Statistical Appendices

Statistical Appendix 1 Regional WFP cumulative commitments for development projects and relief and emergency operations by category and type approved up to 31 December 1995 (values in US$ million)

Category/type Sub-Saharan Asia Latin America Africa and Pacific and Caribbean No. Value No. Value No. Value

Human resource development Mothers and infants 58 303 36 715 50 352 Primary schools 103 957 16 61 44 461 Secondary schools 34 191 1 9 1 3 Training programmes 26 51 4 23 11 23 Higher education 9 10 7 3 5 2 Literacy programmes 3 1 4 135 4 9 Hospitals 24 73 3 1 13 34 Public health 2 8 1 1 – – Economic and social infrastructure Housing/public utilities 12 28 15 71 5 15 Transport/communications 22 143 21 53 4 33 Community development 49 211 15 63 57 301 Directly productive projects Land development 48 299 137 1,442 15 61 Land settlement 49 221 35 173 19 34 Refugee assistance 57 132 6 9 4 7 Crop production 37 166 2 16 21 75 Animal production 33 155 19 272 17 165 Forestry 51 490 48 488 18 46 Fisheries – – 11 116 2 3 Industries/mining 3 33 2 1 – – Food reserves 22 77 1 1 – – Relief and emergency operations Sudden natural disasters 382 688 183 414 101 95 Drought/crop failure 96 1,038 10 37 5 11 Man-made disasters 12 166 1 — – – PRO 218 1,709 31 106 24 39 PDPO 68 1,625 8 24 8 20 Total 1,418 8,775 617 4,234 428 1,789

253 254

Statistical Appendix 1 Contd.

Category/type Europe, Total Share Middle East and CIS Commitments in total No. Value No. Value %

Human resource development Mothers and infants 19 185 163 1,555 7.72 Primary schools 37 599 200 2,077 10.31 Secondary schools 5 39 41 241 1.20 Training programmes 25 71 66 167 0.83 Higher education 15 63 36 78 0.39 Literacy programmes 1 — 12 145 0.72 Hospitals 9 58 49 165 0.82 Public health 3 3 6 11 0.06 Economic and social infrastructure Housing/public utilities 28 61 60 175 0.87 Transport/communications 38 136 85 365 1.81 Community development 9 38 130 612 3.04 Directly productive projects Land development 50 428 250 2,229 11.06 Land settlement 22 303 125 732 3.63 Refugee assistance 1 1 68 148 0.74 Crop production 20 184 80 440 2.19 Animal production 31 113 100 704 3.50 Forestry 45 308 162 1,333 6.61 Fisheries 4 20 17 139 0.69 Industries/mining 15 12 20 45 0.22 Food reserves 1 9 24 87 0.43 Relief and emergency operations Sudden natural disasters 168 545 834 1,742 8.65 Drought/crop failure 6 8 117 1,093 5.43 Man-made disasters 1 1 14 167 0.83 PRO 65 890 338 2,743 13.61 PDPO 40 1,287 124 2,955 14.67 Total 658 5,362 3,121 20,148 100.00

CIS – Commonwealth of Independent States (ex-Soviet Union); PRO – Protracted Refugee Operations; PDPO – Protracted Displaced Person Operations; —Less than $1 million; % Share in Total Commitments. Figures rounded. Source: World Food Programme. 255

Statistical Appendix 2 Total WFP commitments and number of development projects and emergency operations by region, 1962–95 (values in US$ million)

Latin America Europe, Year Sub-Saharan Asia and Middle East Total Africa and Pacific Caribbean and CIS commitments No. Value No. Value No. Value No. Value No. Value

1962 – – 1 — – – 2 1 3 1 1963 9 5 5 3 8 6 11 11 33 24 1964 15 4 17 7 10 2 29 13 71 25 1965 17 11 8 5 8 6 6 5 39 27 1966 17 17 14 22 12 20 40 42 83 101 1967 27 16 18 22 8 4 35 34 88 75 1968 28 24 15 15 11 7 35 120 89 166 1969 36 94 17 187 17 58 30 142 100 481 1970 43 68 23 89 16 69 20 79 102 304 1971 34 42 8 16 12 15 14 67 68 140 1972 21 34 12 33 6 25 9 41 48 133 1973 17 23 24 47 8 7 16 77 65 154 1974 29 61 6 5 10 15 18 35 63 117 1975 48 71 32 97 13 57 33 182 126 408 1976 42 240 27 181 11 26 22 159 102 606 1977 49 80 21 151 10 55 20 85 100 372 1978 58 174 32 133 13 52 17 115 120 474 1979 49 246 39 352 10 14 18 160 116 773 1980 64 244 24 126 11 72 16 239 115 681 1981 53 232 27 150 13 30 28 163 121 575 1982 48 290 31 146 17 41 21 211 117 687 1983 72 279 21 293 23 127 13 114 129 813 1984 73 430 23 314 24 162 15 195 135 1,100 1985 49 234 24 277 27 96 19 225 119 831 1986 43 289 15 126 19 110 22 192 99 718 1987 63 344 16 207 21 112 17 140 117 802 1988 61 354 19 266 16 115 16 153 112 888 1989 56 342 18 158 15 93 21 286 110 878 1990 51 456 11 136 18 97 18 244 98 932 1991 57 804 14 123 11 94 19 247 101 1,267 1992 63 1,055 16 146 11 84 16 387 106 1,671 1993 57 706 16 92 7 44 17 603 97 1,445 1994 40 740 11 156 8 48 14 345 73 1,289 1995 29 764 12 147 4 27 11 251 56 1,189 Total 1,418 8,773 617 4,228 428 1,790 658 5,363 3,121 20,147

CIS – Commonwealth of Independent States (ex-Soviet Union); —Less than $1 million. Figures rounded. Source: World Food Programme. Notes

2 The Birth of WFP: One Man’s Inspiration

1. Memorandum to President Kennedy from McGovern of 28 March 1961 and attached report on ‘Recommendations for Improvements in the Food for Peace Program’, pp. 35–6 (McGovern Papers, Box TK-5, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University). 2. For what transpired during the Intergovernmental Advisory Committee in Rome, I have drawn from a number of sources, including: the statement by McGovern at the meeting (see appendix to Chapter 2); an interview with George McGovern by John Newhouse on 24 April 1964 for the Oral History Program of the John Fitzgerald Library, Boston; the address of McGovern at WFP’s Twenty-fifth Anniversary Commemorative Meeting in Rome on 30 May 1988, which is recorded in WFP (1988b), pp. 64–8; McGovern (1964), pp. 107–10; Sen (1982), p. 202; personal correspondence from Raymond A. Ioanes, 16 February 1995; personal correspondence from George McGovern, 23 August 1994; and personal interview with George McGovern at the Middle East Policy Council, Washington, DC on 22 April 1997. 3. Memorandum to President Kennedy from McGovern, 11 February 1961 (Presidential Office Files, Box 78, Food for Peace Program 1/61–3/61, John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library, Boston). 4. Personal interview with McGovern in Washington, DC on 22 April 1997. 5. Personal communication from McGovern, 21 July 1997. 6. Memorandum to President Kennedy from Adlai E. Stevenson, United States Ambassador to the United Nations, 13 November 1961 in The Papers of Adlai E. Stevenson: Volume VIII. Ambassador to the United Nations 1961–1965 (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1979, pp. 148–50), and Memorandum from the President’s Special Assistant (Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.) to the President’s Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (McGeorge Bundy), 6 December 1961 in Foreign Relations of the United States 1961–63. Volume IX. Foreign Economic Policy. Department of State, Washington, DC. International Investment and Development Policy (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1995, pp. 422–3). 7. ‘Annotated Agenda for the Meeting on Use of Surplus Food for Emergency and Development Purposes through Multilateral Channels (FAO and UN)’ with annexes on the two food aid proposals of McGovern and the US representatives at the UN at the State Department, Washington, DC, on 25 October 1961 (Copy in the McGovern Papers, Box TK-3, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University). 8. McGovern Papers, Box TK-2, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University. 9. McGovern noted that ‘These were the themes I had spoken of for years on countless platforms in South Dakota’ (McGovern, 1977, p. 83). Kennedy had gone to South Dakota to support McGovern in his bid to become senator of that State. When McGovern lost by a tiny margin, it was interpreted that this was due to the ‘religious factor’. Kennedy was a Catholic and South Dakota was predominantly a Protestant state. Kennedy, feeling that he was responsible for McGovern’s defeat, offered him a post in his new administration. McGovern expressed an interest in the position of

256 Notes 257

secretary of agriculture. When that post was given to Orville Freeman, McGovern accepted the directorship of the newly created Office of Food for Peace and special assistant to the president in the White House. 10. Agricultural Policy for the New Frontier by Senator John F. Kennedy (p. 5), Kennedy’s agricultural policy platform for the 1960 presidential campaign (McGovern Papers, Box TK-7, Accession No. 67A1881, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University). 11. Press release, 31 October 1960 (Meyer Feldman Papers, Food for Peace Program (10/60–1/3/61) File, Box 9, John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library, Boston). 12. Presidential Office Files, File 1T6/Food Conference. John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library, Boston. 13. Executive Order 10914 ‘Providing for an Expanded Program of Food Distribution to Needy Families’ and Executive Order 10915 ‘Amending Prior Executive Orders to Provide for the Responsibilities of the Director of the Food-for-Peace Programme’ in Code of Federal Regulations Title 3 – The President. 1959–1963 Compilation (Washington, DC: Office of the Federal Registrar, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, pp. 443–4). See also Memorandum to Federal Agencies on the Duties of the Director of the Food-for-Peace Program in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States. John F. Kennedy, 20 January to 31 December 1961 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1962, p. 6). 14. President Kennedy Speeches. Papers of President Kennedy. Presidential Office Files (91/9/61-5/25/61), Box 34, John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library, Boston. 15. McGovern Papers, Food for Peace Proposals and Correspondence File, Box TK-2, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University. 16. In a personal communication of 17 April 1997, Don Paarlberg, special assistant to the president and Food for Peace co-ordinator in the White House in the last year of the Eisenhower administration, who also worked with Vice President Nixon on a multilateral food aid concept, said that the Food for Peace programme had always had the elements of: surplus disposal; humanitarianism; trade stimulation; economic and social development; and international diplomacy. Nixon and Kissinger ‘stimulated the last element at the expense of the others’.

3 Antecedents: A Tale of Three Cities

1. The expert group consisted of Dr M. R. Benedict, Professor of Agricultural Economics, University of California at Berkeley, USA; Dr J. Figueres, ex-President of the Republic of Costa Rica; Dr V. K. R. V. Rao, Ex-Vice-Chancellor, University of Delhi, India, Director of the New Delhi Institute of Economic Growth, and former Ph. D. student with Singer at Cambridge University, England; Dr P. N. Rosenstein-Rodan, Professor of Economics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA; and Dr H. W. Singer, who was designated as Principal Officer, Office of the Under-Secretary for Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, New York. 2. Writing over 20 years later, Singer recognized that the expert group’s report did not deal with a number of important areas, including: man-made emergencies; nutrition improvement for mothers and pre-school children; and the use of triangular transactions for providing food aid (Singer, 1983, p. 37). 3. Memorandum to President Kennedy from Adlai Stevenson, US ambassador to the United Nations, 31 November 1961, in Adlai E. Stevenson, Ambassador to the United Nations, 1961–65, Vol. VIII (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1979), p. 149. 258 Notes

14. Memorandum to US Secretary for Agriculture, Orville Freeman, from Willard W. Cochrane, Director, Agricultural Economic Service, USDA, 21 June 1961 (Secretary’s Records Section, Food for Peace Program, File IX, US Department of Agriculture, National Agriculture Library, Beltsville, Maryland). 15. An additional motivation for Singer’s interest in food aid was that at the time he attended a lecture by Neville Scrimshaw, a leading nutritionist, at MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts on the devastating effects of undernourishment and malnutrition on the physical and mental development of young children, which led him to recognize an important role for food aid in terms of human resource development (Personal communication, 5 August 1997). 16. US opposition to SUNFED was by no means universal. Hubert Humphrey and others strongly supported it. 17. Singer was given responsibility in the UN secretariat in New York for drafting the Proposals for Action for the decade, which included reference to the roles of WFP both for development and in emergencies (UN, 1962c, pp. 42–3, 47 and 91–2) (Personal communication, 26 January 1996). 18. One of the best accounts of United States food aid up to 1976 is given in Wallerstein (1980). 19. Professor Vernon W. Ruttan of the University of Minnesota in the United States has made an important contribution toward the understanding of food aid issues by not only bringing together in one volume some of the seminal papers on the subject (Ruttan, 1993) but also by analyzing the complex interplay of forces that have dominated United States food aid policies and programmes (Ruttan, 1996, pp. 149–202). 10. Although these views reflected Indian experience, they were of wider relevance. 11. A selective and annotated bibliography on the food aid literature commissioned by WFP in 1964 listed 423 items. In a Foreword to the bibliography, WFP’s executive director noted ‘Ideas on the whole subject (of food aid) … are in a state of flux and evolution. Theoretical and empirical contributions to the literature are appearing so fast that it is sometimes difficult to keep track of them, let alone evaluate them. In these circumstances, an annotated bibliography – the first in this field – would seem to fulfill a useful purpose’ (Henderson, 1964).

4 The Experimental Years: 1963–5

1. The ILO convention of 1949 lays down a number of principles to be observed for the payment of wages in kind, namely, that: allowances in kind be in the form appropriate for the personal use and benefit of the worker; partial payment of wages in kind should be permitted only in those occupations where it is customary or desirable because of the nature of the occupation concerned; payment in kind should also be authorized by national laws or regulations, collective agreements or arbitration awards; and the value attributed to payment in kind should be ‘fair and reasonable’ (ILO, 1949). 2. The studies were prepared by: Professor V. M. Dandekar, Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Poona, India (Study No. 1); G. R. Allen, Agricultural Economics Research Institute, in association with R. G. Smethurst, Nuffield College, University of Oxford, England (Study No. 2); Professor S. Chakravarty and Professor P. N. Rosenstein- Rodan, Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, USA (Study No. 3); Dr D. A. FitzGerald, Brookings Institution, Washington, Notes 259

DC, USA (Study No. 4); and Professor J. Dessau, Institute de Science Économique Appliquée, Paris, France (Study No. 5). 3. The FAO Conference adopted a resolution on the ‘Freedom from Hunger Campaign’ (FFHC) in October 1960. For a detailed description of the FFHC, its background and achievements, see Sen (1982), pp. 137–72. 4. Letter to U Thant, UN Secretary-General, of 3 November 1964 and subsequent press release dated 9 November 1964 on ‘An Expanding World Food Program’ (World Food Programme, Series RAG-3/2, Box 468, UN Archives and Records Centre, New York). 5. Communication addressed to ministers of agriculture of member governments by the director-general of FAO in his letter No. 82 of October 1962, paragraphs 14, 16 and 17. 6. The joint views of the UN secretary-general and the FAO director-general were drafted by Hans Singer, who enjoyed the confidence of both (World Food Programme, Series RAG-3/2, Box 468, UN Archives and Records Centre, New York). 7. The study, entitled A New Approach to the World Food Programme, was prepared by E. L. Samuel, counsellor, agrarian affairs at the Embassy of Israel in Rome, and dis- tributed to IGC members in March/April 1965 as document WM/IGC: 7/94. 8. The proposal was submitted to the IGC at its session in March/April 1965 in document WM/IGC: 7/1 Add. 2. 9. Statement by the United States secretary of agriculture, Orville L. Freeman, at the WFP pledging conference at the United Nations, New York, 18 January 1966. Public Statements of Secretary of Agriculture Orville L. Freeman. Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

5 Food for Development

1. To the category of ‘least-developed’ (LDC) countries, the UN General Assembly added another category, the ‘most-seriously affected’ (MSA) countries, at the time of the world food crisis of the 1970s. A number of countries were designated both LDCs and MSAs. In addition, countries were also identified ‘as if’ they were LDCs or MSAs as deserving ‘special attention’ in the allocation of aid by donor countries. 2. The original signatory members of the 1967 FAC were Argentina, Australia, Canada, Denmark, the Commission of the European Communities (for EEC community aid), Finland, Japan, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. 3. Other relevant documents that were prepared included: FAO, 1968a,b,c; UN, 1969a; WFP, 1969a. 4. This form of emergency food reserve arrangement, which linked national food reserves globally, contained the elements of the International Undertaking on World Food Security, which was later adopted by the FAO Conference in 1973 and the World Food Conference in 1974 (see Chapter 6). 5. The ‘group of seven’ advisers who were appointed by the WFP executive director were: Mr F. Deeleman, director, Agricultural Assistance to Developing Countries, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, The Hague, The Netherlands; Mr F. Ellis, deputy co-ordinator, Food for Peace, Agency for International Development, Department of State, Washington, DC, United States; Mr J. M. Figuerero, director, International Co-operation Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Mr H. J. Kristensen, counsellor, Ministry of Agriculture, Copenhagen, Denmark; Dr A. A. Mourai, under-secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, Cairo, United Arab 260 Notes

16. Republic; Dr S. R. Sen, vice-chairman, Irrigation Commission, Ministry, Irrigation and Power, New Delhi, India; and Mr F. Shefrin, director of International Liaison Service, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada. The group met for three sessions in Rome in July and October 1969 and February 1970 under the chairman- ship of WFP’s executive director. Assistance was also provided by the UN and FAO was well as the WFP secretariat. 16. The FAC of 1967 included provision that a part of the cash contributions be used to finance the food aid contributions of developing exporting countries which were members of the Convention. The FAO studies on the scope for including oil seeds and rice in food aid programmes concluded that similar arrangements would be technically feasible for these commodities. (FAO, 1968b,c.) 17. This was similar to the proposal for country programming of UNDP projects contained in the UN study of the capacity of the UN system (UN, 1969b). The approach was adopted by UNDP but uncertainty about WFP resources being made available precluded its involvement. 18. Details of the world food crisis of the 1970s are taken from the documents prepared for the World Food Conference (see UN, 1974a,b) and from personal correspondence and material from Sartaj Aziz. As deputy secretary-general of the conference, he was intimately involved in its preparations and deliberations (Aziz, 1975a,b). 19. These data on food aid do not include the ‘grey area’ between statistically recorded food aid and outright commercial sales (Shaw and Singer, 1995). 10. Much of this assessment of FFW programmes is based on two studies of the food aid literature commissioned by WFP (WFP, 1978a; Clay and Singer, 1985), which were carried out by Hans Singer alone, and by Edward Clay and Hans Singer, respectively, both at the Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, England, at the time the surveys were conducted, and on individual WFP project evaluation reports. See also Clay, 1986; Costa, 1973; Ingram, 1983; WFP, 1976b. 11. Norton Franklin, then ILO economic adviser, worked with WFP on the study. At the time of the ILO Conference, it was estimated that there were some 300 million people unemployed or under-employed in the developing countries and that by the end of the century almost 800 million people would enter the labour markets of the developing world. 12. Letter to WFP executive director James Ingram from Dr J.-P. Dustin, formerly WHO Liaison Officer to WFP, of 29 April 1988. 13. The UN Administrative Committee on Coordination/Subcommittee on Nutrition (ACC/SCN) was set up in 1977 as the focal point for harmonizing the policies and activities in nutrition of the UN system. Twenty agencies and programmes of the UN system, including WFP, are members. Representatives of bilateral donor agencies also participate. Until recently, the ACC/SCN was assisted by an Advisory Group on Nutrition consisting of experienced individuals drawn from relevant disciplines and coming from a wide geographical background. The ACC/SCN secretariat, which is responsible for organizing meetings and publishing papers and documents, is located at WHO headquarters in Geneva. 14. The consultants who assisted WFP in prepared these reports were Dr Clio Presvelou, then Professor of Sociology at the University of Louvain, Belgium (WFP, 1975c); Dr Scarlett Epstein, Professor of Sociology at the University of Sussex, England (Epstein, 1979); and Dr Ruth Dixon, Professor of Sociology at the University of California at Davis, in the United States (WFP, 1979e). Notes 261

15. The Refugee Studies Programme at the University of Oxford, England produced a comprehensive document for WFP on improving social and gender planning in emergency operations. 16. The IMF held a seminar at its headquarters in Washington, DC in October 1990 on the ‘Social Aspects of Adjustments Programs’, the first time it had a meeting with the non-Bretton Woods organizations of the UN system, which called for closer co-operation before adjustment programmes were carried out in order to take account of the needs of the poor from the outset and not as a ‘little sweetener’ to make adjustment programmes more palatable. 17. The studies on Ethiopia and Senegal were carried out by Simon Maxwell, then at the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex, England in connection with his consultancy for WFP on methodologies for studying the disincentive effects of food aid, and on Lesotho by Simon Hunt of the Oxford Food Studies group in England. 18. Wallace J. Campbell, founder member and former president of CARE (Cooperative for American Relief Everywhere), and a pioneer in low-cost, co-operative housing in developing countries, was appointed as a consultant to work with WFP on the report. 19. Members of COPAC, an inter-agency committee, are: UN, ILO, FAO, International Co-operative Alliance, International Federation of Agricultural Producers, International Federation of Plantation, Agricultural and Allied Workers, and the World Council of Credit Unions. 20. The recipient countries included Bangladesh, Benin, China, India, Lesotho, Pakistan, Honduras, Tanzania and Tunisia. The donors included Australia, Canada, the European Community, Germany, the Netherlands, Japan, Sweden and the United States. With the exception of China, these national reviews were subsequently published (Shaw and Clay, 1993). 21. The list of WFP occasional papers is included in a bibliography of documents presented to WFP’s governing body between 1962 and 1987 (WFP, 1988c). A six-volume computerized record of the decisions and deliberations of WFP’s governing body was produced in 1993 (WFP, 1993d). A list of individual project evaluations up to 1995 is contained in WFP, 1995g. 22. The French government provided two experts to assist with the study.

6 Emergency and Relief Operations

01. The division of responsibility between the two executive heads was laid down in a document entitled ‘International Famine Relief and Emergency Feeding’, document IGC: 62/3, Annex II, 1962. (See WFP, 1962a.) 02. The General Regulations of WFP were amended in September 1978 to allow the Programme to consider requests ‘from liberation movements recognized by the United Nations and the Organization for African Unity, implemented with the agreement of the host country, that are in conformity with specific resolutions of the UN and FAO, that meet the aims of WFP, the implementation being carried out in accordance with criteria and procedures for emergency operations of the Pro- gramme, as appropriate’ (Basic Documents of the World Food Programme, fourth edition, September 1978, p. 25). WFP’s General Regulations were further amended with effect from 1 January 1992 so that ‘The Programme may also provide humanitarian 262 Notes

relief assistance at the request of the Secretary-General. WFP assistance in such exceptional cases shall be fully coordinated with the United Nations system and NGO efforts in the area concerned’ (Basic Documents for the World Food Programme, fifth edition, September 1993, p. 36). 13. There is nothing in WFP’s Basic Documents that precludes the sale of emergency food aid commodities provided by the Programme. It was in the criteria and procedures for handling requests for WFP emergency food assistance, drawn up by the director-general of FAO in 1967, that it was stipulated that recipient governments assume ‘full responsibility for distributing the food free to the designated beneficia- ries’ (WFP, 1967a, paragraph 14 (A) (vi)). 14. A graphic account of WFP emergency operations during the African food crisis of the 1980s is given in Fraser (1988). 15. The United States ‘Marshall Plan’ was a package of aid to countries in Europe with strong absorptive and administrative capacity. United States food aid shipments to India reached over eight million tons in 1966 but this was from one donor to one recipient country with good administration and logistics and a well-functioning public food distribution system. 16. In 1974, there were 25 LDCs. By 1995, their number had grown to 48 countries. Most (33 countries) were in Sub-Saharan Africa, followed by Asia and the Pacific (12), the Middle East (2) and Central America (1). Neither China nor India are classified as LDCs. 17. These conclusions build on the proceedings of the WFP Africa regional seminar on ‘Food Aid for Humanitarian Assistance’ that was held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia in February 1995 (WFP, 1995). 18. A provisional handbook of operational procedures providing detailed guidelines for emergency operations for WFP country offices and headquarters staff was issues in April 1993 (WFP, 1993c). 19. A conference on ‘Nutrition in Times of Disasters’, organized by the ACC/SCN and the International Nutrition Planners Forum, was held in Geneva in September 1988 at which it was recommended that for emergency food rations ‘a practical working figure for the minimum energy requirement should be 1,900 kilocalories/person/ day for a sedentary population’. 10. Guidelines for food rations for refugees have been agreed between WFP and UNHCR. When refugees are dependent entirely on external food aid, the total food available to them from all sources should provide an intake of no less than 1,900 kilocalories of energy per person a day, of which at least 8 per cent should be in the form of protein and 10 per cent in the form of fat. The calories of energy can be modified depending on the circumstances of the refugee population. 11. At his first CFA session in April 1982, the Executive Director, James Ingram, stated that ‘while WFP’s main emphasis was on development, its work on emergencies was of great importance’. He laid stress on the humanitarian as well as the developmental aspects of WFP’s activities and underlined that the Programme must, therefore, ‘apply the same high professional and administrative standards in its emergency operations as in its development projects’ (WFP, 1982b, p. 13). Speaking in December 1984, the director of WFP’s Emergency Service at the time, referred to emergency relief operations as ‘the last bastion of unprofessionalism’ (Page, 1985). 12. Sen’s seminal contribution to an understanding of the causes of food insecurity, famines and poverty was recognized when he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1998 (see Devereux and Singer, 1999). Notes 263

7 Managing Food Aid Resources

1. Relatively small contributions have been made over the years by farmer groups and private individuals. To date, the largest single private contribution has been $500,000 for refugees and displaced persons in Kosovo, Yugoslavia. 2. WFP commissioned studies on triangular transactions and commodity purchases in 1987 (RDI, 1987) and on commodity exchanges in 1990 (RDI, 1990). Both studies were carried out by Edward Clay and Charlotte Benson who were then director and research officer respectively at the Relief and Development Institute in London. The results of both studies were presented to WFP’s governing body (WFP, 1989h, 1990h).

8 Constitutional Change: The Byzantine Vortex

1. I am indebted to Dr Mark W. Charlton, Associate Professor of Political Science, Trinity Western University, Canada, for his work on WFP’s constitutional change (Charlton, 1992; see also Charlton, 1993). 2. U Thant added that ‘it would seem the merest common sense to suggest that the organizational arrangements (for WFP) that are now being made should be consid- ered as quite provisional and subject to thorough review by the General Assembly at an early date’ (UN, 1961c, p. 3), which was not done until 30 years later. B. R. Sen noted that the institutional arrangements for WFP was ‘one of the last important inter-agency questions that Mr Dag Hammarskjöld dealt with before he left on his fateful journal to the Congo’ (UN, 1961c, p. 8). 3. File EC342 (1-1), PT-A, RAG-3/2, Box 468, UN Archives and Records Centre, New York. 4. The statement of WFP’s executive director to the 1974 World Food Conference gave no hint of the proposed changes to WFP’s governing body. The conference organiz- ers were primarily responsible, particularly Sartaj Aziz, who was deputy secretary- general of the conference (see Aziz, 1975b). 5. UN secretaries-general have attended only one session of WFP’s governing body in person, when a session was held in New York in April 1970. Usually, they are represented by a senior UN official. 6. The UN Joint Inspection Unit (JIU) is an independent unit in the UN system based in Geneva consisting of experienced officials who can take up any issue relating to the UN system on their own initiative. According to the statutes of the JIU (see United Nations General Assembly resolution 31/192, adopted on 22 December 1976), on receipt of JIU reports, the executive heads of UN bodies must take immediate action to distribute them to all member governments. The statutes also require the executive heads to comment on JIU reports within three months after receipt. 7. Joint letter of the UN secretary-general and FAO director-general to the WFP Executive Director of 10 May 1985, attached to WFP (1985h). 8. The mood and frustration of many members, particularly those of the OECD group, at the June 1990 session of the CFA was reflected in the statement of the Canadian delegate, who said: ‘I believe that we are confronted with a systematic obstruction of the work of this committee. Faced with a compelling and logical case for fundamen- tal change, personal power and prerogative are now being protected with the most transparent and self-serving recourse to extravagant legal procedures which defy all concepts of common sense. The mechanisms that Member States have put in place to reflect the democratic processes of good order and government in which they 264 Notes

believe, are now cold-bloodedly manipulated in a manner to thwart our will by those elected to exercise good stewardship over the affairs of our institution’ (WFP, 1990e, pp. 49–50). 9. The members of the working group were: Australia, Bangladesh, Brazil, Canada, Japan, Mexico, Niger, Norway, Pakistan, the United Kingdom and Zambia.

9 Reform and Renewal: Future Directions

11. The seminar was chaired by Professor Paul Streeten, the eminent development economist and former director of the World Development Institute at Boston University in the United States. 12. The CFA working group that finalized the draft of WFP’s new mission statement that was approved by the governing body in December 1994 was composed of representatives from Brazil, Cameroon, China, Cuba, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Indonesia, Japan, Libya, the Netherlands, Norway, Saudi Arabia and the United States. The group met four times between July and September 1994 and was chaired by the chairman or vice-chairman of the CFA. 13. In 1998, the target for the least-developed countries was reached and 89 per cent of WFP’s development resources went to the low-income, food-deficit countries (WFP, 1999a). 14. The preparatory work for the WFP report was done by Bhim Mahajan, a former senior FAO official who knew the UN system well. He had extensive discussions with WFP staff in October 1991 and visited WFP’s major partners in the UN system and the country offices of WFP and other agencies in El Salvador, Ghana and India. 15. Article IV of the 1986 Food Aid Convention states ‘sales on credit, with payments to be made in reasonable annual amounts over periods of 20 years or more and with interest at rates which are below commercial rates prevailing in world markets. The credit sales agreement may provide for payment of up to 15 per cent of the principal upon delivery of the grain.’ 16. This study was commissioned by WFP and carried out by Dr John Mellor, former director general of IFPRI, and his consulting firm, J. Mellor Associates, Inc. 17. The signatories (and their annual minimum commitments in wheat equivalent) of the 1999 FAC are: Argentina (35,000 tons); Australia (250,000 tons); Canada (40,000 tons); European Union and member states (1.3 million tons); Japan (300,000 tons); Norway (30,000 tons); Switzerland (40,000 tons); United States (2.5 million tons) (IGC, 1999). 18. Personal communication from Professor Sir Hans Singer, 16 August 1999. 19. The evaluation, which took three years to complete at a cost reported to be over $3 million (excluding the cost of the extensive support and documentation provided by the WFP secretariat), was conducted by 16 international consultants, assisted by national consultants in nine country case studies. The first phase of the evaluation, completed in late 1992, was conducted by the North–South Institute of Canada. The second phase, completed in December 19993, was co-ordinated by the Chr. Michelsen Institute of Bergen, Norway. The evaluation report consisted of an abridged version, a main report, and nine country case studies. 10. At the 1997 WFP/UNU seminar, papers were presented by World Food Prize Laureate Professor Nevin Scrimshaw and Nobel Prize Laureates Professor Robert Fogel and Professor Amartya Sen. Professor Cutberto Garza of the United Nations University Notes 265

was moderator. The papers of the 1997 seminar and for the 1998 consultations are available on WFP’s web site on the Internet at www.wfp.org. 11. In 1998, 35 per cent of global food aid deliveries were channelled directly through WFP, 26 per cent through NGOs and 39 per cent provided bilaterally (WFP, 1999e). 12. Food security is mentioned as an aim in the food aid legislation or policy objectives of the major food aid donors, Canada, the European Union and the United States and in the new WFP mission statement. Bibliography

Abbott, J. (1992) Politics and Poverty: A Critique of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (London: Routledge). ACC/SCN (1991) Managing Successful Nutrition Programmes, ACC/SCN State-of-the-Art Series, Nutrition Policy Discussion Paper No. 8 (Geneva: UN Administrative Committee on Coordination Subcommittee on Nutrition). ACC/SCN (1993a) Nutritional Issues in Food Aid, ACC/SCN Symposium Report, Nutrition Policy Discussion Paper No. 12 (Geneva: UN Administrative Committee on Coordination Subcommittee on Nutrition). ACC/SCN (1993b) ‘ACC/SCN Statement on the Benefits of Preventing Growth Failure in Early Childhood’, in ACC/SCN (1993a), p. 36. ACC/SCN (1993c) ‘ACC/SCN Statement on Nutrition, Refugees and Displaced Persons’, in ACC/SCN (1993a), p. 86. ACC/SCN (2000) 4th Report on the World Nutrition Situation. Nutrition throughout the Life Cycle (Geneva: UN Administrative Committee on Coordination Subcommittee on Nutrition in collaboration with the International Food Policy Research Institute). Acock, A. M. (1967) ‘The World Food Program – An Experiment in Multilateral Food Aid’, FAO Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Economics and Statistics, vol. XVI, no. 1, January, pp. 1–7. Adams, D. W. (1968) Marshall Aid: Rebuilding Europe. History of the 20th Century (London: Parnell). Ahmad, Q. K. (1983) ‘The Contribution of Food Aid to Equitable Growth in Bangladesh’, in WFP/Government of the Netherlands, Seminar on Food Aid, The Hague, 3–5 October 1983 (Rome: WFP) pp. 179–90. Ahmed, R. and C. Donovan (1992) Issues of Infrastructural Development. A Synthesis of the Literature (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute). Allen, G. R. with R. G. Smethurst (1965) The Impact of Food Aid on Donor and Other Food- Exporting Countries, WFP Study No. 2 (Rome: UN and FAO). Allen, T. and H. Morsink (eds) (1994) When Refugees Go Home (London: James Currey in association with United Nations Institute for Social Development). Annan, K. (1997) Renewing the United Nations. A Programme for Reform (New York: United Nations). Annan, K. (1999a) Preventing War and Disasters. A Growing Global Challenge, 1999 Annual Report on the Work of the Organization (New York: United Nations). Annan, K. (1999b) ‘Two Concepts of Sovereignty’, The Economist, 18 September, pp. 81–2. Austin, J. E. and M. B. Wallerstein (1978) Toward a Development Food Aid Policy (Cambridge, MA: MIT INP Discussion Paper). Aziz, S. (1975a) ‘A World Grain Reserve: History and Prognosis’, in S. Aziz (ed.) (1975b), pp. 47–53. Aziz, S. (ed.) (1975b) Hunger, Politics and Markets. The Real Issues in the World Food Crisis (New York: New York University Press). Bailey, J. (1995) WFP: Thirty Years in Context, Preface to WFP (1995f). Baker, J. E. (1979) Food for Peace, 1954–1978. Major Changes in Legislation, Prepared for the Subcommittee on Foreign Agricultural Policy, US Senate Committee on Agricul- ture, Nutrition and Forestry (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress).

266 Bibliography 267

Baribeau, R. D. and C. D. Gerrard (1984) A Review of the Food Aid Literature (Ottawa: Canadian International Development Agency). Beaton, G. (1993) ‘Which Age Group Should be Targeted for Supplementary Feeding?’, in ACC/SCN (1993a), pp. 37–54. Beaton, G. and H. Ghassemi (1979) Supplementary Feeding Programmes for Young Children in Developing Countries. Document SCN/80 (1)-3 (Rome: Administrative Committee on Co-ordination/Subcommittee on Nutrition). Subsequently published in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 35, no. 4, 1982, pp. 864–916. Belli, P. (1971) ‘The Economic Implications of Malnutrition: The Dismal Science Revisited’, Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 1–23. Benedict, M. and E. Bauer (1960) Farm Surpluses: U.S. Burden or World Asset? (Berkeley: University of California Press). Benson, C. and E. Clay (1998) ‘Additionality or Diversion? Food Aid to Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Republics and Implications for Developing Countries’, World Development, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 31–44. Berg, A. (1981) Malnourished People. A Policy View, Poverty and Basic Needs Series (Washington, DC: World Bank). Berg, A. (1987) Malnutrition: What Can Be Done? Lessons from World Bank Experience (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press for the World Bank). Bertrand, M. (1970) Report on Method of Computing Reimbursements for Services supplied by FAO to the World Food Program, Document JIU/REP/70/7 (Geneva: United Nations Joint Inspection Unit). Bertrand, M. (1984) Report on Personnel Problems in the World Food Programme, Document JIU/REP/84/8 (Geneva: United Nations Joint Inspection Unit). BIDS and IFPRI (1985) Development Impact of the Food-for-Work Program in Bangladesh (Dhaka and Washington, DC: Submitted to the World Food Programme by the Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies and the International Food Policy Research Institute). Biswas, M. and P. Pinstrup-Andersen (eds) (1986) Nutrition and Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Boutros-Ghali, B. (1992) An Agenda for Peace (New York: United Nations). Boyd Orr, J. and D. Lubbock (1953) The White Man’s Dilemma (London: Unwin Books). Braun, J. von (1991) A Policy Agenda for Famine Prevention in Africa, Food Policy Report (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute). Braun, J. von (1993) ‘Labour-Intensive Public Works Programmes Supported by Food Aid as a Nutrition Intervention’, in ACC/SCN (1993a), pp. 23–30. Braun, J. von (ed.) (1995) Employment for Poverty Reduction and Food Security (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute). Braun, J. von, T. Teklu and P. Webb (1991) Labour-Intensive Public Works for Food Security: Experience in Africa, Working Papers on Food Subsidies No. 6 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute). Bryson, J., J. Chidy and J. Pines (1991) Food for Work: A Review of the 1980s and Recommendations for the 1990s (Washington, DC: US Agency for International Development). Buchanan-Smith, M. and S. Davies (1996) Famine Early Warning and Response: The Missing Link? (London: IT Publications). Burgess, A. (1982) Evaluation of Nutrition Interventions: An Annotated Bibliography and Review of Methodologies and Results, FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 24, 2nd edn (Rome: FAO). 268 Bibliography

Candler, W. and N. Kumar (1998) India: The Dairy Revolution. The Impact of Dairy Development in India and the World Bank’s Contribution (Washington, DC: World Bank Operations Evaluation Department). Cathie, J. (1997) European Food Aid Policy (Aldershot: Ashgate). Chakravarty, S. and P. N. Rosenstein-Rodan (1965) The Linking of Food Aid with Other Aid, WFP Study No. 3 (Rome: UN and FAO). Chambers, R. (1997) Whose Reality Counts? Putting the First Last (London: Intermediate Technology Publications). Chambers, R., R. Longhurst and A. Pacey (eds) (1981) Seasonal Dimensions of Rural Poverty (Exeter: Frances Pinter Ltd). Charlton, M. W. (1992) ‘Innovation and Inter-Organizational Politics: The Case of the World Food Programme’, International Journal, vol. XLVII, Summer, pp. 630–65. Charlton, M. W. (1993) The Making of Canadian Food Aid Policy (Montreal and Kingston: McGill–Queen’s University Press). Charlton, M. W. (1997) ‘Famine and the Food Weapon: Implications for the Global Food Aid Regime’, The Journal of Conflict Studies, vol. XVII, no. 1, pp. 28–54. Chr. Michelsen Institute (1994) Evaluation of the World Food Programme (Bergen, Norway: Chr. Michelsen Institute). Clay, E. (1986) ‘Rural Public Works and Food for Work: A Survey’, World Development, vol. 14, no. 10/11, pp. 1237–52. Clay, E. (1987) Poisoned Gift or Resource for Development? Dairy Aid to Developing Countries, Development and Nutritional Issues, IFPRI Workshop on the Economics of Dairy Develop- ment in Selected Countries and Policy Implications, Copenhagen, Denmark, January 1987. Clay, E. (1997) Food Security: A Status Review of the Literature (with Special Reference to the Human and Social Dimensions of Food Security since the Mid-1980s, Research Report ODA, ESCOR No. R.5911 (London: Overseas Development Administration, United Kingdom Government). Clay, E. and C. Benson (1990) ‘Acquisition of Commodities in Developing Countries for Food Aid in the 1980s’, Food Policy, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 7–43. Clay, E. and M. Mitchell (1983) ‘Is European Community Food Aid In Dairy Products Cost-Effective?’, European Review of Agricultural Economics, vol. 10, pp. 97–121. Clay, E. and J. Shaw (eds) (1987) Poverty, Development and Food: Essays in Honour of H. W. Singer on his 75th Birthday (Basingstoke: Macmillan). Clay, E. and H. W. Singer (1985) Food Aid and Development: Issues and Evidence. A Survey of the Literature since 1977 on the Role and Impact of Food Aid in Developing Countries, WFP Occasional Paper No. 3 (Rome: WFP). Clay, E. and O. Stokke (eds) (1991) Food Aid Reconsidered: Assessing the Impact on Third World Countries (London: Frank Cass). Clay, E., N. Pillai and C. Benson (1998) The Future of Food Aid: A Policy Review (London: Overseas Development Institute). Cochrane, W. W. (1959) ‘Farm Technology, Foreign Surplus Disposal, and Domestic Supply Control’, Journal of Farm Economics, vol. 41, no. 5, December, pp. 885–99. Cochrane, W. W. (1962) ‘Contributions of the New Frontier to Agricultural Reform in the United States’, Journal of Farm Economics, vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 1167–79. Cohen, R. and F. Deng (1998) Masses in Flight. The Global Crisis of Internal Displacement (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press). Colding, B. and P. Pinstrup-Andersen (1999) ‘Denmark’s Contribution to the World Food Programme: A Success Story’, Food Policy, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 93–108. Bibliography 269

Colding, B. and P. Pinstrup-Andersen (2000) ‘Food Aid as an Aid Instrument: Past, Present and Future’, in F. Tarp (ed.), Foreign Aid and Development – Lessons Learnt and Directions for the Future (London: Routledge). Coles, A. (1984) The Effects of Food Aid on Dietary Patterns (Rome: FAO). COPAC and WFP (1988) Food Aid and Co-operatives for Development (Rome: Committee for the Promotion and Advancement of Co-operatives and World Food Programme). Cornia, G. A., R. Jolly and F. Stewart (eds) (1987) Adjustment with a Human Face. Protecting the Vulnerable and Promoting Growth. A Study by Unicef, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Costa, E. S. (1973) ‘The World Food Programme and Employment: Ten Years of Multilateral Food Aid for Development’, International Labour Review, vol. 107, no. 3, March, pp. 209–21. Costa, E. S. Guha, M. I. Hussain, T. B. Thuy and A. Fardet (1977) Guidelines for the Orga- nization of Special Labour-Intensive Works Programmes (Geneva: World Employment Programme, International Labour Office). Cox, R. W. (1969) ‘The Executive Head: An Essay on Leadership in International Organizations’, International Organizations, vol. XXIII, no. 2, Spring, pp. 205–30. Crawshaw, B. and D. J. Shaw (1996) ‘Changing Vulnerability to Food Security and the International Response: The Experience of the World Food Programme’, in T. E. Downing (ed.), Climate Change and World Food Security (Berlin: Springer in cooperation with NATO Scientific Affairs Division), pp. 207–26. Dandekar, V. M. (1965) The Demand for Food and Conditions Governing Food Aid during Development, WFP Study No. 1 (Rome: UN and FAO). Dawson, A. (1964) ‘Food for Development: The World Food Programme’, International Labour Review, vol. XC, no. 2, pp. 1–31. Delisle, H. and D. J. Shaw (eds) (1998) ‘The Quest for Food Security in the Twenty-First Century’, Canadian Journal of Development Studies, vol. XIX, Special Issue. Dessau, J. (1965) The Role of Multilateral Food Aid Programs, WFP Study No. 5 (Rome: UN and FAO). Devereux, S. and H. W. Singer (1999) ‘A Tribute to Professor Amartya Sen on the Occasion of his receiving the 1998 Nobel Prize for Economics’, Food Policy, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 1–6. Doornbos, M., L. Gertsch and P. Terhal (1991) ‘Dairy Aid and Development: Current Trends and Long-Term Implications of the Indian Case’, in E. Clay and O. Stokke (eds), Food Aid Reconsidered: Assessing the Impact on Third World Countries (London: Frank Cass), pp. 117–42. Drèze, J. (1988) Famine Prevention in India, Discussion Paper No. 3 (London: The Development Economics Research Programme, London School of Economics). Drèze, J. and A. Sen (1989) Hunger and Public Action (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Dustin, J.-P. (1982) The Relevance of Lactose-Intolerance to WFP Food-Aided Projects, Document WFP/CFA: 14/INF/8 (Rome: WFP). Dustin, J.-P. and G. J. Lavoipierre (1981) ‘Food Aid as a Capital Investment’, World Development Forum, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 106–13. ECOSOC (1990) Operational Activities of the United Nations System, Document E/1990/85, 18 May. Edmundson, W. C. and P. V. Sukhatme (1990) ‘Food and Work: Poverty and Hunger?’, Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 263–80. Epstein, S. (1979) ‘The Role of Women in WFP’s Supplementary Feeding Projects’ (Rome: WFP, typescript). Epstein, S. B. (1987) Food for Peace, 1954–1986: Major Changes in Legislation (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress). 270 Bibliography

Faaland, J., D. McLean and O. Norbye (1998) ‘The World Food Programme and International Food Aid’, in Clay, E. and O. Stokke (eds) Food and Human Security (London: Frank Cass for European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes). FAO (1946) Proposals for a World Food Board, Prepared for Submission to the Second Session of the FAO Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2 September 1946 (Washington, DC: FAO, 1946). FAO (1953) Report of Group of Experts on the Establishment of an Emergency Famine Reserve, Document CL 17/19 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1954) Disposal of Agricultural Surpluses. Principles Recommended by the FAO (Rome: FAO) (subsequently revised and expanded in five versions). FAO (1955) Uses of Agricultural Surpluses to Finance Economic Development in Under-Developed Countries: A Pilot Study in India, Commodity Policy Studies no. 6 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1956) Functions of a World Food Reserve. Scope and Limitations, Commodity Policy Studies No. 10 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1958) National Food Reserve Policies in Underdeveloped Countries, Commodity Policy Studies No. 11 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1961a) ‘Expanded Program of Surplus Food Utilization’, Report by the Expert Group to the Director General of FAO, in Development through Food: A Strategy for Surplus Utilization, FFHC Basic Study No. 2 (Rome: FAO) pp. 69–117. Republished in FAO (1985), pp. 223–343. FAO (1961b) Utilization of Food Surpluses. World Food Programme, FAO Conference resolution 1/61, adopted on 24 November 1961 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1962a) Nutrition and Working Efficiency, FFHC Basic Study No. 5 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1962b) Education and Training in Nutrition, FFHC Basic Study No. 6 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1962c) ‘Agricultural Commodities – Projections for 1970’, FAO Commodity Review, Special Supplement (Rome: FAO). FAO (1963a) Third World Food Survey, FFHC Basic Study No. 11 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1963b) Possibilities for Increasing World Food Production, FFHC Basic Study No. 10 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1963c) ‘World Food Programme’, Background Papers No. 17, WFC/63/BP/11B/5, 28 January. B. Functions and Forms of External Aid, World Food Congress (Rome: FAO). FAO (1963d) ‘Changing Attitudes toward Agricultural Surpluses’, Document CCP/ CSD/63/27, 12 April, Consultative Sub-Committee on Surplus Disposal, Committee on Commodity Problems (Rome: FAO). FAO (1964) Food Aid and Other Forms of Utilization of Agricultural Surpluses. A Review of Programs, Principles and Consultations, FAO Commodity Policy Studies No. 15 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1965a) Report of the World Food Congress. Washington, DC, 4 to 18 June 1963, Volume 1 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1965b) Report of the World Food Congress. Washington, DC, 4 to 18 June 1963, Volume 2, Major Addresses and Speeches (Rome: FAO). FAO (1965c) Continuation of the World Food Programme, FAO Conference resolution 4/65, adopted on 6 December 1965. FAO (1967) Study on Food Production Resources in Agricultural Development, Document C67/41 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1968a) Milk Products as Food Aid, Document CCP OF 68/5/4 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1968b) Internationally Financed Food Aid (Rome: FAO). FAO (1968c) The Possible Role of Rice in Food Aid. A Technical Feasibility Study, Document CCP: RI68/4 (Rome: FAO). Bibliography 271

FAO (1970) ‘Speech delivered at the Closing Ceremony by the Chairman H. E. P. J. Lardinois’, in Report of the Second World Food Congress, vol. 1 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1973) Index. FAO Conference and Council Decisions 1945–1972 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1975) Reconstitution of the United Nations/FAO Intergovernmental Committee of the World Food Program as a Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programs, Resolution 22/75 of the FAO Conference adopted on 26 November 1975 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1981) Manual on the Management of Group Feeding Programmes, Food and Nutrition Paper No. 23 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1982) The Impact of WFP Food Aid in Ethiopia (Rome: FAO). FAO (1983) Approaches to Food Security, Economic and Social Development Paper No. 32 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1985) Food for Development, Economic and Social Development Paper No. 34 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1986) Prepositioning of Food Stocks to Expedite Delivery of Emergency Food Aid, Document CFS: 86/5 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1989) The Effects of Stabilization and Structural Adjustment Programmes on Food Security, Economic and Social Development Paper No. 89 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1990) Participation in Practice. Lessons from the FAO People’s Participation Programme, (Rome: FAO). FAO (1991a) Revision of the General Regulations of WFP and Membership of the WFP Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes, FAO Conference resolution 9/91 adopted on 26 November 1991 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1991b) FAO Study on Prospects for Food Aid and Its Role in the 1990s, CFA: 31/P/5-C. FAO (1992) Principles of Surplus Disposal and Consultative Obligations of Member States, 3rd edn (Rome: FAO). FAO (1993) Food and Nutrition in the Management of Group Feeding Programmes, Food and Nutrition Paper No. 23 Rev. 1 (Rome: FAO). FAO (1996) World Food Summit. Rome Declaration on World Food Security and World Food Summit Plan of Action (Rome: FAO). FAO (1998) Guidelines for National Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping System (FIVIMS). Background and Principles, Report to the Committee on World Food Security, Twenty-Fourth Session (Rome: FAO). Figa-Talamanca, I. (1985) Nutritional Implications of Food Aid: An Annotated Bibliography, FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 33 (Rome: FAO). FitzGerald, D. A. (1965) Operational and Administrative Problems of Food Aid, WFP Studies No. 4. (Rome: FAO). Fraser, C. (1988) Lifelines for Africa Still in Peril (London: Hutchinson). GATT Secretariat (1994) The Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations. The Legal Text (Geneva: GATT Secretariat). Gaude, J. and H. Watzlawick (1992) ‘Employment Creation and Poverty Alleviation through Labour-Intensive Public Works in Least-Developed Countries’, International Labour Review, vol. 131, no. 1, pp. 3–18. Gaude, J., A. Guichasua, B. Martins and S. Miller (1987) ‘Rural Development and Labour-Intensive Schemes’, International Labour Review, vol. 126, no. 4, July/August, pp. 423–46. Gongora, J. and D. J. Shaw (1977) ‘World Food Programme Assistance for Supplementary Feeding Programmes: Review and Recommendations’, FAO Food and Nutrition Bulletin, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 15–20. Government of Botswana (1974) A Study of Constraints on Agricultural Development in the Republic of Botswana (including an assessment of the role of food aid) 272 Bibliography

(Gaborone: Division of Planning and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Botswana). Greaves, J. P. and D. J. Shaw (eds) (1986) Food Aid and the Well-Being of Children in the Developing World (New York: UNICEF and WFP). Gupta, S., C. MacDonald, C. Schiller, M. Verhoeven, Z. Bogetic and G. Schwartz (1998) Mitigating the Social Costs of the Economic Crisis and the Reform Programs in Asia, IMF Paper on Policy Analysis and Assessment 98/7 (Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund). Guruge, A. (1983) School Feeding Programmes as a Potential Source of Learning (Paris and New Delhi: UNESCO and UNICEF). Gwatkin, D. R., J. R. Wilcox and J. D. Wray (1980) Can Health and Nutrition Interventions Make A Difference?, Monograph No. 13 (Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council). Haas, E. B. (1969) Tangle of Hopes. American Commitments and World Order (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.) Hall, D. W. (1965) The Handling and Storage of World Food Programme Commodities in Recipient Countries (London: Tropical Stored Products Centre, Ministry of Overseas Development). Hambridge, G. (1955) The FAO Story (New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.). Hammam, M. and N. Youssef (1986) ‘The Continuum in Women’s Productive and Reproductive Roles: Implications for Food Aid and Children’s Well-Being’, in Greaves and Shaw (1986), pp. 85–104. Also published as WFP Occasional Paper No. 5 (Rome: WFP). Harvey, D. R. (1998) ‘The US Farm Act: “Fair” or “Foul”? An Evolutionary Perspective from East of the Atlantic’, Food Policy, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 111–21. Hay, R. H. (1986) ‘Food Aid and Relief-Development Strategies’, WFP Occasional Paper No. 8 (Rome: WFP, 1986), reproduced in Disasters, vol. 10, no. 4 (1986), pp. 273–87. Hay, R. H. and E. J. Clay (1986) Food Aid and the Development of Human Resources, WFP Occasional Paper No. 7 (Rome: WFP). Henderson, E. (1964) Food Aid: A Selected Annotated Bibliography (Rome: UN and FAO). Herbinger, W. (1994) ‘The World Food Programme’s Response to the Challenge of Linking Relief and Development’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 96–100. Herbinger, W., B. Crawshaw and D. J. Shaw (1999) ‘Beneficiary Participation in Context: Practical Experience from a Food-Aided Project in Ethiopia’, in J. Mullin (ed.), Rural Poverty, Empowerment and Sustainable Livelihoods (Aldershot: Ashgate), pp. 1–13. Holt, J. (1995) ‘Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation: The Ethiopia Experience’, in WFP (1995b), pp. 12–31. Hopkins, R. F. (1984) ‘The Evolution of Food Aid. Toward a Development First Regime’, Food Policy, November, pp. 345–62. Hopkins, R. F. (1990) ‘International Food Organizations and the United States: Drifting Leadership and Diverging Interests’, in M. P. Karns and K. A. Mingst (eds), The United States and Multilateral Institutions. Patterns of Changing Instrumentality and Influence (Boston: Unwin Hyman), pp. 177–204. Hopkins, R. F. (1992) ‘Reform in the International Food Aid Regime: The Role of Consensual Knowledge’, International Organization, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 225–64. Hopkins, R. F. and D. Puchala (1978) The Global Political Economy of Food (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press). Horton, S. (1991) ‘Costs of Nutrition Interventions: Unit Costs, Cost Structure and Cost Effectiveness’ (Washington, DC: World Bank, typescript). Bibliography 273

Hossain, M. and M. M. Akash (1993) Public Rural Works for Relief and Development: A Review of the Bangladesh experience, Work Papers on Food Subsidies No. 7 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute). Humphrey, H. H. (1958) Food and Fiber as a Force for Freedom, Report to the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, United States Senate (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office). Hunt, S. (1988) Lesotho: Food Aid, Food Security, Disincentives and Dependency (Oxford: Oxford Food Studies Group). Hyder, M. (1996) ‘From Relief to Development: Food for Work in Bangladesh’, Disasters, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 21–33. IFPRI (1997) Urban Challenge to Food and Nutrition Security (Washington, DC: Inter- national Food Policy Research Institute). IFPRI (1998) ‘The Changing Outlook of Food Aid’, News and Views, November (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute). IGC (1999) Food Aid Convention, 1999 (London: International Grains Council). ILO (1930) Forced Labour Convention, No. 29 (Geneva: International Labour Office). ILO (1949) Protection of Wages Convention, No. 95 (Geneva: International Labour Office). ILO (1957) Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (Geneva: International Labour Office). ILO (1963) Hunger and Social Policy, FFHC Basic Studies No. 14 (Geneva: International Labour Office). ILO (1966) Recommendations concerning the Role of Co-operatives in the Economic and Social Development of Developing Countries (Geneva: International Labour Office). ILO (1992) ‘Productive Employment of the Poor’, International Labour Review, vol. 131, no. 1, Special Issue. Ingram, J. C. (1983) ‘Food Aid for Employment: 20 Years of the World Food Programme’, International Labour Review, vol. 122, no. 5, September/October, pp. 549–62. Ingram, J. C. (1993) ‘The Future Architecture for International Humanitarian Assis- tance’, in T. G. Weiss and L. Minear (eds), Humanitarianism Across Borders. Sustaining Civilians in Times of War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers). Isenman P. J. and H. W. Singer (1977) ‘Food Aid: Disincentive Effects and their Policy Implications’, Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 25, January, pp. 205–37. Islam, M. S. (1994) Statement on Behalf of the Least-Developed Countries. Document MTN. TNC/MIN(94)/ST/7 (Marrakesh: Multilateral Trade Negotiations. The Uruguay Round). Islam, N. (1991) ‘Bangladesh Agriculture: Growth, Stability and Poverty Alleviation’, Journal of International Development, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 447–65. IWC (1974) International Wheat Agreements. A Historical and Critical Background, Document CL71/8 (London: International Wheat Council). IWC (1988) The Food Aid Convention on the International Wheat Agreement: History (London: International Wheat Council). Jackson, T. (1982) Against the Grain: The Dilemma of Project Food Aid (Oxford: OXFAM). Jaspers, S. and H. Young (1996) General Food Distribution in Emergencies: From Nutritional Needs to Political Priorities (London: Overseas Development Institute). JCGP (1990) Poverty Alleviation. A Global Challenge, Joint Consultative Group on Policy High Level Report (Rome: International Fund on Agricultural Development). Jennings, A. (1987) The World Food Programme and the Recurrent Cost Problem, WFP Occasional Paper No. 9 (Rome: WFP). Jennings, A. and D. J. Shaw (1987) ‘Food Aid and the Recurrent Cost Problem in Developing Countries’, Food Policy, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 213–26. Kahn, R. F. (1931) ‘The Relation of Home Investment to Unemployment’, The Economic Journal, vol. XLI, no. 162, June, pp. 173–98. 274 Bibliography

Kapur, D., J. P. Lewis and R. Webb (1997) The World Bank. Its First Half Century, Vol. 1: History (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution Press). Katone-Apte, J. (1983) ‘The Significance of Intra-Household Food Distribution Patterns in Food Programmes’, FAO Food and Nutrition Bulletin, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 35–41. Katone-Apte, J. (1986) ‘Women in Development. A Developmental Perspective’, Food Policy, August, pp. 216–22. Katone-Apte, J. (1993) ‘Issues in Food Aid and Nutrition’, in ACC/SCN (1993), pp. 5–20. Katone-Apte, J. and S. Maxwell (1983) ‘WFP Project Design Review’ (Rome: WFP, typescript). Kern, C. R. (1968) ‘Looking a Gift Horse in the Mouth: The Economics of Food Aid Programs’, Political Science Quarterly, vol. LIII, no. 1, pp. 59–75. Knock, T. J. (1992) ‘“Food for Peace”: George McGovern and the New Frontier’s Endeavours to Preclude “Inevitable Revolutions”’. Paper presented to the Organization of American Historians Annual Convention, April (typescript). Konandreas, P. and J. Greenfield (eds) (1996) ‘Implications of the Uruguay Round for Developing Countries’, Food Policy, vol. 21, nos 4/5, Special Issue, September/November. Konandreas, P. and J. Greenfield (1998) ‘Policy Options for Developing Countries to Support Food in the Post-Uruguay Round Period’, Canadian Journal of Development Studies, vol. XIX, Special Issue, pp. 141–59. Kracht, U. and M. Schulz (eds) (1999) Food Security and Nutrition. The Global Challenge (Münster and New York: Lit Verlag and St. Martin’s Press). Kristenson, T. (1968) The Food Problems of Developing Countries (Paris: OECD). Kruger, A. (ed.) (1998) The WTO as an International Organization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press). Kust, M. J. (1956) ‘Economic Development and Agricultural Surpluses’, Foreign Affairs, October, pp. 105–15. Leach, L. and C. E. Hanrahan (1994) P.L. 480 Food Aid: History and Legislation, Programs, and Policy Issues, CRS Report for Congress (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress). Levinger, B. (1983) School Feeding Programmes in Less Developed Countries: An Analysis of Actual and Potential Impact (Washington, DC: Office of Evaluation, Bureau for Food and Voluntary Aid, Agency for International Development). Levinger, B. (1984) ‘School Feeding Programmes: Myth and Potential’, Prospects, vol. XIV, no. 3, pp. 369–76. Lewis, W. A. (1954) ‘Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour’, The Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies, vol. XXII, no. 2, pp. 139–91. Luehe, E. (1983) ‘Food Aid in Crisis Situations’, Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture, vol. XXII, pp. 95–107. Macrea, J. and A. Zwi (eds) (1994) War and Hunger. Rethinking International Responses to Complex Emergencies (London: Zed Books with Save the Children (UK)). Marek, T. (1992) Ending Malnutrition: Why Increasing Income is Not Enough, Technical Working Paper No. 5, Population, Health and Nutrition Division, Africa Technical Department (Washington, DC: World Bank). Masefield, G. (1967) Food and Nutrition Procedures in Times of Disaster, FAO Nutritional Studies No. 21 (Rome: FAO). Mason, J. B., J.-P. Habicht and H. Tabatabai (1982) Principles for Evaluation of On-Going Programs, Cornell Nutritional Surveillance Program, Working Paper Series No. 5 (Ithaca: Cornell University). Maxwell, S. (1978a) Food Aid, Food for Work and Public Works, Discussion Paper 17 (Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex). Bibliography 275

Maxwell, S. (1978b) ‘Food Aid for Supplementary Feeding Programmes. An Analysis’, Food Policy, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 289–98. Maxwell, S. (1986a) Food Aid to Ethiopia: Disincentive Effects and Commercial Displacement, IDS Discussion Paper No. 226 (Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex). Maxwell, S. (1986b) Food Aid to Senegal: Disincentive Effects and Commercial Displacement, IDS Discussion Paper No. 225 (Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex). Maxwell, S. (1986c) Food Aid: Agricultural Disincentives and Commercial Displacement, IDS Discussion Paper No. 224 (Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex). Maxwell, S. (1991) ‘The Disincentive Effects of Food Aid: A Programmatic Approach’, in Clay and Stokke (1991), pp. 66–90. Maxwell, S. and M. Buchanan-Smith (eds) (1994) ‘Linking Relief and Development’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 25, no. 4, October. Maxwell, S. and D. J. Shaw (1995) ‘Food, Food Security and UN Reform’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 41–53. Maxwell, S. and H. W. Singer (1979) ‘Food Aid to Developing Countries: A Survey’, World Development, vol. 7, pp. 225–46. McGovern, G. S. (1961) Statement of the Delegate of the United States of America at the Intergovernmental Advisory Committee, 10 April 1961. In FAO (1961a) p. 121. Republished in FAO (1985), pp. 315–16 and reproduced in annex to Chapter 2. McGovern, G. S. (1964) War Against Want. America’s Food for Peace Program (New York: Walkers and Co.). McGovern, G. S. (ed.) (1967a) Agricultural Thought in the Twentieth Century (New York: Bobbs-Merrill). McGovern, G. S. (1967b) That None Shall Want. Food for Freedom. (McGovern Papers, Box TK-5. Seeley G. Mudd Manuscripts Library, Princeton University.) McGovern, G. S. (1977) Grassroots. The Autobiography of George McGovern (New York: Random House). Meier, G. M. and D. Seers (eds) (1984) Pioneers in Development, a World Bank Publication (New York: Published for the World Bank by Oxford University Press). Meinzen-Dick, R. S., L. R. Brown, H. S. Feldstein and A. R. Quisumbing (1997) ‘Gender, Property Rights and Natural Resources’, World Development, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 1299–302. Mellor, J. W. (1980) ‘Food Aid and Nutrition’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol. 62, no. 5, pp. 979–83. Mellor, J. W. (1983) ‘Food Aid, Equity and Agricultural Growth’, in IFPRI Report 1983 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute), pp. 7–11. Mellor Associates (1992) Food for Development in a Market Oriented World (Washington, DC: Prepared for WFP by John Mellor Associates, Inc.). Messer, E., M. J. Cohen and J. D’Costa (1998) Food From Peace. Breaking the Links Between Conflict and Hunger, Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper 24 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute). Mora, J. (1990) The Effectiveness of Maternal and Child Health (MCH) Supplementary Feeding Programmes. An Analysis of Performance in the 1980s and Potential Role in the 1990s (Washington, DC: Logical Technical Services Corporation for Agency for International Development). Morgan, D. (1979) Merchants of Grain (New York: The Viking Press). Murphy, J. L. (1995) Gender Issues in World Bank Lending (Washington, DC: World Bank). 276 Bibliography

Murray, P. E. (1989) ‘Paradox and Narrative: The Social Construction of Reality within International Secretariats’, Ph.D. dissertation (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America). Musgrove, P. (1993) Feeding Latin America’s Children: An Analytical Study of Food Programs, Latin America and Caribbean Technical Department Regional Studies Program Report No. 11 (Washington, DC: World Bank). Netherlands Government (1991) Policy Document on Multilateral Development Cooperation. An Evaluation of the Multilateral Organizations as a Channel for Dutch Aid (The Hague: Netherlands Government). Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1991) Food Aid and Development. Evaluation of Dutch Food Aid with Special Reference to Sub-Saharan Africa 1980–89 (The Hague: Operations Review Unit, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Netherlands Government). Nordic UN Project (1990) Responding to Emergencies: The Role of the UN in Emergencies and Ad Hoc Operations, Report No. 14, in The United Nations. Issues and Options (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International). Nordic UN Project (1991) The United Nations in Development. Reform Issues in the Economic and Social Fields. A Nordic Perspective (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International). Oakley, P. (1991) Projects with People: The Practice of Participation in Rural Development (Geneva: International Labour Organization). ODI (1998) The Future of Food Aid: Summary of Findings and Recommendations (London: Overseas Development Institute). ODI (2000) Reforming Food Aid: Time to Grasp the Nettle?, ODI Briefing Paper No. 1, January (London: Overseas Development Institute). OECD (1962) Food Aid: Its Role in Economic Development (Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). O’Hagan, J. P. and T. Lehti (1968) ‘Some Economic and Policy Problems of Food Aid’, FAO Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Economics and Statistics, vol. 17, no. 2, February, pp. 1–12. Orr, E. (1977) ‘The Contribution of New Food Mixtures to the Relief of Malnutrition’, FAO Food and Nutrition Bulletin, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 2–10. Page, T. (1985) ‘Issues in Emergency Food Aid: A Personal View’, in E. Clay and E. Everitt (eds), ‘Food Aid and Emergencies: A Report on the Third IDS Food Aid Seminar’, IDS Discussion Paper No. 206, pp. 3–9. Parotte, J. H. (1983) ‘The Food Aid Convention: Its History and Scope’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 10–15. Payne, P. (1986) ‘Appropriate Indicators for Project Design and Evaluation’, in Greaves and Shaw (1986), pp. 105–42. Payne, P. (1987) ‘Malnutrition and Human Capital: Problems of Theory and Practice’, in Clay and Shaw (1987), pp. 22–41. Pearson, L. (1969) Partners in Development. Report of the Commission on International Development (New York: Praeger). Pena, C., P. Webb and L. Haddad (1996) Women’s Advancement through Agricultural Change: A Review of Donor Experience, Food Consumption and Nutrition Division Discussion Paper No. 10 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute). Pilon, J. G. (1988) ‘The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization: Becoming Part of the Problem’, Society, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 6–10. Pinstrup-Andersen, P. (ed.) (1988) Food Subsidies in Developing Countries. Costs, Benefits and Policy Options (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press for the International Food Policy Research Institute). Bibliography 277

Pinstrup-Andersen, P. (1991) Food Aid to Promote Economic Growth and Combat Poverty, Food Insecurity and Malnutrition in Developing Countries and Suggestions for How to Increase the Effectiveness of Danish Aid to the World Food Programme (Copenhagen: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Denmark). Pollitt, E. (1984) Nutrition and Educational Achievement, Nutrition Education Series Issue 9 (Paris: UNESCO). Pollitt, E. (1990) Malnutrition and Infection in the Classroom (Paris: UNESCO). Quisumbing, A. R., L. R. Brown, H. S. Feldstein, L. Haddad and C. Pena (1995) Women: The Key to Food Security, Food Policy Report (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute). Quisumbing, A. R., L. Haddad, R. Meinzen-Dick and L. R. Brown (1998) ‘Gender Issues for Food Security in Developing Countries: Implications for Project Design and Implementation’, Canadian Journal of Development Studies, vol. XIX (Special Issue), pp. 185–208. RDI (1987) A Study of Triangular Transactions and Local Purchases in Food Aid, WFP Occasional Paper No. 11, Relief and Development Institute, London for WFP (Rome: WFP). RDI (1990) A Study of Commodity Exchanges in WFP and Other Food Aid Operations, WFP Occasional Paper No. 12, Relief and Development Institute, London for WFP (Rome: WFP). Reutlinger, S. (1983) ‘Project Food Aid and Equitable Growth: Income Transfer Efficiency First’, in WFP/Government of the Netherlands (1983), pp. 167–78. Reutlinger, S. (1999) ‘From “Food Aid” to “Aid for Food”: Into the 21st Century’, Food Policy, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 7–15. Reutlinger, S. and J. Katone-Apte (1983) The Nutritional Impact of Food Aid: Criteria for the Selection of Cost-Effective Foods, Discussion Paper No. ARU12 (Washington, DC: World Bank). Rivera, J. (1993) ‘Effects of Supplementary Feeding on the Growth of Children with Infection’, in ACC/SCN (1993), pp. 55–7. Rogers, K. D., U. K. Srivastrava and E. O. Heady (1972) ‘Modified Price, Production, and Income Impacts of Food Aid under Market Differentiated Distribution’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 201–8. Rosen, S. (1989) Consumption Stability and the Potential of Food Aid in Africa, Economic Research Service Staff Report No. AGES 89-29 (Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture). Ruttan, V. W. (ed.) (1993) Why Food Aid? (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press). Ruttan, V. W. (1996) United States Development Assistance Policy. The Domestic Politics of Foreign Economic Aid (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press). Sahn, D. E. and R. M. Pestronk (1979) Experiences and Methodologies in Nutrition Program Evaluation: A Literature Review (Ann Arbor: Community Systems Foundation for Office of Nutrition, Agency for International Development). Santayana, G. (1905) The Life of Reason; or, The Phases of Human Progress, vol. 1, chapter XII, ‘Flux and Constancy in Human Nature’ (New York and London: Charles Scribner’s Sons and Constable). Sapsford, D. and J. Chen (eds) (1998) Development Economics and Policy: The Conference Volume to Celebrate the 85th Birthday of Professor Sir Hans Singer (Basingstoke: Macmillan). Schuh (1983) ‘Increasing the Effectiveness of Food Aid: Offsetting the Opportunity Cost of Schooling’, in WFP and Government of the Netherlands (1983), pp. 101–6. Schultz, T. W. (1960) ‘Value of US Farm Surpluses to Underdeveloped Countries’, Journal of Farm Economics, vol. 42, no. 5, December, pp. 1019–30. 278 Bibliography

Schultz, T. W. (1964) Transforming Traditional Agriculture (New Haven: Yale University Press). Schultz, T. W. (1993) The Economics of Being Poor (Oxford: Blackwell). Scrimshaw, N. S. (1997) ‘The Lasting Damage of Early Malnutrition’, in WFP/UNU Ending the Inheritance of Hunger (Rome: WFP), pp. 3–14. Seaman, J. and J. Rivers (1988) ‘Strategies for the Distribution of Relief Food’, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, vol. 151, no. 3, pp. 464–72. Sen, A. (1981) Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Sen, A. (1983) ‘Food Entitlement and Food Aid Programmes’, in WFP and Government of The Netherlands (1983), pp. 111–22. Sen, A. (1999) Development as Freedom (New York: Alfred A. Knopf). Sen, B. R. (1982) Towards a Newer World (Dublin: Tycooly). Sen, S. R. (1960) ‘Impact and Implications of Foreign Surplus Disposal on Underdeveloped Economies – The Indian Perspective’, Journal of Farm Economics, vol. XLII, pp. 1031–42. Sen, S. R. (1965) Implications of the UNCTAD and Argentine Proposals for the Modification of the World Food Program, Document WFP/IGC: 8/15 (Rome: WFP). Shapouri, S. and S. Rosen (1999) Food Security Assessment. Why Countries Are At Risk, an Economic Research Service Report. Agricultural Information Bulletin No. 754 (Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture). Shaw, D. J. (1967) ‘Resettlement from the Nile in Sudan’, Middle East Journal, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 462–87. Shaw, D. J. (1970a) ‘The Mechanism and Distribution of Food Aid. Multilateral Food Aid for Economic and Social Development’, Journal of World Trade Law, vol. 4, no. 2, March/April, pp. 207–37. Shaw, D. J. (1970b) ‘World Food Programme Assistance for Agricultural Education and Training’, Document RU:AET/24. FAO, UNESCO and ILO World Conference on Agricultural Education and Training. Copenhagen, July/August 1970. Shaw, D. J. (1983) ‘Triangular Transactions in Food Aid: Concept and Practice – The Example of the Zimbabwe Operations’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 29–31. Shaw, D. J. (1985) ‘The Contribution of the World Food Programme to Nutrition’, Proceedings of the XIII International Congress on Nutrition, pp. 39–44. Shaw, D. J. (1987) ‘Some Future Directions for Food Aid’, Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 219–25. Shaw, D. J. (1993) ‘Poverty-Specific Policy Approached’, in C. Easter (ed.), Strategies for Poverty Reduction (London: Commonwealth Secretariat), pp. 43–63. Shaw, D. J. (1995) ‘Future Directions for Development and Relief with Food Aid’, in J. von Braun (ed.) (1955), pp. 252–74. Shaw, D. J. (1996) ‘The World Food Programme and Emergency Relief’, Advanced Development Management Programme Series No. 20 (Tokyo: Institute of Comparative Culture, Sophia University). Shaw, D. J. (1997) ‘World Food Security: The Impending Crisis?’, Development Policy Review, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 413–20. Shaw, D. J. (1998) ‘The World Food Programme: Linking Relief and Development’, in Sapsford and Chen (1998), pp. 437–84. Shaw, D. J. (1999) ‘Multilateral Development Co-operation for Improved Food Security and Nutrition’, in Kracht and Schulz (1999), pp. 555–80. Shaw, D. J. (2000) ‘Food Aid in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policy Lessons for the Future’, in D. Belshaw and I. Livingstone (eds) Renewing Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: Prospects, Policies and Prospects (London: Routledge). Bibliography 279

Shaw, D. J. and E. Clay (eds) (1993) World Food Aid. Experiences of Recipients and Donors (Rome, London and Portsmouth, New Hampshire: World Food Programme in association with James Currey and Heinemann). Shaw, D. J. and E. J. Clay (1998) ‘Global Hunger and Food Security after the World Food Summit’, Canadian Journal of Development Studies, vol. XIX, Special Issue, pp. 55–76. Shaw, D. J. and B. Hutchinson (eds) (1993) ‘Disaster Mitigation’, special issue of the Arid Lands Newsletter, Fall/Winter, 34 (Tucson: University of Arizona). Shaw, D. J. and H. W. Singer (eds) (1988) ‘Food Policy, Food Aid and Economic Adjustment’, Food Policy, vol. 13, no. 1, February. Shaw, D. J. and H. W. Singer (1995) ‘A Future Food Aid Regime: Implications of the Final Act of the GATT Uruguay Round’, IDS Discussion Paper No. 352 (Brighton: Institute of Development Studies). See different versions of the paper, in Food Policy, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 447–60; and in H. O’Neil and J. Toye (eds), A World Without Hunger? (Basingstoke: Macmillan for the UK Development Studies Association, 1996), pp. 305–34. Shaw, D. J. and H. W. Singer (1998) ‘A Note on Some UN Achievements with Special Reference to the World Food Programme’, in M. Glassner (ed.), The United Nations at Work (London: Praeger), pp. 186–212. Shaw, D. J., B. Crawshaw and F. Fortier (1994) ‘Using Project Food Aid to Help Alleviate Urban Poverty – Experience and Issues’, Fourth International Famine Workshop, Commission on the Geography of Famine and Vulnerable Food Systems, Mexico City, August 1993. GeoJournal, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 305–13. Shawcross, W. (1984) The Quality of Mercy. Cambodia, Holocaust and Modern Conscience (New York: Simon & Schuster). Shawcross, W. (2000) Deliver Us from Evil: Warlords and Peacekeepers in a World of Endless Conflict (London: Bloomsbury). Shoham, J. (1994) Emergency Supplementary Feeding Programmes (London: Overseas Development Institute). SIFAD (1989) Joint Government of Bangladesh/Donor Task Force on Strengthening the Institutions for Food Assisted Development, Final Report, vols 1/2 (Dhaka: Ministry of Planning). Singer, H. W. (1965) ‘External Aid: For Plans or Projects’, The Economic Journal, vol. 75, September, pp. 539–45. Singer, H. W. (1972) Children in the Strategy of Development, Executive Brief Paper No. 6 (New York: United Nations Centre for Economic and Social Information). Singer, H. W. (with the collaboration of S. J. Maxwell) (1983) ‘Development through Food: Twenty Years’ Experience’, in WFP/Government of the Netherlands (1983), pp. 31–46. Singer, H. W. (1984) ‘The Terms of Trade Controversy and the Evolution of Soft Financing: Early Years in the U.N.’, in Meier and Seers (1984), pp. 273–312. Singer, H. W. (1991) ‘Food Aid and Structural Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa’, in Clay and Stokke (1991), pp. 180–90. Singer, H. W. (1994) ‘Two Views of Food Aid’, in R. Prendergast and F. Stewart (eds), Market Forces and World Development (London: Macmillan for the UK Development Studies Association), pp. 207–11. Singer, H. W. (1996) ‘Linking Relief and Development’, Advanced Development Management Programme Series No. 19 (Tokyo: Institute of Comparative Culture, Sophia University). Singer, H. W. and R. Longhurst (1986) ‘The Role of Food Aid in Promoting the Welfare of Children in Developing Countries’, in Greaves and Shaw (1986), pp. 27–66. Singer, H. W., J. Wood and T. Jennings (1987) Food Aid: The Challenge and the Opportunity (Oxford: Clarendon Press). 280 Bibliography

Smethurst, R. G. (1969) ‘Direct Commodity Aid: A Multilateral Experiment’, Journal of Development Studies, vol. 5, no. 3, April, pp. 205–19. Smith, L. and L. Haddad (2000) Overcoming Child Malnutrition in Developing Countries: Past Achievements and Future Choices (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute). Snow, C. P. (1968) The State of Siege, Address at Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri, United States, 12 November 1968. Reproduced by the Office of the War on Hunger, Agency for International Development, Washington, DC. Stevens, C. (1979) Food Aid and the Developing World. Four African Case Studies (London: Overseas Development Institute). Stewart, F. (1986) ‘Food Aid: Pitfalls and Potential’, in Greaves and Shaw (1986), pp. 67–84. Szal, R. and E. Thorbecke (1985) Food, Nutrition and Employment, a Review of ILO Activities (Geneva: World Employment Programme, International Labour Office). Talbot, R. B. (1990) The Four World Food Agencies in Rome (Ames: Iowa State University Press). Talbot, R. and W. Moyer (1987) ‘Who Governs the Rome Food Agencies?’ Food Policy, vol. 12, November, p.363. TechEcon (1992) Food Aid Transport Costs and Options (London: Economic and Transport Consultants for the Commission of the Economic Communities). The New York Times (1961) ‘Friend of Farmers. George Stanley McGovern’, March 31. The Washington Post (1961) ‘Food for Development’, April 1. Thimm, H.-U. and H. Hahn (eds) (1993) Regional Food Security and Rural Infrastructure, 2 vols (Münster-Hamburg: Lit Verlag). Thomas, J. W. (1985) Food for Work. An Analysis of Current Experience and Recommenda- tions for Future Performance (Cambridge: Harvard Institute for Development). Toole, M. (1993) ‘Protecting Refugees’ Nutrition with Food Aid’, in ACC/SCN, Nutritional Issues in Food Aid, ACC/SCN Symposium Report, Nutrition Policy Discussion Paper No. 12 (Geneva: ACC/SCN), pp. 87–90. UN (1945) Charter of the United Nations (New York: United Nations). UN (1960a) 868th Plenary Meeting. United Nations General Assembly. Fifteenth Session. Off- icial Records (Part 1). Plenary Meetings Vol. 1 Verbatim Records of Meetings 20 September–17 October 1960 (New York: United Nations). UN (1960b) ‘Economic development of under-developed countries. Food surpluses: distribution to under-developed countries’, Second Committee 649th Meeting, 18 October 1960. General Assembly – Fifteenth Session – Second Committee. Summary Records of Meetings. 21 September – 14 December 1960 (New York: United Nations). UN (1960c) Provision of Food Surpluses to Food-Deficit People through the United Nations System, United Nations General Assembly resolution 1496 (XV), adopted at the 908th Plenary Meeting, 27 October 1960 (New York: United Nations). UN (1961a) World Food Programme, General Assembly resolution 1714 (XVI), adopted on 19 December 1961 (New York: United Nations). UN (1961b) Official Records of the General Assembly. Sixteenth Session. Plenary Meetings. Volume 1. Verbatim Records of Meetings 19 September–18 October 1961 (New York: United Nations). UN (1961c) Statements to the Second Committee of the General Assembly on 8 December 1961, Document A/C. 2/L.623-4 (New York: United Nations). UN (1962a) Population and Food Supplies, FFHC Basic Studies No. 7 (New York: United Nations). UN (1962b) Aspects of Economic Development – The Background to Freedom from Hunger, FFHC Basic Studies No. 8 (New York: United Nations). Bibliography 281

UN (1962c) The United Nations Development Decade: Proposals for Action (New York: United Nations). UN (1963) Official Records of the General Assembly. Eighteenth Session. Plenary Meetings. Volume 1. Verbatim Record of Meetings 17 September–14 October 1963 (New York: United Nations). UN (1965a) Report on the United Nations Interregional Round-Table Conference on World Food Programme Projects, Ankara, Turkey, 17–25 May 1965. UN (1965b) Continuation of the World Food Programme, General Assembly resolution 2095 (XX), adopted on 20 December 1965 (New York: United Nations). UN (1965c) Programme of Studies of Multilateral Food Aid, General Assembly resolution 2096 (XX), adopted on 20 December 1965 (New York: United Nations). UN (1968a) Inter-Agency Study on Multilateral Food Aid, Document E/4538 (New York: United Nations). UN (1968b) Multilateral Food Aid, General Assembly resolution 2462 (XXIII), adopted on 23 December 1968 (New York: United Nations). UN (1969a) International Action to Avert the Impending Protein Crisis, Report of the UN Advisory Committee on the Application of Science and Technology to Development, Document E.68.XIII.2 (New York: United Nations). UN (1969b) Study of the Capacity of the United Nations Development System (Geneva: United Nations). UN (1971) Comprehensive Report of the Secretary-General on Assistance in Cases of Natural Disasters, Document E/4994 (New York: United Nations). UN (1972) International Women’s Year, General Assembly resolution 3010 (XXVII) adopted on 18 December 1972 (New York: United Nations). UN (1973) World Food Conference, General Assembly resolution 3180 (XXVIII), adopted on 25 November 1973 (New York: United Nations). UN (1974a) United Nations World Food Conference. Assessment of the World Food Situation: Present and Future, Document E/CONF. 65/3 (New York: United Nations). UN (1974b) United Nations World Food Conference. Proposals for National and International Action, Document E/CONF. 65/4 (New York: United Nations). UN (1975a) Report of the World Food Conference, Rome 5–16 November 1974, Document E/CONF. 65/20 (New York: United Nations). UN (1975b) Reconstitution of the United Nations/FAO Intergovernmental Committee as a Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programs, United Nations General Assembly resolution 3404 (XXX), adopted on 28 November 1975 (New York: United Nations). UN (1976a) Report of the World Food Council on the Work of its Second Session, Supplement No. 19 (A/31/19) (New York: United Nations). UN (1976b) Development and International Economic Cooperation, Resolution 3362 (S-VII) adopted by the General Assembly during its Seventh Special Session: 1–16 September. UN General Assembly Official Records, Supplement No. 1 (A/10301) (New York: United Nations). UN (1983) Administrative and Financial Authority of the Executive Director of the WFP: An Opinion of the UN Office of Legal Affairs (New York: United Nations). UN (1991a) Strengthening of the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Emergency Assistance of the United Nations, United Nations General Assembly resolution 46/182, adopted on 19 December 1961 (New York: United Nations). UN (1991b) Revision of the General Regulations of the World Food Programme and Enlargement of the Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes of the World Food Programme, United Nations General Assembly resolution 46/22, adopted on 5 December 1991 (New York: United Nations). 282 Bibliography

UN (1992) Triennial Policy Review of the Operational Activities of the United Nations Development Assistance, United Nations General Assembly resolution 14/199, adopted on 22 December 1992 (New York: United Nations). UN (1993) Further Measures for the Restructuring and Revitalization of the United Nations in the Economic, Social and Related Fields, United Nations General Assembly resolution 48/162, adopted on 20 December 1993 (New York: United Nations). UN and FAO (1965) Report of the Secretary-General of the United Nations and the Director- General of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations on the Future Development of the World Food Program with reference to General Assembly Resolution 1714 (XVI), Document WM/IGC: 7/4 Add. 8, 1 March (New York and Rome: United Nations and FAO). UN and FAO (1985) Joint Report of the Secretary-General of the United Nations and the Director- General of the Food and Agriculture Organization on the Deliberations of the UN/FAO Joint Task Force on WFP Relationship Problems (New York and Rome: United Nations and FAO). UNCTAD (1964) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Final Act and Report, Proceedings, Vol. 1, Recommendation World Food Program. No. A. II. 6. Sales No. 64.II.B. 11 (New York: United Nations). UNDP (1994) Human Development Report 1994 (New York: Published for the United Nations Development Programme by Oxford University Press). UNESCO (1963) Education and Agricultural Development, FFHC Basic Studies No. 15 (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). UNESCO (1980) School Feeding as a Service to Children. Guidelines for Planning School Feeding Programmes. Basic Education Series No. 3 (Paris: United Nations Scientific, Cultural and Educational Organization). UNESCO (1983) Workshop on School Feeding and Education, Sri Avinashilingam Home Science College for Women, Coimbatore, India, December 1983, Document WSFE 83/1 (Paris: United Nations Scientific, Cultural and Educational Organization). UNHCR (1993) The State of the World’s Refugees: The Challenge of Protection (London: Penguin Books). UNHCR (1997) The State of the World’s Refugees 1997–98: A Humanitarian Agenda (Oxford: Oxford University Press). UNICEF (1985) The State of the World’s Children, 1985 (New York: Oxford University Press for UNICEF). UNICEF (1999) The State of the World’s Children, 1999 (New York: Oxford University Press for UNICEF). Urquhart, B. and E. Childers (1990) A World in Need of Leadership: Tomorrow’s United Nations (Uppsala, Sweden: Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation). Urquhart, B. and E. Childers (1994) Renewing the United Nations System (New York: The Ford Foundation). US (1961) Congressional Record. Proceedings and Details of the 87th Congress, 1st Session. Volume 107, Part 1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office). US (1962) Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States. John F. Kennedy, 20 January to 31 December 1961(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office). US (1963) President Kennedy Speeches (Papers of the President’s Office Files. Box 34, John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library, Boston, MA). US (1964) Sixteenth Semi-Annual Report on Activities Carried Out Under Public Law 480 (Washington, DC: United States Agency for International Development, Office of Material Resources). US (1996) U.S. Views on Reform Measures Necessary for Strengthening the United Nations System (Washington, DC: United States Department of State). Bibliography 283

USDA (1995) Agricultural Export Programs. Background for 1995 Farm Legislation, Agri- cultural Economic Report No. 716 (Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture). USDA (1996) Provisions of the 1996 Farm Bill, Agricultural Outlook, Special Supplement (Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture). Wallerstein, M. B. (1980) Food for War – Food for Peace. United States Food Aid in a Global Context (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press). Webb, P. and J. von Braun (1994) Famine and Food Security in Ethiopia: Lessons for Africa (Chichester, England and New York: Wiley & Sons). WFP and Government of the Netherlands (1983) Report of Food Aid Seminar, The Hague, 3–5 October 1983 (Rome: World Food Programme and Government of the Netherlands). WFP and ADB (1987) Food Aid for Development in Sub-Saharan Africa (Rome and Abidjan: World Food Programme and African Development Bank). WFP and UNU (1997) Ending the Inheritance of Hunger (Rome: WFP and United Nations University). WHO (1963) Malnutrition and Disease. A Major Problem of the Human Race, FFHC Basic Studies No. 12 (Geneva: World Health Organization). WHO (1976) Vitamin Enrichment of Dried Skim Milk (with Special Reference to Vitamin A). Document WFP/CFA: 2/7-C Add. 1 (Rome: WFP). Wightman, D. R. (1968) ‘Food Aid and Economic Development’, International Conciliation, no. 567 (New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), March. WIHD (1993) Hunger 1993: Uprooted People (Washington, DC: World Institute on Hunger and Development). Williams, D. (1987) The Specialized Agencies and the United Nations: The System in Crisis (London: Hurst & Co.). Wilmshurst, J., P. Ackroyd and R. Eyben (1992) ‘Implications for U.K. Aid of Current Thinking on Poverty Reduction’, IDS Discussion Paper No. 307 (Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex). Witt, L. M. (1964) ‘Development through Food Grants and Concessional Sales’, in C. Eicher and L. Witt (eds) Agriculture in Economic Development (New York: McGraw- Hill), pp. 334–59. Woodbridge, G. (1950) UNRRA: The History of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (New York: Columbia University Press). World Bank (1976) Public Works Programs in Developing Countries: A Comparative Analysis, World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 224 (Washington, DC: World Bank). World Bank (1980) World Development Report, 1980, Part II, Poverty and Human Development (New York: Published for the World Bank by Oxford University Press). World Bank (1986) Poverty and Hunger. Issues and Options for Food Security in Developing Countries (Washington, DC: World Bank). World Bank (1988) Adjustment Lending. An Evaluation of Ten Years of Experience. Policy and Research Series No. 1, Country Economics Department (Washington, DC: World Bank). World Bank (1989) Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth. A Long-Term Perspective Study (Washington, DC: World Bank). World Bank (1998) Assessing Aid. What Works, What Doesn’t, and Why, A World Bank Policy Research report (New York: Published for the World Bank by Oxford University Press). World Bank (2000) Entering the 21st Century. World Development Report 1999/2000 (New York: Published for the World Bank by Oxford University Press). 284 Bibliography

World Bank and WFP (1991) Food Aid in Africa. An Agenda for the 1990s (Washington, DC and Rome: World Bank and World Food Programme). Yates, L. P. (1955) So Bold An Aim (Rome: FAO). Yohannes, Y. and P. Webb (1999) Classification and Regression Trees, CART. A User Manual for Identifying Indicators of Vulnerability to Famine and Chronic Food Insecurity, Microcomputers in Policy Research No. 3 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute). Zhu Ling and Jiang Zhongyi (1995) ‘Yigong-Daizhen’ in China: A New Experience with Labour-Intensive Public Works in Poor Areas’, in J. von Braun (1995), pp. 75–107.

WFP Documents (Rome: WFP)

(1962a) World Food Programme Intergovernmental Committee, First Session, Report to ECOSOC and FAO Council. WFP/IGC: Report 1/62. (1962b) International Famine Relief and Emergency Feeding. IGC: 62/3, Annex II. (1963a) World Food Program. Basic Documents. General Regulations. Financial Regulations. UN/FAO Intergovernmental Committee Rules of Procedure,1st edn. (1963b) Report of the Third Session of the UN/FAO Intergovernmental Committee. IGC/3/63/REP/2, p. 7. (1963c) Executive Director Circular Letter on Sales Policy. WFP/16, 19 March. (1964a) Synopsis of World Food Programme Policies. FP1/1. (1964b) Report of the Fifth Session of the UN/FAO Intergovernmental Committee of the World Food Program. MO/IGC: 5/17. (1965a) Report on the World Food Program by the Executive Director. (1965b) How to Prepare and Present Requests for WFP Assistance to Economic and Social Projects, 1 October. (1965c) Food Aid and Education, WFP Study No. 6. (1965d) Recommendations by the Intergovernmental Committee to the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations and to the Council of FAO on the Future of the World Food Program. MO/IGC: 7/19, 30 April. (1966a) General Regulations, 3rd edn. (1966b) Criteria for Selection of Projects. WFP/IGC: 9/14. (1966c) Report on the Jamaica Mission (Study on the Feasibility of Multilateral Food Aid for National Development Programs). WFP/IGC: 9/18. (1966d) Comments on the Methodology adopted in the Jamaica Mission Report, Note by the Executive Director. WFP/IGC: 10/17. (1966e) Comments on the Methodology adopted in the Jamaica Mission Report, WFP/IGC: 10/17 Add. 3. (1966f) Summary Records of the Seventh Meeting held at FAO Headquarters, 25 April 1966, Ninth Session of the WFP Intergovernmental Committee. WFP/IGC: 9/SR.7. (1966g) Report of the Ninth Session of the UN/FAO Intergovernmental Committee of the World Food Program. WFP/IGC: 9/23. (1967a) Information concerning the Handling of Requests for Emergency Food Assistance, Note by the Director-General of FAO. WFP/IGC: 12/5 Add. 1. See also Further Consideration of Criteria for WFP Emergency Assistance, Note by the Director-General of FAO. WFP/IGC: 14/5 Add. 2, 1968. (1967b) Outline of the Study of the Feasibility of Multilateral Food Aid in Support of National Development Programs, Note by the Executive Director. WFP/IGC: 12/15. (1967c) Calculation of Food Rations for Workers in Self-help Projects. WFP/RR/45. Bibliography 285

(1967d) Role of WFP in Supporting Animal Husbandry Schemes. WFP/IGC: 12/12 Rev. 1. (1967e) Establishment of Price Stabilization Schemes. WFP/IGC: 11/15 Rev.1. (1968a) Possible Development of WFP. Inclusion of Non-Food Items in WFP Resources. WFP/IGC: 13/13. (1968b) Special Feeding Projects. WFP/CFA: 13/15. (1968c) WFP Assistance to Education in Africa. WFP/IGC: 13/6 Add. 26. (1968d) Five Industrial Development Projects in Turkey. WFP/IGC: 13/7 Add. 22 and Annexes. (1969a) Inclusion of Non-Food Items in WFP Resources. WFP/IGC: 15/14 Rev. 1. (1969b) Projects to Forestall Emergencies, Post-Emergency Projects and Quasi-Emergency Projects. WFP/IGC: 16/5 Add. 1. (1969c) Scope for Expansion of WFP Activities in the Spheres of Improved Nutrition, Education and Training. Development of Human Resources WFP/IGC: 15/16. (1970a) Food Aid and Related Issues during the Second Development Decade, Draft report of the Intergovernmental Committee of the World Food Programme in response to resolution 2462 (XXIII) of the United Nations General Assembly. WFP/IGC: 17/5. (1970b) Food Aid and Related Issues during the Second Development Decade, Report of the Intergovernmental Committee of the World Food Programme in response to resolution 2462 (XXIII) of the United Nations General Assembly. WFP/IGC: 17/5 Rev. 1. (1970c) Procedures for Approval of Quasi-Emergency Projects. WFP/IGC: 17/11. (1971) Proposal of the Delegation of the Kingdom of The Netherlands to the Intergovernmental Committee of the World Food Programme to Establish an Emergency Food Supply Scheme. WFP/IGC: 20/12 Add. 1. (1972a) Proposals of the Governments of Argentina, Lebanon and Uruguay. WFP/IGC: 22/11. (1972b) National Supplementary Feeding Programmes for Nutritionally Vulnerable Groups. WFP/IGC: 22/12-A. (1972c) Food Aid Consortia for Vulnerable Groups. WFP/IGC: 22/12-B. (1973a) Ten Years of World Food Programme Development Aid, 1963–72. (1973b) Report of the Twenty-Fourth Session of the UN/FAO Intergovernmental Committee of the World Food Programme. WFP/IGC: 24/20. (1973c) Report by the Executive Director on WFP Assistance for Livestock Development through Animal Feeding Projects. WFP/IGC: 24/10 Add. 2. (1974a) Annual Statement of the Executive Director on the Development of the Programme, 1973. WFP/IGC: 25/4 Corr. 1. (1974b) Review of the Quasi-Emergency Procedure and its Establishment on a Permanent Basis. WFP/IGC: 25/14. (1974c) Report of the Twenty-Fifth Session of the UN/FAO Intergovernmental Committee of the World Food Programme. WFP/IGC: 25/18. (1974d) Address of Dr. Francisco Aquino, Executive Director, World Food Programme to the World Food Conference (Rome, 11 November). (1974e) The Approach to Evaluation of WFP Development Aid. WFP/IGC: 25/12 and Adds. 1 to 5. (1975a) The Contribution of Food Aid to the Improvement of Women’s Status. WFP/IGC: 27/15. (1975b) Executive Director’s Statement and Declaration on International Women’s Year. WFP/IGC: 27/INF/5. (1975c) The World Food Programme and Women’s Involvement in Development. WFP/IGC: 28/11 Add. 1. (1975d) Emergency Operations: Experience and Recommendations. WFP/CFA: 28/5-B. (1975e) Report of the Twenty-seventh Session of the United Nations/FAO Intergovernmental Committee. WFP/IGC: 27/19. (1975f) Non-Food Items. WFP/IGC: 28/13. 286 Bibliography

(1976a) Report of the First Session of the United Nations/FAO Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 1/13. (1976b) The World Food Programme and Employment. WFP/CFA: 1/15-A. (1976c) Food Aid and Habitat. World Food Programme Assistance for Human Settlements. WFP/CFA: 1/15-B. (1976d) Studies of the Role of Food Aid in relation to Trade and Agricultural Development in Botswana, Lesotho and the Arab Republic of Egypt. WFP/CFA: 1/10 Add. 1. (1976e) Impact of Food Aid on Domestic Production and Trade in Lesotho. WFP/CFA: 1/10 Add. 1, Annex II. (1976f) WFP Assistance to Dairy Development. WFP/CFA: 2/12-B (i) and Add. 1. (1976g) WFP Assistance for Forestry Activities and their Relation to Agricultural and Food Production. WFP/CFA: 2/12-B (ii). (1976h) Report of the Second Session of the United Nations/FAO Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 2/19. (1976i) Establishment of Minimum Food Aid Targets for Dairy and Fish Products, Oils and Fats. WFP/CFA: 2/7-C. (1977a) WFP Assistance for Land and Water Development Projects. WFP/CFA: 3/INF/1. (1977b) Food Aid and Co-operatives. WFP/CFA: 4/12 Add. 1. (1977c) Sales and Exchanges of Commodities. WFP/CFA: 4/9. (1977d) Report of the Fourth Session of the United Nations/FAO Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 4/26. (1978a) A Survey of the Studies of Food Aid. WFP/CFA: 5/5C. (1978b) Report of the Fifth Session of the United Nations/FAO Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 7/21. (1978c) Study of Emergency Operations. WFP/CFA: 6/6. (1978d) Modalities of Operation of the International Emergency Food Reserve, Report of the Sixth Session of the United Nations/FAO Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 6/21, Annex IV. (1978e) General Regulations, 4th edn. (1978f) Policy Unit in WFP. WFP/CFA: 6/17. (1978g) Report of the Sixth Session of the Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes, Annex IV. WFP/CFA: 6/21. (1978h) Food Aid and Education. WFP/CFA: 5/9 Add. 1. (1978i) WFP Assistance to Dairy Development. WFP/CFA: 6/7 Add. 1. (1979a) Report of the Seventh Session of the United Nations/FAO Committee. (1979b) Guidelines and Criteria for Food Aid, Report of the Seventh Session of the United Nations/FAO Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes, Annex IV. (1979c) Role of Food Aid in Strengthening Food Security in Developing Countries. WFP/CFA: 8/4-B. (1979d) Report of the Eighth Session of the United Nations/FAO Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 8/20. (1979e) WFP’s Contribution to the United Nations Decade for Women. WFP/CFA: 7/8. (1979f) International Year of the Child. WFP/IGC: 7/9. (1979g) United Nations Decade for Women. Circular Letter from Executive Director to WFP Field Staff. WFP: MISC/79/5. (1980a) Kampuchean Emergency Operation. WFP/CFA: 9/7-B. See also WFP/CFA: 10/5 Add. 1, 1980; WFP/CFA: 8-B, 1981; WFP/CFA: 12/INF/5, 1981; WFP/CFA: 13/INF/5, 1982; WFP/CFA: 14/INF/6, 1982. (1980b) The Contribution of the World Food Programme to the United Nations Decade for Women. WFP/CFA: 9/16. Bibliography 287

(1981a) Study of WFP Emergency Operations and Improvement of All Aspects related to such Matters. WFP/CFA: 12/5-B. (1981b) Terminal Evaluation Report on Project India 618. Milk Marketing and Dairy Development (Operation Flood I). W/P4590. (1982a) Further Review of Proposals and Recommendations to Improve the Effectiveness of Emergency Operations. WFP/CFA: 13/P/5-B. (1982b) Report of the Thirteenth Session of the United Nations/FAO Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 13/20. (1982c) Statement by Mr. James C. Ingram, Executive Director of the World Food Programme at the Twenty-fifth General Conference of the International Federation of Agricultural Producers, London, 15 June 1982. WFP/PO/78. (1982d) WFP Food Aid: Fish Products and Fisheries Development. WFP/CFA: 13/7. (1982e) WFP Zimbabwe Maize Train Operations. WFP/CFA:13/INF/6. (1983a) Annual Report of the Executive Director on the Development of the Programme. WFP/ CFA: 15/4. (1983b) Food Aid and Training. WFP/CFA: 15/11 Add. 1. (1984a) Implementation of the Resolutions of the World Food Conference relating to Food Aid. WFP/CFA: 17/5 Add. 1. (1984b) Report of the Seventeenth Session of the United Nations/FAO Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 17/21. (1984c) Report on Personnel Problems by the United Nations Joint Inspection Unit. Statement by the Executive Director. WFP/CFA: 18/INF/11. (1984d) Report on WFP Personnel Problems by the UN Joint Inspection Unit. Joint Comments of the Secretary-General and the Director-General. WFP/CFA: 18/4 Add. 2. (1984e) Interim Report on the Review of the Basis of Costing of Services provided by FAO. WFP/CFA: 18/5. (1984f) ‘Food Aid and Rural Employment-Led Equitable Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa’, in Review of Food Aid Policies and Programme. WFP/CFA: 17/5, pp. 12–21. (1984g) World Food Programme Assistance for Fisheries Development in Third World Coun- tries and the Use of Fish Products in Food Aid. WFP/CFA: 18/INF/7. (1984h) Non-Food Items: Ways and Means to Strengthen Resources and Operations. WFP/CFA: 17/7. (1984i) Review of Proposals for Improvement of WFP’s Project Cycle. WFP/CFA: 17/10. (1985a) Measures for Ensuring Speedy Delivery of Emergency Food Aid. WFP/CFA: 19/11. (1985b) Evaluation of Food Aid for Price Stabilization and Emergency Food Reserves, WFP Occasional Paper No. 2. (1985c) Review of United Nations/FAO Task Force Report on WFP’s Institutional Relationships. Final Summary Records of the Seventh Meeting. Nineteenth Session. WFP Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 19/SR. 7. (1985d) Review of the Basis of Costing of Services provided to WFP. WFP/CFA: 20/6. (1985e) Final Summary Record of the Fifth Meeting. Twentieth Session. WFP Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 20/SR.5. (1985f) Breadwinners at Home and at Work: World Food Programme Support for Women during the Decade for Women. WFP/CFA: 20/INF/5. Also published as WFP Occasional Paper No.4. (1985g) WFP’s Role in the Provision of Non-Food Items. WFP/CFA: 19/INF/5. (1985h) UN/FAO Task Force on WFP Relationships. WFP/CFA: 19/8. (1986a) Lessons Learned from the African Food Crisis, Summary Evaluation Report on the WFP Emergency Response. WFP/CFA: 21/22 Add. 1 and 2. (1986b) The Basis of Costing of Services provided by FAO to WFP. WFP/CFA: 21/8. 288 Bibliography

(1986c) Report of the Twenty-first Session of the United Nations/FAO Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 21/24. (1986d) Report of the Twenty-second Session of the United Nations/FAO Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 22/17. (1987a) Roles of Food Aid in Structural and Sector Adjustment. WFP/CFA: 23/5 Add. 1. (1987b) Food Aid Strategies for Women in Development. WFP/CFA: 23/7. (1987c) Report of the Twenty-third Session of the Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 23/22. (1987d) Monetization of WFP Food Aid. WFP/CFA: 24/5. (1987e) The Management of Funds Generated by Food-Assisted Projects. WFP/CFA: 23/5 Add. 2. (1988a) Food Aid and Dairy Development. WFP/CFA: 25/P/8. (1988b) Report of the Twenty-fifth Session of the Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 25/18. (1988c) Bibliography – Documents Presented to the Governing Body of the World Food Programme 1962–1987. (1989a) Anti-Hunger Strategies of Poor Households and Communities: Roles of Food Aid. WFP/CFA: 27/P/INF/1 Add. 1. (1989b) Review of Protracted Emergency Operations for Refugees and Displaced Persons. WFP/CFA: 27/P/7. (1989c) Report of the Twenty-seventh Session of the Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 27/16. (1989d) Report of the Twenty-eighth Session of the Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 28/8. (1989e) Comparative Review of WFP-Assisted Projects in Latin America Focused on Women. WFP/CFA: 28/SCP/3. (1989f) WFP Sectoral Guidelines on Women in Development: Gender Variables in Food- Assisted Projects. WFP/CFA: 27/P/INF/4. (1989g) Environment and Sustainable Development: WFP Policies and Programmes pursuant to United Nations General Assembly Resolutions 42/186 and 42/187. WFP/CFA: 27/P/INF/2. (1989h) Food Aid Triangular Transactions and Local Purchases: A Review of Experience. WFP/CFA: 27/P/INF/3. (1990a) The Status of the WFP Headquarters Agreement. Report by the Executive Director. WFP/CFA: 29/P/6. (1990b) Exchange of Correspondence between the Director-General of FAO and the Executive Director of the World Food Programme. WFP/CFA: 29/P/7 Add. 3 and 4. (1990c) Exchange of Correspondence between FAO and WFP on Rent for WFP Headquarters. WFP/CFA: 29/P/6 Add. 3 and 4. (1990d) Some Observations on Paper CCLM 54/3: Draft Headquarters Agreement for the World Food Programme. Note by the Executive Director. WFP/CFA: 29/P/6 Add. 1. (1990e) Report of the First and Second Sessions of the Sub-Committee on Governance of the World Food Programme and the Relationship between the United Nations, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Food Programme. CFA: 30/3, Annex VIII. (1990f) Report of the Twenty-ninth Session of the Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. WFP/CFA: 29/13. (1990g) Food Aid for Education. Past Experience and Future Directions. (1990h) A Review of WFP and Bilateral Food Commodity Exchange Arrangements. WFP/CFA: 29/P/INF/2. Bibliography 289

(1991a) Report of the First Special Session of the CFA. CFA: Special Session/3. (1991b) Basic Documents for the World Food Programme, 5th edn. (1991c) The Role of WFP in the Nineties. CFA: 31/P/5-A. (1991d) Review of Food Aid Policies and Programmes and the Role of WFP in the Nineties. CFA: 32/P/6. (1991e) Report of the Thirty-Second Session of the Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. CFA: 32/13. (1992a) Disaster Mitigation and Rehabilitation in Africa. CFA: 34/P/7–B. (1992b) Food Aid Working for Women. The World Food Programme and Women in Development. (1992c) Annual Report of the Executive Director: 1991. CFA: 33/P/4. (1992d) Integration of Multilateral Non-Emergency Food Aid with Government Development Programmes. A Report prepared by the World Food Programme pursuant to United Nations General Assembly Resolution 44/211. CFA: 33/P/7. (1992e) Working Group on Long-Term Financing of the Operations and Administration of the World Food Programme. (1992f) Criteria for Country Allocation. CFA: 34/P/7-A. (1993a) Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1992. CFA: 35/P/4. (1993b) Basic Documents for the World Food Programme, 5th edn, General Regulations, Part D. Procedures, Eligibility for Assistance. (1993c) Food Aid in Emergencies, Guidelines for WFP Country Offices and Headquarters Staff. (1993d) World Food Programme Policies and Activities. Governing Body Decisions and Deliberations 1962–1988, 6 vols. (1994a) Emergency Operations in Southern Africa during the Drought of 1992–93, Report of the WFP Evaluation Mission. (1994b) Review of Internal Transport, Storage and Handling Assistance (ITSH). (1994c) WFP/UNHCR Memorandum of Understanding on the Joint Working Arrangements for Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons Feeding Operations. (1994d) WFP Mission Statement. CFA: 38/P/5. (1994e) China’s National Experience with Food Aid Policies and Programmes. CFA: 38/P/4. (1994f) The World Food Programme and the Programme Approach. CFA: 38/P/6. (1994g) Implementation of General Assembly Resolution 48/162 for Consideration by the Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programme. CFA: 37/P/6-B. (1994h) Review of WFP Policies, Objectives and Strategies. CFA: 37/P/7. (1994i) Food Aid for Development. World Food Programme Asia and Pacific Regional Seminar, Beijing, China; March 1994 (Beijing: China Agricultural Press). (1994j) Cost Measurement Study. CFA: 37/8/INF. 1. (1994k) Criteria for Project Approval. CFA: 38/P/10. (1994l) Study of the Effectiveness of WFP Aid to Development. CFA: 37/P/7/INF. 1. (1995a) Linking Relief and Development. Annual Report of the Executive Director 1994. CFA: 39/4. (1995b) Food Aid for Humanitarian Assistance, Proceedings of the United Nations World Food Programme African Regional Seminar, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, February 1995. (1995c) WFP Provisional Guidelines. Selective Feeding Programmes: Supplementary and Therapeutic. (1995d) Statement of Catherine Bertini, Executive Director of the World Food Programme, Fourth World Conference on Women, September 6, 1995, Beijing, China. (1995e) Report of the Fortieth Session of the Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes. CFA: 40/15. 290 Bibliography

(1995f) Efficiency in Food Aid: Using Food to Address Hunger and Poverty, World Food Programme Americas Seminar, Cartegena de Indias, Colombia, August 1995. (1995g) Bibliography of Project Documents presented to the Governing Body of the World Food Programme 1962–1995. (1996a) Ending the Inheritance of Hunger. Annual Report of the Executive Director 1995. WFP/EB. A/96/4. (1996b) Reform and Revitalization Measures in the World Food Programmes. WFP/EB. A/96/6 Rev. 1. (1996c) Tackling Hunger in a World Full of Food. Tasks Ahead for Food Aid. (1997a) WFP Support to Countries in Establishing and Managing National Food Assistance Programmes. WFP/EB. 2/97/3-A. (1997b) Policies on the Use of WFP Food Aid in Relief and Development Activities: Monetization. WFP/EB.A/97/5-A. (1998a) Memorandum of Understanding between WFP and UNICEF in Emergency and Rehabilitation Interventions and Technical Agreement on Field Telecommunications. (1998b) Gender Mainstreaming in WFP: An Integrated Assessment. WFP/EB.2/98/9. (1999a) Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1998. WFP/EB. A/99/3-A/1. (1999b) Annual Report of the Executive Director, 1998. Appendix 1. Issues Arising from the Implementation of the United Nations Secretary-General’s Reform Programme. WFP/EB. A/99/3-A/2. (1999c) Enabling Development. WFP/EB. A/99/4-A. (1999d) Decisions and Recommendations of the Annual Session of the Executive Board, 1999. WFP/EB. A/99/10. (1999e) The Food Aid Monitor. 1998 Food Aid Flows, Special Issue, May. Dramatis Personae

WFP executive directors

Addeke Hendrik Boerma WFP’s first executive director, May 1962 to December 1967. A Dutch citizen, born in 1912, he graduated in horticulture and agricultural economics from the Agricultural University at Wageningen in 1934. From then almost to the out- break of the Second World War he was employed by a Dutch farmers’ organization help- ing to set up agricultural co-operatives and provide advisory and insurance services as well as representing farmers in negotiations with the government on pricing policy. From 1938 he was a government officer in charge of planning food supplies in the event of war. In 1944, during the Second World War, he was smuggled out of enemy-occupied Holland by British agents and flown to London to help plan food relief supplies for the Netherlands, and became one of the commissioners responsible for overseeing the reconstruction of the Dutch agricultural economy after the war. From 1945, he was acting director-general for food for the Netherlands, government commissioner for Foreign Agricultural Relations, and Netherlands representative on the FAO Council. He joined the staff of FAO in 1948 and until 1951 was regional representative for Europe based in Rome. In 1951, when the headquarters of FAO was moved to Rome from Washington, DC, Boerma became director of FAO’s Economics Division. In 1958, he was made head of FAO’s Program and Budget Service and in 1960 was promoted to assistant director- general. He was elected as FAO’s Director-General in 1967. For his services during and after the war, Boerma was made a Knight in the Order of the Dutch Lion, the highest civil order in the Netherlands, a Commander in the Order of Leopold II of Belgium, and Officer du Merit Agricole of France.

Sushil K. Dev Acting executive director from January to August 1968 and associate executive director thereafter until his retirement in May 1969. An Indian citizen, born in 1907, he studied in India and at the London School of Economics and entered the Indian Civil Service before becoming deputy director of the Bureau of Social Affairs at the United Nations in New York. He joined FAO in 1957 as special assistant to the director-general and later became director of FAO’s Rural Institutions and Services Division. On the establishment of WFP, he was appointed as director of its Programme Development and Appraisal Division and played a major part in the formulation of WFP’s policies and programmes.

Francisco Aquino Executive director, July 1968 to May 1976. A citizen of El Salvador, born in 1919, he studied agronomy in his country and later economics at Harvard University. He was chief of the Grains Section of FAO’s Commodities and Trade Division in Rome, Italy, in the 1950s before returning to El Salvador where he served as minister of agriculture and president of the Central Reserve Bank, and was his country’s representative on the governing bodies of the IMF and various international banks. Before assuming the post of executive director, he was technical manager at the Inter American Development Bank in Washington, DC. He stood unsuccessfully for the post of FAO director-general in the election of 1975 and resigned in May 1976.

291 292 Dramatis Personae

Thomas C. M. Robinson Executive director, July to his retirement in September 1977, acting executive director, May 1976 to June 1977, and deputy executive director March 1969 to May 1976. A citizen of the United States, born in 1912, Robinson studies agricultural economics and statistics before holding a number of posts in the US foreign service Washington, DC and abroad. In the early 1960s, before joining WFP as director of its Resources Management Division from September 1962 to March 1969, he was head of the Foodstuffs Division of the US State Department in which capacity he represented his country at meetings of FAO and other international bodies.

Garson N. Vogel Executive director from October 1977 to his death in April 1981. A Canadian citizen, born in 1918, Vogel studied history and economics and, later, law, and was called to the Manitoba Bar after the Second World War. Thereafter, he pursued a career in the grain trade, both in private industry and in government. He joined the Canadian Wheat Board in 1964 and became chief commissioner before joining WFP.

Bernado de Azevedo Brito Acting executive director from May 1981 to his resignation in February 1982, and deputy executive director, January 1979 to May 1981. A Brazilian citizen, born in 1935, he trained as a diplomat and served in his country’s embassies in Denmark, Norway and Spain prior to heading the economic section of the Brazilian mission to the United Nations in New York and representing Brazil on the UNDP Council and ECOSOC. From 1975, he was head of the Brazilian permanent mission to the FAO, and represented Brazil on the governing bodies of FAO and WFP.

Juan Felipe Yriat Acting executive director from February to April 1982. A citizen of Uruguay, born in 1919, he attended Law School at the University of Montevideo. As a career diplomat, Yriat held senior positions in his country’s embassies in Sweden and Finland and was director-general of the Uruguayan Ministry of Foreign Affairs from 1959 to 1962. He was ambassador to the Netherlands in 1963 and to the United States up to December 1968. Yriat’s association with FAO started from its earliest days, when he signed the organization’s constitution on behalf of his country. In 1968, he was appointed as FAO assistant director-general for Latin American Affairs and FAO regional representative for Latin America in Santiago, Chile. In 1972, he became assistant director-general of FAO’s Development Department, and in 1980, special assistant to the director-general of FAO, for whom he undertook a number of high policy missions. He retired in February 1984.

James C. Ingram Executive director for two terms of office from April 1982 to his retirement in April 1992. An Australian citizen, born in 1928, studied economics and political science at Melbourne University and began a career in the Australian foreign service in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Served in the Australian representations to the EEC, Indonesia, and the United Nations before being appointed as assistant secretary of the ministry’s Asian and Pacific Department. Appointed ambassador to the Philippines (1970–3), high commissioner to Canada and several Caribbean states (1973–4), and director-general of the Australian Development Assistance Bureau (1975–82), during which he served as Australia’s alternate governor of the World Bank, Asian Development Bank and IFAD, and Australian representative at the high-level meetings of OECD’s Development Assistance Committee, a member of the Australian National Commission for UNESCO, and a member of the North–South Round Table and of the Tidewater Group. He was the first Australian to head a United Nations body and, at the time of his appointment as WFP executive director, received Australia’s highest civil honour for his Dramatis Personae 293 services to his country. He received the Alan Shawn Feinstein World Hunger Award for his work as WFP executive director and served on the governing body of the Inter- national Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). On his retirement, he became director of the Australian Institute for International Affairs, has written on arrangements for the provision of international humanitarian assistance, and is writing on Australian policy toward the United Nations at the Australian National University in Canberra.

Catherine Bertini Appointed as the first woman executive director in April 1992. A United States citizen, born in 1950, she graduated from New York State University at Albany and was later a fellow at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University. Ms Bertini worked for ten years in the private sector as a manager with the Container Corporation of America, where she was responsible for the firm’s government and community relations and public affairs. She began her career in public office by holding a variety of positions in the state governments of New York and Illinois. She served for two years with the US Department of Health and Human Services, first as director of the Office of Family Assistance and later as acting assistant secretary of the Family Support Administration. Prior to her appointment to WFP, she was assistant secretary of agriculture for Food and Consumer Services in the US Department of Agriculture in Washington, DC, which involved the management of all US federal food assistance programmes. She displayed a special interest in child nutrition and the advancement of women. Ms Bertini was appointed for a second five-year term as WFP’s executive director in 1997.

WFP deputy executive directors

Thomas C. M. Robinson First deputy executive director, March 1969 to May 1976.

Feridun M. Ustun Deputy executive director from September 1976 to his retirement in January 1979. A citizen of Turkey, born in 1916, he was previously director of WFP’s Resources Management Division from March 1969 to August 1976.

Bernado de Azevedo Brito Deputy executive director, January 1979 to May 1981.

Salahuddin Ahmed Deputy executive director from December 1982 to his retirement in April 1994. A citizen of Bangladesh, born in 1932, he graduated from Dhaka University and received training in public administration and development economics at Oxford University, England. He had a long career in his government’s development administration and policy planning, particularly in the agricultural sector. Joining his country’s civil service in 1956, he served as permanent secretary for Agriculture from 1969 to 1973, when he was appointed head of the Bangladesh embassy in Rome and the first permanent representative of Bangladesh to FAO. He served as chairman or vice- chairman of several FAO committees. From 1976 to 1978, he was permanent secretary, Home Affairs, in Bangladesh. He was deputy executive director to the UN World Food Council from October 1978 to his appointment to WFP. His name was put forward as his country’s candidate for the election of director-general of FAO in 1993.

A. Namanga Ngongi Deputy executive director from June 1994. A citizen of Cameroon, born in 1945, he studied agriculture at the California State Polytechnic University and received a PhD in agronomy at Cornell University in the United States, 294 Dramatis Personae where he was a research associate from 1978 to 1978 and head of a joint research programme with the Soil Research Institute of Ghana to develop low-cost technologies for the production of basic food crops. Ngongi held various positions in the ministry of agriculture in the Cameroon, including chief of the Service of Projects, before becoming first secretary and counsellor at the Cameroon embassy in Rome, Italy, and in charge of Cameroon’s relations with the Rome-based United Nations agencies. He joined WFP in 1984 and served in a number of positions including: regional bureau manager for the west and central Africa region; head of the External Relations Divisions; associate director of the Operations Department; and director of the Development Division. He is vice- president of the Rome International Chapter of the Society for International Development (SID) and chairperson of the Administrative Committee on Co-ordination Sub-commitee on Nutrition.

Chairpersons/Presidents of WFP’s governing bodies

Name Country Year

Intergovernmental Committee (IGC) J. Pons Uruguay 1962 A. H. Turner Canada 1963 A. Sbihi Morocco 1964 H. J. Kristensen Denmark 1965 E. A. Okwuosa Nigeria 1966 W. Lamby Germany (Fed. Rep.) 1967 J. S. Mongia India 1968 J. G. McArthur New Zealand 1969 J. M. Figuerero Argentina 1970 F. Shefrin Canada 1971 M. Askin Turkey 1972 A. Mair United States 1973 R. Soegeng-Amat Indonesia 1974 A. S. Tuinman Netherlands 1975

Committee on Food Aid Policies and Programmes (CFA)

A. M. Al-Sudeary Saudi Arabia 1976 H. R. A. Granqvist Sweden 1977 G. Gamo-Kuba Congo (People’s Rep.) 1978 P. Griffin Ireland 1979 P. Masud Pakistan 1980 E. Moore United States 1981 A. Y. Bukhari Saudi Arabia 1982 J. Sonneveld Netherlands 1983 G. Bula-Hoyos Colombia 1984 H. Hostmark Norway 1985 Y. Hamdi Egypt 1986 A. Santraint Belgium 1987 W. Rahma Bangladesh 1988 D. Joslyn United States 1989 D. D. C. Don Nanjira Kenya 1990 Dramatis Personae 295

Chairpersons/Presidents of WFP’s governing bodies

Name Country Year

J. Glistrup Denmark 1991 R. Velazquez Huerta Mexico 1992 Ms C. Theauvette Canada 1993 M. T. H. Beg Bangladesh 1994 J. Bailey Australia 1995

Executive Board

Ms B. Damiba Burkina Faso 1996 L. Dominici France 1997 Ms M. Eulalia Jimenez El Salvador 1998 Ms L. Tracy United States 1999

Source: Reports of the meetings of the WFP governing body. Index

ACC/SCN (UN Administrative Committee Acting WFP Executive Director on Coordination Subcommittee on (1981–2) Nutrition) 101, 185, 237 Afghan refugees in Pakistan (1980s) CAP (Common Agricultural Policy), of the 171–3 European Union 241 African drought of 1970s 160–2 CFA (Committee on Food Aid Policies and African food crisis of 1980s 162–4 Programmes) – wider mandate: Ahmed, Salahuddin, WFP Deputy a forum for all food aid, performance Executive Director (1982–94) 137–8 214–15, 293 China American Food for Peace Council 14 environmentally sustainable Annan, Kofi, UN Secretary-General (1997 development 112–13 to present) 225, 233 food for work 92 animal production projects see livestock fisheries development 130 development relief-development strategy 178, 180 Aquino, Francisco, WFP Executive Colombo Plan Director (1968–76) 211, 291 food aid supplies 58 Common Agricultural Policy, of European Union see CAP Bangladesh Commonwealth of Independent States gender and development programme (CIS) 109 man-made emergencies 174–5 national food for work programme 93 community action 142–3 Bertini, Catherine, WFP Executive Consultative Subcommittee on Surplus Director (1992 to present) 224, Disposal (CSD) 21, 42, 45, 52, 237 293 changing attitudes to agricultural Bertrand, Maurice (JIU Inspector) surpluses 52–3 report on costing of FAO services to co-operatives and similar institutions WFP 217 135–7 report on WFP personnel problems costing of FAO services to WFP 217–18 215–16 country programme food aid 26, 59, bilateral project food aid 57–8 230 Black, Eugene, World Bank President Jamaican study 70–2 (1948–62) 28 Boerma, Addeke 211, 291 WFP Executive Director (1962–67) dairy development 124–7 FAO Director-General (1968–75) development of human resources Botswana 95–107 disincentive effects study 119 hospitals and public health 106–7 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, UN nutrition improvement for mothers and Secretary-General (1992–6) 177, 183 pre-school children 95–101 Boyd Orr, Sir (later Lord) John, FAO primary school feeding 101–4 Director-General (1945–8) 20 post-primary education, training and Brito, Bernardo 212, 292, 293 literacy 104–6 WFP Deputy Executive Director donors, responsibilities and commitments (1979–81) 152–3

296 Index 297 effectiveness of WFP development aid food aid see WFP advantages 35 Egypt in second UN development decade land reclamation, development and 76–9 settlement 118 shortcomings 35 Eisenhower, Dwight D. (US President Food Aid Conventions 72–4 1953–61) – multilateral food aid Food Aid Committee 237 proposal 13–14 of 1999 240–1 emergency food supply scheme proposal food aid for development (The Netherlands) 149 future of 241–3 environmentally sustainable development some main lessons 138–44 111–14 food aid for increased food production EPTA (United Nations Expanded 117–20 Programme of Technical Assistance) 55 food aid, literacy and education study (1965) 54 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization food aid modalities of the United Nations) commodity exchanges 202–4 agricultural commodity projections to commodity purchases 202–4 1970 52 monetization 198–202 agricultural surpluses to finance eco- triangular transactions 202–4 nomic development – pilot study food-for-work programmes 88–95 in India (1955) 21 food reserves for emergencies and price an expanded programme of surplus stabilization 131–3 food utilization – study by expert forestry projects 127–9 group (1961) 22–7 Fourth World Conference on Women Committee on Commodity Problems (Beijing, China 1995) 110–11 21 functions of food aid 86–8 Committee on World Food Security future food aid regime 234–8 82, 237 FAO/WFP relationships 216–17 GATT Uruguay round – Final Act, food Freedom from Hunger Campaign aid provisions of 235–8 (1960–70) 22, 50–2 gender and development 107–11 global information and early warning WFP commitments to 110–11 system (1974) 162, 165–6 guidelines and criteria for food aid (1979) Intergovernmental Advisory Committee 82 meeting, April 1961 6 international commodity clearing Hammarskjöld, Dag, UN house proposal (1949) 20 Secretary-General (1953–61) 27 International Emergency Food Council Hoffman, Paul 10 (1946) 20 Administrator of the Marshall Plan international emergency food (1948–52) reserve proposals (1953 and 1956) Managing Director, UN Special Fund 21 (1958–65) International Undertaking on World UNDP Administrator (1966–72) Food Security (1973) 165 hospital and public health programmes national food reserves study (1958) 21 106–7 pioneering work 20–7 Hot Springs conference (1943) 13, 20 Principle of Surplus Disposal (1954) humanitarian aid 21, 53, 58–9 conclusions and issues 180–7 world food board proposal (1946) 20 advocacy 182 World Food Summit (1996) 243 assisting vulnerable groups to cope fisheries development 129–31 181 298 Index humanitarian aid – continued Ioanes, Raymond, US Dept of Agriculture co-ordinated action 181–2 representative on McGovern national government responsibility delegation to FAO (April 1961) 6 181 Iraq, food for oil programme 175 political and military impartiality 181 Jacques, Sydney, US State Dept future issues representative on McGovern broadened definition of emergency delegation to FAO (April aid 182 1961) 6 co-ordinated action in a multilateral Jamaica, country programme food aid framework 183–4 study 70–2 global multilateral food aid reserve Joint Inspection Unit (JIU), of the UN 182–3 215–16, 217 improved early warning and response systems 183 Kampuchea (Cambodia), emergency operational concerns operations (1980s) 169–71 essential non-food items 185 Kennedy, John F. (US President food rations 184–5 1961–3) policy framework – understanding acceptance of McGovern’s proposal 9 emergencies 185–7 addresses and speeches rapid response teams 185 inaugural presidential address, 20 targeting and registration 184 January 1961 14 State of the Union address, 30 IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural January 1961 14–15 Development) 218 special message to Congress on IFPRI (International Food Policy Research agriculture, 16 March 1961 15 Institute) 93, 94 special message to Congress on ILO (International Labour Organization) foreign aid, 22 March 1961 15 42–3, 44, 89 address to UN General Assembly IMF (International Monetary Fund) 116, proposing UN Decade for 237 Development, 25 September 1961 India 28 dairy development 125–6 State of the Union address, 11 forestry 128 January 1962 16 relief and development strategy 178 opening address at World Food industrial and mining projects 133–4 Congress, 1963 51 Ingram, James, WFP Executive Director last address to UN General Assembly, (1982–92) 214–16, 220, 223, 231, 20 September 1963 17 292–3 duties and responsibilities of Director, insurance of WFP commodities 196–7 Food for Peace programme 14 International Decade for Women multilateral food aid proposal (1960) (1976–85) 108 13 International Emergency Food Reserve support for Food for Peace programme (IEFR), 12 origin 166 why interested in the Food for Peace modalities (1978) 166–7 programme 15 INTERFAIS (WFP international food aid Kissinger, Henry, US Secretary of State data system) 163 (1973–7), proposal for UN World International Symposium on Food Aid Food Conference 1974 80 and Co-operatives for Development Korean war (1950–3) 30 (1988) 135 Kosovo, Yugoslavia, man-made International Women’s Year (1975) 108 emergency 175 Index 299 land settlement and reform 39 Nixon, Richard M. (US Vice President, least-developed countries 1953–61; US President 1969–74) local purchases in 203 multilateral food aid proposal 13 priority 83 non-food aid in kind 79 special measures for emergency aid 165 non-governmental organizations (NGOs), Lesotho, disincentive study 119 operational partnerships with WFP 234 lessons of WFP development aid see WFP support for WFP 57 linking relief and development 177–80 some conclusions 179–80 Organization for Economic Development literacy programmes 40, 54 and Co-operation, food aid study livestock development 120–4 (1962) 55–7 logistics 197–8 Pakistan, managing food aid resources 188–203 Afghan refugees 171–3 man-made emergencies 168–75 watershed management 113 common feature 175 Patton, James G. President of US Farmers examples in Africa, Asia, and Central Union, support for multilateral food America 169–75 aid programme (1960) 13 numbers of refugees and displaced post-primary education programmes persons 174–5 104–6 markets 143 primary school feeding programmes Marshall Plan (European Recovery 101–4 Programme) (1918–52) see US food project food aid aid advantages and constraints 40–1 McGovern, George xv institutionalizing 82–3 first Director, Food for Peace proposals for modifying WFP 61–2, 74, Programme (1961–2) 6 149 achievements 15–16 Argentine ‘world food bank’ proposal Food for Peace resolution (1959) 12 61 International Food and Nutrition Act Israel ‘new approach’ proposal 61 (1965) 17 Lebanon ‘world commodity philosophy of life 11 organization’ proposal 74 political career 11, 17 The Netherlands international proposal to 1974 World Food emergency food aid facility Conference 17 proposal 74, 149 report to President Kennedy on Uruguay ‘world food bank’ proposal 74 Food for Peace programme protracted refugee and displaced persons (March 1961) 6 operations 154, 175–6 WFP proposal (April 1961) 6–9, 18 longer-term needs 175–6 modalities of food aid see food aid public health programmes 106–7 modalities public utilities: housing, transportation monetization see food aid modalities and communications 134–5 multilateral food aid, advantages of 50 recipient governments, of food aid, origins 20 policies, programmes and objectives proposals 9–10, 13 140–1 study (1968) 74–6 relief-development strategies 178–9 repatriation 179 Ngongi, Namanga, WFP Deputy Executive Robinson, Thomas: Acting WFP Executive Director (1994 to present) 224, Director (1976–7); WFP Deputy 293–4 Executive Director (1969–76); WFP Nigeria, civil war (1968) 169 Executive Director (1977) 12, 292–3 300 Index

Roosevelt, Franklin D. (US President supplementary feeding programmes 1933–45) 95–101 New Deal 239 SUNFED (Special United Nations Fund for Hot Springs conference (1943) 13, 20 Economic Development) 27–8 Rwanda and Burundi relief operations Symington, James, Deputy Director, US (1994) 173–4 Food for Peace programme (1961) 7 Saouma, Edouard, FAO Director-General Syria, livestock development project (1976–93) 211–3, 220 121–2 Sen, Amartya, Nobel Prize for Economics 1998 – entitlement theory 186 targeting, Sen, B. R., development aid 141–2 FAO Director-General (1956–67) 9 emergency aid 184 Sen, S. R., Planning Commissioner, training programmes 104–6 Government of India, report on transportation and logistics 194–8 Argentine ‘world food fund’ proposal triangular transactions see food aid 61 modalities Senegal, disincentive effects study 119 tripartite evaluation of WFP by Canada, Singer, Hans xiii, xv, 19 Netherlands and Norway (1994) action proposals for UN development see WFP decade of the 1960s 28–9 Turkey, industrial projects 133–4 chairman of expert group study on an expanded programme of food United Nations (UN) surpluses utilization (1961) 22 first UN development decade (1960s) drafting views of UN and FAO executive 8–9, 53–4 heads on WFP’s continuation second UN development decade (1970s) 59–60 76 early interest in multilateral food aid 22 UN conferences work on SUNFED proposal 27 Environment and Development Snow, C. P., British scientist and author, conference, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, state of siege address (1968) 145–6 1992 112 Sorensen, Theodore, Special Counsel to Human Settlements conference, President Kennedy (1961–3) 15 Vancouver, Canada, 1976 134 southern Africa drought emergency of World Conference on Education for early 1990s 164–5 All, Bangkok, Thailand, 1990 103 Soviet Union (former): man-made World Food Conference, Rome, Italy, emergencies 174–5 1974 80–2, 165–6 special feeding programmes 39–40 UN General Assembly resolutions stringent WFP management measures of provision of surpluses to food-deficit early 1970s 69–70 people through the UN system structural and sector adjustment (1960) 6, 22 programmes, role of food aid co-ordinating UN development aid 114–17 (1992) 232 Sub-Saharan Africa co-ordinating UN emergency aid emergency operations 160–5 (1991) 230–1 food-for-work programmes 93–4 executive boards for UN funds and proposal for international conference programmes (1993) 232–3 on future food aid 252 integration of UN development food Sudan aid into national programmes resettlement project xiii, 118–19 (1992) 231–2 co-ordinating all food aid: transport international women’s year (1975) fleet 163 108 Index 301

UN decade for women (1976–85) World Bank 108 IBRD (International Bank for UN Secretary-General reforms of Reconstruction and Development) UN system (1997) 233–4 25, 27–8, 44, 75 UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on IDA (International Development Trade and Development) 54–5 Association) 27 UNDP (United Nations Development public works programmes study 94–5 Programme) 55 structural and sector adjustment UNESCO (United Nations Educational, programmes 114–17 Scientific and Cultural Organization) World Food Congress, first, Washington, 103, 217 DC, 1963 51 UNHCR (United Nations High World Food Congress, second, The Hague, Commissioner for Refugees) 168, The Netherlands, 1970 149 184, 234 World Food Conference, Rome, Italy, UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund) 1974 80–2 44, 78, 100, 103, 223 resolution on an improved policy for United Nations Korean Reconstruction food aid 80–1 Agency 20 wider WFP responsibility for emergency United Nations Relief Administration for food aid 165–6 Palestinian Refugees 20 World Food Council 81–2 UNRRA (United Nations Relief and World Food Programme (WFP) Rehabilitation Administration) administration 43–5 20 antecedents 19–20 United Nations Special Fund 10 origins 6–9 United States food aid policies 40–3 Commodity Credit Corporation 29 procedures 45–6 early history 9–31 resources 67–9, 188–94 Export-Import Bank 29 study programme (1965) 46–50 food aid debate 32–5 potentials and problems of food aid Grain Stabilization Board 29 47–8 legislation operational and administrative Agricultural Act 1949 30 problems 48–9 Agricultural Adjustment Act 1933 scope for multilateral food aid 29–30 49–50 Agricultural Trade Development and three-year experimental programme Assistance Act (PL480) 1954 31–2 (1963–5) 37–66 European Recovery Programme lessons of 63–6 (Marshall Plan) (1948–52) 30 constitutional change 205–24 Federal Agriculture Improvement and a joint UN/FAO undertaking 205–8 Reform Act 1996 (farm bill 1995) co-operative programme 208 238–40 cost-saving measures 209 Lend–Lease Act 1941 30 FAO/WFP relationships, legal basis Mutual Security Act 1951 30 215 Surplus Property Act 1944 30 hiatus in WFP leadership 211–12 U Thant, UN Secretary-General (1961–71) missed opportunities 210–11 206–7 personnel problems 215–16 quest for institutional freedom Vogel, Garson, WFP Executive Director 214–24 (1977–81) 212, 292 reform of WFP general regulations 219–22 women in food-for-work programmes unequal UN/FAO partnership see Gender and development 212–14 302 Index

World Food Programme (WFP) – continued WFP in the 1990s 226 WFP headquarters agreement changing focus: from development to 218–19 relief 146–7 continuation of WFP 58–63 food aid policy debate 227–9 executive director’s recommendations future directions 243 58 Danish food aid commodity changes governing body’s recommendation 244–5 60–1 Dutch perspective 244 UN and FAO resolutions 62 emergency and/or development aid view of UN and FAO executive heads 247–9 59–60 Nordic countries views 243–4 development assistance 38–40, other views 246–7 67–144 tripartite evaluation of WFP by dimensions and trends 82–7 Canada, the Netherlands and effectiveness 138–9 Norway 245–6 lessons learned 139–44 WFP, mission statement (1994) special and sector studies 107–37 247–9 types of projects 39–40 WFP prospective co-ordinating roles emergency and relief operations 38, 249–52 145–87 WFP wider mandate: a forum for all criteria and procedures 150–2, 209 food aid 137–8 definition of emergencies 147–8 WFP/UNHCR co-operation 168–9 growth and dimensions 154–9 WFP/UNICEF co-operation 44, 78, 100, increasing involvement: causes of 103, 23 159–69 WHO (World Health Organization) 44, measures for speedy relief 152–4 45, 97, 217 types of operations 148 WTO (World Trade Organization) 35, WFP roles in emergencies 146 237–8 WFP governing bodies chairpersons/presidents 294–5 Yriat, Juan, Acting WFP Executive CFA (Committee on Food Aid Policies Director (1982) 212, 292 and Programmes) 81 Yugoslavia (former), man-made EB (Executive Board) 232–3 emergencies 174–5 IGC (Intergovernmental Committee) 43–4 Zimbabwe, triangular transactions 203