DOCSLIB.ORG

A QUESTION of AUTHENTICITY: the JEWISH PRIVILEGES in The

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
A QUESTION of AUTHENTICITY: the JEWISH PRIVILEGES in The A QUESTION OF AUTHENTICITY: THE JEWISH PRIVILEGES In the two fi rst Books of the Maccabees and the Antiquities of Flavius Josephus, we fi nd the texts of roughly sixty public documents, Greek and Roman, concerning the Jews. The historical importance of this series, which begins in the reign of Antiochus III (223–187 B.C.E.) and concludes with a rescript issued by the Emperor Claudius in 45 C.E., is obvious.1 However, the authenticity of these documents, or at least of a large number of them, has often been called into question.2 My dear teacher and friend, to whom this volume is dedicated, is one of those who refuse to admit the authenticity of the privileges granted to the Jews by the Seleucid sovereigns. I know of no better means of expressing my gratitude to Mr Isidore Lévy than to attempt to convince him that this time, his negative opinion is unjustifi ed. I It was not the historians who fi rst questioned the authenticity of the Jewish privileges. The great scholars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries – a Drusius, a Grotius, a Gronovius – accepted them without any hesitation. It was the Protestant theologians who shook the cred- ibility of the “apocryphal” Books of the Maccabees. This was a good chance to annoy the “papists,” by discovering historical errors in these so-called “infallible” books. The dossier of the controversy can be inspected in the celebrated work by Cardinal Bellarmine (1542–1621), Disputationes de controversiis christianae fi dei, and in the Protestant replies; the only one of these I have consulted is the voluminous treatise by 1 For a chronological list of the Roman documents, cf. J. Juster, Les Juifs dans l’empire romain I, 1914, pp. 158–159. For the documents in 1 and 2 Maccabees, cf. Abel, pp. xxvii and xlii; J. Goldstein, I Maccabees, 1976; C. Habicht, 2. Makkabäerbuch ( Jüdische Schriften aus hellenistisch-römischer Zeit I, 3), 1976, pp. 179–183. 2 Cf. e.g. H. Willrich, Urkundenfälschungen in der hellenistisch-jüdischen Literatur, 1924; R.H. Pfeiffer, History of New Testament Times, 1949, pp. 489–491. Cf. also the bibliographies by R. Marcus in his edition of Josephus, Ant. Jud. VII (Loeb Classical Library, 1942), and in PAAJR 16 (1947); L. Feldman, Scholarship on Philo and Josephus, 1937–1962, 1963; H. Schreckenburg, Bibliographie zu Flavius Josephus, 1968. Bickerman_f13_295-314.indd 295 5/9/2007 1:56:27 PM 296 a question of authenticity: the jewish privileges John Rainolds (1549–1607), Censura librorum apocryphorum. This Oxford theologian seems to have been the fi rst to deny the authenticity of a document concerning the Jews. When he attacked the letter of the king of Sparta to the high priest Onias I (1 Mac 12) as a forgery, he compared it to the apocryphal letter of King Abgar of Edessa to Jesus.3 The controversy broke out anew in the eighteenth century. Making good use of the treasures of erudition which had piled up since the time of Bellarmine, and relying primarily on the testimony of the Seleucid coinage, the Jesuit Erasmus Froehlich, in his Annales compendiarii regum et rerum Syriae (1734), attempted to demonstrate the perfect agreement between the inspired Books of Maccabees and the secular evidence from the past. The Protestant reply came quickly: in his Commentatio historico-critica de fi de librorum Maccabaicorum (1747), Gottlieb Wernsdorf did not hide the confessional reason which had prompted his work: multum interest ut ne libri illi canonici putentur. This book has remained the arsenal from which even today weapons are supplied to the critics of the Books of Maccabees. Wernsdorf examines the offi cial documents which are reproduced in these books and remarks, not without malice: doleo apocryphorum tot ineptis epistulis fuisse deceptum; doleo non saniore judicio fuisse praeditum ad eas repudiandas.4 Wernsdorf believes that he can show the existence of crude mistakes in these “inept letters.” But the main reason for his critical suspicion lies elsewhere. As he writes, the literary tricks of the Jews are familiar to everyone – just think of the apocryphal literature! Accordingly, we cannot trust in any way these public documents which are presented 3 Cf. e.g. the notes by Drusius and Grotius in Critici Sacri (I quote the folio edition of 1660). These scholars hold that the Roman document at 1 Mac. 8:23 displays some strange forms because the Jewish author has adapted it to the usage of his Hebrew readers. On the polemic about the authority of the Books of Maccabees, cf. R. Bellarminus, Disputationes I, ch. 15 (I quote the edition of 1581), J. Rainaldus, Censura, pp. 1226, 1303, 1328 (I quote the edition of 1611); H. Hoody, De bibliorum textibus originalibus, 1705, Pars I, ch. 9, §4. There is a striking contrast between the boldness of the Protestant polemicists such as Rainolds and the timidity of the Protestant com- mentators (cf. e.g. the commentary by Claude Baduel, published in 1557). The classical scholars were not yet sure about how to employ the critical methodology. Albericus Gentilis (1551–1611) warned his coreligionists that the attack on the historical veracity of the “apocrypha” could become a threat to the authority of the Bible itself (Critici Sacri V, col. 8089). In this context, we should note that even the celebrated modern debate on the infl uence of Calvinism on economic history began as a confessional controversy: cf. A.-E. Saxous, Annal. d’hist. écon. et soc., 1935, p. 225. Like so many of our popular ideas, it too goes back to the “siècle des lumières.” Cf. e.g. F. Venturi, Settecento reformatore II, 1976, p. 267. 4 G. Wernsdorf, Commentatio, 1747, pp. 178–179. Bickerman_f13_295-314.indd 296 5/9/2007 1:56:29 PM.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Possible Misreading in 1 Maccabees 7:34 in Light of Its Biblical Model
    JBL 138, no. 4 (2019): 777–789 https://doi.org/10.15699/jbl.1384.2019.5 Possible Misreading in 1 Maccabees 7:34 in Light of Its Biblical Model matan orian [email protected] Center for the Study of Conversion and Inter-Religious Encounters, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, 8410501, Israel First Maccabees 7:34 employs four verbs to describe the offensive speech by Nicanor, the Seleucid general, addressed to the Jewish elders and priests. The third verb indicates that Nicanor defiled his audience. While this has led scholars to associate 1 Maccabees with the Jewish concept of gentile impurity, several factors suggest that, at this point, an error found its way into the Greek translation from the original Hebrew. The present argument comprises three steps. First, I use the biblical Sennacherib story, featured in the background of the Nicanor episode in 1 Maccabees, as a means of reconstructing the relevant original Hebrew verb employed by 1 Maccabees. Second, I suggest a possible misreading of one letter on the part of the Greek translator. Finally, I propose that a similar, earlier verse in 1 Maccabees, 1:24b, may have been conducive to the translator’s commission of this mistake, thus offering an insight into his way of thinking. I. A Verb Clearly out of Context First Maccabees 7:34 employs four verbs to describe the insulting nature of the speech by Nicanor, the Seleucid general, directed at the Jewish elders and the priests of the Jerusalem temple who emerged from the temple to greet him: “he mocked them, derided them, defiled them, and spoke arrogantly” (ἐμυκτήρισεν αὐτοὺς καὶ κατεγέλασεν αὐτῶν καὶ ἐμίανεν αὐτοὺς καὶ ἐλάλησεν ὑπερηφάνως).1 The third verb, “defile,” plainly differs from the other verbs in this verse: it does not relate to the nature of the speech but rather to a cultic or ritual consequence of some physical act committed by Nicanor.
    [Show full text]
  • The Septuagint As a Holy Text – the First 'Bible' of the Early Church
    HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies ISSN: (Online) 2072-8050, (Print) 0259-9422 Page 1 of 9 Original Research The Septuagint as a holy text – The first ‘bible’ of the early church Author: This article acknowledges the fact that historically there are two phases in the emergence of the 1 Johann Cook Septuagint – a Jewish phase and a Christian one. The article deals first with methodological Affiliation: issues. It then offers a historical orientation. In the past some scholars have failed to distinguish 1Department of Ancient between key historical phases: the pre-exilic/exilic (Israelite – 10 tribes), the exilic (the Studies, Faculty of Arts and Babylonian exile ‒ 2 tribes) and the post-exilic (Judaean/Jewish). Many scholars are unaware Social Sciences, University of of the full significance of the Hellenistic era, including the Seleucid and Ptolemaic eras and Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa their impact on ‘biblical’ textual material. Others again overestimate the significance of this era; the Greek scholar Evangelia Dafni is an example. Many are uninformed about the Persian Corresponding author: era, which includes the Achaemenid, Parthian and Sassanian eras, each one of which had an Johann Cook, impact on Judaism. An example is the impact of Persian dualism. Another problem is the [email protected] application of the concept of ‘the Bible’. The notion of ‘Bible’ applies only after the 16th century Dates: Common Era, specifically after the advent of the printing press. Earlier, depending on the Received: 18 May 2020 context, we had clay tablets (Mesopotamia), vella (Levant-Judah) and papyri (Egypt) to write Accepted: 06 July 2020 on.
    [Show full text]
  • Katell Berthelot Introduction
    ELECTRUM * Vol. 21 (2014): 73–85 doi: 10.4467/20800909EL.14.001.2780 www.ejournals.eu/electrum JUDAS MACCABEUS’ WARS AGAINST JUDAEA’S NEIGHBOURS IN 1 MACCABEES 5: A REASSESSMENT OF THE EVIDENCE Katell Berthelot CNRS / Aix-Marseille University Abstract: The fi fth chapter of the First Book of Maccabees recounts a whole range of wars waged by Judas Maccabeus against Judaea’s neighbours, who are depicted as threatening the lives of the Jews living in their midst. The account of these punitive expeditions contains the only explicit reference found in the book to an anathema (ḥerem) against a foreign people, a reference which has led some scholars to see Judas as re-enacting the biblical prescription of the ḥerem against the Canaanites. In contrast with this interpretation, the present article argues that the description in 1 Maccabees 5 is highly literary and rhetorical, and that it is part of a strategy which aims at pre- senting Judas as the heir of the fi rst kings of Israel. In particular, a careful literary analysis shows that nearly all the differences between the accounts in 1 and 2 Maccabees can be explained by tak- ing into consideration the project of the author to present Judas’s military expeditions in the light of Saul’s campaigns, following 1 Samuel 10–15 (especially 14:47–48). Given the indebtedness of 1 Maccabees 5 toward such biblical traditions, the historicity of Judas’s wars against Judaea’s neighbours should be re-assessed. Key words: history of Second Temple Judaism, Hasmoneans, 1 Maccabees 5, Judas Maccabeus, wars, biblical models, Saul.
    [Show full text]
  • Hanukkah and Purim: Similar Yet Different
    Mon 7, 14, 21, 28 Nov 2016 / 6, 13, 20, 27 Heshvan 5777 B”H Dr Maurice M. Mizrahi Course for Jewish Community Center of Northern Virginia Hanukkah and Purim: Similar yet Different Introduction -Hanukkah and Purim, the next two holidays, are not in Torah: Both are rabbinic. -Torah only has Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, and the three pilgrimage festivals – Pessah, Shavuot and Sukkot. -Both colorful – stay in mind of kids. -Both celebrate Jewish victory over persecution. -Both miraculous: We recite Al HaNissim on both. -Both so important rabbis turned their observance into post-Torah (rabbinic) commandments. YET: -The story of Purim has a book in the Bible (Esther), a tractate in the Talmud (Megillah) and a volume in the Midrash (Esther Rabbah). Hanukkah has none of them. It rates only a few mentions in Talmud [Shabbat 21a-24a], as an appendage to a discussion of what wicks and oils one can use for Shabbat lights. -The Book of Esther does not mention God, yet is in the Bible; the Books of Maccabees do, yet are not in the Bible. -The story of Purim is not known outside the Bible, yet is in the Bible. The events of Hanukkah are known outside the Bible, yet are not in the Bible. -Hallel (psalms of praise for God) recited on Hanukkah, but not Purim. -Hanukkah began with the physical (armed rebellion) and ended with the spiritual (rededication of the Temple). Purim began with the spiritual (prayer and fasting) and ended with the physical (armed resistance to killers). -On Purim, persecutors wanted to kill ALL the Jews.
    [Show full text]
  • Antiochus Epiphanes
    University of Louisville ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository Electronic Theses and Dissertations 10-1944 Antiochus Epiphanes. Brougher Petty Maddox University of Louisville Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.library.louisville.edu/etd Part of the History Commons Recommended Citation Maddox, Brougher Petty, "Antiochus Epiphanes." (1944). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 2011. https://doi.org/10.18297/etd/2011 This Master's Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository. This title appears here courtesy of the author, who has retained all other copyrights. For more information, please contact [email protected]. • UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE ANTIOCHUS EPIPHANES A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Louisville In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Kaster of Arts Department of History by Brougher Petty Maddox .. \ 1944 -T .4 .4¥ To ,Ida Roe and c. ,Sidney Maddox, my,parents, I, in affectionate appreciation. ABBREVIATIONS App. Syr. Appian, ~oman History Book XI, Ia! Syrian ~. Bactria W. W. Tarn, IQ! Greeks !n Bactria and India. ~ British Museum Catalogue , ) , t CAB Cambridge Ancient HistorI. Diod~ Sic. Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheea \ t Hel. Q1!. W. W. Tarn, Hellenistic Civilisation ~ # I ( H. W. M. Rostovtzeff, Social ~ Economic History 2t the Hellenistic World, 3 Vols. House Sel. E. R. Bevan, House of Seleucus, Vol. II. Bevan, Egypt E. R. Bevan, A History Q! Egypt.
    [Show full text]
  • Xeravits, Géza G. "Abraham in the Old Testament Apocrypha." Abraham in Jewish and Early Christian Literature
    Xeravits, Géza G. "Abraham in the Old Testament Apocrypha." Abraham in Jewish and Early Christian Literature. Ed. Sean A. Adams and Zanne Domoney-Lyttle. London: T&T Clark, 2019. 29–40. Bloomsbury Collections. Web. 28 Sep. 2021. <http:// dx.doi.org/10.5040/9780567675545.ch-002>. Downloaded from Bloomsbury Collections, www.bloomsburycollections.com, 28 September 2021, 22:19 UTC. Copyright © Sean A. Adams, Zanne Domoney-Lyttle and contributors 2019. You may share this work for non-commercial purposes only, provided you give attribution to the copyright holder and the publisher, and provide a link to the Creative Commons licence. C h a p t e r 2 A BRAHAM IN THE O LD T ESTAMENT A POCRYPHA * G é z a G . X e r a v i t s Th e patriarch Abraham is one of the most pre- eminent fi gures of the Old Testament. Th e “fi rst Jew,” benefi ciary of God’s promises and covenant is an exciting personality already according to the primary epical source where he fi rst appears (Genesis). It is no wonder that later biblical texts and the authors of the literature of early Judaism were heavily interested in Abraham, and developed a rich tradition around him.1 Th is contribution intends to explore texts that belong to a rather artifi cial category, the Deuterocanonical books or the Old Testament Apocrypha. Th ese late Second Temple period writings do not appear in the Hebrew Bible, but found their way into the Septuagint and its parent versions.2 Th e evidence might be categorized into four distinct groups.
    [Show full text]
  • 1. the Canon of Scripture
    GLORIOUS DOCTRINE: The Word of God - Session 1 Session 1: Introduction & Canon 1. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE Before we can talk about Scripture - that is, the book which God has inspired - we need to know what books are considered Scripture. God inspired some books, but not all books. This mere fact means that there must be some limitation to our Bibles. This is what we call the ‘canon of scripture.’ A. Definition Of ‘Canon’ The term ‘canon’ - from the Greek word κανών (kanṓn) - simply means “measuring rod, standard”. It refers to the standard by which you access something, or determine the limits of something. When we use it in terms of the Bible, we mean the limits of the books that belong in the Bible. It is speaking of the list of books which are divinely authoritative and deserve to be in our Bibles. “The canon is an artifact of revelation, not an object of revelation itself. It is known infallibly to God by necessity and to man with a certainty directly related to God’s purpose in giving the Word to the church. The canon exists because God has inspired some writings, not all writings. It is known to man in fulfillment of God’s purpose in engaging in the action of inspiration so as to give to His people a lamp for their feet and a light for their path.” (James R. White, Scripture Alone, 101) B. The Importance of the Canon of Scripture Why is it important that we have a Canon of Scripture? Why do we need a collection of God-inspired writings preserved for us today? 1 GLORIOUS DOCTRINE: The Word of God - Session 1 This idea of not adding to or taking away from the books/writings which God has given to us comes from God himself.
    [Show full text]
  • Rhetoric in 2Maccabees
    Rhetoric in 2Maccabees Rhetoric in 2Maccabees: Challenging God Edited by Nicholas Peter Legh Allen and Pierre J. Jordaan Rhetoric in 2Maccabees: Challenging God Edited by Nicholas Peter Legh Allen and Pierre J. Jordaan This book first published 2021 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2021 by Nicholas Peter Legh Allen, Pierre J. Jordaan and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyrig ht owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-6358-8 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-6358-2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abbreviations ........................................................................................... vii Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 Rhetoric in 2Maccabees: Challenging God Nicholas Peter Legh Allen and Pierre J. Jordaan Chapter One .............................................................................................. 16 The Epitome of 2Maccabees: The Rhetoric of a New Jewish Theology of Salvation Nicholas Peter Legh Allen Chapter Two ............................................................................................. 42 Penis Envy: Challenging God’s Covenant in the Hellenistic
    [Show full text]
  • The Apocrypha
    The Apocrypha by Daniel J. Lewis © Copyright 2000 by Diakonos, Inc. Troy, Michigan United States of America 2 Preface The apocrypha may be the most well-known collection of biblical documents, other than the Old and New Testaments, which is regularly neglected and ignored. In the past these books have been highly valued for private study and devotion by both the ancient Jewish community and also the ancient Christian community. The earliest Christians used for their Bible the Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Old Testament, as well as the growing number of documents which now make up the New Testament. The Septuagint contained a number of Jewish works written between 200 B.C. and 100 A.D., specifically a number of additions to Old Testament books (Esther, Daniel, Jeremiah, Chronicles) as well as other works, some fictional, some historical and some theological. These works were eventually excluded from the Protestant and Jewish canons (but eventually retained in the Roman and Orthodox canons). Their canonical status was somewhat ambiguous until the 16th century, when they were given deutero-canonical status by the Roman Catholic Church at the Council of Trent. Though the Protestant Reformers considered such works to be less authoritative than the canonical Scriptures, they did not discard them. In fact, the apocryphal books have been printed in most versions of the English Bible (including the KJV) from earliest times until 1827, when they were omitted. Since that time, Protestants, especially, have regarded the apocryphal books with suspicion, even though they were part of the devotional literature of the Christian church for most of its history.
    [Show full text]
  • Antiochus IV, Jewish Quarrels, and the Maccabean Revolt Joshua Peters
    Antiochus IV, Jewish Quarrels, and the Maccabean Revolt Joshua Peters 1 The conflict between Jerusalem and the Seleucid Empire, and the subsequent rededication of the Temple altar in 167 BCE, are events that still have significant impacts on both Christians and Jews today.1 These effects can be observed in the Christian theology of martyrdom and in the Jewish celebration of Hanukkah.2 Although both religions recognise the conflict, known as the Maccabean Revolt, as an significant hallmark in their history, modern literature and research tend to lean in favour of the Jews, who fought for self-governance. As a result, there is no difficulty in finding literature discussing Antiochus IV Epiphanes and the atrocities that he had committed against the Jewish people who opposed him, or the heroic feats of the Jews who fought for independence from the Seleucids.3 While the cruelty inflicted upon the region of Judea cannot be excused, neither should the involvement of the Jewish population. For this reason, this paper will focus on primary sources of the time and how they implicate certain priests and pro-Seleucid Jews as the instigators of their own demise. The paper will also discuss the historical relationships that existed between Judea, the Seleucids in Asia, and the Ptolemies in Egypt prior to the Revolt. It should be noted that I do not wish to exonerate Antiochus’ actions against the inhabitants of Judea, but rather seek to demonstrate that his misdeeds were not motivated by an innate hatred towards the Jewish population, and indeed followed patterns that were not dissimilar to the actions of other Seleucid kings.
    [Show full text]
  • The Apocrypha by Pastor Dan Domke 3/1/08
    The Apocrypha by Pastor Dan Domke 3/1/08 What is the Apocrypha? Apocrypha ( - -rĭ-fă) (hidden secret). Fourteen books which the Jews and the early Christian fathers considered to be without divine authority. They were included in the Septuagint. All except two are in the Latin Vulgate, the Roman Catholic Bible.1 The word ‘apocrypha’ originally defined books deemed unsuitable for public reading because of their esoteric2 content; they were regarded as containing secret instruction for the initiates in a religion. It must be pointed out that such secret things are characteristic of the mystery religions of the days before and after Jesus and St. Paul and intrinsically pagan in thought. Nowadays, ‘apocrypha’ means ‘spurious’ or even ‘heretical.’ The term is technically confined to books which some have claimed belong in the Old Testament canon, and most were written in the period 200 BC-AD 100. DOES THE APOCRYPHA BELONG IN THE BIBLE? Now we need to deal with an issue that divides Christians. It concerns the apocrypha—the fourteen or fifteen books written between 200 B.C. and A.D. 100 (after the completion of the Old Testament canon and before the establishment of the New Testament canon) that are considered canonical by the Roman Catholic Church. When we apply the tests listed above to the apocrypha, we find that these books don’t pass. I’d like to summarize the reasons Protestantism and Lutheranism has rejected the apocrypha as Scripture. Together these reasons represent a formidable case. First, the apocrypha was never included in the Hebrew Bible, and it was not even formally included in the Catholic Bible until the Council of Trent in A.D.
    [Show full text]
  • ''Judas Maccabeus's Wars Against Judaea's Neighbours in 1 Maccabees 5
    ”Judas Maccabeus’s Wars Against Judaea’s Neighbours in 1 Maccabees 5: A Reassessment of the Evidence” Katell Berthelot To cite this version: Katell Berthelot. ”Judas Maccabeus’s Wars Against Judaea’s Neighbours in 1 Maccabees 5: A Re- assessment of the Evidence”. Electrum : Journal of Ancient History, 2014, 21, pp.73-85. hal-02520010 HAL Id: hal-02520010 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02520010 Submitted on 31 Mar 2020 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. This publication is protected under copyright law. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmited, lent or made available in library retrieval systems. This publication is made available to the authors only. Electrum vol 21 2 łam.indd 2 2015-03-25 15:18:46 This publication is protected under copyright law. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmited, lent or made available in library retrieval systems. This publication is made available to the authors only. Electrum vol 21 2 łam.indd 3 2015-03-25 15:18:46 Electrum, vol. 21 (2014) COVER DESIGN Barbara Widłak Cover photography: Edward Dąbrowa The publication of this volume was fi nanced by the Jagiellonian University in Krakow – Faculty of History.
    [Show full text]