that today none of the peasants of irrationalism rationalism or monitor which versions, different generate to ability convenientfor public.the Additionally, heclaimsthatwhat makes a mundanereligion isits Religion and State 1.1 The authority authority has contributed considerably the emancipationto of ideology’this and its anti-centralist stance but its ideology coherent to rural context. Moreover, ‘political authority political isnot central orthodoxy to asopponent rural, characterized What policy. a realistic approach to govern the various religious segments with its diverse religious orthodoxy which represents the religion of urban. rural, and of as areligion is perceived In heterodoxy, which between a conflict was not contrast, the Ottoman Empire showed Yasin Akatay, . Max Weber, Max life everyday in masses the of religion real the constituted which of veneration the saints, and Catholicism were compelled to accept local, functional, and occupationalor godsfunctionalheroes gods as in order toaccommodate themselves to saints, needsthe of masses. of …Islam cults reintroduce to had have ethics religious and all religions Protestantism, and Judaism of exception the With god. transcendent absolutely along rational andethical lines. educated The holdssame been true for thedevelopmenthas of a concept of an that laity a for only possible and masses the to alien definitely the ideal and of deity an the exemplary typetranscends of that salvation order are intellectualistic cosmic ethical and conceptionsimpersonal which ofan are notion …the Max Weber argues that intellectualMax Weber arguesthat fordemands mundane arenot religions In the light of Weber’s argument, one can argue that, within Ottoman society, there society, Ottoman within that, argue can one argument, Weber’s of light the In 14 The Sociology of Religion Türk DinininTürk Sosyolojik Imkan CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK CHAPTER I:THEORETICAL . Boston: Beacon Press,1992, pp.103-104. Õ , IslamProtestanl 7 Õ÷Õ veAlevilik ú im Press, 2006, p.60. (Sociological Possibility of 15 . CEU eTD Collection 19 18 the Turkish Religion, Protestantism of Islam and the Alevism] Istanbul: Ileti 17 I.B. Tauris, 1994. Richard Tapper,(Ed.) marginalizedwere duringmodernization the Kemalist However, Islam continued to provide the framework for large segments of society that whose influence was tobe envisioned determined byindividual devotion and practice. development of an official state Islam, which was based on the Sunni orthodox version, Republic source of meaning and ethical guidance in lives everyday the of many citizens of the completely, but kept it controlmechanismcompletely, butwith theDRA understate kept homogeneouscompatible with republican ideals,also butbuild to amodern and nation-state a citizenry. The “secular” Kemalist regime has never given up on Islam Ba Moreover, Kelh-Bodrogi “expressionsstates of deviating collective identities, may be they religion inTurkey. lack of a state idea official the to the of ascontradictory latter regarded as Turkish by ‘race’ and Sunni by Islam religion,she although the considers Krisztina outthis Kelh-Bodrogi points approachsayingas anation, that Turkey was Kemalistthe ideology nation the an of as homogenousethnically unity.and culturally to related a greatextent to was Alevi religion of suppression the Therefore, unity. national state itself. The establishment of the DRA (Directorate of Religious Affairs, by the version Islam of promoted by a latently official keeping been accompanied have topic discussed in circles academic David Shankland, 16 ù ù M. Hakan Yavuz, YasinAktay, See for instance: Seefor erif Mardin ú erif Mardin kanl Moreover, from the nation-building perspective Alevis were seen as threats of the The relationship between the state and religion in Turkey has beenabroadly and in religion Turkey state the between The relationship Õ÷Õ 19 ) in 1924 was not just to promote a rationalized version of Islam which was . Türkiye’de Din ve Siyaset Türkiye’de Din ve Siyaset Türk Dininin SosyolojikImkan Islam and Society in Turkey Islamic Political Identity in Turkey. Islam inModernTurkey, Religion,Politics and Literature aSecular State. in [Religion and Politics in Turkey] Istanbul: Ileti [Religion and Politics in Turkey] Istanbul: Ileti 16 . The secularizing policiesof Turkishthe republic . Huntingdon,. England: Eothen Press,1999. Õ , Islam Protestanl, 8 Oxford; New York: Oxford University Pres, 2003. Õ÷Õ 18 Alevilikve . It also remained an important an remained also It . ú im Press, 2006. [Sociological Possibility of 17 . The result was the ú im Press, 2006. ú im Press, 2006. Diyanet London: øú leri CEU eTD Collection 1.2 The Alevis in Scholarly Literature inScholarly Alevis 1.2 The Institute in Identity 22 both both in Turkey and Europe. life political of “Alevilonger realization the in that no could reality” social Turkey’s beavoided and in startedtoappear Besides, the discussiononAlevism numerous publications aresult as doctrine more openlyandexercise theybegan to intheir rituals more visible ways. their Alevisto talk about publicagenda. started the Alevism appeared on surpassed and were diversities, on religious and restricted discourse the ethnic that 1980s some taboos (Eds.) 21 Shankland, has offered more nuanced studies of the state-society more nuanced Shankland, hasoffered state-society relations. studies of the lack of official recognition discouraged research in this field in research this discouraged recognition lack of official several reasons for this. One of the main reasons is that as Alevis were mostly rural, the 20 separatism” as unity and treated of asthreats nation’s the were regarded religious or ethnic determined, the new generation of scholars Berkes, byBernardLewisand Niyazi studies Anatolia such as andplurality of religious such as some of onpolicy studies the andTurkish society thedestruction disregarded ethnic of religion versus secularism, versus tradition in modernity researches Turkey.about While Karin Vorhoff, Karin David Shankland, David Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi, Turkey’s Alevi Enigma, A Comprehensive Overview Until recent times little was known about Alevis and their belief system. There are The theory of likeThe modernization usedtheory new,of was more dominantly old versus ed.by Elisabeth Ollson, Tord Özdalga and Catharina Raudvere, ø stanbul, 2003, p.23. 20 22 . . This awareness has been alsoin reflected many publishedacademic works Academic and AcademicJornalistic Publications on theAleviand Bektashi of Turkey Islam and Society in Turkey Atatürk and the Alevis: AHoly Alliance? . England: Eothen Pres, 1999, p.134. ù erif Mardin, Martin van Bruniessen, and David 9 . Leiden: Brill, 2003, p.10. . in Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden 21 . By the second half of the ø stanbul: SweedishResearch in Alevi CEU eTD Collection Turkishness and Aleviness, Ethnic and Religious Identity Struggles] Istanbul: Iletisim Press,2004. Martin van Bruinessen, van Martin Cumhuriyet Kitaplar of the of Turkish origin had rebelled first against Seljukthe authority under spiritual the guidance Safavid, Irene Irene Melikoff, Ollson, Elisabeth Özdalga, Catharina Rauvere,Sweedish Research Institute in of Alevism-Bektashism], Researchs rebel, Irene Irene Melikoff, Kizilbash the Bektashi of history the on focused have scholars Ottoman The Turcology. of branch esoteric an was order ( and politic components of the Alevi subject in this part of the thesis. I will review the result some of scientific studies which refer social,to religious, historical qualified less asmore or addressing popular andjournalistic works large reading a public, of Alevism.Although most publications which in appeared lastthe twenty years must be context religious and social on contributions significant her with studies Alevi of field the Turkish. into translated Irene became Melikoff oneof most highly-regardedthe in names Alevis, such as those of Alevis, such van of Irene Melikoff as those and Martin Bruinessen important Alevi studies. same studies Atthe Western of time, the researchers on the Alevi internationalizing immenselarge on andhelped havehad influence studies cities an in Germany, where there is aflourishing Alevi community, and its center of thoughtin the inabout tandem with increase an NGOs of activities. Alevi immigrants in mostlyEurope, come that atendency through especially minorities, religious and ethnic about researches Irene Irene Melikoff, 23 See for instance, Seefor Babai Alevi studies until recently were mostly in the area of Ottoman researchers and it and researchers of in Ottoman area mostly the were recently until Alevi studies In addition, studies on Alevism was also triggered through focus through global the In on onAlevism was also triggered addition, studies ú eyh movement. In the 13 –wandering leaders- andlater with andSufi dervishes supportof the the Bektashi/Kizilbas: Historical Bipartition and Its Consequences. Uyur Idik Uyard Hac and Õ Õ , 2006. Bekta halifes Kürtlük, Türklük, Alevilik, Etnik ve Dinsel Kimlik Mücadeleleri tarikat ú Efsaneden Gerçe , who had their center in Ardabil in Northeastern Iran, rebelled Iran, inNortheastern Ardabil in center their had who , ) and ) Õ lar, Alevilik-Bekta th and 16 Babai ø stanbul: Demos Pres, 2006. Pres, Demos stanbul: ÷ th e which goes back 13 the to which goes [Hac centuries tribal and rural tribal of centuries and rural probably groups 10 ú ilik Arast Õ Bekta Õ rmalar ú From Legend to the Reality]. Õ , [We were obedient they made us made they obedient were [We ø stanbul, 1998. in Alevi Identity th century and the and century 23 , were rapidly [Kurdishness, ed. by Tord ø stanbul: CEU eTD Collection rebel, Researchs of Alevism-Bektashism], of Alevism-Bektashism], Researchs rebel, 27 Cumhuriyet Kitaplar Irene Irene Melikoff, Sufili [The cornerstone of theAnatolianHeterodox Turkish Sufism: Hac 26 1300-1600 Alevi Zaza speaking (Kurdish) group. non-scientific factors becomes clear when one considers our knowledge of Kurmanji or However,prominent. the self-censorshipinfluenceresearch andon it of the exerted by pre-Islamicis Turks.There nodoubt thatmany elementsinAlevismTurkish aredecidedly Alevi-Bektashi belief asthe heritage of shamanism, practice areligious ascribed to the Alevi cosmology central the in Asian Turkic groups pre-Islamicthe period, representation tothe in Ali of Halil Inalc The USA: University of Utah Press, 1992. Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, 25 Tanr Turkish religion. politicalafterwards, has biasedcontribution Alevism as akindof presented pre-Islamic Melikoff IslamicAsian central Turkish belief system. in Especially the early republican and period for instance,a bitproblematic in of terms building astrong connection between Alevism the and pre indicates a continuity from the idea of a Institute in order founder of Bektashi isthe thelegendary century) who authority 15 from late authority the Identity Orderand of Bektashi history the the Inalc 24 perspective legendsthe of patron Bektashi-Alevi, saint; their Hac done some in pioneer work instance, field.For this they studied inacomparative authority central Ottoman the against Irene Irene Melikoff, Ahmet Yasar Ocak, Yasar Ahmet See for instance, See for Karin Vorhoff, Karin ÷ Õ Õ ine Bak , k “a celestical god”, that is supposed to be a common religious representation among representation is tobea common religious that supposed “agod”, celestical 25 ed.by Elisabeth Ollson, Tord Özdalga and Catharina Raudvere, , Irene Melikoff and Ahmet Yasar Ocak, give us a reasonable understanding of . London: Phoenix, 1973, pp.186-202 Õ ø k, stanbul, 2003, p.24 Õú Popular Culture and Tarikats –Mystic Orders lar Hac Uyur Idik Uyard [Researches of Turkish Sufism] Academic and AcademicJornalistic Publications on theAleviandBektashi of Turkey 27 Õ Õ , 2006. Bekta . Moreover, there has also been a tendency to classify most elements in Anadolu Heterodoks Turk Sufili The Sejuksof Anatolia: their history and culture accordingmuslim tolocal sources. ú Efsaneden Gerçe th century century endthe to the of 16 Õ lar, Alevilik-Bekta ø stanbul: Demos Pres, 2006. Pres, Demos stanbul: Kizilbash 24 . On this issue,MehmetFuatKöprülü andHalil ÷ e [Hac ø 11 stanbul: Ileti ú ilik Arast ÷ Õ Bekta movement that shook the Ottoman central Ottoman the shook that movement inin Temel Ta Õ ú in ú rmalar im Pres, 2007, pp. 160-181. From Legend to the Reality]. th TheOtoman Empire,The Classical Age century. Melikoff century. Melikoff and Ocakhave Õ Bekta 26 Õ úÕ , . However, their approach is theirapproach . However, : Hac [We were obedient they made us made they obedient were [We úBÕ ø stanbul: SweedishResearch Õ Veli El-Horasani] in Bekta Õ Bekta úÕ Veli El-Horasani ú Wali (13 in ø stanbul: Gök Alevi Turk th CEU eTD Collection Turkey” 32 Bektashism], Alevilik-Bekta Irene Melikoff, 31 Turkishness and Aleviness, Ethnic and Religious Identity Struggles] Istanbul: Iletisim Press,2004. Anatolian and Western Alevi groups, has been a comprehensive work of of on been hasreference work acomprehensive Alevi groups, andWestern Anatolian redefinition ofAlevism.Krisztina focuses Kehl-Bodrogi’s which work, on central article acritical Turkey, wrote carriedwho researchmainly Alevi out on the andtherelation revival field: Karinin Vorhoff, this has been done work Turkey substantial time. Some since that in from of attention claim a variety public sphere,view drew the recognition points of in Alevi identity has gaineda with self-consciousness, significant an avoidable tendency to Alevi identity appearing in politicalthe sphere. Alevi publications have mushroomed as Martin van Bruinessen, van Martin Zed Books, 1992. Martin vanBruinessen, International Symposium, 14-17 April 1995. Kurdish Alevis Martin van Bruinessen, “ the Bektashi order after Bektashi the its in abolition order 1826 on with information morethe fortunate arealittle we research; Kizilbash/Alevi spaces for Turkishness, Alevism, Ethnic and Religious Struggles]. Istanbul:Ileti 30 and Alevis Turkish in his works Kurdish between differences the clear make also which communities Alevi and Kurdish of and structures sociological orders andSufi Alevis aswell researchesasBektashi broad on of is itreference, anddated limited in geographical scope.Martin van Bruinessen has John Kingsley’s remarkable study 29 Anatolia Ottoman in order Bektashi the of foundations economic and social 28 Karin Vorhoff, “ Melikoff has written some articles on this issue, for instance see: instance for issue, this on articles some written has Melikoff Martin vanBruinessen, JohnKingsley Birge, Suraiya Faroqhi, Suraiya Alevibelief system and the dissolving witnessed At end 1980sone the of the As major inlandmarksmention one thisfield, could Faroqhi’sstudy Suraiya of Die WeltDie des Islams, ø ú stanbul: Demos Pres, 2006, pp. 211-229. ilik Arast . Berlin: Syncretistic Religious Communities inthe Near East, Collected Papers of the !826’dan sonra Bekta Let’s Reclaim Our History and C Der Bektaschi-Orden in Anatolien. The Bektashi order of dervishes. Agha, sheikh, andstate: the social andpolitical structures of Kurdistan. Õ Kürtlük, Türklük, Alevilik, Etnik ve Dinsel Kimlik Mücadeleleri rmalar Asl Kürtlük, Türklük, Alevilik, Etnik ve Dinsel Kimlik Mücadeleleri New Ser., Vol.38, Issue 2. (Jul., 1998), pp. 220-252. ÕQÕ InkarEdenHaramzadedir!” TheDebateontheEthnic Identity ofthe Õ , [We were obedient they made us rebel, Researchs of Alevism- Researchs rebel, us made they obedient were [We ú iler Tarikat 30 32 29 . Nevertheless, 18 on this process of rediscovery, revitalization and - The Bektashi orderdervishes of Õ 12 [BektashiAfter Order the 1826] in ulture!”: Imagining Alevi Community Contemporaryin 31 . WZKMS 2, Wien, 1981. London: Luzac, 1937. Luzac, London: th and 19 ú im Press, 2004. th centuries have been blank been have centuries - has been a key work Uyur IdikUyard vis-à-vis 28 [Kurdishness, [Kurdishness, . Although secular London: Õ lar, CEU eTD Collection 36 35 2003, p. 43. 34 education first whichAlevi higher from wasrecruited havingof the generation academic or some ofnewas 1980s Furthermore, the their own. Alevielite arise, also agroup witnessed, accept itwantnotto becausethey did lifeand politics lifestyle inpublic presence of Sunni growing the opposing than other left choice much have not did they consequence, a As Islam. political of challenge the encountered solidarity, of sake the for so done had who muchandhadmodernization secularization given up and of theirdifferentiations, cultural When end Alevis due the we cometo Alevi of to flourished.who eighties the publications terms ofintegrating andmoving into the modern world in Alevis than successful more are they system, administrative centralized national, the lifestyle,of ethic the andsocial is of Sunni villagers order with compatible concept of the into of structure Aleviintegration state the the Sunnivillages.because Heclaims and that and modernization on study a comparative out carried has Shankland works. Shankland’s Some Alevi houses publishing cheapproduced editions of Alevi devotional books Alevi specialists indirectly referred to this topic. Emma Sinclair-Webb examines a violent a examines Sinclair-Webb Emma topic. this to referred indirectly specialists Alevi andAlthough 1970s. just afew directworks have been written on this subject, other the up aleftist left-right politically polarizationof took position theperiod induring the1960s cultural politics. entered and political and resign from hadactivism they direct to 33 in Alevism developments recent the to articles some devoted also Kehl-Bodrogi community. esoteric Anatolian asan Alevi/Kizilbash For instance: Cemal Sener, Reha Camuroglu etc. Camuroglu Reha Sener, Cemal instance: For For instance; For David Shankland, Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi (Ed.), Research in Alevism on the process of urbanization has come with David On the other hand, the Alevis themselves have started writing on their own issues. own their on writing started have themselves Alevis the hand, other the On As already aimemphasized, the of thesisthis is understandto why and how Alevis 36 . However, with 1980militarythe quite afewcoup of lostthem their positions Ayy Õ ld The Alevis in Turkey, The emergence of asecular Islamic tradition. Õ z Yay Õ nlar Syncretistic religious communities in the Near East. Õ inAnkara. 13 33 . 34 . Leiden: BRILL 1997. Oxon: Routledge, 35 . CEU eTD Collection http://www.let.uu.nl/~martin.vanbruinessen/personal/publications/Alevi_revival.htm 39 Movement From Turkey to Europe]. Istanbul: Europe]. to Turkey From Movement Siyasi Dü 38 Eds. Paul J. White, and Joost Jongerden, Leiden: Brill, 2003. the process of nation-state building inTurkey process nation-state of the of dynamics the from but Alevism, of characteristics and nature inherent the from stem not isconnectionthere being betweenbeing Alevi a strong an leftist, thisand association does although left. that argues She the with association of because their but perceived affiliation in which by Alevisbecause weretargeted right-wing not extremists of their religious two marginalized is two (one is modern theother groups traditional) in appearance, should place explain thefirst thenecessity indispensability these of and Alevis and theleft-wingideology, which hasbeensuppressed and since itsprohibited 40 37 and deeplytraumatic incidentconcerning the Alevis, theKahramanmara movements as Alevi left, radical the pro-communist past whichdefines the of rebellions the ideaegalitarian promised by modernism. and whohave been following the Turkish modernism from its beginnings was the Sunni-Islam of rival historical the been have who Alevis for reason important most The Alevis. with alliance an form left the made obligation and necessity this transformation, andeconomic by social led societal the progress Anatolia dueto approaching left was sensitivemessage tothe Marxist likeKurds.The Alevi Kurdish youth and devoted within society relatively andmore being economically Alevisunderdeveloped, were work Martin vanBruinessen, Murat Küçük, Türkiye’de Sol Dü Elise Massicard, Elise Sinclair-Webb, Emma 40 . Massicard argues that with the double effects with of . Massicardarguesthat doublemarginalizedbeing community the effects a On the other hand, Martin van Bruinessen refers to Alevis as the “natural Alevis of “natural allies” to as the refers Bruinessen van hand,Martin On other the ú ünce,Cilt 8 Sol [Political Thought in Modern Turkey Vol:8 Left].Istanbul: Ileti 39 . The term “natural allies” is also used to refer to Alevis in Alevis Massicard’s refer to to Elise is used also “natural allies” term . The Türkiye’den HareketininAyrupa’ya Alevi Siyasalla Alevis and the Turkish Left ú ünce veünce Aleviler,[ The Left Thought and Alevis] inModern Türkiye’de Ileti ú im Press, 2007. 14 in 37 Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview . Murat Küçük argues that the coalition of coalition the Küçük arguesthat . Murat ú mas 38 Õ . While inthe 1960s, the [The Politicizationof Alevi ú pogrom pogrom of 1978, ú im Press, 2007. CEU eTD Collection movement based on religious differences. religious on based movement in the1960s andhow 70sand politizationthis an recently into transformed Alevi politicized community traditional and a religious as Alevism how demonstrate to be will with dynamicsofAlevithe belief and culture. Howevermy tothis contribution argument be concerned should we also but left the and Alevis of alliance the explain to fundamental end. themselves tothisegalitarian ideology and that hoped one day discrimination this would I agree with Emma Sinclair-Webb’s argument that the nation building process is process building nation the that argument I agreewith Emma Sinclair-Webb’s 15 CEU eTD Collection 2.1 The Religious and Social Aspects ofKizilbash/Alevis Aspects Social and Religious 2.1 The CHAPTER II: The Alevis in Turkey: Historical Overview (16 Overview Historical inTurkey: Alevis The II: CHAPTER shari’a meaning of the Islamic revelation, they neglect the religious duties described by the and the Twelwer Imam.institutions. Alevis Ali, venerate cousin the Prophet Mohammedof andthefourth caliph, In addition to these, impact on its rituals has and religious andbasic important Shi’ism cultures, cults, an Alevis claim from andcultural different Alevism religious components some Although receives to possess the inner ( origin ethnic Kurdish and Turkish of mainly are which of members Alevis, though to some extent islamicised, differs considerably from Sunni Islam Sunni from considerably differs islamicised, extent some to though Alevis, theirmigration fromand urbanization 1950s the onwards. Alevis then demonstrate historical backgroundAlevis. of firstly, Therefore Iexamine the aspects religious of I provide information brief on religiousthe aspects beforeAlevisof give starting to the introducefulfil Alevis In orderto historicalchapter aims thisgoal, context. within their to Alevi chapter, review on the this given inthe previous studies literature a scholarly September, p.1. September, 42 Southern Anatolia such as Hatay, Tarsus and Adana. 41 Martin van Bruinessen, van Martin Besides Turkish and KurdishAlevis there are a small number of Arabic speaking Alevis who inhabit The term Alevism ( Alevism term The Having discussed the theoretical debates which concern the case of Alevis and thecaseof concern which debates the theoretical Having discussed – i.e. daily prayers, the fast in Ramadan, alms tax, and the pilgrimage to Mecca- Kurds,Turks and the Alevi revival in Turkey. Kizilbash Alevilik /Alevis in 16 /Alevis ) designates ) designates a large socio-religious community, century) 16 th century century lastly and Republican era and in MiddleEast Report 41 . The religion of religion The . th - 20 bat , July- , Õ th ni 42 ) . CEU eTD Collection position until the abolition of the Janissaries and the closure of belief system. Alevis and Bektashis they both refer to Haci Bektash. considered as one of the principle teachers of Alevism, played a very important role in Alevi approximately in the 1209-1271.Heis eponymof the Bektashi the andisSufi order Anatolia in lived Khorasan from came who humanist, and philosopher, mystic, century’ took sometook of patterns inHurifiyya Iranian 15 Christianity, of styles cultural local and Neo-Platonism of versions Anatolian some granted joinedmetand Qalandarian of viaIslam to thecult, Yesevi Khorasan Malamatiyya, attitude Buddhism,fed byZoroastrism and Manheism, stigmata of had the Islam version of and Sufi Central Asia, turned to have a spiritual character with the effects of Shamanism and religious spectrum which ‘has been launched by the ancient belief system of Turks of Turkish Sufism] Istanbul: Iletisim Press,2002, pp.222-223. and Progress of the Anatolian Heterodoxy Anatolia]in in Geli carry out ritual dances ( holy lineage at which religious poems ( have their own religious Cem ceremonies, officiated by ‘holy men’ ( 45 2003, p.1. (Eds.) 44 43 ( external the represent merely them for which Ahmet Yasar Ocak, Yasar Ahmet David Shankland, David Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi, ú im Tarihine K The Bektashi became the The Bektashi Order The roots of this esoteric religion, as a syncretistic system of faith is based on vast baseda on is faith system of a syncretistic as religion, esoteric of this The roots Turkey’s Alevi Enigma, A Comprehensive Overview 45 religious thoughtesoteric through music, poetry and collective transmitted ritualswho figures holy hereditary through Anatolia rural in establisheddoctrine and no shared liturgy. Instead, their religion has developed The Alevis, aheterodoxgroup Islamic in modern Turkey,have no church,no . Furthermore, the thoughts of Hac thethoughtsof . Furthermore, Õ sa Bir Bak The Alevis in Turkey, The emergence of a secular Islamic tradition, Babailer Isyan Atatürk and the Alevis: AHoly Alliance? semah Õú , [From the Revolt of the Babais to Kizilbashness: History of the Emergence ). As David Shankland sets out: Õ ndan K Õ]Õ lba tarikat nefes úOÕ÷ 17 th century century and motifs Safavid of Shi’ism in 16 a: Anadoluda Islam Heterodoksisinin Do Õ ) in Turkish are sung and men and women and men and sung are in Turkish ) Bektash Wali Bektash (13 of whohadJanissary of corps aprivileged zahiri Türk Sufili . Leiden: Brill, 2003, p.1. ) meaning of the faith ÷ . in Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden ine Bak 44 . Õú th lar [The Reserches of Reserches [The lar century), who was a tekkes dede ) who belong to a UK: Routledge, in 1826 in in the 1826 43 . Instead they Instead . ÷Xú ve th CEU eTD Collection 2.2 Kizilbash/Alevis: “Heretical Rebel of the Ottoman Empire” Ottoman the of Rebel “Heretical 2.2 Kizilbash/Alevis: Ottoman Empire eastern Anatolian, more clearly Iranian, Kurdish Kurdish and more others clearly Anatolian,Iranian, eastern influences: whilethe Bektashisinfluenced were by Balkans,the the Alevi by people the of of turbulence andtrouble leading anomadic countryside, nomadiclife orsemi way periodsof and becameexposedto Anatolian in the remained Alevis centers, urban to adjustment its and life of way sedentary distinctformedgroups. While experienced a two gradualtransition Bektashis to the Balkan provinces. Though Bektashis andAlevis goback tothe same origin, have they spread Islam inthe to dervishes Bektashi Ottoman the used therefore, Balkan provinces manymadeit native Christian of to Islam easily features Bektashi acceptable the tradition, p. 5. Tord Ollson, ElisabethÖzdalga, Catharina Rauvere, Sweedish Research Institute in 50 Researchs Researchs of Alevism-Bektashism), Irene Irene Melikoff, 2007, pp.281. 49 rebelled us,Researchs of Alevism-Bektashism], “redhead”. Their name appeared in the time of Sheykh Haydar (1460-1488), the father the of (1460-1488), inHaydar Sheykh of time the name appeared Their “redhead”. villageto the and groups whofollowed firstthe tribes Safavids 48 Tord Ollson, ElisabethÖzdalga, Catharina Rauvere, Sweedish Research Institute in Later on they will become known as Alevi. as known become will they on Later 47 were called 46 Irene Irene Melikoff, Ahmet Yasar Ocak, Yasar Ahmet Irene Melikoff, Irene Irene Irene Melikoff, Halil Inalc For a long time Kizilbash had no definite name. In the Ottoman documents, they documents, Ottoman the In name. definite no had Kizilbash time long a For Õ k, rafizi, Uyur Idik Uyard The Otoman Empire,The Classical Age 1300-1600 46 Bektashi/Kizilbas: Historical Bipartition andItsConsequences. Bektashi/Kizilbas: Historical Bipartition and ItsConsequences. Uyur Idik Uyard . Furthermore, because of the esoteric, eclectic nature and peculiar and nature eclectic esoteric, the of because . Furthermore, Türk Sufili schismatic, 47 Õ lar, Alevilik-Bekta ÷ . These groups have been subjected to different ethnical todifferent have been subjected groups . These ine Bak ø stanbul: Demos Pres, 2006, p.96. ]Õ Õ lar, Alevilik-Bekta nd Õú Õ k lar , andheretic andalso“shi’te”, [ The Reserch on Turkish Sufism] Sufism] Turkish on Reserch [ The ø stanbul: Demos Pres, 2006, p.33. ú 18 ilik Arast Kizilbash ú ilik Arast Õ rmalar is their historical name and it refers . London: Phoenix, 1973, p.194. Õ rmalar 48 Õ , . (We were sleeping they us, they awoke sleeping were (We Õ , [We were obedient they had they obedient were [We ø stanbul: Iletisim Press, Iletisim stanbul: mülhid, 50 ø ø stanbul, 2003, p. 4. stanbul, 2003, p. 4. in in . Kizilbash means Kizilbash . Alevi Identity Alevi Identity and atheist and ed. by ed. by 49 . CEU eTD Collection Anatolia in1527.Shah was seen asMahdi by Ismail the descendant of calledKalender of Haci descendant Bektas 1514. However this only temporarily halted the movement. The next rebellion came with a state brought about a modification in the religious mentality of dervishes mentality of in religious a modification the about brought state merciless repression of the of repression merciless The rebellion shook Ottoman ruleKizilbashis to its foundations and it was put down with Selim I’s within Ismailhis intensifiedconquer propagandainAnatolia soasto the Empire Ottoman from 15 often action inspired have by means of influence spiritual their and intellectual Kizilbash the to attributed generally were revolts These Anatolia. in administration Ottoman motifs were re-interpreted by the leftists during 1960sthe and 1970s. 54 and from the 15 53 persecution. The Safavids, Persian the alsoallies of but by theOttoman Empire, seen heretical notonly as they were enemies of the Ottomans and they were therefore subjected to repeated 52 Kizilbash 51 Kizilbash twelve facets, was so called Tac-i Haydari “the crown of Haydar”. In Ottoman documents, Isma’il Shah Pir Sultan Abdal was the most influential within these dervishes. His poems which include rebellion Ahmet Yasar Ocak, Yasar Ahmet Ibid. Ibid. th century century when Safavidthe Akkoyunlus dynasty replaced itsthe infounder, Iran, Shah p.7. p.5. 53 When Alevisfirstthe appearedin 16 the . The contact established between a variety of Anatolian dervishes and Safavid and dervishes Anatolian of variety a between established contact The . , although we cannot exclude the moral participation of the Bektashis who may who Bektashis the of participation moral the exclude cannot we although , has the pejorative meaning of “heretic” and “heretic rebel”. The name of was supplanted by Alevi only end the after of 19 the , under the influence of Shah Ismail raised a rebellion in Anatolia. south-west rebellion influence Ismailraised a of Shah the , under 51 . This name was given to them because of their headdress: a red bonnet with th Kizilbash century it became an expression of the strong opposition tothe itbecame expressionpeasant ofthe strong an century Ibid. p. 275. movement was as much social and political as it was religious, was it as political and social much as was movement Kizilbash and the victory of the Ottoman over Shah Ismail in Ismail Shah over Ottoman the of victory the and 19 , who led the great peasant revolt in central revolt peasant great the led who th century under the name of th century. Kizilbahi 54 . In 1511 the s and the s and 52 Kizilbash . In the CEU eTD Collection Near East in the past and Present” International Symposium“Alevis inTurkey andCompaprable Syncrestistic Religious Communities inthe Otter-Beaujean.(Eds) David Zeidan, 57 consequences for the Ottoman Kizilbash Islamic world. The defeatof Safavidsthe in about brought competition dreadfulthis the of power cultural military, political, only become and one the to another one against renderedworld Islamic in the states rival two the Thus, state. that of two religion” “official be the to main religious wasdeclared Imams in Twelve the of Shi’ism was1501and established state Safavid the mentalitiesOttoman Empire became an empire with an “official religion” a form of worship and since their “official religions” and hence, went up 56 hardly couldreach central authority the residein areas where escapedto others some while were expelled, of them some injustice, social identity social in the outside world with helpof the in anenvironmentwhich expelled themasheretic. TheAlevisthis opposed stigmatization community. asarural regions- marginalized territorially and socially survivedand mountainous they –inthe remote Safavid warsof Heexpressed1534-5. in verse his feelings: 55 frame of the in the was determined whosestatues minorities, Kizilbash Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi, Krisztina Cemal Sener, Cemal Halil Inalc Furthermore, on the one hand, with the passage of the Caliphate in 1517 the 1517 in Caliphate the of passage the with hand, one the on Furthermore, The establishment of a rigid socio-religious organization enabled them to survive And one day take revenge for me He must destroy the unjust, He must set up his high council, My holy Mahdi must come, /Alevi poet, Pir Sultan Abdal represented him as a Mahdi during the Ottoman- Õ k, The Otoman Empire,The Classical Age 1300-1600 Alevilerin Etnik Kimli The Alevi of Anatolia, Middle East Review of International Affairs 57 . Although Ilber Ortayl Ilber Although . SyncretisticReligious Communities East,Collected Near in the Papers of the Introduction . Leiden: Brill, 1997, p.12. ÷ i (Ethnic Identity of Alevis)the Istanbul: Etik Press, 2002, p.95. in Kelh-Bodrogi,Krisztina, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele Ankeand taqiyya 55 . Õ claims that in contrast to the non-Muslim the to in contrast that claims 20 community: They were subjected to a heavy 56 , the concealment of one’s own religious and religious own one’s of concealment the , . Due to these experiences, Alevis Alevis experiences,got . Dueto these . London: Phoenix, 1973, p.196. millet system Vol.3, No:4, 1999, p.75. , no legal CEU eTD Collection Tord Tord Ollson, ElisabethÖzdalga, Catharina Rauvere, Sweedish Research Institute in (Eds.) 62 61 60 Comparative Studies in Society and History 59 pp. 35-36. Nusayriler Hanefi law,the Hanefi Bektashis establishment Islamic orthodox of the influence the limiting thus state, of the of secularization process the the itsinceaccelerated Turks, sympathizersbecame Alevis state. the and Alevis between relations smoothed ofconsiderably to led the Committee for Unity and Progressregulation. (CUP), the party of the Young process nation building italsothe was partof but missionary activities the Deringil for reason out,the points just these Sunnification was not politics dealing with As faith. (official) right the toteach in order mosques tothese appointed imams were andfinanced construction government in mosques of a numbervillages. SunniHanefi of sects’ of ‘heretical these and observation registration includedthe by taken Ottoman the since Alevis were treated as Sunni Muslims and subordinated to the asSunni subordinated Muslims and since Alevis weretreated 58 War, Independence the and I War World During before. time any than center political in 19 under systematicconversion program of the manyresult efforts and of assimilation Sunniconversion Hanefiorthodoxy were seen to 1909) Alevis were seen heretical as suchascommunities rural Yezidis and Nusayris. As a to theAlevis respect existedwithin regulations Irene Irene Melikoff, Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi, Selim Deringil, Selim Ilber Ortayl Ibid. Turkey’s Alevi Enigma, A Comprehensive Overview The reign secular-orientedThe Turkish YoungTurks(1908-1918), the of reign nationalists, [ Alevis, Bektashis, Nusayris] Islam Ilimleri Ara 62 in the government may also have caused the Alevis to feel closer to the Õ , Alevilik, Nusayrilik ve Bab- The Invention of tradition as Public Image in theLate Ottoman Empire,1808 to 1908 Bektashi/Kizilbas: Historical Bipartition and ItsConsequences. Tanzimat Atatürk and the Alevis: AHoly Alliance? reformsbring did the 1839-1876 newduring not legal any Õ Ali, 35 (1993) 1, pp. 3-29. [Alevism, Nusayrism and Bab-I Ali] in 21 58 , during the reign Abdülhamitof II (1876- . Leiden: Brill, 2003, p.4. úWÕ 61 rma Vakfrma . The participation of a number of th century . in Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden Õ (ed.)Istanbul: Ensar Press,1999, 59 . The counter measures counter . The shari’a ø stanbul, 2003, p. 5. in Alevi Identity Aleviler, Bekta 60 . Furthermore, courts run by ed. by ú in iler, CEU eTD Collection Secular Turkey Secular of the Alliance AHoly Era: Republican the during 2.3 Alevis (Eds.) 64 chiefs’ loyalties of the Alevis, primordial the of who use made consciously men thus his and Kemal as ‘Mustafa masses, a rule followed the decision ofarguments their (tribal and religious) andMustafa methods Kemal was aware of to thanneed of Alevis,the maysurprise as becamethey I hisactive supporters. think in this point to win thethose Alevis support, meant but interest aims collective of warandthe announced the the between contradiction the before, he had to foruse other the public. In order to reach the Alevi center ( center winsending telegrams to Kemalvisitedtheir Mustafa confidence, themain religious the win to tried first Kemal Mustafa Therefore men). holy leader, tribes refused to co-operate. Forinstance,tribes the duringrefused to the independencewar, public support … Sunni publicof orthodox the support dignitaries’ religious emphasized the fight for fortheof thesake war.Mustafa repeatedly the Kemal, of majorities’support the taking salvation of the sultanate beginning goesbacktothe Atatürk veneration of Alevis’ of struggle, the character Islamic and ‘…took great care to get the proclamationthe of Turkishthe Republic (1923). and yearsresistance of deepenedinthe of This affinity CUP. the weresupporters Alevis 63 the of Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi, Erik Jan Zürcher, Jan Erik Turkey’s Alevi Enigma, A Comprehensive Overview dede 64 As a religious community, Alevis strictly obey the orders of their of orders the obey strictly Alevis community, religious a As Although during the Independence warMustafa Kemal Atatürk stressed the tekke . s’ responses were positive to support forKurdish the support Alevi national war, some positive were to s’ responses ) of the Haci Bektash in order to consult them in person. While the majority Turkey A Modern AModern Turkey Turkey Atatürk and the Alevis: AHoly Alliance? . London, New I.B.York: Tauris,pp. 158-159. 22 . Leiden: Brill, 2003, p.6. . in Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden 63 . However, as I emphasized dede s support. Besides s support. dede Koçgiri s (spiritual (from CEU eTD Collection 69 transmitters of religious tradition. Even with theirsongs they oftentreat actual political themes. because of that they considered the basic principles of laicism and nationalism best the laicismas andnationalism of basic principles the they considered that of because secular state. Moreover, as Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi claims,Alevis welcomed the Republic, decision for oftraditionalinstitutions livingof abolition the sake the of ina religious 68 67 p. 5. Tord Ollson, ElisabethÖzdalga, Catharina Rauvere, Sweedish Research Institute in (Vaktidolu) expressed his idea Atatürk andon identified him equal Hac as to Kurdish Alevis 66 Present” “Alevis inTurkey andCompaprableSyncrestistic Religious Communities in the NearEast in thepast and Syncretistic Religious Communities in theNear East,Collected Papers of the International Symposium spread by the to regardMustafa Kemalasbeing the 65 grounds of Kurdishness their Dersim region) Hazret-i Ali’Hazret-i religion. states ‘Alevithat even furtherto Melikoff Atatürk andcompared Irene went isMustafa compared Kemal Alevi often evenidentified with figures and central the of be explained with mythologizingthe ofhim in Alevi culture and Amongreligion. Alevis liberation. national majority the and of greatmajority Alevisas the also Turkish the did Sunni the supported of population who Ankara to loyalty their declared region) Anatolian central (mostly Çorum Adil Ali Atalay (Vakt Inanoral culture like Alevism beenhas very recently, the strolling Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi, Irene Irene Melikoff, Martin van Bruinessen, van Martin After the foundation of the republic, Alevis chose to be silent in front of the Hac onesoul. are my body, in stay who two The leaders. spiritual wise and perfect Are Believe both that of them who gave us inspiration Moreover, one of the other reasons of the Alevis’ reverence of Mustafa Kemalcan Mustafa of reverence Alevis’ of the reasons of one other the Moreover, . Leiden: Brill, 1997, pp.12-13. Õ Bektash Veli [is] Kemal Atatürk ! 66 in in in . As reported in. As Alevisreported begunthe Independencewar,years of early the the DúÕ tribe even started an insurgency demanding autonomy from Ankara on the on Ankara from autonomy demanding insurgency an started even tribe Bektashi/Kizilbas: Historical Bipartition and ItsConsequences. k Kelh-Bodrogi,Krisztina, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele and Anke Otter-Beaujean.(Eds) s (minstrels) Õ dolu), Ibid. “Asl Gel Kendine Deli Gönül ÕQÕ p.8. Inkar EdenHaramzadedir!” The Debate on the Ethnic Identity ofthe 65 68 . Yet, the Alevi villages of Sivas, Tokat, Amasya and . For instance the publisher and writer Adil Ali Atalay Mahdi 23 69 . himself. ø stanbul:Can pres, 1988. p.177. 67 Suchideas were upand picked DúÕ k s played an important role as the ø stanbul, 2003, p. 4. in Alevi Identity Õ Bektash: ed. by CEU eTD Collection Near East in the past and Present” International Symposium“Alevis inTurkey andCompaprable Syncrestistic Religious Communities inthe Otter-Beaujean.(Eds) 70 community religious a as recognition official denied guarantors for putting an end to their religious discrimination, however they were still establishment of connection with the modern system. modern the with connection of establishment of process in the point reference be a not could Alevism reason, that For religion. official the beof inthe span to considered not beliefwas perse.Alevi state by was reshaped the governmental tobe wouldorgans turn the and scope limits of officialreligion,the which and state to the religiousdefined andform groups nature the of the of connections the limited the religious preference of citizensthe in thepublic sphere.In this sense, what indoctrine favor fact, of (in a specialversion legallySunni namely of Hanefi thought) infavorof Sunni was adaptation authorized the religious fact that populace.officially The Alevi the on impact noteworthy a have to started secularization of policy Kemalist of state. by the hands the sphere public in the rituals and mentality Hanefi of legalization a about brought DRA the institutionsthe religion, over hegemony ofstate but orthodoxreligion and state of separation mean not does sense Islam were putKemalist in secularism underTherefore, day. same the (DRA) Affairs state Religious of Directorate control. Moreover, thecompleted. foundation Abolishmentof of Caliphate on 3 Marcha public issueof their and religious social identity. 1924,make not did they that followed condition on level political and economic social, the on advance to the foundation of the Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi, Krisztina With the beginning of urbanization and migration, the social components of components social the migration, and urbanization of beginning the With law state, was andof education secularization the Between 1935the 1924 and SyncretisticReligious Communities East,Collected Near in the Papers of the Introduction . Leiden: Brill, 1997, p.14. in Kelh-Bodrogi,Krisztina, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele Ankeand 24 70 . Alevis were given . Alevis given opportunity the were CEU eTD Collection 2.4 The Alevi Migration and Urbanization from the 1950s onward 1950s the from Urbanization and Migration Alevi 2.4 The September, p.8. 72 tradition of this Themainsyncretisticforwas interrupted. interruption this be impact explainedcan with oral the other the to generation one from knowledge religious religious of transmission the and collapsed structure of into rural life, thenew urban condition socio-religiousinstitutions traditional the Alevism. Under thedramatic changes for thenew community. As Alevism was a systemcondition of belief generally suited of centuries’ for separated they from whom socially remained strictSunnis, competition, with middle of 1950sonwardthe ‘brought them into andsometimes closer contact, in direct the from cities the into migration mass this that state Bruinessen van Martin conditions. in newlife the overthrown radically were of community a closed institutions lines and border strictby step Thus,step the newthe of state. character secular the and education, compulsory primary and infrastructure, suchroads asconstruction of set of developments becausea speak, with of in world, external the soto century, get touch, gradually would socialhadin Alevi reasons. the since 16 isolated beenliving who people, conditions rural in exodus Alevis caseof the during itsmostly reached for the peak economic1970s andby endof majorcitiesayearthe by weregrowing decadethe the 10 percent land the left people million a Over changed. rapidly had Turkey government, (1950-60) evolution inAsof Turkey themention in IVunder 1950s. I Chapter the Democratic Party 71 Martin van Martin Bruinessen, Erik Jan Zürcher, Jan Erik This rapidly urbanization and adaptation to urban life and modernityThis brought about lifeand urban rapidly urbanization andto adaptation Alevis started to migrate to urban areas parallel to the social and economic social the to parallel urban areas to migrate to started Alevis 72 . Turkey A Modern AModern Turkey Turkey Kurds, Turks andtheAleviRevival Turkey in . London, New York: I.B. Tauris, p. 226. 25 in Middle East Report, 71 . This . July- th CEU eTD Collection former religion-based identity to one defined in terms of a political ideology was ideology a political of in terms defined one to identity former religion-based Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi states duringthat, this period “thenearly collective shift from the ofthe masses exploiters feudal branding them hierarchy,against their own religious reinterpreted theirhistory mostas a classstruggle.Furthermore, of Aleviyouth the turned influenced by inrevolutionary thought high universities, school unions,and trade the left and Alevi youthoutcomes ofmodernity, processof played the urbanization role animportant inbringing together. Alevi youth,andleaning. left Since suchterms as equality,freedom and secularism asappeared the which became extremely politicizedposition. leftist a politically and in left-right of period polarization1961. The the during 1960s-70sled the Alevis totake discourse of the WPT (Worker’s Party of Turkey, (December1999) p. 77. with the Sunni the with Alevis turned back to the Republican People’s Party (RPP) closeandthe Sunni between party relationship this after the co-operation of DP’s beginning of 1950with the multiparty the system, wentawayfrom DP dueto factthe that in the (DP) Party for Democratic voted Alevis whohad discourses. party political movements. leftist inthe involved actively became youth Alevi the country the of of polarization political the inin course the when 1970s the especially accelerated became secularization this of process The secularized. Alevism was developments, these and traditions. The main institutions of Alevism: urbanity, the oral tradition no longer played its former role in passing on religious 73 David Zeidan, musahip Under the new political and urban condition Alevism became increasingly secular increasingly became Alevism condition urban and political new the Under The political attitudes of Alevis were related to the secular characters of the (religious relative or brotherhood) lost its former significance. As a result of The Alevi of Anatolia tarikats , during the 1960s they were attracted by leftist attracted egalitarian 1960stheywere the the , during in MiddleEast Review of International Affairs MERIA, 26 cem ceromanies, socio-religious role of Türkiye Türkiye tarikats øú çi Partisi çi (communities). Although,(communities). ) which was founded Vol. 3, No.4 dede 73 . CEU eTD Collection 75 Beller-Hann (ed.) 74 dimension…” accompanied –and made possible- of actually by divestment itsAlevism religiousof the many Alevis began to redefine themselves as “Alevi”. urban life, by endthe of aprocess 1980sAlevismbecame the of rediscovery community.Although first Alevism was with losingthreatened its functions in newthe hand, modernity cultural and political of urbanity effects affect started and gradually to the traditional institutions of Alevism with their specificforms life.of religious On other the traditional way ofAlevi life dramatically andchanged itfollowed the collapse the the of circumstances in the changes historical and social the hand, one the On Alevis. to a historical transformation in the collective definition of identity. the community from the outside world from a religious an to ideological level that referred See Chapter IV for the deatails. the for IV Chapter See Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi,, Overall, the process of migration and urbanization brought dramatic brought for migration changes Overall,and process urbanization of the 74 The Past as Resource in the Turkic Speaking World. . In . In changing words,thisother borderline the ledto had that distinguished TheofRoleKerbela(Re-) inthe Construction of Alevism Turkeyin 27 Wüzburg: Egon,2008, pp. 5-6. 75 . As aresult . . in Ildiko. in CEU eTD Collection 3.1 Method and Researching Techniques Researching and 3.1 Method 77 science. invisible, painfully asreadilyoverlooked” andjust obtrusive hyper-visible and become atonce and“they “hybrids” makesthem ethnographers native of position in-between this that argues Wetson hand. at study the of informants versus researcher neutral of binary the with have difficulty researchers known, native subject matter, since Alevi identity constitutes universities duringthe 1960sand 1970s. part of my identity atmovements inthe leftstudent participated andwhoactively 1978 generation as ischapter todiscuss certain withquestions Alevi eight people whocome from well.1968 and As oftenwhy Alevi youth became part of movement. leftistthe Inthis contextmy inaim this understandleft the tendency among Alevisin particular inthe 1960s and 1970show and quantitative. AsIpointed outin themain introduction, the of purpose this thesis is to than rather methodology qualitative as classified be can which interviews depth 76 categories but including from elements both hybridity “collapses subject/objectbelonging distinctions”either bynot to of the subject the positionthat native occupiesisa ethnographer the “compound” whose one, people to interview who came from interviewpeoplefrom cameleft-wingbutalsoare to who 68 and78 generation who Kath Weston, Ibid. p.176. Eds. by A.Gupta and J.Ferguson, Berkley:University of California Pres, 1997, p. 170. Methodologically I had difficulties in distancing myself as a researcher from my in- main based semi-structured of thesis,on was The field the aspart research, During the research break I went to Istanbul for three weeks. My aim was to find wasto aim My for three weeks. to Istanbul breakIwent research the During Virtual Antropologist. CHAPTER III: Analyzing In-Depth Interviews In-Depth Analyzing III: CHAPTER in Antropological locations:boundaries andgrounds ofa field 28 77 . 76 . She goes on suggesting . She on goes CEU eTD Collection 3.2 Questionnaire between thepolitical duringdiscourses 1960sand the 70sandtheirpolitics. current andlast question involvement the duetomakewas asked aretrospective comparison tofindorder four outtheir Thenextquestions background. left-wing wereabouttheir based questionnairemain was on The focuses. first questionsthree two asked in were alsoquestions. added relevant I to makeorder comparison, aretrospective interesting know to their in both political own discourse 60s the / 70sandin currently, leftthe literaturepropagandist materials etc. Furthermore, or Ithought itwould alsobe totheirrelated encountered and lifeandhow background,educational social they when was interest my Basically movements. student in involved leftist the were people who interviews respondentsfrom Alevi with depth andconducted selected structured semi reach those people within the limited time. Overall my field research consisted of eightin- ofmy rendering in certain to Thus Iusedeasier. parts network research order my own with together difficulties posed Being anativeresearcher Alevi Iam descent. that of fact Alevi. Doing research on Alevis has been a challenging task from the outset, due to the 2. 1. The consisted of7basicquestionnaire and ofapplying questions the the process yourself by or your parents? Could your you describe education life wasithow generally, by supported whenyou wereachild? features socio-economic youCould what describe familybackgroundinhad of kind terms you of 29 CEU eTD Collection 3.3 Description of Interviewees 3.3 Description receive critical responses. critical receive movements Alevi in young to people leftist andinvolved in were order who educated the of climate 1960sandthe to make Idecided 70s.Therefore myinterviewsmostly with the why and howthey found themselves in a leftist position during the political radical understand precisely more in their the reasons to attitude 1970s, political 1960sandthe in allAlevis inin general or Turkey thisthesis. of The scope my is limited to research description of interviewees. description the of 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. Having indicated the questionnaire in the previous section this part is a part questionnaire the inthis to indicated Having section devoted previous the What is your current political discourse and how was it changed so far? experiences? radicalthe climateof political 60s the and your 70sbased on personal Why do you think Alevi youth found themselves in a leftist position during years? in those your overall what was discourse What wasyour (oryour group’s which you wereinvolved in)slogans, literature? inleft-wing selection you wereHow influenced by left the wasyour what basic and reading time? first the for materials propagandist left-wing meet you did when and How I do not claim to reach conclusions that concern Alevism thatconcern reach conclusions claimnot to I do 30 CEU eTD Collection education. Nowadays considering his old age, he is still working as an attorney. his during active became quite He University. Istanbul Law at enter of Faculty the to Party Workers for emergedandof became attractive him. Turkey was to Istanbul Hewent itin a tolerated thespectrum sense that before.of wider activity political The than constitution in was accepted 1961. Thisnew constitution was moreliberal than oldthe one his When hometown. he wasinhigh school 27Maythe 1960 couptookplace. The new in education university receive could who people he inthree wasone hiswith generation Istanbul. during his sentence.prison Maoist mostly and Marxist leftist literature, Heread coup. 1980’s aftermath the the of more in years fifteen sentencedto then than arrested hisvillage.Hewas which were close and to organize mine peasants workers hehometown wentbackhis revolution. Then bring could believe guerillathe struggle Maoist inthearmed approach and which a had which Army’ Liberation Peasants and Workers ‘Turkish the of members the of one Hebecame students. he from journals received that read left-wing literature, to started university instudent discussion housescoffee hewhere usedgo to during the1969/70.He in an unqualified in1965.Hewasinfluenced by worker construction left-wing radical the as work Istanbul to to lack Hewent finance. for school of elementary after his education Ibrahim Harman (b.1939) He works as a nightwatchman for aprivate company and liveswith his family in 5Õ za Erdem(b.1953) was born in Sivas in eastern continueTurkey. Hecould not was born in Malatya in eastern Turkey. In comparison 31 CEU eTD Collection Halk Kurtulu Party/Front’ Liberation People’s ‘Turkish and Youth’ ‘Revolutionary for trial lifestudent for heaRevolutionary in also worked hometown. HewasTrade Union his on (2004). He has also written several books on Alevism, principles of Alevi belief and so on. Underground (2002)and 78’ aboveground/underground of of Resisting,Days diary researcher-writer. position was heinvestigation security when turned back from military compulsory His service. the ended by Ministry Forestry until 1980. Hewasnotfound eligible working for as a tenancy at the endthe of Ministry the in position different in a worked He while. a for decision.in politics involved he Then Since that time he has been working as a then ‘Revolutionary Youth’ known by its Turkish acronym as acronym Turkish its by known Youth’ ‘Revolutionary then and Societies Debating of Federation the of committee steering the member of a became he faculty high school in University was forestry education to Istanbul He admitted 1965. Germany and Turkey. Heis a surgeon workingin ahospital in Istanbul. in theleftcomparebetween to him an opportunity gave hisgraduation after education Germany Going forarrest. upper to under With1971 couphecame 12 March the active memberof Societies’ ‘Federation Debating the hisof during university education. Istanbul University in 1965. He worked for ‘Workers Party of Turkey’ and also became an boarding he high graduation state in Medicineof the entered at Faculty school Sivas His diarywas underpublished nameof the of Days Resisting, diary of 68’ Esat (b.1946) Korkmaz Hüseyin Karabay (b.1947) ú Partisi/Cephesi . He was released in. Hewasreleased general the political amnesty in 1974. was born in Manisa in Aegean region. After completing After region. Aegean in Manisa in born was was born in Malatya in eastern Turkey. After the 32 Dev Genç . During his active Türkiye CEU eTD Collection ( movements. and were founded by Deniz Gezmi Organization’ and then ideas. He became a member of member of the a He became ideas. very very by influenced Deniz Gezmi high heschool tothe wasadmitted Faculty Law atIstanbulof inUniversity 1967.Hewas for completing him.After language learn place Turkish to first was the school elementary He could only school go to when he wastwelvelack for of Moreover,possibilities. own business in Istanbul since that time. in sincethat business own Istanbul After 1980’s the he coup wentto Istanbul work. Hehasto livingbeen andworkingin his journals. Hebecame involved inthe Liberation Army Turkish People’s during 1977-78. town for his high school education. During hishigh school he metwith leftthe its and couldhardly his supply own education expense for lackthe offamily finance. Hewent to of the USstudent organized occupationof Istanbul University spearheaded in 1968and he protests against the 6 arrival the Faculty of Law at Istanbul University attended he in 1966.Becoming ofTurkey’ Part increasingly ‘Workers the of more amember politicallybecoming After active, he led Army’. the Liberation People’s ‘Turkish HüseyinInan andYusuf Aslan, in thecentral prison inAnkara. order". The death sentence was outby carried onMay hanging with sentences6 1972,along the death of to deathfor violating sentenced Turkish was he and Criminal 1971, July Code'sin began 146th article,trial Their "to attempt enforcers. to law overthrow with stand-off the Constitutional armed an following Aslan privatesAnkara.After in releasing the washostages, alive he captured andarrested inSivaswithYusuf studentbase. In 1971 he took in part the robbery bankof ina Ankara. revolutionary year, That kidnappedhe a growing four US inspired and circulated ideas his Revolution, Democratic National the advocating the 1960s.the late He was one of Marxist-Leninist the founders of outlawedthe 78 SEV-DER Deniz Gezmi Currently he is working as a lawyer and is chairman of his village’s association hisvillage’s of ischairman and asalawyer heis working Currently Hüseyin Özdemir (b.1943) 6Õ rr th ) in Istanbul. ) Õ Fleet in Istanbul. Intensifying his involvement within the Worker's Party of Turkey, and Kulu (b.1959) Kulu ú (1947–1972) was apolitical activist, among the most high-profile revolutionaries active in Devrimci Ö was born in Malatya in a small village; called K called village; in asmall inMalatya born was ú and he was also involved in the most of the student protest ú 78 was born in Malatya in a small Kurdish/Alevi village. Kurdish/Alevi small in a Malatya in born was and his‘Turkish People’s Liberation Army’ group’s ÷ Devrimci Hukukçular Örgütü renci Birli 33 ÷ i ‘Revolutionary Student Union’, ‘Revolutionary which Student Türkiye Halk KurtuluTürkiye ‘Revolutionary Jurists ‘Revolutionary Õ rba ú ÷OÕ Ordusu . He . CEU eTD Collection Culture Clubs of the East the of Clubs Culture of Revolutionary the a director became circles. He radical student those him into moved Workers’ to Party whichTurkey of had(WPT), been startedat already high school, He retired recently. He retired position deservingas ofhis tohis educational quality due inmovements. activity student student movements duringhis university education. itsfor famous also very in1969.Ta clubs) (idea debating political societies mülkiye to imperial the science andthe successor of outstanding students most for political place the University,Ankara of faculty science political the to He wasadmitted School (1968). Iskenderun went to Istanbul to continue his education in Private Architect-Engineering the the East in 1969. Union of Chambers of Turkish Engineers and Architects. of the WPT. Turkey’ and involved invariousmovements. student In 1978 he became an active member mostly read basic literature atArchitecture Mimar Sinan Fine ArtsUniversity in 1969. During his he university of the left. of Faculty the entered and to Istanbul He went teacher. literature hisHe of influence was a sympathizer of southeastern in the readingheWhen he highschool Turkey. was got the habit under the ‘Workers Party of issue thenKurdish intellectuals founded theDo minority. When the majority felt that ethnic identities should be submerged inclass solidarity like gender 79 Inradical left circle some people began to demand that attention be paid to the plight of the Kurdish Later on,he in worked servicepromotedhewas not a higher civil the but to Ali Ta Currently he is working as an architect and also as the Secretary General of the Ali Rüzgar (b.1946) as the breeding-ground of Turkey’s civil servants. Moreover, this university thiswas university Moreover, civilservants. of Turkey’s breeding-ground as the ú ar 1947) ar (b. 79 in his in own university 1975.Hewasinvolved in leftradical was born in Hatay and after completing high school in school high completing after and Hatay in born was was born in Kahramanmara ÷ u Devrimci KültürOcaklar 34 ú and grew up in Hatay in Õ Revolutionary Culture Clubs of ú ar’s ar’s tendency CEU eTD Collection 3.4 Analyzing the Interviews the 3.4 Analyzing tells “I encountered the left through first encountered leftthe when Iwasinpopulist high discourse school”. Hüseyin Özdemir “I says Rüzgar Ali groups.” left in our names influential most the were Altan Çetin Kemal, school the WPT and the firstAli it.”Ta of sympathizers the became oneof founders such as Mehmet 1960smilitarythe invention, with foundationthe of Party Workers the Aliof Turkey I (WPT), Aybar, Behice Boran,after However elements. communist include they fact the to due wereblackened poems Ya Naz I remember and, school in high was I when forbidden was socialism my interviewee,is who the oldest one; Ibrahim Harman tells (13/04/08)“the term university became theamongeducation first intellectuals Alevis. the whoreceived Those university period. educational expense the the could during support which background, family wealthy reasonably had universities to go to chance the take really poor economic conditions as a family (R fromurbanization, which started 1950s the Although someonward. interviewees had Alevi ofmassmigration process from the and cities and countryside the of to modernizedis resultwith the overlapping they Alevis. The and urbanized first were the discourses between 1960s/70s the and currently. politic their of comparison a retrospective make also will I experience. left-wing their and background socio-economic beon will Mymainfocus their interviews. analyze these They first became politicized usually instance, school. thehigh during For one of Considering the interviewers’ background, they and camefrom background, they all rural interviewers’ provinces the Considering Having my introduced interviewees in the section,previous now my intention is to Yön (Direction) journal (edited by Do 35 ú ar states (12/04/08) “When I was inhigh “WhenIwas (12/04/08) ar states Õ za Erdem, S Õ rr Õ Kullu), those who could ÷ an Avc Õ m Hikmet’ ÕR÷ ú lu) ar CEU eTD Collection revolution would come very soon. Revolutionary Workers’ Unions) andthe unions, other trade in Istanbul feltthat I acronym forwhichof wasorganized Confederation bytheDISK(Turkish the Hüseyin Karabay (25/04/08) tells “When I sawthe 16-17 June 1970workersmovement, revolution”. the on focused my works all is why that and revolution by soon very come notdefinitely autopiame for years. in those Ihadbelievedliberation that of people will instance, one of R my interviewees of one instance, really believed thatthey had comelaunching close to a inrevolution For Turkey. Germany,influenced theyouth movements in Turkey.my According interviews, to they world. The student movements in Germany, and Revolution the United States and especially in France, Revolutionary Proletariat andthe Right ofNations toSelf-Determination Besides Politzer’s Besides Turkish revolutionaries and which was thefirst work banishedby 1980militarythe coup. Politzer’s The mostcommon for book discussion and myinterviewees Georges groups. student was movements.revolutionary They became by journals, politicized Marxist books reading ofthe headquarters the were there where dormitories in student the accommodated They social modern,moreandwere usually structure. urban heterogeneous universities. high others the period, school usually stayed until asa passive supporter entering for the first time in high school”. Except S Except school”. high in time first the for From From movements1968 onwards,student became influential very all thearound University life not just brought them into an intellectual atmosphere but also into a into also but atmosphere intellectual an into them brought just not life University Elementary Principles Philosophyof , and LeoHuberman’s Elementary Principles of Philosophy Õ za Erdem states (13/04/08) that “The revolution “The was revolution that (13/04/08) states za Erdem Introduction toSocialism 36 Õ rr Õ Kulu, whose leftist activity consists of his of consists activity leftist whose Kulu, which is the most common book of other , . Vladimir Lenin’s and The State The CEU eTD Collection Istanbul. Anadolu Kültür Press, 2002, p.33. after capitalism” after comes which socialism than rather society egalitarian pre-historic of essences of consists Creating utopiameans reachto half of the way. Ourutopia was a communist dream which armedwithout strugglebe therecould anychanges. not 68was Maybe autopia? yes: religion which was often contradictory with hindsight. Almost all of us believed that explains hisfeelings very insincerely his “Our book: theory of revolution was a kind of guerilla from struggles 1970 onwards. EsatKorkmaz, who publishedhis memoirs, 80 remember Deniz Gezmi the US 6 against such joinedmovements in arrival as;protests several Istanbul. the They protests of bringing revolution with armed guerilla struggle with cooperationthe of peasants.the played asignificantrole inmoving torural people areas andand politicizing peasants movement, in worldthe in the 1970s,the half-industrial structure of social Turkey also guerrilla Palestinian the and Revolution Cuban the of model role a as taking particularly were very onleftisteffective movements of 1960s the and 1970s. war(1919-1923) National KemalistandIndependence the discourses simply argue that “Entirely Turkey Independent and damnAmerican imperialism”. From Ican point, this inalsoRüzgar question asimilar“our slogan (24/04/08) tothis responded way;was slogan was ‘damn American imperialism’ and ‘longlive Turkey’s independence’”. Ali was very tall and walking infrontof mass,the people can see him very even behind. Our Esat Korkmaz, My two interviewees (R interviewees My two Hüseyin Özdemir andHüseyin Karabay mostly involvedwere in student th Fleet(1968), and NATO.the againstHüseyin Özdemirtells (16/04/08)“I Kafa TutanGünler, yeralt 80 . Although the general was tendency towards guerilla romanticism, ú was leading the protest against the arrival of the US 6 Õ za Erdem and Esat Korkmaz) became also active in active armed also became Korkmaz) Esat and za Erdem Õ ’68 güncesi 37 [Days ofResisting, diary of 68’ underground]. th Fleet, he Fleet, CEU eTD Collection during 13 the peasant movements. Moreover, during the 16 the during Moreover, movements. peasant tendency among the Alevi youth simply with this approach. Although I partly is itagree with explain argument, this hardleft-wing to the strong discourse. For effective during the 1960s and and 70s they came under influenceleftist the of populist him, it was notAccordingRüzgarhim, (24/04/08) to leftistmovement the was very and powerful a conscious choice but more it. internalized like a romantichistoricalmeit materialsAlevisto during theseems 1960s, havesignificantly that approach. produce byintellectuals for masses thesake started approach to reaching of leftist the Although is socialistideology problematic andquite an this approach. anachronistic history Alevi struggleof of orasasource as aclass re-interpretation However, (proto-) classes”. ruling the against raised liberation of flag resistance a rebellion, a was Alevism of the Ottoman Empire were also known as a classis (which Alevi the was movement peasant struggle communist first the that claim can I even againstIbrahim “ThisHarman (16/04/08), is destinythe of Alevis. Alevis leftistswere anyway, the ruling class. Overall, such as communionequality,brotherhood, in villages our from our isdiscourse Alevioverlapping with Erdem mostly and long AliRüzgar), similarresponded with “Ifound remarks, Marxist and 70sbased your on personal experiences?” in interviews.these from Apart (R two youth found themselves inaleftist position radicalduring the political climateof the1960s However, beside these approaches I received a very different response from response from Ali Ireceivedavery different approaches besidethese However, The most significant came part with question 6 isasking you “Why thinkdo Alevi babai th century, three hundred years earlier than Thomas Müntzer’s German Müntzer’s Thomas than earlier years hundred three century, revolts which appeared in central Anatolia against the Seljuks) movement Seljuks) the in against Anatolia central which appeared revolts dede s discourses. We were listening to the same terms 38 th century Alevi against suppression revolts century dede s (holy leaders). Õ za CEU eTD Collection rights policy; in contrast they believe it has a hidden Islamist agenda. Islamist a hidden has it believe they in contrast policy; rights Kalk Party, Developments and (Justice AKP ingovernment, party current the oppose all my interviewees Moreover, candidates in lastgeneral elections. the democrat others (Hüseyin Karabay, Ali Rüzgar, Esat Korkmaz)The voted EU. the for the support individualthey CHP, the socialunlike However, it. for voting than other alternatives Alevis. They said “although we do not agree with the CHP’s current policy there is no (Republican People’s Party, (Republican People’s Özdemir and Ibrahim Harman are critical of the current nationalistic approach of the CHP perspective, he says, heis certainly supporting Turkey joining the EU.Though Hüseyin human willsolverights Turkey’s ethnic and minority religious From problems. this believes in anddemocracy liberal maintainsthought and regulationsthat concerning he more, rather any proletariat the of in dictatorship the believe not thathe does He states Do Ankara University which (Revolutionary (1969-75) was DDKO Culture Clubs of East, Union (EU). Ali Ta communismis willcome.legal Obviouslystill heto opposed parties European the and he still keeps a revolutionary belief that one day when the conditions are ready Although Although R was 1960sand the aim their agreethat a utopia. during 70s interviewees revolutionary with the currentchanged sofar. The comparison between their political duringdiscourses the 1960s/70s one broughtbein tounderstand exploredhow their order political in stance 1960s the has and 70s surprisingly various results. Apart from R ÷ u Devrimci Kültür Ocaklar Õ nma Partisi Lastly, there is a point that relates to their current political attitudes, which needs to Õ za Erdem leftist he now towards is Erdem wasbefore, than approaches moreza critical ). Theybelieve AKP isnotsincereinthe human and minority rights ú ar, who was involved in the Kurdish leftistmovement when he was at Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi Õ ), supports pro-Kurdish Democratic Society Party (DTP). Society Democratic supports pro-Kurdish Party ), 39 ), supporting the CHP likemost Õ za Erdem, all Adalet ve Adalet CEU eTD Collection had beencurtailed by the elected government which appealed to Islamic identity. 82 Volume 8Left].Istanbul: Ileti Socialism in Turkey) in its leaders. executed and Party Democratic the The army overthrew intervention. military the by overthrown was by election power to came which government 1950s the of end atthe reasons for various heated more became DP the and forces armed the between tension The democratically. also but socio-economically just not changed liberation of in an atmosphere was celebrated result The percent. RPP’s39.8 against the of vote the all over thecampaigned with the slogan ‘Enough! Now the country.people have their say’ had won 53.4 per cent Under the new government of DP Turkey was rapidly 81 The modern first Turkey’s world multiparty system for the sake findingof for aposition Turkey in thisnew democratic People’s ledParty (RPP) who Turkey as a mono-party 1925-45,initiatedduring a Republican the world. overthe atmosphere, this In ideaall democracy strengthened of the interviews. my and analysis textual on is based chapter in this myarguments of source main The identity. Alevi of revival recent the analyze will I finally Alevis, among politization main movement characteristics inof leftistthe Turkey in the and1960s 70sandleft-wing The The rationale behind the 1960 Murat Belge, Murat CHAPTER IV: The Leftist Movement and Alevis in the 1960s and 1960s inthe Alevis and Movement Leftist The IV: CHAPTER 81 The collapse of fascism by Nazism and Worldfascism WarThe collapseof endof the Second the discuss will I chapter in this interviews, through Alevis the of analysis the After . By the elections of 14 May 1950 the Democratic Party (DP), which had Türkiye’de Sosyalizm Tarihinin Çizgileri, Ana Modern Türkiye’de Siyasi Dü ú im Press, 2007,p.24. coup d’état coup coup d’état was to foster rights and freedoms which according to the military had taken place on the 27 May 1960. The DP’s May 1960. The onthe27 hadplace taken 1970s 40 ú ünce CiltSol 8 [The MainCharacteristics of the (Political Thought in Modern Turkey History of 82 . CEU eTD Collection Volume 8Left).Istanbul: Ileti Socialism in Turkey) in 86 p.13. Over. Take Generals The 85 the new constitution. 84 clubsstudentmade also their andbegantoflourish appearance in The atmosphere. this framework’ theoutside Kemalistdebates allowed new‘ideological 1970s and 1960s the in Movement Leftist 4.1 The the course of Turkey’s history and allowed to new socialistformations. referendum on 9 July 1961 with 61.7 per cent of the votes which was the mostliberal one in with the wasaccepted newconstitution a newconstitution. The charged up with drawing first time inTurkey’s history influential forbecame the The Left most appeared. left newof the 1960s the actor parties developments; these of Asaresult free speech andfreeassociation. guarantee to designed period of military 83 economy the affected also change andthis byliberalism was replaced étatism Kemalist about power betweenpower led army the the 1960 about and DP to cities. Besides these social and economic reforms thehiddenand development, struggle largethe to from countryside migration the mass of emergence 1950ssawthe the a result, Asfrom affected this. some was werebadly mostfarmers profitable, the sector agricultural the Although, Turkey. to funds Plan Marshall the of extension the with economy free-market liberal a into transformed economy autarkist and controlled The strictly Murat Belge, Murat Feroz Ahmad, Feroz Professor Enver Ziya Karal and Professor Turhan Feyzio Turhan Professor and Karal Ziya Enver Professor Erik Jan Zürcher, Jan Erik The 1960s were the yearsof rapid for Turkey. change The1961 hadConstitution On the other hand, fundamental developments were seen during the DP government. DP the during seen were developments fundamental hand, other the On Türkiye’de Sosyalizm Tarihinin Çizgileri, Ana Military Intervention andthe CrisisinTurkey Turkey A Modern History coups Modern Türkiye’de Siyasi Dü ú came into came beingin Turkey. The commissions of professors im Press, 2007,p.34. 86 . The Socialist and social democratic political parties and . New York, London: I.B.Tauris, 2004, p.224. 41 ú ünce ÷ lu did most of the work during the preperation of preperation the during work of the most did lu CiltSol 8 in (The MainCharacteristics of the MERIP Reports coup d’état (Political Thought in . After this first this After . , No 93, (Jan.,1981)Turkey: 85 . Moreover, it was Modern Turkey History of coup the 83 84 . CEU eTD Collection problems led to new fractions in it. A major debate took place A major and took init.problems led newfractions between Mihri Belli to debate Marxism in alsoexperienced was Turkey. unique dynamics during 1960sand the 70s.However dilemma the of third world countries’ ( Societies Debating under debating name other the societiesandfoundednetwork anational Federation of Istanbul mid-1960swith these political University. societiescame By the debating together Technicaluniversities; Ankara such in East Middle as University, Ankaraand University 89 88 forcesociety of Turkey. and The most educated intellectual side of Turkey saw themselves as movingthe especially among university the students. factions parties and developed into often formed these publications that around The groups 87 (Revolution) or suchas publications thelater ideas. However, leftist and radical different a narrowwhich not Marxistwas a broad-based but publication forum for all other the journal the was first The issues. socio-political on debates intellectual lively among intellectuals butat thesameinfluential for was very support, unions) time (especially trade the proletariat the at mainly aimed and party legal main the was WPT The in 1961. intellectuals socialist Workers’ Party of was foundedTurkey (WPT) byagroupofunioniststrade and some Ibid Erik J. Zürcher, Ibid. . p. 255. Basically problems were seen in three central aspects in the left circles and these The universities played most importantmostThe during in universities played andinfluential the1960s part Besides these political developments, new periodicals were published which hosted newBesides these developments, periodicals were published political which Turkey, AModernHistory 89 Ayd . Political debating societies ( societies debating Political . 87 Fikir Kulüpleri Federasyonu Õ . nl Õ k (Enlightenment) were inspired the specific brand of Marxism of brand specific the inspired were (Enlightenment) . New. York: I.B. Tauris, 2001, p. 254. 42 fikir kulüpleri fikir ). Theleft rapidly ). developed in Turkey’s ) sprang out at almost all major all almost at out sprang ) Yön (Direction) Devrim 88 . CEU eTD Collection 8 Left].Istanbul: Ileti Left inTurkey] in mode of production’ group on a question of whether Turkey was a feudal societyRevolution Democratic National in seen the was cleavage other leaders. One party of other or rather one with the ‘Asiatic Ali Aybar’s his and of invasiongroup’s condemnation by not supported the was a number Dev Genç Revolutionary Culture Clubs of the East ( 93 92 insubmerged class like solidarity gender issues and minority religious be should identities ethnic that thought left the in majority the However, minority. demand andKurdishintellectuals the problems began attention students to Kurdish the of Turkey’s dynamics. Turkey whatis an oppressive or thestate possible role of is army the in inany revolution 91 1970. in WPT of the leader the became Belli Mihri 1962, WPTin of the leader the became 90 ( Youth itinto organization Revolutionary the turned ( Revolution wascalled Democratic National Thesecond group of andintellectuals. officers Turkey and revolutionary suggestedthat change be could only aboutby brought a coalition WPT members led success,toorganizetried, inanew with unions by confederation considerable trade whom workers, they among Turkey’s growing awareness political and class-consciousness come Turkey that for asocialist expectedsuccess ripenedfrom to revolution, enough a Mehmet AliAybar’s groups Milli DemokratikDevrimMilli See for instance; Yaprak Zihnio Yaprak instance; for See Erik Jan Zürcher, Jan Erik Mihri Belli and Mehmet Ali Aybar both were the party leaders of Worker’s Party. Mehmet Ali Aybar Ibid. The third regarding the appeared cleavage crucial issue.Notably, Kurdish some ). This debate steamed up with the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. Mehmet Czechoslovakia. invasion of Soviet the with steamed up debate This ). 91 Modern Türkiye’de Siyasi Dü . Mihri Belli put more emphasis on the Asiatic and feudal characteristics of Asiaticmorecharacteristics the emphasis andfeudal on . Mihri Belli put Ibid. ú im Press,2007, pp. 1109-1144. p. 255. 92 . These debates continued on some other issues such as whether as such issues other some on continued debates These . ) and took Federationinover the Debating 1968and took of ) and Societies ÷ 90 lu’s article; lu’s within the Marxist circle. Mehmet Ali Aybar was claiming was Aybar Ali Mehmet circle. Marxist the within Türkiye’de Solun Feminizme Yakla ú ünce Do 43 Cilt 8 Sol Cilt ÷ u Devrimci Ocaklar Kültür [Political Thought in Devrimci Gençlik úÕPÕ ModernTurkey Volume [ The Approach of the or by or its acronym Õ ) founded) at first 93 . Thus, . CEU eTD Collection urban guerilla warfare.urban guerilla moved ruralto areas become a guerilla movement some or of them continued in the cities as Partisi/Cephesi People’s Liberation Army) of Deniz Gezmi Deniz of Army) Liberation People’s .Õ]Õ the US 6 student organized occupationof UniversityIstanbul 1968 spearheadedin and he protests against arrivalthe of the Faculty of Law at Istanbul University in 1966.Becoming increasingly more politically active, he led the ‘Turkish People’s Liberation Army’. After becoming a member of the ‘Workers Part of Turkey’ he attended http://www.gelawej.org/indir/DDKO-Dosyasi/Ismail-Besikci.pdf are in Prison) in aPDF format in Army), while other groups were the THKO ( Kurtulu 97 Ankara. in prison central the in was out carried by onMayhanging with6 1972, along the deathsentences of HüseyinandInan Yusuf Aslan, Turkish Criminal Code'sviolating 146thfor article, death to "to sentenced attempt was he to and overthrow 1971, July in the Constitutional began trial Their order". The enforcers. law death sentencewith armed stand-off an following Aslan Yusuf with Sivas in arrested and alive captured was he hostages, the releasing After took1971 he inthe Ankara.robbery inThat part of abank year,hekidnapped fourUSAnkara. privates in the National Democratic Revolution, his ideas circulated and inspired agrowing revolutionary student base. In late 1960s. He was one of the Marxist-Leninist founders of the outlawed 96 TIKKO ( 94 ( TKP-ML group splinter Maoist provinces South-eastern Istanbul University Ankaraand University,began tospreadoutespecially in Eastern and bourgeois” deviation, therefore they took the model of ChineseRevolution model the the of they took therefore bourgeois” deviation, believedgroups asmodel“little the thattaking Cuban revolution a rolewould beakind of movedPalestinianfurthermovement, armedstruggle. guerilla some to However, guerilla a guerillabring struggle to arevolution. about and shouldbesides propaganda bearmed also agitation there decidedRevolution that circle Democratic The National way. radical and in apolarized atmosphere the exacerbated 95 Mahir Çayan (1945-1972) was the leader of Turkish the People’s Liberation Party/Front ( Deniz Gezmi Ismail Be Murat Belge, Murat ldere, in avillage of Tokat where is in Central Anatolia. ú Partisi/Cephesi th The radical left circles which were influenced by the model of Cuban Revolution and The military Fleet inIstanbul.Intensifying his involvement within theWorker's Party of Turkey, and advocating Türkiye I Türkiye ú ikçi, ú Ibid. (1947–1972) was a political activist, among the most high-profile revolutionaries active the in Hapisdeki Do – Turkish People’s Liberation Party/Front) of Mahir Çayan p.39. ú çi KöylüKurtulu ) who was killedwith friends nine during the strugglearmed withsecurity forces in coup 94 . of it of left, the not 12 March however 1971 didexterminate ÷ u Devrimci Kültür Ocaklar Türkiye Komünist Partisi-Marksist/Leninist ú Ordusu 44 ú 96 – TurkishWorkers and Peasants Liberation and the THKP/C ( Türkiye Türkiye Halk Kurtulu Õ (Revolutionary Culture Clubs of the East whom . Türkiye Halk Kurtulu Türkiye HalkKurtulu ú Ordusu 97 . These groups ) spawned ) the Türkiye Halk – Turkish ú 95 Ordusu . The . ú CEU eTD Collection the new strategy of Ecevit’s defining the Republican People’s Party as “left of center”, was badly effected their rates and finally effected they abolished themselves badly was in1977. of center”, “left as Party People’s Republican the defining ofEcevit’s strategy new the directly.Althoughthey succeeded tobring with eight MP to parliament in the1969’s generalelection, with party in the Turkish history. However, they could not be sufficiently effective declareand Alevi demand 99 p.8. Please see Chapter II for details on this separation. the worldthe influenced As Alevis too. one ofmyinterviewees Ibrahim Harman said that over all prevailed had which leftism to tendency General discourse. egalitarian leftist the by During attracted Alevis period wereincreasingly attract this Alevivotes. the failed to party Imams) were used the as party by emblem Unity the foundedParty in however1966, the Twelve the and Ali (symbolizing stars twelve and lion The decreased. participation political 98 Partisi whichAssociations foundedinwere big and cities Turkish Unitythe Party ( centuries’ for separated socially remained they whom from inandsometimes directcompetition,strict Sunnis, with closer contact, ‘brought theminto van thatAleviBruinessen argues mass migration into the cities since onward the 1960s Martin cities. large in economically also but demographically just not visible, more become Left the and 1970s and 1960s ofthe Youth Alevi 4.2 The Despitealso positively affected Alevisand the led establishmentAlevi to which of organizations. the attempts its formerlost significance in setting. this urban of the Alevi its Aleviand identity of whicharethecrucial and part traditional exercises requirements the to urban life aboutbroughtdramaticand changesfor traditionalthis community. The religion influence the politics with Hac TurkishUnity Party (Türkiye Birlik Partisi) was established in1966. This part is knownas the first Alevi Martin van Bruinessen, ) Since 1960s the with massmigrationthe from urbanarea to rural settling, Alevis had Political participation of a general higher class spread through lower segments which spreadthrough higher class Political a general participation of 99 , starting from , startingfrom secondhalfthe of 1960s,thethe importance of Alevi demands in Kurds,Turks andAlevi Revival in Turkey 45 . in . 98 . The adaptation to new modern Middle East Report Õ , July-September, , Bekta Türkiye Birlik ú Veli CEU eTD Collection 102 sentenced was carried out by hanging on May 6, 1972. to overthrow Constitutional the order" with Deniz Gezmi Liberation Army) who was sentenced to death forviolating Turkish Criminal Code's 146th article,"to attempt 101 Ileti in guerillaactivity Tunceli only –the which province has a majority Aleviof centerpopulation- the its of settlings. Ibrahim Kaypakkaya;was who founderthe of TKP/MLthe decided tomake through Hüseyin Inan’s through villages whereAlevi population was intense. The first connection of THKO was established forwas the them place suitable most the tothem according Therefore, areas unbearable. life inurban made theirmilitary which of movecoup 1971 rural wasthe areas reason to to initiate Another rural armed movement. the guerilla to movedto areas (1972) towards very became hometown significant. wingAt inTurkey. thisstage, those rural youth’s background connection with their the left- this alsobecame affected internally movementRevolution widespread, guerrilla 100 compared their to movements in population student these irreligious ideas- and came from rural background. Alevis had been more represented reactionary to not were who – universities same the at education taking of possibility whocaught these the inmodern wereothers, students, there grew upInaddition to cities. whowere childrenformed orcivil and students, by bureaucrats servant university of who movements and they highly influencedwere by revolutionarythe clubsideas. Student were in wasinterested socialism. his illiterate (16/04/08) the order provided bytheleftfactwas inwhatAlevis even desired. Henoted that Murat Küçük, Murat HüseyinInan was one of the leaders of THKO (Türkiye Halk Kurtulu Murat Küçük, Murat Modern Türkiye’de Siyasi Dü ú imPress, 2007, p.909. The first revolutionary as THKO(1969),THKP-Cgroups; such (1970)andTKP/ML During this period the Alevi youth became active an of participant studentthe Ibid. Türkiye’de Sol Dü 102 . THKP-C took shelter .THKP-C inK took p. 909. 101 family Kahramanmaraconnection around ú ünce, Cilt8Sol ú ünce ve Aleviler [Political Thought Modernin Turkey Vol:8 , [The Left Thought and Alevis] and LeftThought , [The 46 ú and Yusuf Aslan on July 16, 1971. Thedeath Õ]Õ ldere which isldere Alevivillage. which also an 100 ú Ordusu- Turkish People’s . Especially after the Cuban the . Especially after ú and Kayseri’s and Alevi Left]. Istanbul: CEU eTD Collection Gözüyle Alevilik 104 103 movement. leftist entire ofthe in discourse also the butmasses, reach the used to which was discourse. itencounter firstwas the time left-wing for Alevis to within thought modern the political propagandas. WPT seemed winto the considerable part of the Alevi constituents. Therefore, in seats parliamentwith Alevi open who support, used Alevis folk poems duringits election Alevi WPT supportwith freedom 1965’selection promise Inthe and of won equality. three gain succeeded to new constitution 1961, of of expansions democratic the established with Alevis turned back againSunni alliancewith started DP the when However, (DP). Party Democratic to the Republican Republic.the multiparty During transition the of stage Alevi People’sthe population supported Party (RRP).opposing been position again,whichhad supporting Kemalism since the establishment of The WPT, which was shotdead afteror 1971’ persons, whohad identified themselves as Marxist-Leninist and guerrillas were hangedwho the left-wing victims of the armedTunceli ‘…in theirregion; songs and discussions martyrs the ofKerbela with areequated conflicts which took place pursued toprotect thepoor.As Bumke concerningin noted the Alevi youth in especially the cities, andhe since withcommunist first the as isseen who those Jesus resemble Hüseyin and Ali of examples in houses Alevi some pictures Ali Imams to the next Twelve and can be seen ofGezmi pictures Deniz instance, the For Kerbela. of is martyr who the was bloodily suppressed by forces.security However, the first attempt of creating a guerilla cadre of THKO, THKP-C and TKP/ML Peter J. Bumke, Peter Küçük, Murat Alevi poems andhymnsan important took not part, just in discourseof the WPT the The Worker’s Party Turkey of (WPT)mobilizedAlevis as toidentify provided as Those were killed during the armed struggle were symbolized as Ali, or Hüseyin [Alevism inforeign researchers point of view] Istanbul:Ant Press, 1997, p. 54. Ibid. Dersimde K p. 91.1 104 Õ]Õ . lba ú Kürtler [Kizilbash Kurden in Dersim] in Dersim] in Kurden [Kizilbash 47 Yabanc Õ Ara ú or Che or Guavera úWÕ tarikat rmac Õ 103 lar leaders, . The . CEU eTD Collection became in this form the common anthem of the entire leftist movement: and re-written was Abdalpoems Sultan Pirthe of instance, one For side. rebellious the but event, the of dimension religious the in interested not were they Kerbela, of symbolism Although youngthe revolutionary expressedgeneration its actionspolitical in the with new young the meanings, Alevis also appropriated religious hymnsAlevism of them Investing anthem. and slogans their in poems Abdal’s Sultan Pir the used mostly they 108 107 p.52. Olsson, Elizabeth Özdalga, Catharina Raudvere,Istabul: Istanbul SwedishReserch Institute in Istanbul, 2003, Beller-Hann (ed.) 106 105 which involves social problems struggle from derived class beingfolk basedon literature approach asapragmatic onlybeexplained meetings can Alevi religious rights. Therefore, the reason for using Pir Sultan Abdal’s poems during party indicating MPs orusedadiscourse leaders WPTin nor 1969election, the election the1965 WPTthe whichapplied during the party propaganda and organizations. However, neitherin The songs of isRuhi Su,who singing Alevihymn and motives socialist to motives. As Kelh-Bodrogi argues: ifand material from These poverty. provide enough they are revised poems religious discrimination fighting against the ideaof this concept to perfectly suited Ottoman Empire, poems which of product were the the Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi,, Faruk Bilici, Traditional songs; are played during the Ibid. As my interviewees Ali Ta p. 6. Let usstrike a blow on the unbelievers Come oh souls let usreach unity Original version who fought against the exploitation and suppression of their time rebel Pir Sultan Abdal were re-interpreted as early socialists and revolutionaries thirteenth century popular mystic Hac mystic popular century thirteenth a (proto-)For the new –and socialist actually the entire left- Alevism altogether appeared as socialist ideology and its central figures such as Ali, Hüseyin, the The Function of Alevi-Bektashi Theology inModern Turkey The Past as Resource in the Turkic Speaking World. The Role of KerbelaThe (Re-)Turkey Role of ofAlevismin in the Construction ú ar (12/05/08) andar (12/05/08) Hüseyin specified,Özdemir (16/04/08) ayin-i Kizilbash cem, ceremonies. cem, 48 Õ Bektash and the 16 the and Bektash /Alevi /Alevi withstruggle Sunni poverty the during semah Wüzburg: Egon,2008, pp. 5-6. 105 106 . in , became popular material of material popular became , . Likewise Alevi songs and songs Alevi . Likewise th Alevi Identiy century poet and 107 . (Eds.) Torld . in Ildiko. in 108 . CEU eTD Collection 114 Ileti in Murat Küçük, Istanbul, 2003, pp. 51-62. (Eds.) Torld Olsson, Elizabeth Özdalga, Catharina Raudvere, Istabul: Istanbul SwedishReserch Institute in 113 112 East in the past and Present” International Symposium “Alevis inTurkey andCompaprable Syncrestistic Religious CommunitiesNear inthe Otter-Beaujean.(Eds) 111 sosyalizm. ol 110 Tevekkeltü taalallah. the left. religious poems tosocialist andhymns,class became adapted struggle, of property common left the of infiltration ageneral to led movement left-wing in the commitment 109 Communist with synonymous became Alevi level. ideological an to areligious from identity of definition collective in the shift a by accompanied was development This ideologies. up Aleviegalitarian youth leftthe position themselves anddevoted took to revolutionary featureall revolutionaries of distinctive Turkish the Alevi became of the moustache un-trimmed the secrecy, formerly of a symbol Furthermore, the 13 the during revolts Kizilbash/Alevi to interpreted were in medieval rebellions peasant heterodox Engels’ in example, For socialism. of sources ideological Kristina Kelh-Bodrogi, See for instance: Faruk Bilici, Faruk instance: Seefor Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi, In the Turkish Inthe original: In the Turkish original: Turkish the In Modern Türkiye’de Siyasi Dü Ibid. ú im Press, 2007, pp.896-934. th Consequently, during the period of left-rightpolarization inConsequently, periodthe 70s of during the 1960sand Come into being, long live socialism And avenge the ofblood the poor Let usstrike blow on the suppressors Come oh souls let usreach unity New version I trust in God the Almighty And avenge the ofblood our Hüseyin century century and 16 112 Türkiye’de Sol Dü Sol Türkiye’de . By . By a remarkable history reinterpretation of and tradition, became Alevism Syncretistic Religious Communities inthe Near East, Collected Papers ofthe Ibid. Gelin canlar bir olal Gelin canlar bir olal th . Leiden:. Brill, 1997, p.13. Introduction centuries ú ú The Function of Alevi-Bektashi Theology in Modern Turkey ünce, Cilt 8 Sol ünce ve Aleviler ünce ve 109 113 in . At the same time Alevis’ ‘unproportionally strong ‘unproportionally Alevis’ time same the At . Kelh-Bodrogi, Krisztina, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele and Anke and Kellner-Heinkele Barbara Krisztina, Kelh-Bodrogi, Õ m / Münkire k Õ m / Zulüme k 110 , [The Left Thought and Alevis] and Thought Left [The , [Political Thought Modernin Turkey Vol:8 49 111 ÕOÕ ÕOÕ ç çalal ç açlal . Õ Õ m / Hüseyinimizin kan m /Yoksulun kan The PeasantWarinGermany Õ alal . in Õ Õ alal m /Ya Left]. Istanbul: Alevi Identiy Õ 114 m / ú . Alevi as Õ n var CEU eTD Collection 116 1997, p. 25. Compaprable Syncrestistic Religious Communities in the Near East inthe past andPresent” Communities in the NearEast,Collected Papersofthe International Symposium “Alevis Turkeyin and Bodrogi,Krisztina, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele andAnke Otter-Beaujean.(Eds) 115 factors political and sociological as distinguished beroughly can it them Among levels. various at factors onvarious depends Alevi community the rediscovery of The Alevi European diaspora. newspapers, andbooks by Turkey articles thought associations inthe and especially media. of Turkey’s strengthening ofAlevi collective identity. Alevism became one mostthe of discussed topics interest Renewed Alevis.the activism of growing 1980switnessed the late the conscious. However, in the At beginningthe of 1980s the Alevism was nearly forgotten in Turkey’s the public communityinsignificant. more became and abandoned was identity defined religiously formerly their has led to variousIdentity efforts Collective of Reconstruction the and Alevism of Revival 4.3 The for the reconstruction and re- social stratification social number the Alevisand Alevi of emergence innew bourgeoisie resulted of an educated increase in ‘thegreat Alevi generation newin urbanized Moreover this for centuries. areas urban forms of expression identity, maintainedon itstheir which rural in existence remote migration and Alevis.urbanization of thelarge Migration citiesto inevitably imposed new emergence of ethnic and religious groups in the public sphere of Turkey. From From in ofTurkey.emergencethis the groups religious publicethnic and sphere of the influenced ofidentity the philosophy at by politics post-modern characterized Reha Çamuro Reha Ibid. p.26. The first visible signs of this process appeared with the Alevi periodicals, Alevi the with appeared process this of signs visible first The discourse, Marxist and socialism to Alevis turned of majority the factthat the Due to ÷ lu, 115 . Thefirst factor which is in the domain of sociology relates processto of Some NotesContemporary onthe Process of Restructuring Alevilikin Turkey 116 . Moreover, the nature of international conjuncture which was which conjuncture international of nature the Moreover, . 50 Syncretistic Religious . Leiden: Brill, .in Kelh- CEU eTD Collection 119 118 117 inTurkey Islam political an ideological development, socialism, which in the previous two decades had an‘indisputable authority as Alevi,feminist movements took place as outcomes of these developments. appear in publicsphereby the late1980s.In thisitthe respect, can be say Kurdish,that which ignored these left by were suppressed groups during 1960sand70sto the the started religious groupsand as sawthem progression.the an for After obstacle the military coup and from matters alldemandsethnic, gender andreligious suppressed ignored the of away in kept leftTurkey The of left. the policy religious was the reason important Another coup. military to due leftists the of damage physical and political to related was change andseek in1970s.ThisledAlevis strengthened tonew The approaches. reason this of collapse of alliancebetweenAlevisthe and the political left, which had beensetup in 1960s rolesAlevism. the revivalof was one first on The which aboutthe 1980military ledcoup to Turkey. historical atmospheres of inthese newAlevi the appeared and movement social perspective, being even more just, egalitarian and libertarian than socialism’ modern terms and they ‘discovered Alevism as ideology,an which they now regardedas Alevism with to reconstruct they thisrespect, started Alevi. In as to redefine themselves started groupings, and parties left-wing in the involved were who intellectuals Alevi many importance’. As most aresult of Alevisthe seek began other paths. to In late1980s the See for instance: Seefor Ibid Ibid . . The third important factor was the rise of political Islamic fundamentalism or fundamentalism Islamic political of rise the was factor important third The The second factor was the collapse of the Soviet block. As a result of this From the political point of view there are several factors which played important 117 alternative for youngthe andmiddle generation of Alevis, lost its former 119 . As Reha Çamuro 51 ÷ lu points out that, ‘because of their 118 . CEU eTD Collection this fire. this festival were staying, ofthe showeredguests other and it Nesin withwhere rocks hotel the and stormed finally mob the Then set festival. it on the fire. protest to started Thirty-seven prayer people in the hotel died in Verses. On the second day of the festival, ten to fifteenth thousand of surged ontoof many theSunni Muslims streets by announcing his intentionafter topublish atranslationanger the Fridayofthe Salman Rushdie’s provoked Satanic recently had who Nesin, Aziz was ofthem one invited, were artists and authors prominent 121 120 1999) pp.74-89. David Zeidan, Sufili [From the Periphery to Centeror from illegality to legality: Alevism During the republican Era] in Ahmet Yasar Ocak, 1997, pp. 24-33. Compaprable Syncrestistic Religious Communities in the Near East inthe past andPresent” Communities in the Near East,Collected Papersofthe International Symposium “Alevis Turkeyin and Bodrogi,Krisztina, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele andAnke Otter-Beaujean.(Eds) 1993 ‘theof event Sivas’ Alevi collective identity since end the of 1980s. After centuries of invisibility Alevis have activism. political in their Alevis encourage to seemed movement nationalist Kurdish of rise the hand, other the On unity. and identity religious their on stress to started They community. theirmovement affected directly nationalist Kurdishpercent of areKurds)Alevis this between estimates 10-20 unofficial part ofAlevis tothe areKurds(according important unwillingness- statetoprotect of the its Alevi citizens. not if – inability the of view in Islamism radical of influence growing the against themselves increasingly felt the necessity of strengthening their community in order to be able to defend Kelh-Bodrogi ‘the massacre mobilizingstates hadastrong Alevis,the effect on who Sunni-fascistin Islamists the of Malatya,towns Çorum, Kahramanmara Sivas, especially in secondthe half of 1970snumberthe of anti-Alevi producedby pogroms 119 Revolution Iran’ of considerable and extensive historical inheritance, the Alevis were put on alert by the Islamic When thePirSultan Abdal association inJuly 1993 organized acultural festivalin Sivas numerous Reha Çamuro Reha Reha Çamuro Reha ÷ ine Bak As a result of these factors, Alevis have started to reconstruct and re-strengthen of andre-strengthen to reconstruct Alevis havestarted factors, As aresultthese of an Since Kurdish problem. was newmovement the Alevi that affected factor lastThe Õú The Alevi of Anatolia lar ÷ ÷ lu, [Research toTurrkish Sufism] Istanbul: Ileti lu, Çevreden Merkeze Yahut Gayri me Ibid. Some NotesContemporary onthe Process of Restructuring Alevilikin Turkey 120 . Moreover the rise fascist and of Islamistmovements in Turkey 121 accelerated the process of politicization of Alevis. As Krisztina Alevis. of of politicization process the accelerated . in . Middle East Review of International Affairs 52 ú ruluktan Me ú im Press, 2002, pp. 312-333. ú ruiyete: Cumhuriyet Döneminde Alevilik . Vol.3, No.4 (December Syncretistic Religious ú . Leiden: Brill, andinJuly Türk .in Kelh- CEU eTD Collection tendencies. andmanifold their cultures, which as see Alevisa counter-balance againstIslamist fully community-based organizations to tolerates demandsit Alevis, of the the recognize unwilling still is policy state the Although practices. and rituals religious its of legalization and officialthe recognition ofthe community the mainachievedwas about its goal fore 122 jure become indispensable element an of politics and society. demandingtheir Turkey’s By Beller-Hann (ed.) Krisztina Kelh-Bodrogi,, 122 recognition, Alevis have abandoned have Alevis recognition, . In this respect, the most common demand of Alevi movement which has not yet not has which movement Alevi of demand common most the respect, this In . The Past as Resource in the Turkic Speaking World. The Role of KerbelaThe (Re-)Turkey Role of ofAlevismin in the Construction taqqiye 53 once and for all and have come to the to come have and all for and once Wüzburg: 2008,Egon, p. 15. . in Ildiko. in de CEU eTD Collection that intend to transform the existing system through revolutionary awareness. On the other the On awareness. revolutionary through system existing the transform to intend that young Alevishad completely Alevism religion rejected re-interpreted and as a way of life most Thus, before. secularized than more became and Alevis accelerated secularization life. urban traditionalAlevis the institutions of by andwere replaced of modern apparatus ideologies Furthermore, with processofmigrationthe and urbanization from middlethe 1950s onward, gradually thestrictdestroyed boundaries betweenAlevis and the outside world. Along withareas inward,and turned and their developed andcommunity structures specific doctrines. the proclamation of the Turkish Republic, the secularization of the state in16 the Turkey. movements since of 1990s in beginning important the of public sphere most asone the Alevi constituted revival Alevithat the its identity with place terms took political in the Although it seems that the Kurds have been chief actors of the politics of ethnic identity, the was by identity revival based certain politics of politics. form the that on was constituted cultural in differences the period that beganparallel to inthemid 1980s,and Alevi the 1980s on,Alevis startedtoreconstruct have collectivetheiridentity based onreligious and late from the However, community. socio-religious as a distinct major characteristics their Alevis lost secularized The aradical transformation. have undergone Alevis urbanization, Conclusion During thepolitical polarization country the inof the1960s and 70s,the process of As it was explainedin the Chapter II, Alevi opposition to the Sunni Ottoman Empire From the middle of the 20 th century resulted in spatial and social marginality. They retreated to isolated rural toisolated They marginality.retreated andsocial inspatial resulted century th century onward, with the process of mass migration and 54 CEU eTD Collection Kemal and his regime, later on while the state gradually characterized Sunni Islam, Alevis Islam, Sunni characterized gradually state the while on later regime, his and Kemal ardent supporters Alevismostof Mustafa the factthat Despite the were process of Turkey. nation-building in the sought be should left the and Alevis of encounter The approach. this be itis ignored, hard toexplain left-wing strong the tendency among the Alevis simply with strategy of leftistthe intellectuals toreach out to the masses.Although, this point shouldnot of Alevi Marxist inmodern asproto-communist discourse struggle class was the rebellions re-interpretation modernity. The of appearedasoutcomes freedom and secularism equality, involvements in left the with this argument, this pointview of is Thedubious. notions of arguments and Alevidiscourse ofequality freedom,and and theiractive explained 1960s and 1970s. in the movements leftist in these involved were who Alevis eight with interviews conducted left, leftistthe in andbecame Intodo variousmovements engaged actively this;order I community.Additionally, study this examined howand why the Alevi youth sidestook with this tendency camefrom religious, historical or socio-economic dynamics of this whether more from, precisely originated left tendency wing strong this waswhere question during theleft-right in polarization 1970sin the 1960s and andTurkey themain research allies”. “natural its as Alevis the considered and struggle, communist wereAlevis,mostof were defined supporters of the pastproto- astheAlevi the who revolts flourished. The leftist found groups ameasure support all of over thecountry among which movements became unionsfoundedinfluential very in1961, trade student and university the first time in the politicalone in of course the the history. Therefore, Turkey’s influentialbecame political for left that arena of Turkey.hand, 1961 the Constitution, which formations,allowed newsocialist wasthemost liberal The Workers’ Party of Turkey (WPT) was Although most of my interviewees drew a parallel between the basic leftist basic the between a parallel drew interviewees my of most Although The aim of this study was to explore the strong left-wing tendency among Alevis 55 CEU eTD Collection to explore. I believe that these questions can be furthered in future researches. infuture can furthered be questions I believe these that to explore. lefttowards takes pluralistthe of perspectives 1960sandthe is interesting 70s another point coming from rural areas should also be taken into consideration. Moreover, the approach the 1960s and Alevis perception 1970s. However, non-Aleviof youth the the urban towards of framework is thethis Aleviyouth’s study study. This to leftin perception relevant theof participate. to preferred and priorities ideological their for structures suitable as movements leftist the perceived They left. the of notions the internalized have they that claim general the to opposed as movements leftist in the part took which youth these notions from the leftistmovement. Therefore, Alevi culture was the basis for the Alevi claimed that Alevi had already and culture egalitarian it than rather justunderpinnings took met commonthe on grounds. left political Alevisandthe whoare groups marginalized These two “other”. the became There are some deficiencies that need to be mentioned to consider to the aim and In conclusion, contrary to tendency the inmy the existing interviewees scholarship, 56 CEU eTD Collection http://www.gelawej.org/indir/DDKO-Dosyasi/Ismail-Besikci.pdf Clubs of the East whom are in Prison] in a PDF format in Be [Politicalin Thought Modern Turkey Volume 8Lef] Ileti Istanbul: Bora, Bora, Tan inReserch Institute Istanbul,pp. 51-62.. 2003, (Eds.)Bilici, Faruk. Torld Olsson, Elizabeth1998. Niyazi Berkes, Özdalga, Catharina Raudvere, Istabul: Istanbul Swedish [Political Thought in Thought [Political the Murat. Belge, Ileti Istanbul: Alevism] the and Islam of Protestantism Religion, Turkish the of Possibility 2000. 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