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AUTHOR Miller, Nod, Ed.; Jones, David J.,Ed. TITLE Research: Reflecting Practice. Papers fromthe SCUTREA Annual Conference (23rd, Manchester,England, July 6-8, 1993). INSTITUTION Standing Conference on Univ. Teaching andResearch in the Education of Adults. REPORT NO ISBN-0-9521918-0-6 PUB DATE Jul 93 NOTE 174p. AVAILABLE FROMSCUTREA, c/o Education Business Centre, 336Philip Lane, London N15 4AB, England, United Kingdom (15 pounds sterling). PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC07 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Accountability; *Adult Education; Autobiographies; *Educational Research; Epistemology; *Researchand Development; *Research Methodology; ResearchNeeds; Research Problems; *Theory Practice Relationship IDENTIFIERS *Teacher Researchers

ABSTRACT The following papers are included: "Social Classification of Women's Work" (Benn, Burton);"Developing Models of Learning from Experience" (Boud, Walker); "'ResearchReflecting Practice?'" (Edwards, Usher); "Metaphorsand Their Implications for Research and Practice in Adult and Community Education"(Hunt); "'Common-Sense' Approach to Reflection" (lusson);"Generating Knowledv in Practice" (Sisto, Hillier); "Takingthe Epistemology" (Steele); "Feminist Issues in Adult EducationResearch" (Zukas); "Group Based Research" (Anderson); "AdultEducation as History" (Chase); "Researching the Use and Evaluationof Experiential Teaching Methods in University-Based Adult and ContinuingEducation" (Cherrington, van Ments); "Is History Different?" (Coles); "Discussion Groups and Researcher Bias" (Dawson);"A Becoming of Gatekeepers" (Duke); "The Lone Adult-EducationResearcher" (Greenland); "Reflecting Research Practice" (Newton);"Hero(in)es of Labour'" (Payne); "Analysing the Effectivenessof Distance Learning Methods with 'Disadvantaged' Groups in ContinuingEducation" (Withnall); "The Multiple Self in theUnity of Adult Learning" (Daggett); "Becoming More Reflexiveas a Researcher" (Johnston); "Collecting Data and Recollecting in Tranquility" (Jones);"Doing Adult Education Research through Autobiography" (Miller);"Changing Places" (O'Rouke); "'Speaking Personally" (Stuart);"Adult Learning and Life HisLories" (Thomson); "On Keepinga Diary" (West, Alexopoulou); "Issues in Researchinga Common Practice" (Anderson, Boud, Sampson); "Whose Line Is It Anyway?" (Bryant); "Practitioner-based Enquiry" (Davis); "PractitionerResearch as Continuing Self-Education" (Hampton, Hampton); "Practitionersas Researchers" (Thorpe); "Adult Educators' Reflectionson M.Ed. Projects which They Had Undertaken" (Watson); "Keepingthe Customer Satisfied" (Armstrong); "Researching Educationaland Training Guidance Needs of Bilingual Women" (Brah, Kaye);"Collaborative Research Practices and the Wider Community" (Forrester);"Student Research and LEA (Local Education Agency) Adult and Continuing Education" (Jones); "Negotiating the Minefield" (Malcolm);"Research and Development Issues for Vocational Educationand Training" (McDonald et al.); "University-Based Adult Educationand the Field of Practice" (Millar); "Politics of Research" (Patel); "Whenthe Chips Are Down" (Winterton); "Access Course Feedback" (Day, Highton); "On the Relationship between Researcher and Researched" (Edwards); "Evaluation and Accountability in the Research Process" (Lawrence); and "Working Collaboratively on Research into Collaborative Working" (Shuttleworth). Some papers contain substantial bibliographies. (MN) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Orkce or Educanonal Research and Improvement "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY CENTER (ERIC) Ms document has been reotoduced recewed from the person or cooemzehoe onginanng 0 Mmor cnanoes hey* been made to Imptou reoroductIon oualdy

Pants cd v3ev, or ouvons stated In thedocw ment do not necemordy represent offscml TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESO CES OERI posthon or ukcy INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." STANDING CONFERENCE ON UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND RESEARCH IN THE EDUCATION OF ADULTS

RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE EDITED BY NOD MILLER & DAVID J. JONES

PAPERS FROM THE 23RD ANNUAL CONFERENCE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER,6-8 JULY 1993 003 4 RESEARH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

Published by the Standing Conference on University Teaching and Research in the Education of Adults, Pilgrim College, Fydell House, South Square, Boston, Lincolnshire PE21 611u, United Kingdom

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004 199;SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS Introduction

Nod Miller, University of Manchester David Jones, University of Nottingham

THE papers in this volume were pre-perspectives on the research process, including pared for the 23rd Annual Confer-practitioners, teachers and others who do not ence of the Standing Conference on primarily define themselves as researchers. University Teaching and Research inWe were extremely gratified by the response to the Education of Adults, held at Allen Hall,our call for papers. Among the contributors are University of Manchester, 6 to 8 July 1993,many established researchers and others at the which takes as its theme 'Research: Reflectingbeginning of their research careers, including Practice'. several postgraduate students. We are particu- The planning of this conference began almostlarly glad to welcome a number of contributors immediately after work on the last volume offrom outside Britain. Conference Proceedings (Miller and West, 1992) The papers are arranged into six strands, each was completed. The critical importance of re-with an introduction by one of the members of search in adult and continuing education was the conference organising group. Papers in the underlined in 1992, with many person-hours first strand, on Epistemology, deal with central being devoted to the completion of returns forquestions about how knowledge is generated the Research Assessment Exercise, and threats to through the research process. As Linden West the continued funding ofresearch by the HEFCs. notes, the multi-faceted nature of theoretical The emphasis on research output in the assess-influences at large in the world of adult education ment of research has brought about a shift in theresearch at present is apparent in the diverse climate of adult and continuing education de-contributions to this section. partments, with what was at one time a relativelyMethodological issues are dealt with in strand 2, relaxed attitude to the production of research the papers here addressing technical, personal, papers giving way to a desperation to publish. Aethical and political issues in relation to methods serie:: of Study Days was organised in 1992 byof gathering and accumulating data. The strand SCUTREA, in conjunction with UCACE, PACE on Practitioner-based research contains studies and SRHE, to discuss and plan a research agenda by teachers, studeats or organisers in adult edu- for the field. One important suggestion whichcation, many of the contributors raising ques- came out of the study days was that there should tions concerning the notion of 'objectivity' in be more systematic training in research method-relation to this type of research. ologies appropriate to the field of adult educa-The strand on Auto/biography contains papers tion. This led to discussions about a conferencewhich describe and analyse asircts oflife history, on research processes and practice, and thus thesome dealing with the autobiographical experi- topic of this con ference was agreed. ence of th.e researcher and some with life stories An earlier version of the conference theme wasof others. The papers in the strand on External The Reflective Researcher', playing on the titles relations and accountability examine the rela- of two influential texts in the field of adult tionship between research activity and the wider learning (Srhön, 1983, 1987). The organisingcontext in which this activity takes place. A group felt that 'Research: Reflecting Practice' theme of several of the papers is the discomfort might attract participants with a wide range ofsometimes arising out of pressure to meet thc 005 6 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE demands of research fimders and sponsors. SCUTREA conference have experimented with The final strand deals with issues concerninga variety of forms of conference design, with the Relationships (of researchers) to the researched, intention of maximising the learning opportuni- exploring long-debated questions about whose ties in the conference in keeping with good adult side we (as researchers) are on, and exploring the education practice. One innovative feature this extent to which new research paradigms makeyear is a research hypothetical, an improvised possible more emancipatory relationships orrole-play exercise designed to highlight the poli- more truely participatory research. tics and dynamics of a research project from its There are some perennial themes and debatesconception to publication. The conference will which cut across all the strands. Many of theconclude with a session enabling participants to contributors here arc concerned with ethical is- reflect upon the experience of the conference and sues in research, with issues of 'objectivity' andto consolidate what they have learned from the 'subjectivity', with questions of the ownership ofevent. knowledge produced through research and withOne important aspect of the research process struggles over power and control. The theoretical which is dealt with in relatively few of the papers perspective's and disciplinary bases on which thehere is the dissemination of findings. We hope various writers draw are extremely varied: therethat this collection of papers will be distributed are papers grounded in history, psychology, soci- widely, and that it will prove usefitl to a wide ology, cultural studies, postmodernism, range of adult education researchers and practi- poststructuralism, feminism, psychoanalysis, the- tioners, providing stimulation to experienced ology, philosophy, English literature and evenresearchers and inspiration to those embarking New Age consciousness. Similarly, a broad spec- upon a first research project. We also hope that it trum of methodologies is represented, includingwill serve to spread the message that research in statistical analysis, interviewing, oral history, tex- adult education is alive and well and deserves tual analysis, participant observation and auto/continued support and fimding. biography. Gratitude is due to all members of the organising A notable feature of this year's papers is the waygroup for their enthusiam and hard work. Special in which many contributors reject positivisticthanks go to Barbara Jones for her tireless and approaches to reseach. Not long ago, we suspect,cheerful style in dealing with the administration there wouH have been a certain defensivenessof the conference, and to Rod Allen, without about adopdng such a stance. Now there is awhose epic typesetting efforts this book would celebration of the fact that the researcher is an never have made it to the conference, and whosc intrinsic part of the research. Writer after writer awesome professional skills in graphic design and characterises adult education research as a questtypography brought it here looking as good as it for understanding rather than a process ofdiscov-does. ering social 'facts' or of offering scientific 'proof'. Questions of replicability and objectivity are set aside in favour of a search for insight and mean- REFERENCES ing. The work involved in constructing this mean- ing is likened by one contributor tc, that of theMiller, N. and West, L. (eds.) (1992), Changing poet. Culture and Adult Learning, Boston: SCUTREA The scholarship reflected in these papers is of aSchön,D. (1983), The Reflective Practitioner: high standard, and reflects the quality of workhow professionals think in action, London: Tem- being carried out in this field. This volume stands ple Smith as evidence of the great loss that educationalSchön, D. (1987), Educating the Reflective Prac- research would suffer if resources were not madetitioner: towards a new design for teaching and available to enable this work to contiime. learning in the professions, San Francisco: Jossey- I n recent years, those involved in organising the Bass

006 1 9 9 3 SCUTREA CONIPERENCR PAPERS 7 Table ofcontents

1. Epistemological issues Researching the use and evaluation of Introduction by Linden West, University of Kent 10 experiential teaching methods in university-based adult and continuing Social dassification of women's work: a education research problem Ruth Cherrington and Morry van Ments, Roseanne Benn e. Rob Burton, University of Loughborough 50 Universio, of Exeter 12 Is history different? Developing models of learning from Janet Coles, University of Leeds 53 experience David Boud University of Technology, Sydney, Discussion groups and researcher bias David Walker, The Centre, Randwick, Australia 17 Elaine Dawson, University of Sheffield 56 'Research: reflecting practice'? Modern A becoming of gatekeepers paradigms, postmodern controversies Chris Duke, University of Warwick 59 Richard Edwards, Open Uiversity, Robin Usher, The lone adult-education researcher: Universiq of Southampton 20 reflections on method and practice Metaphors and their implications for research Annette Greenland, Universio, of North Carolina and practice in adult and community NC USA 62 education Reflecting research practice from concrete Cheryl Hunt, University of ShOeld 23 experience to abstract conceptualisation A 'common-sense' approach to reflection Rita A. Newton, University College, Salford 65 Moira Russon, South Manchester College 26 Ilero(in)es of labour': some ethical problems Generating knowledge in practice: in adult education research challenging the assumptions John Payne, University of Leeds 69 Sheila Sisto and Dawn Hillier, Anglia Polytechnic Analysing the effectiveness of distance University 31 learning methods with 'disadvantaged' groups Taking the epistemology: what happened to in continuing education that discreet object of knowledge? Alexandra Withnall, Lancaster University 72 Tom Steele, University of Leeds 35 Feminist issues in adult education research: 3. Auto/biography and life history links and conflicts Introduction by Nod Miller, Miriam Zukas, University of Leeds 38 Universio, of Manchester 76 The multiple self in the unity of adult 2. Methodological issues learning Introduction by Richard Edwards, Eileen Fitzgerald Daggett, Open University. 42 University of Southampton 78 Group based research: commitment or Becoming more reflexive as a researcher compromise? Rennie Johnston, Department ofAdult Education, Geoff Anderson, University of Technology. Sydney 43 University of Southampton 81 Adult education as history: adult educators as Collecting data and recollecting in historians tranquillity: reflections on a research project Malcolm Chase, University of Leeds 47 William R. Jones, University of Southampton 85 007 8 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

Doing adult education research through Researching educational and training autobiography guidance needs of bilingual women: issues in Nod Miller, University of Manchester 88 research Changing places: issues for the practitioner Avtar Brah and Alison Kaye, London University 133 turned researcher Collaborative research practices and the wider Rebecca O'Rourke, University of Leeds 93 community: the case of the trade unions 'Speaking personally': the 'self in educational Keith Forrester, University of Leeds 136 oral history work Student research and LEA adult and Mary Stuart, University of Sussex 95 continuing education: 'They always promise Adult learning and life histories: never produce' opportunities and issues for qualitative Helen Jones, University of Leeds 13r research at the British Mass-Observation Negotiating the minefield: practical and Archive polhkal issues in policy research Alistair Thomson, University ofSussex 98 Janice Malcolm, University of Leeds 142 On keeping a diary: a new approach to Research and development issues for reflective practice vocational education and training Linden West and Fenia Alexopoulou, Rod McDonalct Geoff Hayton, Andrew Gonczi and University of Kent 104 Paul Hager, University of Technology, Sydney 145 University-based adult education and the 4. Practitioner-based research fieldof practice : a South African case Introduction by David J. Jones, Clive Millar, University of Cape Town, University of Nottingham 107 South Africa 148 Issues in researching a common practice The politics of research:taking sides GeoffAnderson, David Boud and Jane Sampson, !Grit Patel London Borough of Haringey 151 University of Technology, Sydney, Australia 108 When the chips are down:the miners, conflict Whose line is it anyway? The use of interviewand change transcripts in researching reflective practice Ruth Winterton, University of Leeds 154 Ian Bryant, University ofSouthampton 111 Practitioner-based enquiry: in-service teacher 6. Relationships with the researched education as a research environment114 Introduction by Paul Armstrong, London Borough of Mike Dams, University of Manchester 114 Haringey 157 Practitioner research as continuing self- Access course feedback the interactive effects education of research Hazel Hampton and William Hampton, Kate Day and Joanna Highton, University of University of Sheffidd 117 Edinburgh 158 Practitioners as researchers or is it On the relationship between researcher and evaluators? And does it matter? researched: in pursuit of methodological Mary Thorpe, Open University 120 integrity, congruence and the democratisation Adult educators' reflections on M.Ed. of the research process projects which they had undertaken Catherine Edwards, University ofShejfield 161 Peter Watson, University of Leeds 124 Evaluation and accountability in the research process 5. External relations & accountability Barbara Lawrence, University of London 164 Introduction by Janice Malcolm, Working collaboratively on research into Universio, of Leeds 127 collaborative working: I thought I saw a palindrome Keeping the customer satisfied: research, Sue Shuttleworth, University of Hull 168 accountability and the market place Paul Armstron& London Borough ofHaringey128 08 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS9 THE STANDING CONFERENCE ON UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND RESEARCH IN THE EDUCATION OF ADULTS

SCUTREA is a forum for all con-individuals and institutions who are ac- cerned with research into thecepted by its Council as 'making a contri- education of adults and thosebution to the study of or research into any involved in the development ofaspect of learning, education or training adult education as a body of knowledge.in adulthood'. It began as an organisation with a mem- bership consisting solely of university de-OFFICERS partments ofadult education. SCUTREAHonorary officers (1990-93): now draws upon a broader constituencyChair: Dr Nod Miller, Centre for Adult and welcomes individual and institutionaland Higher Education, University of members from across the educational field.Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester Adult education is a growing and fast-M13 9PL changing sector, and at this timeSecretaq: Dr David). Jones, Warden, Pil- SCUTREA provides a focus for the di-grim College, University of Nottingham, verse interests ofpractitioners and research-Fydell House, South Square, Boston, Lincs ers. It is a pivotal point in the adulteduca-PE21 6HU tion world in Britain, and is also linked to Treasurer: F. John Taylor, 6 Dukes Drive, organisations in both the North and the Leicester LE2 1TP South, enhancing members' access to in- ternational contacts. The SCUTREA annual conference is aORGANISING GROUP major event in the adult education calen-Members ofthecon:erenceplanninggroup dar. In addition, smaller workshops, con-were: ferences and seminars are organisedPaul Armstrong, London Borough of throughout the year. Members' researchHaringey and teaching interests are linked throughBarry Bright, University of Hull working groups which any member isRichard Edwards, Open University welcome to join. A termly newsletter,David J. Jones, University of Nottingham Scoop, is published. Janice Malcolm, University of Leeds The dynamism of SCUTREA is reflectedNod Miller, University of Manchester in the publications that have been gener-Alistair Thomson, University of Sussex ated from the working groups and confer-Mary Thorpe, Open University ences, and the organisation looksforwardLinden West, University of Kent to an expansive period during the comingMiriam Zukas, University of Leeds years. Administration: Barbara Jones, Pilgrim Membership of SCUTREA is open toCollege 009 10 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE 1. Epistemological issues

Introduction by Linden West University of Kent

I was pleased to be asked to write an introduction that something better, more all embracing, would to a series ofpapers exploring the epistemological emerge. The thought that the past seemed diverse dimension of reflective practice. I hoped for new too and yet within the chaos and promiscuity perspectives on the theory and practice ofcurrent great insights were developed (for example, in research to help me make more sense of my ownlabour history and cultural studies) and better work and therefore better able to justify it, mostmethodologies created (participatory research, of all to myself. I wanted in-depth debate aboutoral/life histotywork) prompted a re-read. Broader the nature of truth and validity in new paradigmpatterns and possibilities might emerge from research. these essays as a whole, if I could live for a while I soon realised I was entering a post-modernistwith confusion and difference. landscape where nothing is certain, all that isAs I read more intensely, patterns did emerge, solid seems to melt into air, to paraphrase Marx.similarities as well as contrasts. There was, for I was confused about what I was reading and was example, a healthy diffidence and reflectiveness reminded of Jameson's description of thein the writing. There was a determination to Bonaventura Hotel in Los Angeles in an essay on reassess the relationship between the particular post-modernism (Jameson 1984). He suggested and general and to acknowledge that, in the past, the hotel was symbolic of contemporary culture a search for universal meaning, for truth, for in that it represented a kind of post-modern objectivity, for positivist science has sometimes hyperspace, transcending the capacity of the hu- damaged, violated, silenced individuals and man mind to locate itself within the structure orgroups or at least badly distorted the nuance and to grasp the totality of the building. At best, onespecificity of their story. The further removed might observe and comprehend discrete elementsfrom experience, what the psychologist Kohut in a grand display of bewildering eclecticismcalled experience-distant rather than experience- redolent of a society of disorientating, kaleido- near theories, the more abstract and generalised, scopic change and possibility. the more detached from the reality on the ground, Like parts of the hotel in Jameson's essay indi-the more potentially dangerous and distortive, is vidual papers made sense on their own but, at firstone message from this writing. reading, appeared to move in different direc-There is equally a shared assertion that research tions, with contrasting language, style and meta-should, one way or another, be transformative: it phor. Ignatius Loyola, feminist research, Gaia,should offer space for people to tell and make learning from experience and post-modernisttheir own stories and to celebrate the conscious- deconstruction of reflective practice appeared to ness and energy for change which this can bring; constitute SCUTREA's equivalent of the or at least to see human beings, cultures, as whole Bonaven tura. I thought I had better simply note entities: socio-political, physical as well as spir- the diversity of styles and abandon an attempt toitual beings. To do so can transform people's synthesise or describe the whole. After all, the consciousness ofwhat is needed, and their poten- difricuky ofseeing the overall picture is, as Jameson tial to play a part. Finally there is some, if not suggests, a central manifestation of the post-universal, celebration of new times, a feeling, modernist condition. however fragile, of faith in the future. The old Tom Steele helped a little in his paper on 'Taking certainties have gone leaving room for a more the epistemology' by reminding me that adultpluralistic, democratised culture of many truths, education research has always been promiscuous, ways of being and seeing. drawing its methods and assumptions about va-Edwards and Usher in their paper on 'Modern lidity from diverse sources (admittedly with dis-Paradigms and Postmodern Controversies' ap- comfort and reservation among those wanting apear most at home in this world. They celebrate conventional, foundational rigour) and trustingthe insights of deconstructionism and turn their

040 1993SCUTRT.A CONFERENCE PAPERS 11 attention to current research. For them the reality basis for a professional, more meaningful cur- of much reflective practice remains old objectiv- ricuhun. Russon explores inner !pace and finds a ist wine in new bottles. Research is used to possibility of transcendence, of meaning, in the regulate: part of what they call a 'power-knowl- reflective techniques of Ignatius Loyola, where edge formation of concern' for 'effectiveness anddirection and intelligibility can derive from feel- efficiency' which limits its emancipatory andings of truth and integrity in the innermost parts. democratic potential. And research as reflectiveHunt in her paper on metaphor looks to a greater practice can, they suggest, remain bedeviled byawareness of the delicate thread linking the inter- an illusion of ultimately verifiable knowledge tonal and external world. She finds in the chaos and be found if only one searches deeply and exhaus- dislocation of present times a potential new para- tively enough. digm, a different, more holistic, organic way of Zukas shares a similar view in her paper onconceiving relationships between people, cul- 'Feminist issues in adult education research: links tures, as well as within the research process. Gaia and conflicts'. She also questions the discourse ofoffers a metaphor of interconnectedness, in con- universal truths about, for example, adult learn- trast to the narrowness of Ncwtonian physics and ing which, when deconstructed, reveals a patriar-the reductionism of the machine metaphor. She chal, individualistic ideology at its andragogical believes the new paradigm enables individuals to core. She wants instead 'psychologies', particu-search for their own meaning, unfettered by larly a 'psychology for women', which deriveartificial boundaries or expectations. It is also a from 'ideas about the specificity and social con-place in which researcher and researched are struction ofknowledge, the conjunction ofknowl- perceived to be inseparable, subjects in search of edge and power, the relationship between lan- a shared perspective. guage and subjectivity and the analysis of dis-So there are patterns, interconnections, to be course and rhetoric'. found in these pai.ers as well as divergence. Benn and Burton are on similar ground in theirObjectivist, machine-like positivism is or ought essay on the social classification ofwomen's work. to be dead. Detail, like individuals, matters. They believe that conventional typologies, based Generalities are not excluded but carry a peril of as they are on male occupations, have constrained reductionism. It is time to listen, engage and social researchers from arriving at a fuller under- respect the other in the research encounter; and standing of the experiences ofwomen. Life histo- the researcher's pre-text, maybe their whole be- ries and women's encounters with Access courses ing, is of relevance. There is also an enthusiasm, and higher education more generally have beena belief in the possibility of transformation distorted as a result. Conventional classifications through reflective practice, if spaces can only be have failed to acknowledge the bias and context reclaimed by and for those who have hitherto at their heart. been silenced. Boud and Walker, in a paper on 'DevelopingBut there is caution too. Research of a new models of learning from experience', are, likehermeneutic, post-modernist kind, like educa- Zukas, sensitive about the relationship betweention more generally, asks much ofthose involved. the particular and the general. They too are aware The researcher needs to understand her or him- of the shortcomings of `psychologically-orien-self the pre-text and more; to appreciate the tated literature' which fails to encompass thepower and politics of research the con-texts. 'complex interactions of person, space and cul-And to acknowledge the partiality, historicity ture'. But they continue to insist that modelsand social construction of knowledge the sub- have a place, depending on their sophisticationtexts. The fact that this is understood and that and the humility shown in using them. Some- there continues to be enthusiasm for the validity times, they conclude, the subject is too vast andof reflective practice, however disorientating, complicated for any model 'to emerge'. threatening, limiting and unsympathetic the cur- The other writers view the scene from different rent climate, is a sign that a democratic instinct of locations but on occasions reach related if notenquiry is alive and well. identical conclusions. Sisto and Hillier in a study of midwifery training challenge positivism and REFERENCE all its works. Their message is that critical reflec- tivity, delving deeper into practice to produce Jameson F (1984), 'Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic and reproduce knowledge, offers a promising of Late Capitalism' in New Lefi Review 146 pp 53-93.

011 12 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Social classification of women's work: a research problem

Roseanne Benn and Rob Burton University of Exeter

\While stratificatory schemata may have their data is sufficiently reliable to re-open the debate roots in class relations, they are sustained byconcerning the validity of the RG scale, in particular society's value systems, which in turn camou- for research into areas such as adult education where flage the class structure, rendering it opaque to the majority of students are women. the understanding of its members and not infre- quently even to the purview of the scientist. The The Social Clasefication of Women's Work class roots of social stratification are not always (SCOWW) a brief explanation easy to get inasmuch as they are almost never The basis of this classification is the work a woman directly given. (Saffioti, 1978) does. To the conventional Office of Population Cen- suses and Surveys (OPCS) understanding of what Background constitutes work, Roberts has added household work THIS paper is a working document based upon aconcerned with the care of children or the elderly and partial analysis of questionnaires returned from a greater emphasis on whether the work is full or part a national survey of Access Students. The question- time. naire, 'Attitudes to Mathematics' has been sent to 3512 students on Access to Social Science and Hu- The problem manities courses (20% sample) and Access to Teacher For our pilot study, women were classified by their Education courses (100% sample) in 111 institutionsown occupations using the RG's scale. This immedi- in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. This report ately raised a methodological problem insomuch as it is based upon a sample of 1000 questionnaires. is recognised that this scale does not 'fit' easily into One of the central questions addressed by our re- research where the majority of respondents will be search is whether the requirement to hold a GCEfemale. As Abbott and Sapsford (1987) suggest, the O'Level (or its equivalent) for entry to a number ofconventional view ocstratification and class theories higher education courses acts as a barrier for eithertend to focus on male occupations. This, they argue, women as a whole or certain groups of women. is because women are ignored in many theories of social class. The position taken by many researchers Introduction and amplified by scales such as the RG's is that Empirical research has traditionally used the Regis- 'women are marginal to the occupational structure trar General's (RG) classification of occupations as [and] their social class position is...determined by the the method of classifying people in the social struc- (mak) head of household' (Abbott and Sapsford ture. However, past theoretical and research debates 1987). concerning social classification and women (Stanworth Consequently, in order to provide an adequate repre- i984; Middleton 1974; Ritter and Hargens 1975) sentation of women on Access courses without suc- would suggest that perceptions of women on Access cumbing to the traditional sociological analysis which gained through use of this classification may not bear leads to the 'misrepresentation of [women's] class, close relation re rPality. life-changes, life-styles, patterns association and Experience in development of, and teaching on, socio-political orientation' (Delphy and Leonard 1986. Access led us to believe that a clearer understanding of p.72-73), we felt that we needed an alternative ap- the women who populate Access would be gained ifproach. we had recourse to information about other social We were in a dilemma. Most comparable research in variables, i.e. how many children they had, what was this area is based on the RG classification. But we their personal income, what was their own job or last question how useful a scale can be where 38% of job, was it part-time or full-time. women, when cla.ssified by their own occupation, are In the development of this approach, the work by classified as 'other' (see Table 2 below). It see,,ied Helen Roberts and Ray Barker at the Social Statistics impossible to make any clear analysis of the situation Research Unit of City University (1986, 1987, 1989, when as social researchers we were still restricted by 1990) came to our attention. Although not designed the patriarchal biases of the RG's classification sys- specifically in accordance with their criteria, many of tem. our questions conform to their work. We feel that our In an analysis of work which attempts to provide an

1 2 1 9 9 3 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 1 3 adequate representation of women's social stratifica- Analysis tion, Abbott and Sapsford (1987 p30) suggest that many of the scales so far developed including those Population distribution which take a feminist perspective, fail `to include full- Women's social class. RG + SCOWW time housewives, taking account of unpaid work SO performed in the patriarchal mode of production'. We believe that the Social Classification of Women's Work at least partially answers this criticism and have therefore incorporated it into our methodology.

The data

Of the 1000 respondents to the questionnaire cur- 1 2 3 4 5 'Other" Soa! class rently analysed 690 are women. Of these women the 11118egistnr4exral 111115C0WW social class breakdown is as follows: Sax= Bar$r& Robets (1987)

Table 1 When we compare both scales for population distri- Access Distribution (as a Z. N=690) bution, in general we see the classic distribution Women's social classification by shapes one would expect from this sort of survey. their own occupation However, the essence of our argument is that it is impossible to use the Registrar General scale for any Classes 1 2 3 4 5 'OTHER' analysis related to women due to the presence (or non presence) of 38% of women classified as 'other'. RG 0.2 25 53 13.7 2.6 4.5 Distribution of women SCOWW 28 33.517 4.7 16.1 Nationally and on Access

Registrar-General's dassitica6on so

Table 2 50

Population Distribution of Great Britain. (as a %) k3° Women's social classification by ^ 20 their own occupation 10 0

Classes 1 2 3 4 5 'OTHER'

IIIIINation/1_6,st 1/1Access cist. RG 1 13 29 13 5 38 Over half the women on Access courses are placed in SCOWW 6 21 49 17 7 RG classification 3 concurring with Oakley's thesis (Source: Barker and Roberts 1989) (1974) that many women are to be found in service sector clerical and secretarial work. However, when we look more widely at the distribution ofwomen on Table 3 Access courses against the national distribution we find that the statistics become skewed. The 38% The Chances of Jomen being repre- other in the national picture makes comparisons sented on an Access course by Class. meaningless. Women from class 1 have only al in 5 chance of being Classes 1 2 3 4 5 represented on an Access course. This is not unex- pected as women classified as 1 by the RG are for RG 1:5 2:1 2:1 1:1 1:2 example solicitors, doctors and so would already hold SCOWW 5:1 3:2 1:3 2:7 5:2 degrees. The SCOWW scale provides us with a significantly different perception of how women are represented on Access. This distribution raises difficulties, namely the imbalance between classes 4 and 5. If this is showing us a true picture of Access and our incom- o1 plete data has not skewed the figures, then we may 14RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

tions of our data. Distribution of women To understand fully the reality of women', lives in a Nationally and on Access modern society we suggest that social researchers need SCOWW Classification to make a perspective transformation to move away 50 from the familiarity of the Registrar General's scale to 40 a scale that more closely reflects social reality.

30 Classification of occupations: a perspective !' 20 transformation 10 ...familiarity with the incumbent system and the fact that it is generally accepted by poli- ticians, for instance can count highly for

1111Natiorui dst al Access cist certain users: civil servants or those hoping to influence public opinion and policy with their findings (Szreter 1984. p.539) need to consider a number of causal explanations. It ... scales which are fundamentally at variance could be that this relatively large representation of with social reality ... (Roberts 1987. p.39) class 5 could indicate the numbers of people from Perspective transformation is the emancipatory lower grade occupations becoming unemployed ( we process of becoming critically aware of how and coded current or last occupation). These may be why the structure of psycho-cultural assump- utilizing Access to gain some social mobility, having tions has come to constrain the way we see nothing to lose by attempting Access. Class 4, may ourselves and our relationships, reconstituting still be in work and have more to lose, in terms of this structure to permit a more inclusive and financial, occupational and domestic security. discriminating integration of experience and The higher representation of class 5 women could acting upon these new understandings (sic) also be accounted for by the number of women who (Mezirow, 1981) have dependent relatives and have to work part-time Lieven (1989) felt able, on the basis of results from as well as continue with their studies on Access. earlier research into Access, to state that "Despite Without further data, it is not possible to interpret the some discrepancies between surveys it is clear that class 4 and class 5 figures. At present we are unsureAccess courses have been dramatically successful in whether they lead us to believe that class 5 are popu- enrolling students from systemically disadvantaged lating Access due perhaps to targeting or class 4 groups who, historically, have been largely 'excluded' continue not to participate in education. from the full range of educational provision'. Undoubtedly, work still needs to be done with this Our work, using the RG scale, suggests that we have scale in order to clarify the anomalies we are presented difficulty in concurring with Lieven. Access courses with. What is clear is that the SCOWW classification across the country seem to be populated in the main shows classes 1 and 2 colonising and monopolising by classes 2 and 3. Our position is supported by published figures (Benn and Fieldhouse 1993, Halsey Access. This differing perception is clarified in graph 4 which 1992) which show that working class representation presents us with seemingly incompatible interpreta- in Universities has dropped between 1985 and 1990 and that inequality still persists. However all of this work has used the RG classifica- tion as its base of analysis, a sttucture which Szreter Access Survey Social class by RG and SCOWW argues is: an obsolete conceptual framework [which] is insidiously continuing to exert an influence over current analyses of social behaviour (Szreter 1984. p539) We are presented with a different picture when we apply the SCOWW scale to our data. Here Access is populated in the main by women from class 1and class 2. These figures undoubtedly reinforce the Marx- ist theory of education for the bourgeoisie.

Worar-General 1/1 SCOVvW I The SCOWW scale leads us to a perspective where it seems that Acccss is populated in the main by women from the social classes 1 and 2, contradicting the 14 1993 scUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 15 earlier RG-based analysis which suggests Access is in rant insight into the real lives of women. It allows us, the main attracting women social classes 2 and 3. Weas researchers, to interpret ,-.ata ftc>m a new perspec- believe the SCOWW is rendering the opaque nature tive. It transforms the inflexible and the archaic into (Saffioti, 1978) of the RG's perspective open to an appropriate and contemporary tool ofsocial scien- finther analysis. We believe this scale enables us to tific analysis. It moves away from what Szreter has look more closely and effectively at the class positions criticised as a 'paradigm for an adequate explanation of women on Access courses. which no longer corresponds either to that which is A false consciousness and a perspective transforma- most elegant...nor to that which is most consistent tion: with what we believe we know of nature'(ibid p.539) towards a new understanding of women's lives. By RG (population) by SCOWW (Access) comparing two scales, we are able to gain an insight Cass destribution into what we believe is closer to the real nature of Access.

NOTE An earlier version of this paper was presented at the British Sociological Association Annual Conference. Univer- sity of Essex, 5-8 April 1993.

REFERENCES aRegistrar.Geleri 0 SCOWW Abbott, P. and Sapsford, R. (1987). Women and Social Class. London: Tavistock. Graph 5 allows us to attempt to break through the Barker, R. and Roberts, H. (1987) A Social Classification types of false consciousness that surrounds research Scheme fin. Women, Working Paper No 51, Social into women's lives. Statistics Research Unit, City University, London. The RG normal distribution curve is one we all carry Benn, R. and Fieldhouse, R. (1993) Government policies around with us in our heads. Social reality has to on university expansion and wider access,1945-1951 conform more or less to this line. By superimposing and 1985-1991 compared. Journal ofStudies in Higher the SCOWW Access distribution over the RG popu- Education Vol. 18(3) lation (women by their own occupations) something Delphy, C. andLeonard, D. (1986) Class Analysis, happens. We are presented with a new picture of Gender Analysis and the Family. in Crompton, R. and women on Access. M. Mann (eds) Gender and Stranfication. Cambridge: What this graph shows, we suggest, is the situation on Polity Press. Access once the patriarchal biases and the cultural Halsey, A. H. (1992) Opening Wide the Doors of Higher assumptions about women are stripped away. We Education. National Commission on Education. Brief- suggest the false consciousness of patriarchy has re- ing No.6. August. stricted social researchers from arriving at more dis- Lieven, M. (1989) Access Courses After 10 Years: A crirninating conclusions concerning the experiences Review. Higher Education Quarterly Vol.43 .2:160 of women and thus hindered true understanding of 170 the distribution of women on Access. Mezirow,J. (1981) A critical theory of adult learning and education in Tight, M. (1983) (ed) Aduk Learningand Conclusions Education. London: Routledgc. Empirical research of this type, where the respond- Middleton, C. (1974) 'Sexual inequality and stratification ents arc in the main women, is traditionally depend- theory' in Parkin,F. (ed), The Social Analysis of Class ent upon a classification system that is 'claimed to be Structure. London: Tavistock. a tolerably accurate model of the British social struc- Oakley, A. (1974) Women's Work: The Housewife, Past and ture' (Szreter 1984 p.523). This raises questions Present. New York: Pantheon Books. about a social structure that has apparently remained Ritter, K.V. and Hargens, L.L. (1975) 'Occupational unchanged since the inception of the RG scale in position and class identification of married working 1913 and women's perceived role in that structure. women.' American Journal of Sociology 80:932-948 Robert's and Barker's work and SCOWW allow us to Roberts, H. (1986) 'The Social Classification of Women' break through the opaque nature and false conscious- in Research Bulletin on Methodology. Manchester: Equal ness of this type of redundant, patriarchal social Opportunities Commission. classification to provide what wc believe is an impor- Roberts, H. (1987) 'A Social Classification Scheme for 015 16 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

Women' in Allatt. P. et al Women and the Lifecycle: Saffioti, H.B. (1978) Women in Class Society. Monthly Transitions and Turning Points. Macmillan: London. Review Press. Roberts, H. and Barker, R. (1986) Women and Social Stanworth, M. (1984) 'Women and class analysis: a reply Classification. Working Paper No. 46, Social Statistia to Goldthorpe'. Sociology I 8:159-170 Research Unit, City University: London. Szreter, S. The genesis of the Registrar-General's social Roberts, H. and Barker, R. (1989) 'What are People Doing classification ofoccupations. BritishJournalofSociology When They Grade Women's Work?' British Journal of Vol XXXV.4:522-546 Sociology, Vol 40.1:130-146. Weinreich-Haste, H. 'Brother Sun, Sister Moon: Does Roberts, H. and Barker, R. (1990) The Social Classification Rationality Overcome a Dualistic World View?' in ofWomen's Work. Social Statistics Research Unit: City Harding, J. (ed) (1986) Per.Tectives on Gender and University Science. Lewes: Palmer Press.

016 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 17 Developing models of learning from experience

David Boud University ofTechnology, Sydney David Walker The Centre, Randwick

have been concerned with making sense ofdetails. An effective model must be judged with

WElearning from experience over many years. respect to each of these levels. Our interest has been an essentially pragmatic oneWell-known models meet some criteria well but not how to improve the quality ofexperience-based learn- others. Kolb/Lewin (1984) is useful at the micro-level ing from the point of view of both learners and those for planning teaching, but it does not take sufficient who assist learning (teachers, facilitators, peers, etc.). account of reflective processes and the prior experi- This has led us to a concern abouyhow to representences of learners. Schon (1987) is very strong on our understandings in simple mtels that we can use reflection, but is somewhat elusive as a guide to and which will provide a helpful prompt to others' practice and is difficult to visualise. Jarvis (1987) practice. While our yardstick has always been to points to the importance of the social context in develop approaches which work for us in our own learning, but his own model of learning processes practice, we have also been committed to the concep- reflects his data and is too complex for ready use. No tion and articulation of ideas in ways which make model cannot embrace everything which is impor- them accessible and useable to other teachers and tant: the challenge in creating a model is in deciding iearners. what to include and what to ignore. The fact that Our work together began with the book Reflection:some gain prominence is testimony to the fact that Turning Experience into Learning (1985), which ex- they speak to matters which are important. plored a variety ofstrategies and devices to encourage reflection on learning, and moved to examining learn- Developing models1 ing through reflection-in-action and reflection fol- In our original book on reflection, we made a con- lowing experience (Boud and Walker 1990). The scious decision to articulate our experience in a model. focus of this latter work was on the development of a This did not arise from any theory about models, but model which is directed towards the facilitation ofwas simply an effort to communicate what we had deliberate learning from experience. Our concern learned about reflection. We did not realise the im- with learning from experience has found most recent portance of this decision at the time. Looking back, expression in Using Experience for Learning (Boud, three significant things emerge about the model we Cohen and Walker, in press) which considers how a created: it was a tentative and simple model directed group of diverse adult educators describe their own to practice. It emerged from our experience and was learning from experience in their personal and profes-directed to the experience of others. We didn't build sional liv. the model around these qualities. They are qualities A key element of this latest book is the idea thatthat have become apparent during our use of, and contributors reflect on their own learning from expe- reflection, on it. rience and how they have come to their present Models are always tentativeways of viewing appreciation of the issues. In the present paper we use the world which may or may not be useful for this approach and focus it on our experience in the task in hand. When they are used in a developing and using models of facilitating learning. fixed, rigid, inflexible way, their usefulness is We have reflected on the develcpment of our own limited. It is important that the model does ideas and tried to extract from our experience of r.ot become more important than what it working with models what we believe to be important tries to facilitate, e.g. reflection on experi- features or ways of assessing what counts as a good ence. When this happens, the model is no model. longer the instrument but the end in itself. Whilst we point to criteria helpful in judging how The model must always be open to modera- useful a model might bc for practice, there are differ- tion in the light of further experience. ent categories of criteria which are important: those Rather than attempting to portray the full related to the intention or scope of the aspect being complexity of promoting learning from ex- modelled, those concerning prominent features or perience, models should be simple and fo- emphases and those relating to the fine grain -of 01 7used on some elements which are regarded 18 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

as problematic. They should avoid context- simulations as work experience. specific details. We consciously refrained from While having within it sufficient elements adding various feedback loops to our model which find ready ..cceptance,they these are clearly essential to any application should challenges practice and point to areas but they can also complicate and distract which require attention. For example, our from the elements we wished to present. approach emphasises that it is important to A good model directs attention to issues avoid jumping to analysis during reflection which are related to practice and Fu...ve an on experience. We also suggest issues which impact on it. It prompts learning through may need to be confronted by learners before drawing attention to matters which may not this. previously have been given sufficient atten- They should be formulated in ways which tion. For example, we have emphasised the invite testing through the experience of oth- importance of recapturing experience and ers. They can be validated through such attending to feelings. In our observations of experiential assessment. Since a model al- adult learning activities these are elements ways embodies limited experience it must be which are frequently ignored, particularly open to be modified in the light of further when teaching occurs in formal classroom experience. settings. Feedback and constructive criticism of our model Models for practice work when they are revealed issues that are important and which did not rooted in specific experience and speak to expe- find sufficient expression in our original formulation. rience. Our original base of experience was In pointing out some aspects that were not consid- participation as learners and facilitators in a ered, and suggesting others that have arisen since, our great variety of experience-based learning critics have encouraged us to re-evaluate our model. activities. Our intention was to develop ideas We found that we could incorporate further elements which resonated with those with whom wewithout altering the key elements of the original. As collaborated and which they could use to we thought about this we identified another impor- inform their own practice. The fact that our tant characteristics of models: the need to show model spoke to a wider audience was a bonus relationships. which emerged later. Within a model, elements should be set in Other features ofour original model have been brought relation one to another rather than as an home to us by the experience ofothers in using it. We assortment of isolated insights. Good models have been delighted that our model has been used and can often be summarised diagrammatically validated in areas as varied as the education of health to show linkages between various elements professionals, organisational development in govern- and as a convenient aide memoire. It is often ment departments, and in many countries. Attention the model that can be captured visually that has been given to it because we believe it is one of the provides sufficient prompt for practitioners few frameworks which exist which help make sense of to recall it readily in the midst of practice. the business of debriefing or structured reflection Following our first publication about a model we after complex participatory learning activities, and realised that it did not go far enough: it didn't take which directs the attention of the facilitator to specific account ofwhat precedes a learning event (experience categories ofactivity with which it might be useful for and conscious design/preparation), what occurs dur- learners to engage. The acceptance which it gained ing an event (noticing, intervention and reflection- was due in large part to the recognition of the ele- in-action) and didn't take account of a more critical ments which experienced practitioners identified from approach to reflection (in which basic assumptions their own experience. The experience of those who are identifili and subjected to scrutiny). We did not have used it show that it has features which address change our model of reflection, but, with it as our other desirable criteria for models: openness, chal- starting point, we developed a further representation lenge and scope for testing. directed towards facilitating learning from experi- Models should be open to being added to as ence. This had the effect of putting our reflection required in particular situations and key ele- model within an appropriate context, and allowed its ments can be developed further in context- elements to be rdated more clearly to what is actually specific ways. We found that while different taking place in experience. It showed that the original terminology is used in different practice set-could be incorporated constructively into 2 larger tings, each context can be accommodated model, and thus perform its task more effectively. within our model, so, or example, it can be Models should be sufficiently robust that usec: as readily for debriefing games and 0 scurtherdevelopment of them can be incorpo- 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 19

rated. They should be able to form part of a teaching and learning. Many of the more general broader representation without losing the model-building considerations are important in this characteristics which prove to be most help- context. In our terms, a model is both a personal ful. Our original representation of reflection reminder for us as learne...s, and an instrument which after an event was sufficiently robust that it teachers or facilitators can use to introduce to others could be incorporated into a more compre- key ideas about learning. It acts as a kind of mental hensive model of facilitating learning from map or schema which represents ideas or issues that experience without basic change. we have found to be important and want to incorpo- Interestingly, when we came to apply our current rate into our practice, and as a means of communicat- version ofour model to the experience ofworking and ing these notions to others. We believe there is a close learning together, we found it very productive, butlink between models and experience. They are at- were confronted with the difficulty of communicat- tempts to conceptualise knowledge gained from expe- ing this to othersthe link between the model and rience. our insights were obscure to readers. This led us to One key issue which requires further exploration is reflect on the mystery of the process which occurs the extent to which any model of learning places the between application of the model and outcome andlearner as the centrepiece. Traditionally we have been the problem of expression. What is produced relates influenced by the individualistic, psychologically ori- to the learners, and their past, rather than to theented literature and, while neither of us are psycholo- model, even though engagement with the model gists, we can see some features of this tendency in our occasioned it: different people will take quite differ- own work. But more and more, such a framing of ent things from their engagement with the same learning alone is becoming inadequate, not capturing model. We found that the limits of a model are the complex interactions of person, context and cul- important features of it. ture. We need to find ways of acknowledging the Models may most usefully be generative and individual as social and context-bound whilst allow- provocative rather than explicit and sequen- ing for the possibilities of transformation. tial. They are devices which prompt users to move in the direction that they want to go, with reminders of what they might consider FOOTNOTE rather than a statement of what they should do. The model is effective when it acts to 'The space restrictions of this paper leave us with no room generate further reflection rather than when to present the details of our own models. However, in it appears to explain experience. It should this section we describe the development of them, stimulate dialogue and indicate possibilities extract somc general points about models and illustrate rather than prescribe outcomes. these with examples drawn from them. We have found that some aspects of making sense of learning from experience leads to the development of REFERENCES models, whereas others cannot be expressed in this form. In the recent book, we found that we were Boud, D. J., Keogh, R. and Walker, D. (Eds.)(1985). unable to summarise the main features in a model; we Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning. London: listed them in propositional form.. This prompted us Kogan Pagc. to ask why no model emerged? Could it be that the Boud, D. J. and Walker, D. (1990). Making the most of subject we were tackling was vaster, and more com- experience. Studies in Continuing Education, 12, 2, 61- plex? Or that the possible applications were too great? 80. Whatever be the reason, we felt no compulsion to Boud, D. J., Cohen, R. and Walker, D. (Eds.)(in press). create a model. After all, the model is an instrument Using Experience for Learning. Milton Keynes: SRHE for expression and communication, and it may not and Open University Press. always be the best instrument to achieve these things. Jarvis, P. (1987). Adult Learning in the Social Context. London: Croom Helm. Concluding thoughts Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning. Englewood While there has been extensive discussion of models Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. in theory-building and research, less emphasis has Scholl, D. A. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner. been given to the development of models to aid San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

019 20 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE 'Research: reflecting practice'? Modern paradigms, postmodern controversies Richard Edwards Open University Robin Usher University of Southampton

N placing a question mark after the title for this practice located in specific research communities. To Iconference we wish to d raw attention to the unstated say that research reflects practice is to imply that assumptions implied in the title about what legiti- research is transcendental and consequently to ignore mately constitutes 'research'. We want to argue that that, as a practice, research acts on or 'constructs' what these assumptions because of their location as an it researches. The effect is then to mask the way in unacknowledged modernist paradigm of knowledgewhich 'data', 'knowledge' and `truth' are generated in and knowledge-production raise a number of prob- the very practice of research. lematic issues in relation to research. We want to Second, the very notion of reflection as a measure of question the widely accepted belief that replacing legitimation suggests a simple referential and repre- discipline-based with practice-based, action-orien- sentative relationship between the 'objective', inde- tated resarch, positivist with interpretive approaches , pendent world ofpractice and knowledge of it through quantitive with qualitative methods, has meant that research; it's a world that's 'out there', with its 'truth' somehow research no longer operates within such a waiting to be discovered. Interestingly, both the dis- paradigm, with its limiting and oppressive conse-cipline-based and the practice-based paradigms of quences therefore no longer present. Our aim in this research are little different in positing accurate repre- paper is briefly to sketch some of the challenges which sentation of a discovered world as the goal o f research. a postmodern critique poses to this belief and to the In the former, it is discovered through correct use of modernist paradigm of research in general. In doing 'scientific' methodology, in the latter, through the this, we hope to signal that practice-based researchextent to which it reflects practice. In this sense they can easily become part of a discourse with oppressive share the modernist paradigm of ultimately verifiable consequences and therefore cannot be thought of as knowledge as the grounds for personal and social simply possessing an inherent and necessary emanci- progress. In neither are fundamental questions posed patory potential. about the nature of representation nor of how truth- We would readily acknowledge that the art-empt to ful representation is achieved within particular re- legitimise research as a reflection of practice was an search practices. It is precisely the notion of truth as important strategic element in the move away from a transcendental possibility, of the discovery rather purely discipline-based research. This move can be than the production of truth, that a postmodern seen in a larger context as the consequence of anperspective calls into question. epistemological shift from a positivist to an interpre- Third, to see research as a reflection of practice is to tathe, hermeneutical paradigm of research. The pos- work with an impoverished and limited conception ited emancipatory potential of practice-based research both of research and of practice. At one level, it is to lay in the deliberate attempt to demystify research, to see the latter as a transparent and readily accessible make it more accessible and user-friendly, and en- 'reality' waiting to be discovered and correspond- hance its critical power first, by stripping it of its ingly, research as necessarily empirical in nature, the 'theoretical' mystique and second, by breaking down justification being that this is the only form of re- the powerful notion of the researcher as the distanced search through which the 'reality' of practice can be expert. In this way, research was apparently 'democ- truly known. Conceiving practice as transparent and ratised' becoming an activity available to everyone immediately accessible is impoverished because it within the relevant field. If research was not to be fails to recognise its complexity. Practice is con- legitimised by disciplinary criteria then it seemed structed as a set ofexperiences and activities unmediated appropriate that practice should be the source ofby language, discourse and power and thus knowable legitimation i.e. that research should qlect practice. without the aid of theory. Equally, research is con- However, problems start to arise when research isstructed as a linear, staged process without effects, understood simply as a 'reflection' of practice. First, thus without a recognition of the place of con-text research is not a transcendental activity but is itself a (the situated ness of the researcher), pre-text (lan- practice, a knowledge-claiming and truth-producing guage, pre-understandings, values) and sub-text

20 1993SCOTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 21

(power-knowledge formations exprmed through dis- search has a tendency to be collapsed into a process of cursive practices). It is only through recognition ofevaluating what happens in practice, with the latter the complexity of practice and the 'textuality' ofdefined in terms of the boundaries of particular research that the workings of reflexivity can be ad- institutions and educational settings. In this process, dressed. Furthermore, it is only through this recogni- the factors which underpin and make that practice tion that there is any possibility of being reflexive both possible in the first place are factored out of the as a practitioner and a researcher. The impoverish- research. Research is therefore conducted within a ment of practice and research is itself a necessary part largely descriptive framework of pre-understandings of a powerful discourse where research is constituted which foreground certain sorts of questions e.g. what as a species of confessional activity which evokes the we are trying to do? how do we approach it? does it 'truth' of practice through reflection but behind work? From a 'common-sense' viewpoint this appears which lie other barely concealed yet 'unmentionable' to be eminently sensible. At the same time, however, agendas. since every inclusion is correspondingly an exclusion It can be argued the power of this conception ofthere is a silence about other kinds of questions, in research has been engendered by concern over the particular reflexive questions about the 'world' con- effectiveness of practice. Since the 1970s, increased structed by the research. To create or to work through accountability has been sought from educators toan already created common-sense world through justify state support for educational practices. There doing a particular kind of research is to unconsciously has been a general concern about 'achievement', or and uncritically adopt a certain stance and location. It the lack of it, and a more particular concern about the is to assume that research should be orientated to- failure to substantially transform the class, gender and wards the immediately practical, that it should always race profiles of 'achievement'. This has resulted in an have instrumental pay-of& and provide 'useful' knowl- ever greater emphasis on the practices of institutions edge and answers to 'real' problems. It is to surrender and the effectiveness of individual practitioners. The research to what can be seen as an oppressive techni- result has been a greater involvement of government cal-rationality. This is somewhat ironic given that departments (e.g. Employment Department) and practice-based research was originally meant to free government sponsored organizations (e.g. Further research from the constraints of technical-rationality. Education Unit, NCVQ and TECs/LECs) in inves- Practice-based research aims to increase the effective- tigating the world of educational practice. Ostensibly ness and efficiency. This firmly locates it within a the agenda has been 'practical' and pragmatic, to 'find modernist conception of instrumental reason which out' what works and for those 'lessons' to be made takes the particular form of finding out what works available to the field as a whole. The burgeoning ofand then compiling a checklist of 'good practice' short term contract research addressing practice-based which it is assumed can be applied universally. What's issues has been one of the consequences. at stake here is the possibility of transferral. Paradoxi- Much of this research has sought to investigate 'what cally, it is the very limits of this type of research which works' in terms of institutional development and undermines transferability and these limits can only curriculum design. Even if only implicitly, the aim be overcome through a critical and reflexive under- has been to establish how educators can become more standing of the wider range of issues that bear upon effective and efficient. Its limitations have become 'effective practice', including those factors which clear, in particular we will highlight only the limita- make 'effective practice' a prime concern of research tions inherent in a form of research which seeks to be in the first place. Without this mediation, the empiri- practice-based yet which has financial questions as a cal overwhelms the critical to such an extent that even condition and outcome. Yet this enmeshing of finan- 'radical' educational positions are reduced largely to cial questions with issues of practitioner efficiency celebrating the failure of Initiatives as a 'good thing' and effectiveness is no coincidence. On the contrary, without being able to construct credible alternatives. it provides a vital clue to the way in which anyIn other words, they become absorbed into the dis- emancipatory intent of practice-based research is courses and practices ofcontract research. iwen as they capable of being articulated in an oppressive discourse oppose what is being researched and are doubtful of regulatory control that better enables the disciplin- about their outcomes. The paradigm is sustained and ing and self-disciplining ofeducators and educational reinforced, despite different and oppositional posi- institutions. tions within it. Thus, whilst not wishing to deny that much contract The privileging of`practice' as the site for research and research has had useful outcomes we think it neces- the corresponding assumption of thc transparency of sary to stress its limitations since these limitations are practice has been reinforced by the popularity of the potentially a feature of all practice-based research. notion of the 'reflective practitioner' or 'teacher as The fundamental problem is that practice-based re- researcher' and the growth of professional develop- 021 22 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE ment2Sits key condition. As well as the democratic somc of the suggestive critiques offered by adopting a impulse, we can detect here a process whereby a posnnodern stance. In arguing that 'research reflect- general concern over the effectiveness of practice is ing practice' is part of the modern paradigm we are transferred to the individual practitioner. The effect suggesting that itis located within a network of is to prescriptively construct the practitioner as some- discourses and strategies that construct and regulate one who not only ought to be concerned about the `practice' and the 'practitioner' as key sites and stakes effectiveness of their practice but who is also solely in the operation of power/knowledge formations. responsible for it. Access to an understanding of their Through exploring the postmodern controversies practice is to be gained through research into/reflec- over such issues as 'truth', 'representation' and 'real- tion upon it. While this is now a widely prevalent ity' that surround and are silenced by this notion of notion among those concerned with the development research we can begin to reveal its powerful effects and ofadult educators, it is not uncommon for those same question its emancipatory and democratic potential. people to comment critically on the largely descrip- We are not wanting to claim that practice-based tive, under-analysed and under-theorised nature of research is 'wrong' or that it should be abandoned. 'reflective practice' work. While the criticism is gen- Nor do we seek to prescribe a universally 'right' way erally levelled at practitioners, it may well be that the of doing research. To do so would be to contradict very notion ofthe 'reflective practitioner' that is being blatantly the postmodern 'message'. Rather, we are worked with, operating as it does within a power- arguing the need for a reflexive recognition of the knowledge formation of concern over the effective- limits of 'reflecting practice' as a grounding of the ness and efficiency of practice, actually is a contribu- claims to truth and knowledge. If research is in the tory factor to the limited response of practitioners. In business of constructing 'reality' then one of its im- other words, the notion of the 'reflective practitioner portant tasks is to be continually demystifring the reflecting practice' precisely lacks the sense of con- 'reality' of its own practice. It follows therefore that in text, pre-text and sub-text which creates the possibil- foreground ing the workings of reflexivity and the ity for practitioners to more fully and critically inter- need to be reflexive we have to accept that this text is rogate their own practices. It may therefore be more open to the same challenge. In writing from within a appropriate for professionals to be seen as 'reflexive' postmodern perspective we recognise that our text is practitioners thus suggesting the need for involve- not 'innocent', it is not a mere reflection ofan already ment in a process which problematises the very cat- existing 'reality' but has in effect created, albeit delib- egories of `practice' and `concern about practice'. erately and self-consciously, yet another 'reality' ab- In conclusion, it is clear that we have only introduced out research.

0 2 2 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 23 Metaphors and their implications for research and practice in adult and community education

Cheryl Hunt Division of Adult Continuing Education University of Sheffield Introduction any 'evidence' she may produce to support her theory TO use a metaphor is to apply a name or descrip and leave unquestioned our own picture of the tive term to something to which it is not literally 'real' world. applicable; the purpose is to provide a new way ofI am not suggesting that the next space-probe might seeing something that has become so familiar it is actually spot the turtles. Nevertheless, it is only a few often not seen. AddHonally, as Fletcher (1992) notes, hundred years since 'common knowledge', society's the metaphors we use to represent the world to collective mindset, decreed that the Earth was flat and ourselves can act as bridges between our thoughts and dragons lived at the edges. Those who first intimated our actions. Later, I shall describe the origins of two otherwise, and those who began to dispute other metaphors for society which help me to make sense ofuniversal 'givens', like the movement of the Sun what is going on 'out there' and to make choices about around the Earth, were branded as mad or as heretics the way I work. I invite you to consider what relevance and risked derision or even death in propounding they may have for your own teaching and research. their views. So I am suggesting that, by constricting First, though, let me introduce you to some turtles, our thoughts and actions, mindsets have a strong thought patterns and shadowed places. Each also has bearing on what we regard as 'reality'. something to tell us about the familiar, but largely unseen, world in which we live and work. Mindsets I referred just now to 'common knowledge' as the Turtles collective mindset ofa society. Constituting the 'givens' There is an apocryphal story about a meeting between from which further knowledge grows and expands, it the psychologist, William James, and an old lady who represents the ideas we think with rather than those was convinced that thc Earth rested on the back of a we think about. Such knowledge is generally held in huge turtle. Politely, James asked what held up thetrust by the society's institutions, a term used here to turtle. The lady replied that the first turtle stood on denote all the organizational structures through which the back of a second. Undaunted, James enquired customs and practices are established and upheld, what held up the second turtle. The withering re- such as families, governments, educational academies, sponse was, "Why, surely you know Professor, it's class structures and multinational corporations. turtles, turtles, turtles, all the way down". Detailing the importance of such institutions, Doug- Don't laugh too soon! The turtle theory may seem las (1987) describes how they store and process infor- bizarre but it was undoubtedly arrived at using the mation, often over many generations, and thereby same kinds of thought processes as those which have determine the mores of the society in question and enabled most of us to create a more consensual viewinfluence the thought patterns and behaviour of of 'the way the world is'. Wilson (1990) provides aindividuals within it. Even when individuals have simple analysis of these processes. The human mind, some awareness of this influence, most find it ex- he says, behaves as if it were divided into two parts: the tremely difficult to free themselves from it. Indeed, as Thinker and the Prover. The Thinker is free to Fennel et al (1988, p.7) point out, 'Sociologists who fantasize and can create thoughts about almost any- spend their lives trying to demystify society find that thing it chooses. The Prover has only one function: to its immense present reality distorts their vision con- prove what the Thinker thinks. stantly'. For the Thinker it is as easy to picture the Earth For Douglas (op.cit., p.69) the process of 'demystify- balanced on the backs of an infinite number of turtles ing' society is problematic because institutions 'create as to visualize it orbiting the Sun. However, theshadowed places in which nothing can be seen and no Prover in my mind, and probably yours, is happier to questions asked'. Thus, by storing and processing the substantiate the latter view for which there seems to be information which bounds our society, institutions considerably more objective evidence. Secure in our both have an impact on and act like the unconscious rational thinking, we can smile at the old lady's part of our own milods. An analogy might be with a turtles. We can also brand her as eccentric, dismisssponge which is able to absorb, and therefore to 023 2 4 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE exclude from awareness, information which is super- The success of these 'Society Machines' has been fluous to our immediate circumstances or which measured in terms of their economic and political might be distressing. This selective exclusion of un- power, and their education systems designed to per- wanted information is what enables us, as individuals petuate the efficient operation of the machinery. as well as whole societies, to create our own 'reality'. The information stored and processed by the institu- Two examples may help here: tions in such societies has been affected by mindsets First, what has your 'reality' been over the past five born of the artificial separation of the physical from minutes? Have you been focusing on what has been the spiritual world which seems to have beel-, the said? Were you also aware of other impressions? Had necessary precursor of the advancement of modern you got bored and 'gone' somewhere else? Is it not the science. One feature of 'scientific thought' often case that where we focus our attention is all that is reflected in the structure of industrial societies is the 'real' for us our 'reality' at any given time? importance attributed to classificatory systems, lead- Think about occasions when someone has spoken ing to separation and hierarchical ordering (in educa- and startled you because you were, literally, 'lost in tion, for example, in terms of age bands and abilities; thought'! in industry, between 'blue and white collar' work; Second, as in random blot tests where the visual and, of course, by gender and race). stimuli remain the same but the 'pictures' people Influenced by such thinking, the people-cogs of 'So- create from them vary considerably, what we 'see' in ciety Machines' frequently define thernselves in terms everyday situations and believe to be 'reality' of their position in the Machine. They say "I am a varies from person to person. Shown a glass in which teacher" or "I am a miner" or "I am a housewife" as if the contents were at the halfway mark would you say their whole 'I', their whole 'being-ness' were invested it was half full or half empty? in their Machine function. It is one reason why The difference is not merely semantic: your answer redundancy, or even enforced changes in established probably represents your whole outlook on life! Such work patterns, can be so devastating, and why women responses often stem from mindsets that have less to whose full-time career has been in caring for their do with the present than with thought patterns and family sometimes find it so difficult to cope when expectations laid down in the past as a result ofgrown-up children leave home: suddenly it is not personal experiences. Such experiences are them- clear who 'I' am. selv,.x shaped and coloured by an institutional frame- Western 'Society Machines' now show signs of insta- work of which, for the most part, we are only vaguely bility: many 'cogs' no longer have a clearly defined aware. function; others have tried to redefine their function and/or their traditional relationship with other Ma- Metaphors chine parts. The institutions that have sustained the !n the remainder of this paper I want to explore, Machine are beginning to crumble and some of the through the use of metaphor, the 'reality' created by 'givens' hidden in their shadows are being exposed to the knowledge held in, and processed by, the institu- question. In Kuhn's (1970) terms, we may be experi- tions of Western industrialized societies and to encing a 'paradigm shift', a period in which there are consider some of the implications of an alternative too many anomalies to be absorbed within the exist- 'reality'. ing paradigm and a new one must emerge. The Gaia I should warn you that these metaphors have become metaphor is increasingly being used to give substance my turtles! My Prover has satisfied me they are valid to the emerging paradigm (see Russell, 1991; ways of seeing the world. Yours may not. In either Thompson, 1987). event, check your mindsets: they may seriously influ- The concept of Gaia was developed by Lovelock ence the reality you choose! (1979) who proposed that the Earth is a living system. The two metaphors are of a giant machine and ofOther scientists dispute this, but the powerful im- Gaia. The first symbolizes for me the way in which agery created by attaching the name of tly: ancient Western industrialized societies presently operate; Earth goddess to a modern scientific theory now the second holds promise for the future. provides a means of articulating the need for a re- The machine metaphor originates from Toffler'sexamination, from a global perspective, of societal (1980) view that industrial societies in the West are value systems. Underpinning this need is a tacit approaching the end of a period of civilization char- acknowledgement of the organic nature and acterized by thought and behaviour patterns associ- interconnectedness of socio-political, physical and ated with the Industrial Revolution. Founded on a spiritual processes. Newtonian vision of a 'clockwork universe', such This acknowledgement derives, in part, from the societies have themselves become machines and peo- workings of quantum physics rather than Newtonian ple no more than the cogs to drive and serve them. mechanics. The difference is particularly relevant in 024 1993 scUritewCONFERENCE PAPERS 15 the present context since a central tenet of the newdisintegrate; Gaian thought patterns and processes physics is that the researcher and 'the researched' are are giving shape to the new wave which mustfollow. inseparable. So, also, must be the teacher and 'the I may be alone in this ocean on the back of my turtle taught', in the sense of both subject matter and but the 'reality' encapsulated by the new wave students. looks attractive. Will you join me there? For me, using Gaia as a metaphor for society both highlights the nature of such relationships and draws attention to the need for an education system that REFERENCES enables individuals to search for their own meaning, to answer the question "Who am I?",unfettered by Douglas, M. (1987) How Institutions Think. Routledge artificially imposed institutional boundaries or expec- and Kegan Paul, London. tations. The key to this system may lie in the develop- Fennell, G., Phillipson, C. and Evers, H. (1988) The ment of practitioner research, particularly in the field Sociology of Old Age. Open University Press, Milton of adult and community education. Significantly, Keynes. such research can enhance both the personal growth Fletcher, C. (1992) 'Principles for the perceptive and and development of the researcher through the proc- persistent'. Communio, Education Network, Vol.12, ess of reflection, and the social awarenessand under- No.8, pp.3-5. standing of the research 'subjects' through their con- Kuhn, T. (1970, first published 1962) The Structure of scious and active involvement in the investigative Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press, process. London. At a time when the status of practitioner research is Lovelock, J. (1979) Gaia: A New Look at Lift on Earth. not yet fully recognised in academiccircles, that of Oxford University Press, Oxford. adult and community education still not entirely clear Russell, P. (1991, first published 1982) The Awakening within the universities, and government intervention Earth: The Global Brain. Arkana, London. in education increasingly reactionary, such a notion Thompson, W.I. (ed) (1987) Gaia, A Way of Knowing: may seem incongruous. However, it isborn of an Political Implications of the New Biology. Lindisfarne image created by the juxtaposition of the two meta- Press, New York. phors I have described. This image has 'Society Ma- Toffler, A. (1980) The Third Wave. Collins, London. chine' ideologies represented by a vast wave in theWilson, R.A. (1990) Prometheus Rising. Falcon Press, ocean which has reached its peak and begun to Arizona.

025 16 RESEARCH:REFLECTING PRACTICE A 'common-sense' approach to reflection

Moira Russon South Manchester College.

Introduction ofAchievement (FEU Project No RP458)and it was THE aim of this paper is to explore some ideas subsequently discovered that the dynamics of reflec- about reflection which came out of research into tion derived from the FEU study could be applied to Egan's 'Helping Model'. It may be helpful for the implement change within an organisational setting. reader to be aware that in the field of counsellorThis in itself was not a new discovery Egan has training, Egan's 'Helping Model' (Egan,1975) is applied his 'Helping Model' to organisational devel- looked upon as a framework within which communi- opment (Egan,1985 & 1988).What was new was the cation skills training can be integrated into helping realisation of the power of the dynamics embedded relationships. The 'Helping Model' is person-centred within the structure of the 'Helping Model' I and focuses on missed opportunity and possible po- considered these dynamics to be very significant and tential arising from missed opportunity. A basic char- useful for the development of a simple and active acteristic of the model is that it is structured into three approach to reflection. It was from this background stages of development as exemplified in Figure 1. that I began to research into the origins of Egan's

GERARD EGAN'S "HELPING MODEL"

Present Situation Preferred Situation Achievina Preferred Situation Challenge and Focussing & Clarifying Confrontation STAGE I STAGE II STAGE III

AIMS Establishment of Offering CHALLENGES ACTION and IMPLEMENTATION THRUST through to DEVELOP NEW of plans to encourage CHANGE aPLORATICN PERSPECTIVES

COUNSELLING MOVING FORWARD PROCESS Attending Focusing Listening Offering new perspectives Brainstorming possible strategies Reflecting Sharing experiences Decision Making Paraphrasing Immediacy Designing/Implementing Plar,s Open Questioning ChallengIng/confrontation Problem solving Summarising Chckee and ComrNtment to Knowledge of resources Identifying Key issues tentative plans

FIGURE 1

I have used Egan's 'Helping Model' for approxi- 'Helping Model'. mately eight years, both in the classroom and in staffThe hidden process embedded within the dynamics development workshops for teachers. One of the of Egan's 'Helping Model' was adapted into a simple main findings from this experience is that the 'Help- reflective model which was then applied to curricu- ing Model' gives people who use it a sense of personal lum change within an organisational setting. (Russon meaning and ownership in their work once a trusting 1991). The dynamics of the reflection seemed to be and caring relationship has been established. Duringderived from counsellor qualities of trust, openness, 1987-90lused the dynamics of Egan's 'Helpinghonesty, non-judgemental warmth and empathy. Model' to underpin a research project into RecordingWith this discovery, it became apparent that the 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 27 hidden process discovered within Egan's 'Helping FIGURE 3: COMPARISON OF IGNATIAN Model' could be applied to many situations as a SPIRITUAL DIRECTION AND EGAN'S "HELPING reflective activity, simply by sharing thoughts and MODEL" feJings with others within the context of trusting and caring relationships, provided an agreed contract of IGNATIAN SPIRJTUAL EGAN'S HELPING confidentiality was established. It was also found that DIRECTION MODEL greater emphasis on the process of reflection dimin- Stage I Stage I ished the 'mystique' surrounding counselling and counsellor training. Aim: Who am I? Aim: review of current situation

(a) Focusing on the current (a) Telling the story Origins of Egan's 'Helping Model' problem Egan states in 'The Skilled Helper' (1975) that he derived the structure of his 'Helping Model' from a (b) Re-living the experience (b) Clarifying/focusing collection ofdifferent ideas and aspects of counsell ing (c) Getting in touch with feelings (c) Summarising and psychological theory which he then applied to a about the experience simple, 'common-sense folk model' comprising three (d) Identifying negative and positrve(d) Finding new perspectives stages ofdevelopment. Egan explains in the preface to aspects of the experience 'The Skilled Helper' (1975) that he was first intro- duced to this 'folk model' at High School, and he Stage 2 Stage 2 describes the model first presented to him as `To See, Aim: Imagining what I could Aim: Imagining the preferred to.ludge, and then to Act. The 'Helping Modei' Egan achieve situation devised from this knowledge and experience is exem- (a) Focusing on the Ideal Situation.(a) Describing the new or pre plified in Figure 2. ferred situation

FIGURE 2: COMMON SENSE METHOD (b) Turning negative experiences(b) Identifying dear and specific into positive aims for the future. goals OF REFLECTION (c) Identifying the course of action.(c) Making a decision to change and Stage i Stage 2 Stage 3 identifying an aim Beginning Middle End Stage 3 Stage 3 TO SEE TO JUDGE TO ACT Strategyand Aim: Strategy and implementation implementation The literature search I carried out seems to reveal that the structure and process of Egan's 'Helping Model' (a) Pianning the strategy (a) Brainstorming possibilities can be traced to the Spiritual Exercises of St Ignatius of Loyola. St Ignatius wrote his Spiritual Exercises (b) Considering all possible (b) Formulating a plan not for people to read about, but rather, for them to alter natives. practice (Brodnick, 1940). Gerard Hughes (1985) (c) Writing out the strateg. (d) Identifying action to be maintains that Ignatius wrote the Spiritual Exercises taken. for 'everyone'. Ignatian Spirituality involves a process of reflection on feelings and individual personal im- research into what might on the surface appear to be pulses in order to enhance the decision-making proc- subjective and unproductive routes of enquiry. ess within spiritual direction (King, 1975). A com- With simple acceptance of what Ignatian spirituality parison of the processes which underpin Ignatian might have to offer, it becomes apparent that Ignatius Spiritual Direction and Egan's 'Helping Model' isof Loyola has provided us with particular ways of exemplifed in Figure 3. unde,--tanding and deepening our human experience would seek to encourage an examination of closed, that arc wholly in accord with the best insights of prejudiced attitudes to folk, cultural and religious modern psychology. (Meissner, 1992 and Meadow literature sources in order that such sources are ac- 1989). Ignatius found a way through his own cepted in academic circles with more objectivity, personal way of reflecting of getting in touch with because there is a tendency to become trapped into ahis inner-most thoughts and feelings and sharing purely 'intellectual' approach to research that can these thoughts and feelings with his companions. become meaningless and complicated when applied After sifting through the meaning of his feelings, to practical situations. It is helpful to be aware of Ignatius was able to make decisions that changed the personal as well as academic and scientific prejudice; course of his life and the course of the counter- and to examine 'closed' attitudes which could prevent reformation during the Sixteenth Century. What I 28 RESEARCH: REPLECTING PRACTICE have found fascinating is that when Ignatian reflective FIGURE 4: IGNATIAN METHOD OF REFLECTION processes are applied to every-day situations, we are Stage I Stage 2 Stage 3 enabled to let go of established uncertainties and are Beginn ing Middle given a sense of direction that is underpinned by End commitment derived from a sense of truth and integ- Who am I? Where am I going? How will I rity. These qualities lie at the heart of any situation in achieve my life, but are often ignored. In this context, weakness goal? and vulnerability become essential ingredients Jead- VVhat is the challengeWhat will I do? What is ing to trust, growth and greater self-confidence (Eng- in my life? happening lish, 1987). In order to understand how Ignatius of to me? Loyola discovered this for himself and then devised his own system of coping with change in his own life Reflection as a decision-making process and transferring this to the challenge of change during The main use of reflection in the Spiritual Exercises the 16th Century (Rahner 1979), it is necessary to was to make decisions, and the central theme of this reflect briefly on his life and experience in the context decision-making process was one of choice and hope of his time. (King,1975). Ignatius called this process discernment and he discovered and clarified the techniques of Brief blogrzphical sketch of Ignatius of Loyola decision-making by reflecting upon and then Ignatius of Loyola was born in 1491 at the family journaling his spiritual experiences. He was able to castle of Loyola in the Basque country. The family share his ideas with his companions and to show them belonged to provincial nobility whose members had too how to keep a spiritual journal. Through this fought with the Kings of Castile since the 13th process his companions were able to choose between Century. The traditions of soldiering, characteristic negative and positive impulses and to make decisions of his family, permeated Ignatius' strong sense offocused on the truth of individual situations. The duty, obedience and high-minded chivalry. In 1521 whole point of keeping a journal was to focus on his leg was shattered by a cannon ball whilst in battle feelings related to a life experience or a specific task, at Pamplona, Northern Spain, and he was carriedand the techniques of sifting through daily experi- back to Loyola on a stretcher. His leg was re-set twice ences, noting opposing feelings (e.g. sadness as op- and as he began to recover he began to reflect on his posed to happiness) enabled the companions of life. The battle of Pamplona against a trained foreign Ignatius to focus on the 'truth' of particular situa- foe was Ignatius' only chance to win the martial glory tions. The discernment process seems to be aligned to that had so long eluded him (English, 1987). In the phenomenological reduction theory of Edmund reflecting on the Pamplona experience, Ignatius com- Husserl. The advantage of the discernment process pared his daydreams with the reality of his life that when applied to phenomenology, is that the 'lived' of becoming a cripple. What was he to do now? This experience always belongs to and is never taken away brought him in touch with his feelings, he was bored from the person who is experiencing and reflecting. and frustrated and felt a very deep sense of sadness at Clarification of meaning in the search of 'truth' is the loss of being a professional soldier. As he grieved, achieved by sharing and clarifying thoughts, feelings, he began to ask himself questions; "Who am I?"dreams and fantasies with another person experi- "What will I do?" "What is the challenge in my life?" enced in the techniques of discernment. The tech- "What is happening to me?" "Where am I going?" niques of sifting through negative and positive feel- (Hewett 1990). This type of self-questioning lies at ings in the discernment process whilst very simple, are the heart of the spiritual experience, and is completely also very challenging but the person is left com- transferrable to existentialism and phenomenology. pletely free to explain and clarify his/her own experi- The three stages of Egan's 'folk model' seem to ences without the fear of inaccurate interpretation. In correlate to the type of questions Ignatius asked comparison, the phenomenological reduction theory himself as he thought through the direction his life of Edmund Husserl (Hycner, 1985), appears to me to should follow. be intellectual, clumsy, and distanced from the con- The essential message that threads its way through the text of a personally 'owned' experience processes exemplified in Figure 4 is an awareness of feelings at each stage of development and an ability to The process of discernment look at the difficulties confronting one in life to There is widespread suspicion of the notion ofIgnatian discover ways of overcom ing problems. The genius of discernment, and King (1975) asserts that a sense of Ignatius lies in the kind of reflection that got him in altrusim is fundamental to effective decision-making touch with his feelings and sub-conscious through his with clear goals and total commitment to the achieve- own self-questioning. ment of these goals for the process to be implemented 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 19 properly. Proper use of the techniques of Ignatian In order to achieve these aims, it is essential that the decision-making involves the qualities of indiffer- reflective process is facilitated by a person who is ence, detatchment to self-interest and a single-minded experienced in using Ignatian techniques and princi- commitment to the achievement of a goal. If self- ples. Each person using the process should be altru- interest is given top priority in the decision-making istically commited to the notion of reflective deci- process, there is reluctance on the part of the indi- sion-making in the context of service to others and the vidual to enter into any dialogue that might question cause of education. his/her raison d'etre (King, 1975). Discernment is therefore a process of self-discipline and challenge, Conclusion requiring the ability to detatch oneself from one'i It is not possible adequately to describe the processes personal ambitions, prejudices and values. Such sin- of Ignatian spirituality, because they are at the same gle-mindedness is not the normal attitude of human time dynamic and esoteric and have to be experi- beings, for it is quite natural to be interested in 'self. . enced to be understood. The essence of Ignatian The journaling process, supervised by an experienced discernment is that it has to be practiced and lived helper, enables exploration and clarification with through. I have approached research in this area by complete confidentiality. applying Ignatian principles to educational issues by A case study implementing the dynamics of reflection putting the principles into practice and allowing based on Ignatian philosophy revealed that teachers people to discover the power of the dynamics of a gained greater awareness of personal meaning and 'common-sense' approach to reflection. Conducting fillfilmerit in their work and this enabled team mem- research in this area has not been easy, it has been bers to be more open with each other. It was felt by the lonely because it was not possible to share the ideas team members that they needed a facilitator uncon-completely for of fear of rejection of a 'religious' nected with the team with whom they could clarifr philosophy. However, I asked the following question their ideas individually, under a strict code of ccnfi- of team leaders who had been involved in my study dentiality. It is remarkable that when trust, respect "If 1 had told you at the beginning of this study and genuiness are observed, the Ignatian decision- that the reflective model I was using was taken making process seems to be completely transferable to from theological or religious origins, would you educational aims and objectives. have been prepared to work with me?" In applying the process to an educational setting there In each case, the answer was an unequivocal "No!" must be clear goals and a sense of direction. Theaccompanied with a sense of disbelief at what had following criteria is essential, and could be agreed andbeen accomplished through the use of such a model. 'contracted' by applying the Ignatian processes de-What was encouraging was that the team leaders scribed in this paper: seemd to want to learn more about the model and its origins. FIGURE 5: ESSENTIAL CRITERIA FOR For me, the greatest benefit of the application of IMPLEMENTING REFLECTION Ignatian philosophy to a 'common-sense' approach to reflection is that it harnesses the creativity of

I.Clear goals/aims. human potential to the achievement of personal and organisational goals. The best example of the success 2. Single-minded commitment to the achievement of of this 'common-sense' approach is Ignatius' own goals/aims. personal story and how the dynamics of his philoso- phy under-pinned the Counter Reformation in Eu- rope and the subsequent success of Jesuit Education 3. Autonomy of each individual acknowledged and re- world-wide (Characteristics, 1987). Ifwe take time to spected. reflect on these facts, we may discoverparallels between the Renaissance and Reformation of 16th 4. Commitment to reflection for effective decision-making Century Europe and the state of the British Educa- in the achievement of the goals. tion System in the 20th Century. Indeed, in my opinion, the British education system seems to have 5. Awareness and evaluation of social, psychological and lost its sense of direction and purpose. The aims of physical factors that could inhibit the achievement of the education, the role of education service, the profes- goal. sional autonomy of teachers, and the role of assess- ment in the learning process are constantly ques- 6. Awareness of influences that could promote freedom tioned. It seems to me that the British education and autonomy in the achievement of the goal. service would do well to learn from Ignatius of Loyola 30 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE by asking a few simple questions and then reflecting Longman & Todd. deeply upon them in the context of Ignatian discern- Hycner, Richard H, 'Some Guidelines for the Phe- ment: "What is happening?" "Where are we going?" nomenological Analysis of Interview Data' in Human "What are our aims?" "How will we achieve these Studies 8: 279-303, Dordrecht, Martinuys Nijhoff. aims?" King Nicholas (1975) 'Ignatius Loyola and Decision Mak- ing' in Way SupplementNo. 24, London, Way Supple- BIBLIOGRAPHY ment. Keen, E (1968) A Primer in Phenomenological Psychology Brodnick, James (1940) The Origins of the Jesuits New New York, Van Nostrand, Reinhold Company. York, Longman. Lonsdale, David (1990) Eyes to See, Ears to Hear,: Lon- Egan, Gerard (1975) The Skilled Helper (First Edition) don, Darton, Longman & Todd. California, Brooks Cole Publishing Company. Meadow, Mary J (1989) 'Four Stages of Spiritual Experi- Egan, Gerard (1985) Change Agent Skills in Helping and ence: A comparison of the Ignatian Exercises and Human Service Settings California, Brooks Cole Pub- Jungian Psychotherapy' in Pastoral Psychology 1989. lishing Company. (Spring, Vol. 37 (3) 172-191) Egan, Gerard (1988) Change Agent Skills A: Assessing and Meissner, W W (1992) Ignatius ofLoyoia. The Psycholosy of Designing Excellence San Diego, CA, University Asso- a Saint New Haven, CT, Yale University Press. ciates. Mottla, Anthony (1964) The Spiritual Exercises ofIgnatius Egan, Gerard (1988) Change Agent Skills B: Managing New York, Doubleday. Innovation and Change San Diego, CA, University Rahner, Hugo (1953) The Spiritualiv ofSt Ignatius Loyola, Associates. Landon, Newman. English, John J (1987) Spiritual Freedom (From an experi- Rahner, Karl (1979) Ignatius ofLoyola London, Collins. ence of the Ignatian Exercises to the Art of Spiritual Russon, Moira (1991) Assessment & Recording of Achieve- Direction). Guelph, Ont., Loyola House. menta Practitioners'Guide, Manchester Open Learn- Further Education Unit, London. (1987-1990). 'Staff ing for Manchester College of Arts & Technology. Development for Assessmen tand Recording ofAchieve- Society of Jesus, Characteristics ofJesuit Education (1987) ment' Research Project No. RP458 London, Irish and British Provinces of the Society of Hewett, William (1990) 'Inigo', London, Broadcast Sup- ems. port Services.(First shown on BBC-1 in September Toner, Jules J (1974) 'The Deliberation that Started the November 1990) Jesuits' in Studies in the Spiritualiv ofJesuits Vol. VI Hughes, Gerard (1985) God ofSurprises, London, Darton, No. 4.

030 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS31 Generating knowledge in practice: challenging the assumptions

Sheila Sisto and Dawn Hillier Faculty of Health & Social Work Anglia Polytechnic University

Introduction cal physics) and the mind (consciousness). The former THE tension between scientific and clinically was considered effective whilst the latter was relegated oriented discourses, described by Bergmark and to the position of a passive spectator among machin- Oscarsson (1992), originated from the failure of both ery that worked independently of it. to pay heed to the essential differences between Professional knowledge has traditionally arisen out a phenomenological and more 'objective' data, and to combination of myth and science. However, as the make their analytical limits explicit. The scientific professions develoF.xl, professional education sought tradition, with few exceptions, gives priorityobjec- to obliterate myth from the curriculum by adopting tive data with the result that the object of study isthe technical rationality model. 'Science' was, and viewed as a fraction of its composite whole. still is, considered to be influential in increasing the Objectivist/scientific research fails to reflect upon the status of professions (English, 1993:387), the as- differences between its theoretical model of an objectsumption being that empirical research is the only and the object itself, ignoring both the objectivity and valid form of knowledge generation. reality of subjective experiences (Bergmark & Historically, midwifery was seduced by the prospect Oscarsson, 1992). For this reason, the knowledge of medical recognition and so was invaded and over- generated may have little impact or meaning forwhelmed by medical science. At the same time the practitioners within the context of their day to dayprofession was held prisoner within a bureaucratic work. hierarchy which forced practitioners to defend their This paper presents a description of a curriculum actions by conforming to scientific forms of measure- innovation in which the pivotal point rests upon ment that bureaucracy would understand, with the learning through practice based enquiry. The authors result of a loss of professional identity and intuitive reflect upon the impact of positivism and profession- autonomy. alism on midwifery knowledge. The innovation de- scribed adopts the 'person as scientist' metaphor The rediscovery of professional artistry within a model of education which conceives knowl- Schön (1988:69) promotes the search for an episte- edge as a construction of reality rather than an accu- mology of practice implicit in the artistic, intuitive mulation of facts (Pope & Denicolo 1986;163-4). process that some practitioners do bring to situations The curriculum challenges the separation of theoryof uncertainty, instability, uniqueness and value con- and practice and provides an alternative approach to flict. He is describing 'reflection-in-action'. It is now practice, education and continuing learning. A brieftimely to rediscover professional artistry and recog- analysis of the impact of the organisational environ- nise that enquiry into this form of practice is in itself ment upon the practise of individuals concludes in a a scientific process. The process of rediscovery re- recommendation for a 'learning company' ethos (Ross, quires, according to Bourdieu (1989:18) identifica- 1992), that has the power to achieve continuing tion of social, cultural and structural constructions transformation within a rapidly changing world. and construction of a break with the primary knowl- edge of the familiar world using an 'objective' ap- Positivism and professionalism in a proach such as critical reflectivity. However, -nalysis post-modern world' of a given situation must not stop ther..for as Schön (1988) describes the heritage of Positivism, the Bourdieu (1977:3), explains 'the limits of the objec- powerful philosophical doctrine that evolved in the tive and objectifying standpoint... grasppractice 19th century, as the rise ofscience and technology and from outside as a fait accompli.Therefore it is neces- a social movement aimed at applying the achieve- sary to delve constantly deeper into practice to pro- ments of these to the well-being of humanity. Pre- duce and reproduce knowledge. dating Scholl, Inge (1927) postulates conflict be- tween naturalism and supernaturalism. He uses Leslie Knowledge and professional education Stephen's analysis of the two spheres of realities and Professional education exists on the knife-edge of dreams to epitomise the division ofscience (mechani- change, balancing between the ideology of certainty 031. 32 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE and the reality of uncertainty. This paradox places midwifery context, there is an increasing demand for professional education with one foot in the world of 'research midwives': however, it is argued here that far technical rationality and modernity2 and the otherfrom establishing research credibility studies con- tentatively in the rapidly changing world of the post- ducted in a traditional approach may merely replicate modern era that challenges assumptions of certainty the failures of past research actitivies. and objective science as being instrumental in achiev- Winter (1989, p65) challenges the claims ofdetached ing stability. The resultant impact is one in which researchers speaking from their objective viewpoint as practitioners have to wrestle with the phenomenon ofbeing frequently greeted by practitioners with incre- the obsolescence of knowledge. dulity, boredom or mockery and cites the following A number of educational institutions have attempted quip (Times Educational Supplement): 'Research ei- to grapple with this problem but there is a danger that ther tells you something you knew already, or tells you the current emphasis on 'reflection' and 'facilitative' nothing, or tells you something that is obviously technique in professional education and practice is nonsense' (Sloman 1980). Despite the infiltration of more rhetoric than reality. Dominant educational empirical research data into education and the profes- processes continue to reinforce passivity in learning. sion at the 'highest' levels, there is evidence that This is evident within both initial and continuing research has failed to reach those who are clinically professional education that is conducted as a content based (Moores 1984). led approach. This reflects Todd's (1984:89-104)Each practitioner needs to become a researcher in thinking concerning a 'closed strategy'. He describes their own situation, engaging in a reflexive and dialec- a phenomenon of 'new content' being itself out oftical critique about practice experience with the in- date so that this leads to a continuously repeated cycle tention of generating new theory. The dominant of updating and slipping out of date and yet moreinterpretation of reflection as personal, private and updating. It is important therefore, to focus on con- individual is criticised by Kemmis (1985) who argues tinuing learning in the practice arena with the practi- that reflection is normally seen as a purely cognitive tioner generating knowledge at source. process. Because of this, there has been a failure to Such knowledge will have meaning within the con- recognise that it is a situated interplay of thought, text of the individual practiticner's own practice.feeling and action concerned with examining and However, we must guard against the privatisation ofchanging knowledge. How then are practitioners to that knowledge. Traditionally, practitioners have be prepared for their role as researcher? guarded their personal knowledge fearing public scep- ticism. This has resulted in a lack of awareness about Generating knowledge through practice: a and understanding of knowledge generated through midwifery curriculum innovation practice. A work-based modular curriculum for practising In professional education, theory precedes practice midwives was developed to empower them to engage that perpetuates the notion of the supremacy of this in human inquiry within the practice arena. The epistemological viewpoint. In turn, this leads to a nature ofhuman enqu iry demands that the researcher, view of professional knowledge as a hierarchy in i.e. the midwife, engages in an interactive process with which general principles occupy the highest level and the researched, e.g. other midwives and clients, thus concrete problem-solving the lowest (Schein, 1973). becoming both co-researcher and co-subject in mean- The order of application of theoretical knowledge is ing-seeking dialogue (Reason & Rowan 1991). also an order of derivation and dependence. As oneAs practitioners begin to delve deeper into practice would expect from the hierarchical model of profes- and engage in learning conversations with colleagues sional knowledge, research is institutionally separate and clients, they will become aware of the need for an from practice, connected to it by carefully defined in-depth understanding of their own and other's relationships of exchange. worlds. They will come to recognise the changing nature of practice and appreciate implications of the Research, practitioner-researcher compression of time and space that results in the and the researched obsolescence of knowledge. The emphasis ofcurricu- Traditionally, researchers are expected to provide the lum design, therefore, is placed on work-based learn- basic and applied science from which to derive tech- ing that affords opportunities for contextually mean- niques for diagnosis and solving the problems of ingful experiences. practice. Practitioners are expected to furnish re- The role of the midwifery educationalists is crucial in searchers with problems for study and evidence of thethe stimulation of critical thought; therefore it is utility and relevance of research results. The research- essential that they become actively involved in the er's role is distinct from, and usually considered exploration of practice and participate in the research superior to, the role of the practitioner. Within theprocess, becoming both co-researcher and co-subject. 32 1993SCOTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS33

The purpose of this approach is to avoid the danger ofThis curriculum innovation has been developed within adopting methods such as facilitation and experien- the context of a highee education institution to coun- tial approaches that may disguise instrumentalism teract the separation of theory and practice. Educa- with a 'human face' (Usher, 1992:212). The empha-tion has, in fact, returned to the practice arena to sis on methods and techniques reinforces the notion stimulate meaningful learning and to generate knowl- of theoretical supremacy because of the de- edge. In recognition of the need for empirical evalu- contextualised nature of the approaches. Usher main- ation, the project has been designed as an action tains that we need a critical scepticism and a suitable research. Results will be published subsequently. degree of uncertainty whilst paying close attention toFinally, it is recognised that critical enquiry is itself a the need for a careful deconstruction of theory that paradox. It seeks to deconstruct knowledge by genet- arises through practice, theory that arises about prac- ating questions and causing uncertainty whilst search- tice; and the discourses that surround practice, recog- ing for certainty. Therefore, it must not be regarded nising that nothing should be taken for granted. as an educational panacea. However, out of the ashes Certainty cannot be assured within the rapidly chang- of uncertainty new understanding of reality emerge ing world in which practice is located. which will allow practitioners to keep pace with the changing world. Teaching and learning in an organisational context FOOTNOTES Jarvis (1992:246) points out that practitioners as learners may encounter a disabling dissonance on 1 The post-modern world is characterised by fragmenta- return to a structured environment in which inertia tion, ephemerality and the chaotic currents of change reigns supreme. This may be that those in power do (Harvey 1992: 44). Foucault (1984) would argue that not wish things to change, or because others within the development of action, thought and desires by the situation prefer the status quo. In these situations proliferation and disjunction is an inherent feature of the teaching and learning transaction may produce this era. Turner (1990:1) claims that there can be an little change as the learners are often rewarded for important alliance between progressive politics (in ritualistic and repetitive behaviour whilst experimen- gender issues, multicultural alternatives to racism, in tation and creativity may be actively discouraged. ecology movements and cultural criticism) and The notion of the learning organisation is important postmodernism. here, and particularly so in the context of this curricu- 2 Modernity is characterised by the rapid growth of tech- lum innovation. Organisations learn, according to nology, science and industry, supporting an ever pow- Argyris and Schon (1978), through the agency of erful capitalist structure (Lash & Urry 1991). individuals working within them, and that individual learning is a necessary but insufficient condition for REFERENCES organisational change. If practice is fundamentally, and not cosmetically, to Argyris, C. & Schon, D.,(1978), Organizational Learning: change, then the organisation will need to adopt a A Theory of Action Perspective. Addison-Wesley learning ethos. Members acting as learning agents for Benner P. (1984), From Novice to Expert: Excellence and responding to changes to the internal and external Power in Nursing. Addison Wesky. environment will effect a process ofcontinuing trans- Bergmark, A . & Oscarsson, L. (1992), 'The Limits of formation (Pedler, Burgoyne & Boydell 1991). Phenomenology and Objectivity' in British Journal of Social Work. Volume 22 No 2 April pp121-132 Conclusion Bourdieu, P. (1977), Outline ofa Theoty ofPractice. Cam- The authors challenge the assumptions about the bridge University Press. appropriateness of traditional research that have Bourdieu, P. (1989), 'Social Space and Symbolic Power' evolved from the positivist philosophy in the context in. Sociological Theory Volume 7 No 1 pp 14-25 of a post-modern society. It is argued that theory and English, I. (1993), 'Intuition as a function of the expert practice are not two distinct entities but are rwo nurse: a critique of Benner's novice to expert model' in interactive, interdependent and complimentary phases Journal ofAdvanced Nursing. Volume 18, pp 387-393 of the learning process. They do not confront one Foucauk, J.F. (1984), The Postmodern Condition: A Report another across an unbridgeable gulf, each contains on Knowledge Manchester University Press elements of one another (Winter 1989: 66). Th Harvey, D. (1992), The Condition of Postmodernity. fore, it is appropriate to take a fresh look at the Blackwell definition of the researcher and the approaches uti- Inge W.R. (1927), Outspoken Essays. (Second Series) lised to prepare them to engage in the process of Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd. knowledge generation. Jarvis P. (1992), Paradoxes of Learning. Jossey Bass 3 4 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

Kemmis S. (1985), 'Action Research and the Politics of Schein E. (1973), Profissional Education. McGraw Hill Reflection', in Boud D. et at (eds) Reection, Turning Schon D. (1988), 'From Technical Rationality to Reflec- Experience into Learnink pp. 139-163, Kogan Page. tion-in-Action' in Dowie J. & Elstein A. (Eds) Profes- Lash, S. & Urry, J. (1991), The End ofOrganized Gtpital- sionalJudgement. Open University Press ism. Polity Press Sloman, P (1980), 'A Quango for all seasons' in The Timer Moores, Y. (1984) 'Release and provision for continuing Educational Supplement April 20. education' in Nurse Education Today. Vol 1 pp 22-24 Todd F. (1984), 'Learning and Work: Directions for Pedler, M, Burgoyne, J &Boydell, T. (1991), The Learning Continual Professional and Vocational Education' in Company: A Strategy fir Sustainable Development. InternationalJournal of Liftlong Education. Volume 3, McGraw Hill. No.2 pp 89 -104 Pope, M. & Denicolo, P. (1986) 'Intuitive Theories a Turner, B.S. (1990), 'Periodization and Politics in the Researcher's Dilemma: some practical methodological Postmodern.' in Turner, B. S. (ed), Theories ofMo4er- implications' in British Educational Research Journal. niy and Postmodernio,. Sage. Volume 12 No2 Usher, R (1992), 'Experience in Adult Education: A Post- Reason P. & Rowan J. (1991), Human Inquiry (7th Ed.) Modern Critique' in Journal of Philosophy Volume 26 John Wiley and Sons No 2 Ross, K. (1992), 'The Learning Company' in TrainingAnd Winter R. (1989), Learning From Experience The Falmer Development. July Press

3 4 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS35 Taking the epistemology: what happened to that discreet object of knowledge?

Tom Steele Department of Adult Continuing Education University of Leeds D ECOILING from the cackle of acronyms that which, as I saw it then in the unpleasantly masculinist ..constitutes the field ofcurrent adult educational language of the time, was prising open the cracks in policy, the researcher, when asked to reflect on her the hegemony and filling them with critical theory activities, glances up only to find herself in a hall of and hedonism. The WEA was a space which allowed distorting mirrors. me to teach my core interests ofliterature and politics in evening classes and Fresh Start courses while organ- Introduction ising and teaching courses on health and safety to This paper reflects on some issues concerning the safety reps for the TUC. It was very heaven. With the object of research in adult continuing education, and safety reps, for example, we could quite legitimately on the coverage of the term Adult Education. What discuss the relationship of safety committees to does the regular alteration of title of the subject areaGramsci's workers' councils and the transition from signify: changes in practices, 'client-group', ideologi- the economico-corporative, which positioned the cal perspective, professionalisation or some moreworkers as wage-slaves, to the ground of the ethico- subtle change of emphasis? The paper suggests that political which saw the workers as producers, though the object of knowledge studied under the term this was probably not what Michael Foot had envis- dissolves into different discursive fields from which aged when he passed his Health and Safety legislation. the attempt to extract the original object may do it Mrs Thatcher ofcourse put an end to all that with the some violence. So much for Reflection Theory. rather radical solution to health and safety problems Whereas internal university depart ments are the prod- ofclosing down the manufacturing sector. Anyway in uct of mostly nineteenth century specialised divisions these New Times, I suppose this now seems rather of knowledge, a department of Adult continuing utopian. Only when the inevitable rows with the education has no such body of knowledge or discreet WEA dist rict began to develop into a 'war ofattrition' methods of enqu iry. Since we teach a range of subject (curiously not a war covered well by Saint Antonio) specialisms in different circumstances to 'non-tradi- and some of us found our jobs were on the line, did tional' students, our research concerns are less fo- I seriously begin to investigate where the WEA was cused. Instead we promiscuously range over peda- coming from. gogical, historical, political, psychological and practi- The key word was 'tradition'. Our opponents in the cal issues. The formation 'Adult Education' however,WEA claimed that trade-union teaching was not has in the post-war period occupied an institutional traditional since it did not use the methods of liberal space recognised in a number of ways, for example for studies and was moreover narrowly class-based. Worse, fu nding, staffing, provision, research and so on. In the it claimed an excessive proportion of WEA funding last decade or so it has slipped almost imperceptibly was used for 'workers' education', whereas the WEA into 'Continuing Education' which has a signifi- should be a general provider ofliberal education. Like cantly different agenda. New pressures suggest it many people I had naively assumed when I joined the might be fragmenting further into mainstream higherWEA (having spent four years teaching part-time in education on the one hand and into the space occu- FE and prisons) that having 'Workers' in its title pied by Further Education on the other. reflected a special orientation to that class of people. So much for Reflection Theory. Autobiography Since leaving the WEA (we couldn't settle our differ- When I first began to take research into adult educa- ences) and becoming a jobbing researcher, I have had tion seriously I had already been a WEA Tutor the good fortune to be employed to look at 'adult Organiser for ten years. Until that point I had, I think, education' both historically and globally. Under in- not really considered it a respectable field of study. vestigation of course, the object disappears and its Indeed I (and much of the class of '68: Fieldhouse, places are occupied by a variety of paradigms, ideolo- forthcoming) came into the WEA more as a political gies and institutional apparatuses which support a activist with an agenda for cultural struggle on the range of widely different practices, methodological lines of Gramsci's 'war of manoeuvre', the point ofassumptions and bodies of knowledge. This could of 3 6 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE course simply be family resemblance in that there is Workers' education usually some degree of overlap or shared features, The founding of the WEA in Britain in 1903 shifted however the overlap reaches into other areas of edu- the paradigm markedly away from that of extension, cation, politics, social policy, welfare and a range ofand may have been inspired by the French example of other practices rendering it increasingly hard to dis- the UPs. Although it claimed continuity with exten- tinguish the discreet object from the broader field. sion through the link with the universities, it now This of course is old ground, well-tilled by AE specu- aspired to be an association for the higher education lators over the years, but I want to suggest that it is of working men and invented the three year tutorial precisely this catholicity of interest and method that as its instrument. This was altogether a more serious opens up new areas and constructs new objects ofeducational and political ambition than extension research. and shifted the centre of gravity to the democratic organisations of 'students' (not then to be confused Professing adult education with `consumers'), who were mostly trade-union Much of the research interest in Adult Education is in activists, co-operators and schoolteachers. This was its development since it entered the process ofconceived as 'workers' rather than 'adult' education, professionalisation and could thus be inscribed intowhose end was 'the social emancipation of the work- histories ofinstitutions, that is, when it could safely be ing-class'. Shortly, after the Ruskin Strike of 1909, detached from its social history context as Mechanics' came the announcement of 'Independent Workers' Institute, or Corresponding Society or reading circle Education' which intensified the emphasis but the with their dangerously 'amateur' status (with perhaps Plebs League with its slogan 'Educate, Agitate, Or- University Extension as a foundational moment ofganise' abjured the university link and attempted to the profession). However, 'University Extension' of- create its own organic intellectuals. 'Workers' Educa- fers a very important example of the selective con- tion' was therefore only contingently adult education struction of the subject. While viewed from its con- in the sense that adults came to its classes and not so temporary British perspectives it had a clear purpose, by definition (unless one defines workers as adults, known institutional bases, personnel and protocols which is clearly not the case, otherwise there could not along with a discursive structure, developed publicly be child-labou r). This lack ofd iscrim ination prompted in its journals, from continental Europe it was not so G.D.H. Cole in the late 1940s to declare that he was simple. 'University Extension' spread rapidly through- 'not damn well interested' in adult education but only out Europe in the 1890s but the actual practices and in workers' education (Williams 1979, p. 80 , Cole institutions covered by the name varied widely. It 1952). Workers' Education, therefore, could be said became attached to a range from already established to form a d ifferent discursive field to Adult Education societies for Scientific Education, through popular and while some terminology is undoubtedly shared, lecture series run from universities and civic educa- should not automatically be subsumed in it. tion societies sponsored by municipalities to nation- alist and socialist workers' educational groups. Euro- Post-colonial movements pean extension was often inseparable in fact from the Third World education offers similar examples of broader nationalist and socialist movements associ- difference. In many post-colonial countries adult ated with 'modernity' and the Enlightenment move- education is almost identical with social policy. For ment. example in post-Independence India, the nationalist Moreover, a number of French and Dutch academics government of Nehru introduced the policy of Social were highly sceptical about British extension. In what Education as part of the programme of industrial was to become one of those examples of 'eternal modernisation. Although it was conceived as having recurrence', they argued that the education of adults a broadly socialist-humanist curriculum the various was not legitimately university work (since it was five year plans in fact centred on literacy work. well-known adults could not learn and university Moreover, while in public, lip-service was paid to standards would fall) (Marriott, 1987).On theGandhi's Wardha Scheme for 'Basic Education', a contrary it was merely a poor substitute for an imper-village craft-centred education, it was in practice fect system of secondary education (such as, of courne, spurned as socially backward. Social Education owed France and Holland possessed). The French therefore little to British adult education but a good deal to the were reluctant to sponsor university extension and in model of Soviet planning and perhaps in response to return were rewarded with the Universites Populaires, that perceived threat, a substantial amount to Frank which had no formal contact with universities at all Laubach's Christian anti-Communist 'Each One but which sprung up more or less spontaneouslyTeach One' programmes backed by US aid (Shah (with a helping hand from freemasonry and Leon 1991, p.22). As Shah points out, Laubach's methods Bourgeois's Rad ical Party). were not learned from formal adult education peda- 1 9 9 3SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS3 7 gogy but Indian traditions of story telling (p. 20). of `nation-building'. Social Education may then be best understood not as Ifa conclusion can be drawn from these reflections, it sub-category of that inescapably Western category might be that any attempt to straitjacket Adult Edu- 'Adult Education' in a flourish of neo-colonial incor- cation research into categories which reflect conven- poration, but as an element of the (elitist, according tional divisions ofknowledge, in the pursuit ofrigour, to Chatterjee) history of Indian nationalism. More is probably misguided. Instead it should celebrate its weight is added by remembering that the great shift promiscuous transgressing of academic discourses from the highly bureaucratised and corrupt Social and seek to create new objects ofknowledge. So much Education programme to the NAEP, which attempted for reflection theory. If Adult Education, formally a radical decentralisation, was taken less for educa- instituted, is indeed in the process of dissolution into tional than political reasons, when the Congress Party Higher and Further Education and is forsaking its was displaced by the Janata Party in the early 1980s. unruly past, thesocial movements which will embody UNESCO's concept of 'Fundamental Education', its successors may at least then be inspired by its the successor to 'Mass Education', which began life as multiple possibilities. Fabian inspired approach to decolonialisation during World War II, in turn gave way to 'Community REFERENCES Development', the three names revealing a quite extraordinary paradigmatic shift. The 'mass' had be- Chatterjee, P. (1993) Nationalist Thought and the Colonial come the 'community' and 'fundamental education' World, Minnesota then became 'development'. This is not intended as Cole, G.D.H. 'What Workers' Education Means', in The semantic nit-picking but to show that the objectives Highway, October, 1952, p.11. had shifted markedly. Ironically, the concept of com- Hall, Budd (1975) Adult Education and the Development of munity development was imported to Britain in the Socialism in Tanzania, Dar es Salaam: East African 1960s at precisely the same time it was being rejected Literature Bureau. in Africa. Julius Nyerere in the newly independent Marriott, S.''..987) 'lin role social pour les universitCs? Tanzania, especially, criticised the note of the Ractions francaises au movement d'extension des Colonialist condescension implied in the term. He universits en Angleterre dans les annes 1890', in G. rejected the assumption that Tanzania was a primitive Ueberschlag and F. Muller (Eds.) Education Populaire. country which had to be 'developed' into a western Objects' f d'Hier et d'Aujourd'hui, Lille. image and instead substituted the notion of Ujamaa Shah, S.Y. (Ed) (1991). Each One Teach One: Laubach's or family-hood (Hall, 1975). In Tanzania thereafter, P....erials and Methods, New Delhi adult education became inscribed into the discourse Williams, Raymond (1979) Politics and Letters, London

037 38 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Feminist issues in adult education research: links and conflicts

Miriam Zukas Department of Adult Continuing Education University of Leeds AS a researcher, I wear two hats: I am a feministstudents (for example, much of the work in North psychologist and I am a feminist adult educator. America on androgogy). At their heart is a belief that This paper represents my attempt to bring together there are some fundamental 'truths' about adult learn- these two areas of concern (which are linked, ofing that can be uncovered and used to 'improve' course) by looking at the relationship between cur-learning for the individual. These beliefi are very rent feminist psychologists' discussions about the much aligned to positivistic psychology. purpose and forms of rearch and related questionsIt could be argued that such psychological questions within adult education. (that is, psychological approaches to learning) are just Within psychology, although many have disagreed not relevant to adult education practitioners because with the 'scientific' nature and purposes of social they are asked in a theoretical paradigm that is imper- science research (and corollary claims ofsocial science sonal, ahistorical and asocial (Usher and Bryant, research to be an objective and value-free activity 1989), and cannot provide answers for the practi- delivering universal truths), these challenges havetioner. They are also concerned with generalities, only recently resulted in ideas about what questions rather than the experience of the individual and researchers should be asking and how research should thus the object ofpsychological research (the person) be done. Adult educators have been asking what disappears. On the other hand, some have argued that purposes research should serve, and what forms re-adult education has to base itself on the knowledge search should take for rather longer. Recent develop- generated by theoretical disciplines such as psychol- ments such as those ofCarr and Kemmis (1986) argue ogy and sociology (Bright, 1985) because it is not a that the aim of research should not be to generate theoretical field of study. Neither position acknowl- 'causal explanations of human life but to deepen and edges psychologies which have, at their heart, many of extend our knowledge of why social life is perceived the same aims as radical adult education research. and experienced in the way it is' (p.90). These psychologies challenge the nature of psycho- Many adult educators have found this a helpfullogical knowledge; they introduce ideas about the perspective and used it to achieve different ends. Forspecificity and social construction of knowledge, the some, the process of doing research has been seen as conjunction of knowledge and power, the relation- a vehicle for changing people's lives indirectly. Aship between language and subjectivity and the analy- typical example of this is action research: 'Action sis of discourse and rhetoric. Ultimately, in the case of research is small-scale intervention in the functioning feminist psychologies, they are concerned with of the real world and a close examination of the effects psychologies for women, rather than psychologies of such intervention' (Stenhouse, 1979) which is about women. characterised by being situational, collaborative, par- To what extent have these feminist influences been ticipatory and self-evaluative (Cohen and Manion, felt within adult education research, not only in terms 1989). At the other end of the spectrum is research of content (that is, what is researched), but also in which is much more interventionist in political agen- terms of process (that is, how is it researched)? Do das: 'Research methods and skills can be appropriated feminist approaches offer us the chance to 'change the for counter-hegemonic work by oppositional groups subject' ofadult education research? Do they allow us and can thereby empower subjects individually andto develop answers that are for women rather than collectively in specific contexts although the con- about women? text does nor in any way limit the area of concern' Much of the work on women and adult education is (Westwood, 1992, p.197)) characterised by a focus on the under-representation There remain some central questions in adult educa- of women and the role of adult education as a vehicle tion which seem to be asked and answered in ways for transformation for those women (for example, the which are untouched by feminist and post-modern role of adult education as an emancipatory tool for agendas. In the main, these could be termed 'psycho- women [Hart, 1992; Schedler, 1993]). However, logical' questions. They are questions about the na- many examples of research are characterised by un- ture of learning and the particular nature of adult contested claims about the particular nature of 'worn- 038 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS39 en's education' (Malcolm, 1992) and unsupported experiences within the Thus, most of the ideas about the chatacteristics of women learners. attempts to bring womel, ie frame have been Despite attempts to portray feminist methodology asconcerned with making them ci-subject of research, a formula for doing research, feminist researchers in rather than men (changing the content of research). psycholou and sociology argue that there is no one The difficulty lies in the ways in which feminist set of methods or techniques that identifies feminist psychologists have done the research (changed the research. Instead, they argue that feminists 'should process of research) although more qualitative use any and every means available for investigating the methods have been used, it seems difficult to escape 'condition ofwomen in sexist society' (Stanley, 1990, the straitjacket of empirical methodologies and the p.12). Ultimately, the goal of feminist research is to quest for universal 'truths'. forward the cause of women. In other words, feminist Feminist psychologists try to resolve this problem of researchers argue that there should be a shift in focus doing feminist research in different ways; some by from research on women (that is, on women as the taking research to be something that is self-reflexive object of research) to research for women. In some and that questions the objective researcher/subjective cases, researchers have seen the relationship and ulti- subject divide (eg Hollway, 1989; Walkerdine, 1990).) mate empowerment of the women they are research- Others argue that feminist research should have an ing as a principal part of the research; in others,overt political agenda which challenges received researchers have been content with using their re- wisdoms about sexuality, race and class, as well as search results to serve feminist agendas which ac- gender (Kitzinger, 1987; Ussher, 1991; Wilkinson knowledge women as equal to men or promote wom- and Kitzinger, 1993). en's perspectives. Despite this progress towards research that is more While some feminist research in adult education hascritical about relationships between researcher and been concerned with establishing the condition ofresearched, more self-reflexive and ultimately less women's lives from which these changes can take'universal' (that is, accepting that psychological re- place, others have been much more directly involved search is also historically, socially and politically situ- in action research projects (eg Taking Liberties Col- ated despite its own claims), the work on women and lective, 1989; Gardiner, 1986) which have tried to learning is still very much in the 'egalitarian' mould change women's lives in other words, they have (Squire, 1989) that is, the recognition that women been involved in praxis. Of course, much of the have been excluded from many of the theories pre- practice ofadult education is concerned with empow- sented by psychology and the belief that they can be erment; but to what extent can this be (or has this taken into account by 'adding them in'. One of the been) a feature of feminist research? reasons why feminist psychologists end up doing this Stanley and Wise (1993) argue that feminism is not kind of research (which does not look very different just away ofseeing or away ofknowing (a perspective from traditional psychological research) is that it is and an epistemology) it is also away of being in the difficult to escape the demands to produce certain world (an ontology). Feminism exists in researchkinds of research findings findings that are processes and what makes feminist research processes generalisable and stand as the 'truth'. Another reason 'feminist' is located is that there are few outlets for publishing research in the researcher-researched relationship; in that is not positivist. emotion as an aspect of the research process So what does research on women's learning within which, like any other aspect, can be analytically psychology look like? Is this feminist research because interrogated;incriticallyunpacking it is on women, and if not, why not? I focus on conceptualizations of 'objectivity' and 'subjec- Belenky aids work on Women's Ways of Knowing' tivity' as binaries or dichotomies; in the intellec- because it is the most systematic attempt within both tual autobiography of researchers (...); in the psychology and adult education to try to take account existence and management ofdifferent'realities' of the ways in which women learn and the conditions or versions held by researchers and researched; for learning. They are concerned with one of my and in issues surrounding authority and power central concerns as a teacher and a researcher: how can in research, but also, and perhaps more crucially I understand the differing realities of the women I in written representations of research (p.189). teach and work with and what can I understand about Within psychology, these ideas have been talkedthe ways in which women draw conclusions about about but there are few models of research which can truth, knowledge and authority? While my desire to accommodatesuch ashift away from the notion of the generalise and to discover 'truths' seems to trap me in researcher as a distanced individual who searches out the very criticisms I was raising about traditional universal truths. One of the problems for psycholo- psychological approaches, I am looking for answers gists has been the exclusion and distortion ofwomen's which are helpful organising principles but which do

63 40 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE not claim to describe completely women's ways ofspace. For example, there is a problem with theway in looking at the world. which the research question was based on a romantic Their work, which is strongly influenced by that of view of women a view which ignores differences Carol Gilligan (1982), describes five different per- between women. Underlying this view is an idea that spectives from which women view reality and draw women are inevitably more connected than men conclusions about truth, knowledge and authority. because of their domestic experiences and responsi- They argue that women may have common modes ofbilities, no matter what their social and economic learning, knowing and valuing and that women's self circumstances. concepts and their ways of knowing are intertwined. Why would !consider this not to be feminist research, They are particularly concerned with what they call although it is about women? First of all, the nature of intuitive knowledge (as opposed to so-called objective the researcher-researched relationship is not ques- knowledge). tioned at all. Althouglk the researchers are clearly Belenky et al are also concerned with the common sympathetic to the women they interviewed, and they ground ofwomen's experience and therefore aimed to discuss their desire to talk to a sample which would bring together experiences from a very diverse rangeinclude women from differnnt ethnic backgrounds of women in their research. They selected and inter- and a broad range ofsocial cl Asses, their own positions viewed 135 women in all, some of whom attended in relation to those women Is not under scrutiny. The academic institutions and some ofwhom made use ofwomen who are least like them are seen as Other and 'invisible colleges' (agencies that provided informa- are likely to be found at the other end of their range tion about or assistance with parenting). of perspectives (that is, as 'silent' women). Through their interview material, Belenky and her Secondly, the authors' own intellectual autobiogra- colleagues developed five epistemological categories phies are absent. Although they acknowledge three or to describe women's perspectives on knowing: si- four major writers who contribute to their analysis, as lence, received knowledge, subjective knowledge, readers, we have no sense of their own histories and procedural knowledge and constructed knowledge. positions in relation to the research. These categories move from a position in whichThis leads to a third problem which is the tension women experience themselves as mindless and voice- between their desire to honour each woman's point of less and subject to the whims of external authority view and their own desire to group responses so that, through to a position in which women view all in their attempts to get at truths, they ask themselves knowledge as contextual, experience themselves as 'What are the problems this woman is trying to solve? creators of knowledge and value both subjective and What is adaptive about the way she is trying to objective strategies for knowing. There is a clear accommodate to the world as she sees it? What are the hierarchy in their minds about the best position to be forces psychological and social that expand or in, and, although they do not at any point discuss it, limit her horizons?' In this process, they are confiising there is little doubt about where they believe they their own work as researchers with what a woman is stand themselves. 'really' saying: they are imposing their own frame- They also discuss the consequences of their research work of understanding on women's responses with- for the education of women. They emphasise the out understanding that this very process cannot hon- importance of beginning with a woman's knowledgeour what a woman says: inevitably, it describes a (rather than the teacher's), the relationship between different reality. teacher and student (and the importance ofAs a result, the authors ignore the whole question of 'connectedness' in that relationship), the idea that power in research and writing; they use their positions teachers should be midwives (teachers who help stu- unthinkingly as academics to portray a world in dents articulate and expand their latent knowledge), which women can be portrayed as silent and are, the need for 'connected' classes in which the roles ofindeed, silenced by such a portrayal. teachers and students merge, and the need for 'objec- This demonstrates how work about women may have tive' (ie seeing the other) teaching. feminist intentions but there is no necessity for this to While many of these ideas are appealing to us as adult be recognisable as feminist research. So what are the educators because they seem to offer both a theoreti- consequences for us as feminist researchers? What cal description of learning and a series of practical should we be doi ng? I suspect that little of the research outcomes, there are problems for me as a feminist in the adult education literature that relates to women researcher with the questions that were asked and could be termed feminist, using the criteria laid out by with the way in which the research was done. While Liz Stanley and others. Furthermore, the issues raised I want to address the question of whether this could by the ontology of feminism may be ones that others be considered feminist research, there are many pri- have tried to tackle under the guise of 'participatory' mary difficulties which I would deal with if I had research, 'action' research or 'transformative' research 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 41

(and there has been no claim by feminist researchers Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1989). Research Methods in that they are the only ones asking the questions). Education, Croom Helm. But at least the political incentives for transformative Gardiner, J. (1986). 'Working with Women' in R. Taylor and other such research are not disguised beneath a and K. Ward, Adult Education and the Working Class: cloak of 'objectivity'. If we are to examine the power Education fir the Missing Millions, Croom Helm. relationships in research relationships both between Gilligan, C. (1982). In a Deirent Voice: Psychological researcher and researched; and between research and Theory and Women's Development, Cambridge, MA, writing, we will need to research in a much more self- Harvard Jniversity Press. reflexive way; we will need to rethink our relationship Hart, M. (1992). Workingand Educating for Life: Feminist with the objects of our research (our subjects) and we and International Perspectives on Adult Education, will need to re-examine the very questions we ask and Routledge. the conditions under which these questions get asked. Hollway, W. (1989). SubjectiviryandMethodin Psychology: My two hats still don't fit on one head. Feminist Gender, Meaning and Science, Sage. psychology offers me the chance to research women Kitzi nger, C. (1987). The Social Construction ofLesbianism, in ways that are for women, but the work in psychol- Sage. ogy that is most relevant to my work in adult educa- Malcolm, J. (1992). 'The Culture of Difference: Women's tion seems to me to be `unfeminise in its approaches Education Re-examined'. In N. Miller and L. West to research and, indeed, in the uncritical questions it (eds) Changing culture and adult learning, SCUTREA. asks about the general nature of women's learning. Schedler, P.E. (1993). 'Autonomy: Solution, Transition or The process ofwriting this paper has left me with even Possibility? Women's Emancipation and Education'. more questions about what I research in women's Studies in the Education ofAduks 25, pp 31-41. education and the methods I use to research women's Squire, C. (1989). Sknificant Differences: Feminism in learning. Prychology, Routkdge. Stanley, L. (1990).`Feminist Praxis and the Academic FOOTNOTE Mode of Production' in L. Stanley (ed). Feminist Praxis: Research, Theory and Epistemology in Feminist 1There has been an attempt to establish so-called Sociology, Routledge. 'transformative research' as a research paradigm within Stanley, L. and Wise, S. (1993). Breaking Out Again: adult education, although the existence of such a Feminist Ontology and Epistemology, Routledge. paradigm is contested. (See Armstrong and Miller, Stenhouse, L. (1979). What is Action Research? C.A.R.E., 1991). University of East Anglia (mimeograph). Taking Liberties Collective. (1989) Learning the Hard REFERENCES Way: Women's Oppression in Men's Education, Macmillan. Armstrong, P. and Miller, N. (1991). 'A Dialogue on the Usher, R. and Bryant, I. (1989). Adult Education as Theory, Curious History and Dubious Future ofTransformative Practice and Research: the Captive Triangle, Routledge. Research', Convergence 24, pp 42-49. Ussher, J. (1991). Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Belenky, M.F., Clinchy, B.M., Goldberger, N.R. and Illness, Harvester Wheatsheaf. Tarule, J.M. (1986). Women's Ways of Knowing: the Walkerdine, V. (1990). Schookirl Fictions, Verso. Development of Self Voice and Mind, Basic Books. Westwood, S. (1992). Tower/Knowledge: the Politics of Bright, B. (1985). 'The Content-Method Relationship in Transformative Research', Studies in the Education of the Study o f Adul t Education', Studies in the Education Adults 24, pp 191-198. ofAdults 17, pp 168-173. Wilkinson, S. and Kitzinger, C. (1993). Heterosexuality: A Carr, W. and Kemm is, S. (1986). Becoming Critica4 Falrner. Feminism and Psychology Reader, Sage.

041 42 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE 2. Methodological issues

Introduction by Richard Edwards Open University

THE papers collected in this strand of thecontemporary relevance is put forward for con- conference reflect on the issues of meth-sideration. The second reading of these papers odology raised in the activity ofresearch. provides a framework to examine the narrative Like the activity itself, the issues take many andstance of the authors. Three forms of writing diverse forms. Diversity is also to be found inabout methodological issues can be discerned: these papers. At risk of over-simplification, thisdistant, personal and committed. The distant diversity can be framed by two possible readings: stance is the voice of 'objective' analysis, of aca- first, in relation to the issues explored in thedemic discourse, framing the issues as 'facts'. The papers; second, in relation to the stance of thepersonal stance is the voice of 'experience', of author in narrating the issues. There arc clearfeelings about the activities of research. The overlaps between these readings. committed stance is the voice of 'judgement', The first focuses on the methodological issuesframing the 'rightness' and 'wrongness' of the themselves and these fall broadly into three cat-methods of research and its purposes. egories: technical issues; personal issues; and ethi- The overlap between these two readings is obvi- cal and political issues. Whether it is in relation toous: the distant stance discussing technical issues; literature searches, questionnaire design, or thethe personal stance exploring personal issues; the structuring of interviews, a range of familiar committed stance highlighting ethical and politi- technical concerns for accumulating and inter- cal issues. And therein lies the simplification, as preting data are brought to light in this strand. each of these papers evades the enclosure offered The personal issues explored in some of these by the analysis above. In other words, within each papers reflect the authors' feelings about theirpaper there is an inter-weaving of issues and iesearch activities. We are introduced to the narrative stances. This, in itself, raises methodo- longings of the lone distant researcher and the logical issues on the activity of reading research, 'insight, mistake and luck' that can inform theof categorisation and hermeneutics. research activity. Ethical and political issues areThere is no end to the learning necessary to the embedded in methods of research and the factactivity of research and this is clearly demon- that these are historical/have a history as well asstrated by all the authors in this strand. 42 1 9 9 3 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 4 3 Group based research: commitment or compromise?

Geoff Anderson University of Technology, Sydney

Abstract of this paper is to make some observations on this uOCUS group interviews can provide the researcher matter of consensus and to consider why groups, with detailed and carefully considered qualitative despite their limitations, can still be aviable option for data from the people most knowledgeable about the data collection. research issues. Group interviews are particularly useful when time and resources are limited or when Why use groups? participation, consensus and a degree ofcommitment As any teacher or committee member knows, groups need to be built into the research process. This paper can be exasperating, difficult and inefficient. To use considers some of the special characteristics ofa focus a group as a research tool seems to be asking for group and discusses the role of a facilitator who is also unnecessary complications. Yet I firmly believe group a researcher. In particular it examines ways to ensure based research methodologies offer a means of infor- group consensus does not exclude individuals who mation gathering well suited to a field such as Adult may feel compromised rather than committed if the Education, where an acknowledgment of the rights of final outcomes fail to reflect all perspectives. people to participate in decisions which affect their lives is a dominant value. In fact the need to build Introduction consultation and consensus into the data collection In a bizarre little experiment conducted in 1969,process first led to my involvement with group based psychologists measured the performance of cock- research, in particular the single-purpose focus group. roaches running away from a light source. They While focus groups are normally associated more found that the cockroaches ran faster if the runway with market research than academic inquiry, in recent was lined with an 'audience' of fellow cockroaches, years there has been a growing interest in qualitative each watching from a perspex box (Zajonc, 1969, methodologies which include a group interview com- cited in Baron, Kerr and Miller, 1992). In otherponent (see, for example, Hedges, 1985; Watts and words, the presence of a group had a facilitating effect Ebbutt, 1987; O'Donnell, 1988; Cohen and Manion, upon performance. As a researcher who works largely 1989; Caffarella and O'Donnell, 1991). A focus with groups I found this result strangely comforting. group consists of people with particular knowledge It seemed to provide some sort of natural vindication and experience brought together to represent the for my methodology. views of a wider constituency. For instance, ten This is not to liken group participants to cockroaches. supervisors might provide data or ideas on behalf of The vast majority of participants have nothing at all middle management in a particular industry. The in common with this creature apart from their will- researcher's emphasis is on gathering data, opinions ingness (usually) to make an extra effort in the pres- and ideas quickly and accurately. In my field (HRD) ence of their peers. It is said that participants in a this information is usually gathered for purposes of group are both audience and co-actors: they perform occupational or competency analysis, training needs and evaluate at the same time. As audience they retain assessment or program design. I have also used focus an individualistic and critical perspective; as actors groups to explore attitudes to change, feelings about they must take their cues from others. A question for work and to generate ideas about specific problems. group facilitators is whether this leads to an inherent The purpose, therefore, normally dictates a fairly role conflict. Is the individual's commitment to the structured, instrumental approach and most of the group's decision lessened in any way through a need research questions will have been formulated before to compromise his or her own position for the sake ofthe group convenes. consensus? In this sense the type of research I am concerned with Although consensus is widely regarded as the best way is quite different to participatory action research, of achieving a quality group decision, a false consen- which aims to effect organisational change or political sus (one which is more apparent than real) may later empowerment through group reflection and action. prove counter-productive and could easily throw into But as with action research, the focus group facilitator question the legi timacy of the final outcome. The aim can avoid the stance of "outside expert" which is often

P.4 4 4 RESEARCH: REELECTING PRACTICE resented by people within an organisation. My role is no traditions to draw upon and there are no expecta- to acknowledge and uncover the expertise within the tions of future interaction. I prefer, where possible, group, guiding the discussion without actually con- for group members to be drawn from a variety of tributing to its content. For most trainers and educa- sources. However this means the members are usually tors, leading a group discussion is familiar territory, unknown to each other and may feel little responsibil- hence another reason for my belief that such an ity for any consequences which might follow from approach is highly suitable to research in these areas. their deliberations. This presents the first challenge, since I believe a vital part of the facilitator's role is to Other advantages give the group a very strong feeling of responsibility There are several additional advantages which I see for and a real sense of purpose. Later commitment will group based methodologies. In contrast to an indi- depend upon this. vidual interview, a group interview allows interac- Recent thinking suggests cohesiveness is a major tion, debate and varied perspectives to be brought todefining characteristic of a group (Hogg, 1992). bear on the topic. The result is data which is qualita- Perhaps the easiest way of turning a collection of tively different to that which could be obtained by people into a cohesive group is through giving each summing the results of individual interviews. individual a stake in a common goal. I have seen that There is also a large body of empirical evidence to a group ofstrangers can work effectively as a team and suggest groups can recall information more accurately establish friendly interpersonal relations in quite a and more completely than individuals in isolation short time provided they have a sense of some com- (see Hare, 1976). In my experience group member- mon purpose and a structure is provided for the group ship also has a tendency to reinforce individual com- processes. A focus group also benefits from a slight mitment to the group's norms and decisions making sense of urgency and an awareness of the relevance of subsequent implementation easier. Groups them- their work. Personal concerns may need to be subju- selves promote commitment, provided, of course, gated in order to achieve a specific task. Commitment there is no feeling of personal compromise. to outcomes may then be built on the basis that all participants have contributed equally and the final The group processes product is the sole reason for the group's existence in A focus group, brought together for a short time to the first place. address a specific issue, is task oriented and works to Since they are short-lived, focus groups seldom suffer a set agenda. This helps obviate dysfunctional power from the tensions which can arise when task is con- games and time wasting diversions. I never attempt to tinually stressed over relationships. With NGT dis- facilitate a focus group without some tools to provide cussion is limited to certain times and themes, mainly structure and closure. Three in particular are most for purposes of clarification. This is useful for pre- useful in my area: Nominal Group Technique (NGT), venting arguments developing. The fact that all con- Dacum and Functional Analysis. All provide a formal tributions become group property once they have framework which makes efficient use of time and been listed and quantity of ideas is emphasised also encourages a participatory climate lessens the need for individuals to defend a position In each of these processes the researcher is also the (see Delbecq eta1,1976 for further discussion ofthis). facilitator. The objective is to elicit information andWith the right choice of participants, facilitating a ideas previously unknown, unconnected or unavail- focus group can be an enjoyable and productive able. Using the experience of the group, the facilitator experience. Unfortunately, choice of participants is poses a series ofquestions which all members attempt something over which facilitators may have little to answer. This may be achieved through silent reflec- control. We ask for experienced, representative and tion, followed by a sharing of ideas and a subsequent articulate volunteers. We get whoever can be spared evaluation and ranking (NGT) or through a logical on the day. We ask for ten participants, we are sent analysis of the component parts of an entity (such as four. There may be other problems too, particularly an occupation) after an initial brainstorm to generate if individuals feel they are there to argue for a position ideas (Dacum and Functional Analysis). In any case, or there are disruptive, taciturn or unmotivated par- each session has a definite objective and follows a ticipants within the group. Since researchers seldom planned agenda. have authority in these matters we rely very much on the goodwill of supervisors to send suitable people A collection of people or a group? and on the willingness of the people sent to cooperate The fact that certain people are in the same room withat us. the same time does not make them a group. A focusWith less than ideal participants the facilitator must group arrives with no history and leaves with no work harder and subsequent validation of results future. As Shaw (1976) points out, such a group has becomes more important. In any Case, a questionnaire 044 I9 9 3SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS4 5 or interview follow-up is important to allow those not fortable for those who wish to discuss things more in the group to comment and so to become involved freely or who feel inhibited by predetermined group in the project. Data provided by agroup is useffil only strategies. insofar as it reflects generally agreed opinions within Additional problems may be created by unbalanced the group's constituency or takes account of all the representation, by the facilitator's failure to separate situational variables. The researcher should normally facts from feelings or by the group's unfamiliarity seek to validate such data. The fact that the results ofwith certain issues and situations. Since the group is the workshop will be validated actually assists theonly short-lived a lack of commitment on the part of group achieve consensus, since their collective deci- individual members may indeed lead to a false con- sion is largely provisional. sensus and later feelings ofpersonal compromise. The careful selection and briefing of the group prior to the Seeking consensus workshop and the ability ofthe facilitator to recognise All interactive groups operate on the basis of consen- such problems can, however, go some of the way sus, an agreement to accept the norms and decisions towards preventing this. It is also difficult for a group of the group in exchange for membership rights. Fearto provide substantive or quantifiable data. In fact of rejection can be a strong incentive to feign agree- several workshops with the same or different groups ment. Still, a large group will normally take much may be needed to develop a really comprehensive longer to reach consensus than a smaller one. With picture. The phenomenon of 'group think' (Janis, Dacum, which requires all participants to agree be- 1982) is also a reality with a small group of similar fore moving on, consensus is vital. Thus having co- participants. Groups are a powerful research tool but operative participants willing to concede the occa-all the normal cautions in regard to data collection sional point is important. Although NGT is not in still apply. itselfa consensus-seeking technique it is preferable for all participants to feel comfortable with the final Conclusion decision, even if they personally do not agree with it. People who give of their time and energies to contrib- Consensus is neither a compromise nor a democratic ute to a group interview reasonably expect to have vote. Compromise involves finding a middle path their voices heard. As facilitators we do our best to between two positions, while consensus means a ensure everyone has an equal say, group harmony is willingness by all parties to accept the group's deci- maintained and the coffee arrives hot. A focus group sion whatever that may be. A simple majority votecan be tiring and frustrating. However, I worry only results in winners and losers, a situation hardly con- if it ceases to be a group: if individuals start taking ducive to later commitment. Sheer fatigue may lead sides or hidden agenda emerge or political issues to apparent consensus and the facilitator needs todominate the discussion. At times like this the only continually test consensus through questioning and recourse is to call for time out or even reconvene anew sensitivity to body language. Given that unanimousgroup at a later date. agreement is not always possible, even when discuss- I have found participant satisfaction with the process ing ostensibly factual data, I feel the best way to is usually high. They may be surprised at the amount achieve consensus without compromise is to agree to ofdata they were able to produce or the richness of the a provisional position. In this way those not in agree- experienccss they had to draw upon. While individuals ment can at least agree to reserve their final judgement may hold differing views a formal technique, such as until the data has been further validated. Their integ- Dacum or NGT, allows them to feel they have rity remains intact while the need for a decision has contributed to the final group decision. In any case, if been met. The researcher, concerned with gatheringstrong differences exist traditional research method- data or generating ideas, is looking for broad agree- ologies would do no more than reveal them. In a ment rather than total assent in every case. group situation there is a chance. at least, of moving towards a resolution. Some reservations The techniques I have referred to in this paper were Highly structured group processes work best whendesigned for special purpose applications but need time is limited, there is a specific task to be accom- not be limited to these. Many teachers use a vercion of plished, participants are willing to share ideas and and NGT for class brainstorms, while the others simply the facilitator is accepted as the group leader. These provide a methodical way of developing, clustering conditions may not always be present and in an and organising data, for whatever purpose. They can unstable organisational environment or when dealing be used both to stimulate creative thinking and to with highly individualistic participants a less formal, tackle a problem in a logical manner. Hence their more open procedure is indicated. The rc-.tricrions versatility for a range of situations and issues, particu- imposed by the structured techniques may be uncom- larly at an organisational level. But it is their partici- 045 46 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE patory nature which I feel makes them worthy of Guide to Nominal Group and Delphi Processes. serious consideration by those of us involved in Middleton, Wisconsin: Green Briar Press. research in an area where people's ideas and opinions Hare, A.P. (1976). Handbook ofSmall Group Research (2nd are seen to matter. Edition). New York: The Free Press. Hedges, A. (1985). 'Group Interviewing.' in Walker, R. (Ed) Applied Qualitative Research. Aldershot: Gower. REFERENCES Hogg, M. (1992). The Social Psychology of Group Cohe- siveness. Landon: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Baron, R.S., Kerr, N. and Miller, N. (1992). Group Process, Janis, I.L. (1982). Groupthink (2nd Edition). Boston: Group Decision, Group Action. Buckingham: Open Houghton Mifflin. University Press. O'Donnell, J.M. (1988). Focus Groups: A Habit-Forming Caffarella, R.S. and O'Donnell, J.M. (1991). Judging the Evaluation Technique.Training and DevelopmentJour- qualio, of work-relateet self-directed learning. Adult nal, 42, 7, 71-73. Education Quarterly, 42, 1, 17-29. Shaw, M.E. (1976). Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1989). Research Methods in Small Group Behaviour. New York: McGraw Hill. Education (3rd Edition). London: Routledge. Watts, M. and Ebbutt, D. (1987). More than the Sum ofthe Delbecq, A.L., Van de Vcn, A H. and Gustafson, D.H. Parts: Research Methods in Group Interviewing. British (1975). Group Techniques fir Program Planning: A Educational Research Journal, 13, 1, 25-34.

046 19 9 3SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS4 7 Adult educationas history: adult educators as historians

Malcolm Chase University of Leeds

'A large part of what passes for adult education of AE have excelled. Like the many local histories theory is an extraordinary combination of sec- which have emerged from adult educators' profes- tarianism, special pleading, mythmaking and sional practice as history teachers, AE histories have mortmain.' (Raymond Williams,New States- been painstaking essays in retrieval, reconstruction man,30 May 1959). and the rescue of pioneers from oblivion. Moreover, when they have assumed a national stance, they have The ambiguities of adult education history often remained anchored at the regional level, e.g. the HISTORICAL studies have been an influential influential work ofHarrison (1961) and Jepson (1973), (once very influential) area of research into both focused on Yorkshire (mainly theWest Riding), adult education [AE], and university adult education and more recently John Bligh's English University [UAEJ in particular. Them are many histories ofAE, Adult Education, 1908-1958: A Unique Tradition, a rather more than of some other fields which taking study of the extra-mural activities of Leeds, Manches- a dispassionate view would seem as deserving of ter and Liverpool. historical scrutiny, e.g. sport, the Conservative Party, Such an approach is shot-through with conceptual or conservation movements. Virtually all historians of ambiguities and problems. An uncritical teleology (or AE have been professionals within it. What has im- 'Whig interpretation') is a common problem in writ- pelled so many adult educators to research histories ofing history, but one which other areas of historical the field? What have been the consequences for AE endeavour have recently sought to throw off Histo- itself? Has AE history a future? rians of AE, however, have been largely unresponsive The greater part of AE history has been starkly to new moods in historical research. Power relations, empirical. This is a consequence of more than just gender relations, and adult learning outside 'the canon' antiquarian curiosity. When not triumphalist, it hashave been alike ignored. True, an alternative ap- still been driven by a teleology of contemptaryproach has been built upon Matxist perspectives. 'relevance'. In itself this is not surprising. AE, perceiv- Here at least empiricism has been tempered by a ing itself to be marginal, has felt the need frequently broader conceptualisation that has illuminated state to seek both the validation and inspiration of history; and class-relationships. Yet the producr is hardly less it is also understandable that practitioners should 'dig progressivist, and, as John Field (1992) points out, where they stand'. Contemporary relevance alone, has been strangely monofocal. Marxisant scholarship though, is no guarantee ofa place in the historiography is alive to alternative educational practice, but the of continuing education, certain areas of which have practice has always been that of the labour movement. yielded more historians, and therefore more histories Its articulation of power relations within AE has than others. Literature on vocational education and lacked subtlety, whilst it has ignored gendec issues training is sparse, that on University Extension and almost as routinely as the 'mainstream' scholarship it the WEA plentiful. Liberal adult education [LAE] has so passionately opposed. predominates within the historiography. AvowedlyThe ambiguities of writing the history of AE cre directed to general advancement and the enlargement compounded as the historian approaches the present. of the mind; ostensibly open-minded and unpreju- Knowing that objectivity is illusory need not deter an diced; strongly inclined to the furtherance ofprogres- historian, but the heightened awareness of unavoid- sive reform, democracy, and abolition of privilege, able subjectivity when studying one's immediate LAE has inculcated its values into its historians. They present can. Learningand Living, perhaps the finest of in turn have reflected its [false] naivety. Even where all histories of AE (Harrison, 1961), becomes curi- the subject has not been specifically LAE, histories of ously unsatisfying in its final chapters as it examines AE have been characterised by the same brisk progres- episodes and issues in which the Leeds department sivism, seeking to relate the steady development ofhad been a major protagonist. As a reviewer re- their subject to social progress and the emergence of marked: 'The inaccuracy, if it is there, is not in matters modern society. The central concern has been AE as of fact, but in the equally relevant questions of esti- a civilising process. mating consciousness and personality' (Williams, This conceptual framework has eminently suited the 1962). It is also difficult to avoid an institutionally- close-grained empirical research ar which historians centred approach at this point (which Learning and C41 48 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

Living elsewhere successfully did). And the present Jenkins, 1983: 8-9). must always appear uncomfortablypolitically-chargedOne of the curious aspects of the continuing affinity to the participant historian. Harrison offered little UAE seems to have felt for the concept of the Great hint, for example, of the full range of ideological Tradition is a blissful ignorance of the controversy debates in the period from 1946, debates in which he that originally greeted it. Even its author conceded had at times been a not-inconspicuous participant that it seemed `to add up to something which is (e.g. Harrison, Hoggart and Shaw, 1948; Harrison, essentially nineteenth-century and desperately 1949). unmodish, something woolly-minded and crassly optimistic, something provincial and intellectually Consequences for adult education slack, a tradition which confuses scholarship with Bereft of a theoretical corpus or methodology to call social service to the detriment of both' (Wiltshire, their own, adult educators (from LAE particularly) 1956: 89). A back-handed compliment to the power have too-often substituted .history for theory. The of the traditional history ofAE was paid to it by some tendency has been to contemplate not present but who tried to counteract its prominence within UAE. past practice, viewing the present only through theThe authors of a substantial study of accreditation in refraction of a version of history. An ostensibly val ue- LAE, which inter alia also pioneered the application free (because empirical) historicism has prevailed over of sociological organisation theory to UAE, felt it theoretically informed reflection upon current prac- necessary to devote one of its longest chapters to 'the tices. A further stage of refraction, at the level o fpol icy Prehistory of Un iversity Extra-Mural Awards', cover- making, resulted in the idea of 'the great tradition in ing the years 1873-1938. In doing so they observed university adult education' (Wiltshire, 1956). The that 'the history ofexaminable study and paper awards Great Tradition (the capitals, it would seem, are now is as old as extra-mural work itself. The general lack of obligatory) continues to be at the heart of how many interest in this fact suggests how easily the purposes of UAE professionals conceptualise what they do. Re- persuasion can cause a segment of history to be cently it was reasserted as part of the campaign to identified as the tradition' (Duke and Marriott, 1973: head-off the central thrust of the HEFC Continuing 55). Eight years later the chapter was substantially Education Policy Review (Tuckett, 1993). Mean-,expanded, explicitly to retrieve an alternative history while no other profession is as apt to use the adjective of UAE, implicitly to help validate alternative prac- 'traditional', unselfconsciously to describe what it tice (Marriott, 1981). does ('traditional LAE', 'traditional extra-mural Whilst exponents of both adult and extension educa- work). tion have frequently grounded defences of their pro- UAE has also taken comfort from history, or morefessional practice in an appeal to history, continued correctly from a version of history, to sustain its professional educators have not. As noted above, the isolation from HE proper. This isolation, arguably, literature on technical and vocational training is thin, was the condition for the production of much valu- for which three reasons may be advanced. Firstly, able, socially purposive work. However, since the however uneven the British record in this area, profes- 1970s, if not earlier, the appeal to history has too- sionals within it have felt more sure of their ground often been used to justify an isolation that has ap- and confident of their place in the spectrum of peared increasingly reckless. When the seemingly- provision than other UAE staff. Secondly, of course, perennial '1919 Report' was reprinted (by the Not- they are far less likely to have studied or taught tingham AE Department) in 1980, it was published history. Thirdly, historians' perception and therefore with ageneral introduction by a recently retired definition of what AE actually is has been exclusive. director which opined that 'it is surprising how often This exclusivity has in turn permeated the culture and we find that the agenda for our discussions has been policy objectives of much UAE, significantly assisted written by the 1919 Reportand that its uses are still by (it seems reasonable to suggest) by the extent to which no means exhausted' (Wiltshire, 1980: 23). The historians, and historians of AE in particular, have situation was less surprising than sad. As Marriott themselves scaled the heights of the profession. From observed, in concluding his history of the 'extra- an early date the writing of AE history became the mural empires' which wcre the most conspicuous particular province of the professional 'high-flyer'. legatees of UAE's self-imprisonment within its past, Kelly had already begun the doctoral thesis that 'The dominant values of the extra-mural system, became his monumental study of Birkbeck when he critics allege, are defensive and nostalgic....By was appointed Director of Extra-Mural Studies at tinkering with administrative methods devised in and Liverpool (Kelly, 1957). At Leeds Harrison's PhD for the dim past, the system has settled for theand his first book (1954) similarly preceded his narrowest possible approach to defining the purposes appointment as Deputy (subsequently Acting-) Di- of adult education' (Marriott, 1984: 122; cf Harries- rector. Readers will doubtless be able to supply fur- 48 1 9 9 3 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 4 9 cher examples of the convergence of historical schol- the hugely diverse experiences of adults learning in arship with high office. The pursuit of history has the past. played an important part in the professionalisation of UAE, not least in demarking out policy makers from REFERENCES CU tors. In this UAE has conformed to a pattern discernible Ball, S.J. 1987. The Micro-Politics ofthe School- Towards a elsewhere in education. Research in the secondary Theory of School Organisation. sector has shown that its culture and criteria for Duke, C., and Marriott S. 1973. Paper Awards in Liberal promotion privilege historians. It is relatively easy to Adult Education: A Study of Institutional Adaptation comprehend why certain 'academic' subjects have and its Costs. prevailed 'over and against the practical and expres- Field, J. 1992. Learning through Labour: Training, Educa- sive' (Ball, 1987: 174). It is less obvious why history tion and the State, 1890-1939. should be particularly privileged, especially within Harries-Jenkins, G. 1983. 'University adult education into the context of UAE which largely excludes practical the 1980s', in A.D. Crombie and G. Harries-Jenkins, and expressive subjects in the first place, and where The Demise of the liberal Tradition. the competing range of academic disciplines is wider Harrison, J.F.C., Hoggart, R., and Shaw, R. 1948. 'What than in secondary schools. The answer surely lies in are we doing?', Tutors' Bulletin, Autumn 1948, 8-11. the symbiosis between historicism and policy in AE. [Also debate in following issue]. In retrospect it can be argued that the consequences Harrison, J.F.C. 1949. 'Remota Justitia', Tutors' Bulletin, may have disenabled UAE. This is not to argue that Autumn 1949, 6-7. [Also debate in following two historians make poor administrators or policy mak- issues]. ers, nor to cast doubt on any of the individuals cited Harrison, J.F.C. 1954. A History of the Working Men's in this paper: but it is legitimate to contemplate College, 1854-1954. critically the cumulative effect on UAE as an area of Harrison, J.F.C. 1961. Learningand Living 1790-1960: A practice and research. It is hardly surprising that the Study in the History of the English Adult Education policies and culture of UAE have been shaped by the Movement. historicism of the Great Tradition, when qualifica- Jepson, N.1973. The Beginnings ofEnglish Universio !Adult tion as a historian has so often doubled as a qualifica- Education: Policy and Problems. tion to direct its policy. Kelly, T. 1957. George Birkbeck: Pioneer of Adult Educa- tion. An agenda: from the history of adult Marriott, S. 1981. A Backstairs to a Degree: Demands fir an education to histories of adults learning Open Universiv in Late Victorian England. Some thoughts about an agenda for the future are Marriott, S. 1984. Extramural Empires: Service and Self: embedded above: gender and power relations, techni- interest in English Adult Education, 1873-1983. cal and vocational education, AE 'outside the canon'. Tuckett, A. 1993. 'Certifiable behaviour', in The Times The enclosure of AE history from other areas of Higher Education Supplement, 26 March 1993, 20. historical study must continue to be dismantled. As Williams, R. 1962. 'Sensible people', New Statesman, 5 AE comes to terms with new and profound changes, January 1962. historians may have a role to play, not by leading a Wiltshire, H.C. 1956. 'The great tradition in university retreat into a comforting nostalgia, but by exploring adult education', Adult Education 29, 1 (1956), 88-97.

0 4 n $ 0 RESEARCH: REPLECT1NG PRACTICE Researching theuse and evaluation of experiential teaching methods in university-based adult and continuing education

Ruth Cherrington and Morry van Ments Centre for Extension Studies University of Loughborough

THE project was initially motivated by curiosity active learning situations for adults to meet their about the teaching methods and techniques varied needs can therefore be seen as a particular used by tutors and trainers in university-based adult concern of ACE tutors. ar continuing education (ACE). In particular there Usher summed up this situation: was a special interest in the use of role play, and An adult educator is continually faced with the simulation and gaming within the general domain of problem of how to use students' experience what may be described as 'experiential' teaching tech- productively in the classroom. We all recognise that adult students have a wealth of experience There were two main stages ofdata collection: a postal which properly used can be a rich resource for questionnaire and then follow-up interviews with a learning, whatever the subject being studied. As number of the respondents. Before data collection a result, a wide variety ofex perien ti al techniques could commence however a literature review was have been developed to tap this resource. necessary in order to clarify the term 'experiential'. (1986:24) The emphasis here will be on reflecting on the nature New opportunities, then, have been presented for of the research process in this particular field rather tutors to expand their repertoire of teaching methods. than the results of the study. These will be alluded to However there is also potential for confusion because only in so far as they illuminate issues within theof a wide diversity of definitions and practices cen- research process itself. tring around the term 'experiential'. As the literature indicates, it is often used interchangeably with 'inter- The experiential learning/teaching context active'. For example, Gredler (1992) moves from one There appeared to be the common belief that an adjective to the other. educational 'revolution' had occurred over the past This is not just a question of semantics, but involves few decades which included the development of aspects of educational philosophy and practice and 'experiential teaching methods' such as gaming, simu- was to have an effect on the research design. If the lation and role play. Tansey and Unwin (1969), for term 'experiential' has different uses, then it could not example, referred to a trend of using the 'new educa- be assumed that its application to teaching methods tional techniques' ofsimulation and gaming. A number such as gaming, role and simulation would be identi- of commentators point out that these techniques are fied or shared by all ACE tutors. hardly new but have their origins in history (Taylor Warner Weil and McGill's (1989) classification work and Walford 1974, Van Ments, 1989). was useful as a starting point. They point out that Since the 1960s, the increase in usage ofsuch methods 'experiential learning' has been used to describe edu- has been seen as a 'boom' (Kolb and Lewis,1986:99) cational practices ranging from practical work experi- and well documented by those with a particular ence to classroom based simulations. At its broadest it interest in them such as members of organ isations like is learning through experience, involving many pos- the Society for the Advancement of Gaming andsibilities. It may simply mean 'different things to Simulation in Education and Training (SAGSET). different people.' Apart from this, there are also, Taylor and Walford described the expansion of expe- 'different values about experiential learning' (Warner riential teaching with an accompanying, 'tremendous Weil & McGill, op.cit: xix). growth in the number of games and users, expansion They identify four 'villages' within what they term the ofliteratu re and diversity ofenlarged interest.'(op.cit.). 'global village' of experiential learning. These are not Whilst some of this increased usage of these methods totally separate entities but are interrelated:it is the occurred in schools, they also extended to ACE where emphasis or focus in each 'village' which distinguishes the focus of this research project lay. It has long been them from each other. a tenet of adult education that the background andThe first one relates to assessment and accreditation experience of the student was an important resource of prior learning (APEL) as a means of gaining access to be tapped in the classroom. Providing more inter- and recognition in relation to educational institu- 19 9 3SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 51 tions, employment, professional bodies and so on. part-time teaching staff. The larger departments re- APEL has developed rapidly in recent years with the ceived four copies and smaller ones (with less than er try into higher education of increasing numbers of 200courses per year) received two. It was not known adult students. (Evans1992) who would be completing the questionnaires, the The second 'village' focuses on activities intended to choice of respondents being made by the HODs and bring about changes in the practice, structures and not under the control of the researchers. purposes of post-school education. This is clearly a This technique of 'secondary sampling' was necessary broader perspective than APEL with inherent value because of the lack of a sampling frame ofall full-time judgements about the nature of adult learning. staff in UK university ACE. The selection of a true The third emphasises learning from experience as the random, and therefore representative, sample was not core of education for social change mainly outside possible. This sampling technique had been used by educational institutions. Again there are values in- Newby (in Bilton1989)when researching farm work- volved here as well as implications for the educational ers who were often 'socially invisible' (p.536) with no process. Finally, the fourth 'village' is seen as empha- sampling frame. Newby attempted to sample the sising the potential and practice of personal growth farms rather than the farm workers. In this research it and development. was the universities that were sampled rather than the A definition 'debate' was recognised, with various tutors. practitioners and commentators in the field using the Problems of bias and subjectivity inevitably arise from same terms in different ways. It was expected that this this sampling technique. It could be that the sample would be reflected in the responses to questionnaires was nor a typical one with the HODs selecting those and it was felt that respondents should discuss theirwho they thought were using experiential techniques, own definitions wherever possible. even though requested not to let this be the basis of The literature search indicated a bias towards discuss-their choice. Selection could have been made because ing theoretical issues about the practice ofexperiential of availability of certain people, making it 'conven- learning rather than actual practice itself. There had ience sampling.' been no previous systematic investigations into theIt is probable that those selected who returned the teaching methods of ACE tutors. Research tended to questionnaire(48%)were more likely to be be local, even institution-bound and more concerned pro-experiential teaching and concerned to make with finding out about the students and their their views known. These factors were taken into motivations for participating in uni ersity-based ACE account when evaluating the results. (for example, see Whitaker,1984).This small-scale The mostly closed-ended questionnaire dealt with research project appeared therefore to be the first the use and familiarity with experiential teaching attempt to discover what was happening in university techniques. Respondents were asked to consider what ACE classrooms around the country. methods could be defined as experiential from a list of eight techniques: role play, simulation, games, Selection of research methods practicals, field trips, drama, case studies and exer- In the first instance some indications of the general cises, and to add others if necessary. awareness and use of what could be considered as Frequency of usage was also investigated. There were 'experiential' methods were required. To satisfy this questions aimed at finding out the main sources of the objective, a postal questionnaire was designed to send experiential materials tutors used and the trends in to tutors in university-based ACE. This was viewed as usage, ie. whether they were more or less popular than a quick and efficient way of gaining some initial in previous years. indication of what was happening, although with the obvious drawbacks of being superficial with littleThe nature of the sample space for the definition 'debate' to surface. Although there were concerns about the eventual It was felt that the during the second stage of follow-up nature of the sample, it was fairly balanced in terms of interviews, tutors could explain their views on the subjects taught. There was a possible weakness in concept of 'experiential learning' and how they inter- terms of the length of ACE experience. 42 had been

preted it within their own teaching. The interview in ACE for 10 or more years, whilst only 12 had be, 1. schedule would be drawn up based on the results of involved for five or less years. the questionnaires and those respondents willing to The majority, 50, were familiar with the term 'expe- partic:.pate further would be considered for interview. riential teaching methods' although several altered 132 copies of the questionnaire were sent to a sample this to 'experiential learning'. There was also some tutors in 37 universities known to be active in adult agreement about which techniques could be consid- education. They were sent via the heads (HODs) ofered as 'experiential' out of the given list. Role play viable ACE departments employing full as well as was ticked by90%of respondcnts, 89% felt that 5 2 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

simulation fell into this category, and 80% includedsimulation techniques without adequate training, games. This means that there was a degree of conver- preparation and resources could create emotional gence in the views of the sample, again pointing to a problems for some adult students. The negative as- possible bias of older, more experienced tutors. pects of experiential techniques were viewed as good reason to not use them. The interviews The structured interview schedule was drawn up on Conclusions the basis of questionnaire data. 18 interviews were The question of definitions was of obvious impor- arranged with an effort made to gain a balance oftance here. Defining terms is a useful exercise but can subjects and courses as far as possible. Once again, be viewed as imposing an order on real-life teaching however, there were more experienced tutors, with nopractices which perhaps does not exist. Researchers 'new recruits' in ACE The shortest time any of them often spend a lot of time on methodological and had been involved in ACE was eight years and the theoretical issues but there is also a need for explora- longest for around 30 years. tory work into what is actually happening in ACE Interviews usually lasted around 50 minutes. Most teaching. respondents were keen to discuss their teaching expe- This investigation, although only using a small and rience and practices; they found the interview a rare non-representative sample, shows that some of the opportunity to reflect on these. ACE tutors are not initial assumptions about widespread, professional often asked about what they do, especially whenuse of experiential techniques are not borne out in compared with the school set-tor. Several respond- practice. In general terms, there was no real support in ents, however, did point out the growth in recentthe interview data for the notion of a 'revolution' in years ofquality control which meant they were having teaching methods except perhaps as one that had to be more aware about methodological issues. already petered out. The majority claimed to occasionally use an experien- The information gained provided some valuable tial approach but few were using specific role plays, insights into university ACE teaching. It has proved simulations or games to any great degree and these useful as a case-study indicating general trends and were mainly 'home grown', ie. devised by the tutors has led on to a further piece of research which is themselves. When probed more deeply, only a minor- looking at the attitudes of ACE students to the use of ity appeared as committed 'experientialists'. experiential techniques by their r !tors. A number of respondents found it difficult to define or to draw a line between experiential and non- REFERENCES experiential. The confusion about terminology and the definition 'debate' resurfaced here. Several had Bilton, T. et ah (1989) Introductory Sociology, Macmillan. not given much thought about classifying or defining Evans, N. (1992) Experiential Learning: Assessment and teaching methodologies and method before. Accreditation, Guildford, Routledge. For most interviewees, their ACE teaching had been Gredler, M.E. (1992) Designingand EvaluatingGames and a 'process of self-discovery, trial and error, taking Simulations: a Process Approach, London, Kogan Page. risks,' reflecting the haphazard manner in which they Jones, K. (1990) Terminokgy, Simulation/Games for Learn- had entered teaching and had themselves come across ing, 20,4:355-359. experiential techniques. This may have explained Kolb, D.A. & Lewis, L.H. in Lewis, L.H. (ed), (1986) their different and sometimes conflicting views about Experiential and Simulation Techniques fir Teaching this methodology. They frequently used the term Adults, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass Inc. interchangeably with 'interactive', as was previously Tansey, P.J. & Unwin, D. (1969) Simulation and Gaming seen in the literature. in Education, London, Methuen. Some appeared concerned that they did not know as Taylor, J. & Walford, R. (1974) Learning and the Simula- much as they should do in this area, and turned the tion Game, Open University. question around to ask the interviewer what experien- Usher, R.S. (1986) Adult Students and their Experience: tial methods were supposed to be. Developing a Resource fir Learning, Studics in the Lack of knowledge about experiential methods ap- Education of Adults, V01.18, no. 1, pp. 24-34. peared as a major deterrent to their use with a great Warner Weil, S. & McGill, I. (cds) Making Sense of deal of concern expressed about the possible dangers. Experiential Learning, SRHE/Open University. It was recognised that not all students feel comfort- Whitaker, S. (1984), 'Extra Mural Student: a Survey', able in experiential situations and, indeed, may feel Adult Education. 57:3, pp. 220-227. threatened. Some tutors also shared such anxieties Van Ments, M. (1989) The Effictive Use of Role Play: A about 'self-exposure'. Handbook fir Teachers and Trainers, London, Kogan It was claimed by many respondents that tutors using Page. 052 19 9 3SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS53 Is history different?

Janet Coles School of Education, University of Leeds

RESEARCH into the history of adult education publication: once by Stresemann himselfi once by his would seem to have more in common with secretary and once by the English publisher. Propa- research into other historical subjects than with re- ganda need not involve the active spreading of a search into aspects of contemporary adult education. particular view or doctrine, it can also be achieved by I have experienced various problems as well as rewards selection. Perhaps in this respect history is different in in my research, which has been concerned principally that the passing of lime and generations serve to with the university extension movement. compound and strengthen versions of the 'truth% there are usually less means available to verify what The problems actually happened. The constant, overriding fear of The problems ofcarrying out research into people are historical research has to be that one vitally important notorious, whether or not the subjects are still living. fact can so easily be missed. One small item can Perhaps the main difference in dealing with historical overturn a complete theory. There is an element of characters is that they are unable to answer back. chance involved in the survival of certain historical Although this may seem to be an advantage, it is not documents. In historical research, too, it must be necessarily so; it may be more difficult to measure the remembered that many sources are used for purposes degree of bias. totally different from those for which they were Because individuals are 'only human' they may con- originally intended. This is very different from re- sciously or unconsciously project a particular angle on search in the social sciences when, for example, a an event in which they were involved; this can be questionnaire will be designed specifically to produce exaggerated with the passage of time and come to be certain data. accepted as the 'truth' about a particular situation. It is necessary to step back and consider the back- An example used by E.H. Carr illustrates this veryground of any document why it was written, when effectively. Gustav Stresemann, Foreign Minister ofit it was written and by whom. The fact that this the Weimar Republic, died in 1929, leaving a vast procedure should be second nature does not mean amount of paperwork which his secretary Bernhard that it is always carried out; it can well be overlooked then sorted out. Eventually three 600 page volumes if at first reading the contents of a document appar- were published. At the end of the war the Allies ently fit a particular theory. This also applies to oral photocopied the entire Stresemann papers. It turned evidence. In both cases, even where a sincere attempt out that the documents Bernhard had selected wereis made to present a fair picture of a personality or those concerning Stresemann's western policy, which event, the 'witness' can only describe what he per- had been generally regarded as successful. His deal- ceived as having happened; similarly, when attribut- ings with the Soviet Union, although recorded, seemed ing motivation, he will be influenced by his own to have been less so; Bernhard therefore did not select feel i ngs. thcm for publication. Further editing was carried out I have experienced this in my own research. While before a new edition was brought out by an English attempting to establish the possible importance of the publisher in which the documents relating to the influence of ind ividuals in the field of adult education Soviet Union were even less well represented. in the crucial post-war years, I looked at the work of A researcher using this volume would obviously nor a somewhat controversial figure, S.C. Raybould, and gain a balanced view of Stresemann's foreign policy, his time as director of extra mural studies at the but had the original boxes of documents not survived University of Leeds. Various discrepancies arose. One this could never have been proved. Carr also pointed example concerned the encouragement he gave col- out that even before the weeding was carried out by leagues to get their work published; those who liked Bernhard, the picture of Stresemann's rime as foreign Raybould believed his motives were purely altruistic; minister was not a complete one. He himself, whenthose who had a less favourable opinion of him recording conversations, described them in such a believed he acted from reasons ofself-interest, so that way as to suggest that he had presented cogent argu- he could bask in reflected glory. No-one can state ments while those of the people he spoke to were far categorically what his true motives were; it is likely less convincing.1 The 'genuine' Stresemann memoirs that they were complex. had thus in effect been censored three times before In dealing with people, even historical characters 053 54 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE there is a danger of becoming emotionally involved be possible to change course or modify the direction with a particular individual. The problem can de- the work is taking. velop in various ways, all detrimental to the objectiv- Some researchers believe that all historical material ity of the research. One might admire certain charac- can and must be tied into a definite framework, or teristics of the individual being researched; this can that only by linking it to a theoretical base will it lead to treating the subject in a heroic manner to achieve any real meaning. Opinion on this must praising his strong points and underestimating his surely remain divided. There would seem to be a case weaknesses. The opposite can happen researchers for providing a chronological account of particular studying an individual they find abhorrent may fail to events or aspects of history simply for its own sake; acknowledge the importance of any mitigating aspect though ofcourse then there is the temptation to think of his character. This failure to look at the subject that because one event succeeded another it was objectively can occur subconsciously. Although suchcaused by it. According to Tawney. 'Time, and the a problem could well arise when dealing with livingorder of occurrences in time, is a clue but no more; people, it is less likely to get out of hand; the characters part of the historian's business is to substitute more themselves may step in to keep the records straight. significant connections for those ofchronology.'3 It is When dealing with historical characters it is also only these 'more significant connections' which form the too easy to be judgemental: to be guilty of what E.P. basis of so much debate among historians. Thompson has called 'the enormous condescension There is too, a well-supported view that history is of posterity'2, to censure individuals for the way they simply what is written down. In research into some acted. It is vital to bear in mind the contemporary scientific subjects, it is possible to present results in a circumstances, beliefs etc. and not criticise them straightforward, perhaps tabular form. With histori- using today's standards. In this respect history is cal research, the presentation of results is often essen- different; we can surely never know as much about life tially a persuasive essay, however balanced a view the in former times as we do about that of our own, researcher may have sought to achieve. however much we immerse ourselves in background material. Itis inevitable that assumptions will beOther problems made; the danger is in assuming that our society and Total absorption in one's work can prove hazardous. values are superior to former ones. It is possible to lose track of the real world when a lot Consciously or unconsciously, the historian will gradu- of time is spent in the cloistered atmosphere of a ally build up a 'picture' in his mind of his own university library. Enthusiastic announcements about particular subject which may well be influenced by the progress of the research are soon greeted only by the time in which he himself is living. Over the years polite, glazed expressions on the faces of friends and his individual picture may become more and more family. fixed and vivid so that it is difficult to visualise an It could be claimed that in a time offinancial rtraint alternative image. This may explain why few histori- expenditure on a subject such as the history of adult ans undergo dramatic changes of mind about theireducation is less 'worthwhile' than on others and is subject. more difficult to justify.

Hypotheses and theories The rewards There is also the question of establishing aims and The rewards of research into historical subjects, must, objectives from the start. This done, the decision I believe, be similar to those experienced in other must be taken whether to stick rigidly to these bounda- kinds of research. There is tremendous satisfaction in ries, or whether to allow them to be stretched. This discovering a previously unknown piece of evidence would apply to any kind of research, not only thatand of following up various 'clues' and filling in based on a historical subject. It is only too easy to be missing links. It is difficult, if not impossible, to side-tracked from the original purpose and to waste adescribe the sheer wonder at actually handling items great deal of time on peripheral matters. It may be, ofparticular significance. In my case the most exciting however, that while researching one area, the greater was a history of the WEA presented to its founder, importance of a side issue becomes apparent. In such Albert Mansbridge, in 1924 and signed by the great a case it may be decided to concentrate on this area in and the good in adult education. Important discover- greater depth than had been anticipated. Many histo- ies will not, of course, necessarily involve any famous rians believe the value of beginning work with a individuals, bu t will be valuable for their contribution specific hypothesis lies in the other questions which it to the research. may raise as much as in a rigid application of the There is an additional benefit; it is inevitable that original theory. If the original research has been while studying a particular topic in depth one will specifically funded, of course, it is unlikely that it will gain an insight into far mc re than the narrow field 0-5 4 1 9 9 3 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 5 5 under investigation; some would argue that such become an extraordinarily boring person. knowledge is never wasted. Perhaps it is onlya step On the other hand, there are marked difTererces from acquiring such an insight into a differentway ofbetween historical research and other types. Biason life to picking up a suggestion of an explanation ofthe part of historical characters is harder to detect; the why certain things happen as they do today. Thispassage of time tends to establish information as would seem to be a dangerous area, though Carr 'factuar; we can never know as much about former asserts that 'we can fully understand the present onlygenerations as we do about our own. There is more in the light of the past.'4 The traditional purpose oflikelihood of missing a particular item in a historical studying history 'to divine the future' does not seem context; the longer ago the period being researched as directly relevant in the field of adult education as in was, the less likely itis that there will be other such areas as international relations, but even in the information available to confirm or challengeany latter case the argument is somewhat unconvincing. particular finding. Finally, I would like to emphasise that although Condusion numerically the problems of research, particularly I hesitate to conclude that in some respects history ishistorical research, seem to outnumber the rewards, different from other types of research in the field ofoverall the rewards far exceed the problems. adult education; in other respects there are marked similarities. All types of research demand thorough- FoOTNOTES ness and objectivity all, it seems, can be influenced by one's own feelings and by those of the subject or 1 E.H.Carr, What is History? second ed., Penguin, 1987 witnesses. In all cases the selection of particular 'facts' pp16-19 and the omission of others can slant the outcome of 2 E. P.Thompson. The Making of the English Working the research. In all cases it is possible to start from a atss, Penguin ed. p.12 particular hypothesis and attempt to prove or dis- 3 R.H.Tawney, History and Society, Routkdge & Kegan prove it. In all cases, too, it is presumably possible to Paul, 1978, p.54 become so totally engrossed in one's work as to 4 E.H.Carr, What is History? p.55

055 5 6 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Discussion groups and researcher bias

Elaine Dawson University of Sheffield

N January 1992, I began some research into the I thought I was not a prejudiced person to any Ipublic perception of changes in higher education. group in society, but I obviously am...1 auto- In my previous job I had become familiar with the use matically presumed the man on the telephone of discussion groups, or focus groups, and felt that it was in charge and the person to talk to because would be a useful research method to explore these his disability wasn't visible...I remember look- perceptions. In this way I could characterise and ing at the two men with cerebral palsy and illustrate what certain groups felt, but I would not wondered whether they had just popped in for a generalise. cup of tea. I looked at the other man with no An initial reason for adopting the discussion group visible disability and presumed him to be the method was that I could put my own perceptions minibus driver. What can I say? I'm not happy aside and sit in amongst a group of people who would with these presumptions or with my thoughts stimulate each other to explore their perceptions. I when preparing for the meeting, eg. what lan- expected my role to be minimal and unobtrusive. I guage am I using for the questions? Will they be was there only to keep control of the group be able to understand me? The implication obvi- aware of group dynamics; stop break-away conversa- ously being that people with disabilities are less tions; control digressions and dominant speakers; intelligent than able-bodied people) ensure the best possible conditions for tape recording. The other incident, at first, appeared not to be By adopting the use of theoretical sampling wherebyconnected with this, but with careful reflection I data is jointly collected, coded and analysed, and with realised that both situations had arisen from my own the use of thematic and comparative analysis, I was unconscious perceptions about those particular groups able to control problems of interview and sampling of people. A quotation from my research diary illus- bias. The previous group determined where to go for trates this second problem: the next group by either explicitly stating or implicitly Yesterday I had a discussion group with manual inferring. The groups themselves would raise issues workers from the council. It was a bit uncom- which they felt were important and probe each other fortable, there was definitely a 'them and us' for further information. Groups were compared, tran- si tuation which has not been so obviously present scripts analysed, themes were developed and the in other groups. I seemed to be viewed 2S a research moved forward smoothly. I kept a compre- 'them' and I think some of the group regarded hensive research diary, documenting my thoughts me with suspicion. There was a direct attack on and reflections on the method as the research pro-. me from one of the men who said he could tell gressed. However, I was soon to realise that these I was a student ov kcturer or something like that issues of interview and sampling bias were only the tip by what I was wearing, a flimsy dress and sandals. of the iceberg. The whole area of my own personal I thought I had dressed appropriately for the bias had been overlooked. group in clothes I don't usually wear a Marks Two particular incidents stopped me in my tracks. and Spencer dress and British Home Store san- One concerned a group ofpeople with disabilities, the dals. It W2S a hot day.2 other a group of manual council workers. In the firstIt was my preconceptions which prompted me to incident I had decided to speak to a group of peopledress this wayI thought it was an appropriate outfit with disabilities as disabled access had been men-for the group. Similarly other preparations for the tioned previously. Before I began this research I had group were carried out under these preconceptions considered myself to be quite 'sound' and politicallyhow was I to conduct myselfi what questions were correct and it came as quite a shock to realise that thisappropriate? The role of the researcher in discussion was not the case. An excerpt from my research diary groups is crucial and if she or he is not comfortable illustrates the problem: with that role the participants will pick it up and react Today I had a discussion group with a disabled accordingly, as happened with these manual workers. group. I went into the office and was met by aThe groups which ran the most smoothly were with woman in a wheelchair, two men with cerebral white, middle-class participants, whether female, male palsy, a man on the telephone and another man or mixed. Obviously other factors are important in reading a newspaper...I am not proud of myself their success, but with hindsight I believe it was

56 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS57 especially due to my feeling comfortable with the Unconscious pressures to bias a group discus- group because of my preconceptions. The members sion are most powerful during the later stages of of the group as a consequence appeared to be comfort- a study, particularly when the initial sessions able with me. have been highly consistent in their implica- These realisations came only after careful reflection tions. When a group threatens to act in a way through writing in my research diary and by filling in which is at variance with research-based expec- contact summary sheets after each group3. Initially I tations, and promises to present us with unex- attempted other explanations for groups not running pected and unwelcome analytical and interpre- as smoothly as I had hoped for, as Evans (1989) notes: tive headaches, our unconscious impulse is to ... people may well be unaware of the fact that nip this insurrection in the bud or as a last their decisions are subject to bias and become resort, to tune out, or reject such a group as 'odd-

adept at constructing rational sounding expla- ball'.8 nations after theevent.4 I was aware that these impulses could manifest them- As I gradually became more aware of these personal selves in various ways, and again, awareness and biases I was able carefully to consider my thoughts and recognition were the first steps to control. I watched actions before, during and after each discussion group. out for probing favourable comments and ignoring Unfortunately I found very little help in the Social those which did not follow existing patterns. Tapes Sciences literature. Cognitive and Applied Psychol- were transcribed fully, including my own comments ogy publications covered the role of bias in quantify- so that I could watch out for leading questions and ing judgements and human reasoning, but were too treat responses with caution. I studied body-language theoretical. American market research publications and neuro linguistic programming to help me be- mentioned moderator bias in research groups and come more aware of my reactions and gestures, along advocated psychotherapy or sitting in on at least two with those of the participants. During analysis I tried hundred discussion groups as a training programme5. to treat all transcripts and comments equally, at- Mclaren (1991) stated 'it is important...that the field tempting to be faithful to those who had taken part in researcher not use the field as a site for his or her the research and not mis-represent what they had psychotherapy'6. Thistrue for a researcher once in said. I recognised that the work was highly subjective the field, but personal biases can and do affect re- what I attached importance to another researcher search and researchers must therefore be able to might not have. I attempted to be honest with the understand themselves and the influences in their reader and describe the subjective nature of the work, lives which affect what they do, their motives and pointing out areas which could have been affected by their thoughts. This point puts me in mind of a personal biase: woman in a discussion group who said that we should In conducting tesearch on women and their working stop looking at others and look at ourselves instead. lives, Griffin (1991) was accused of carrying out Due to time and financial constraints it is often biased work because it only concentrated on women, impossible for a researcher to consider sitting in on yet many famous studies have only used male partici- two hundred focus groups as training for their role as pants and not been labelled biased. This led Griffin to moderator. Psychotherapy is not as popular here as in note: the States, and again time and financial constraints Those approaches that are labelled2Sunbiased mean it is not an option open to many researchers. I usually are associated with the forces that found self-awareness increased through careful reflec- maintain existing sets of power relations in tion and personal honesty. As happened with me, society.9 researchers might not like what they find, but revela- I believe we all need to reflect on our research practices tions should be viewed in a positive light and seen as and address these issues of personal bias in a construc- part of the personal learning process, important for tive way so that researchers like Griffin do not have to self development. As Cottle (1982) noted when re- face criticism alone. I have related these issues to searching families living in inner city areas: discussion groups because that is where my experi- Encounters, implying as they do mutual ac- ence lies, but there are implications for all qualitative knowledgment of persons, must affect our sense work. Literature on these issues is scarce. I therefore of identity, for they cause us to become re- welcome the opportunity to reflect on personal re- acquainted withourselves.7 search experiences with interested colleagues in a As the research progressed I became aware of anotherworkshop. The following is a list of questions which potential problem which could, again, be reflected in colleagues may wish to consider. Please ignore the my behaviour before, during and after discussion biased nature of the questions the list has been groups. It concerned a need for consistency of results, developed from my own personal interests and obser- as Kennedy (1976) notes: vations. fg RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

(1) Have other researchers recognised personal 4. See Evans (1989), p.113 biases influencing their research? If so, to what 5. See Higginbotham and Cox (1979) Focus Group Inter- extent? How did they recognise them? What views for full discussion on these issues steps did they take to control them? What advice6. Article by Mclaren, in Shaffir and Stebbins (1991) can colleagues give on the recognition and con- Experiencing FiPldwork, p.162 trol of personal bias? 7. Aticle by Cottle, in Burgess (1982) Fiekl Research, p.127 (2) To what extent do personal biases affect the8. See article by Kennedy, in Higginbotham and Cox research process? Are these issues purely con- (1979) Focus Group Interviews, p.84 cerns of qualitative researchers or are there im- 9. Sec article by Griffin, in Shaffir and Stebbins (1991) plications for quantitative work? Are some re- Experiencing Fieldwork, p.114 search methods affected more severely than oth- ers by personal bias? BIBLOGRA9HY (3) Do certain types of background and life experi- ences have more influence on the research proc- Burgess, Robert G., (ed) Field Research: A Sourcebook and ess than others? Are these personal biases more Field Manua4 Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982 prominent when meeting with groups with Evans, Jonathan St. B.T., Bias in Human Reasoning: Causes whom we have had little or no contact in our and Consequences, Lawrence Erlbaum, 1989 lives? If this is so, given the personal profiles and Higginbotham, James B. and Cox, Keith K., (eds) Focus backgrounds of most academic researchers, what Group Interviews, American Marketing Association, are the implications for future research? 1979 Miles, Matthew B. and Huberman, Michael A., Qualita- FOOMOTES tive Data Analysis: A Sourcebook ofNew Methods, Sage, 1984 1. Personal Research Diary, 1992-1993, p.I 2 Morgan, David L., Focus Groups as Qualitative Research, 2. Personal Research Diary, 1992-1993, p.I 5 Sage, 1988 3. Contact Summary Sheets are discussed in Miles and Poulton, E.C., Bias in Quantifiing Judgements, Lawrence Huberman (1984), p.50 Erlbaum, 1989 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS5 9 A becoming of gatekeepers

Chris Duke University of Warwick

Gatekeeper: one who has charge of a gate rhetoric of empowerment. Gate: an opening in a wall for entrance and Why do we need gatekeepers? How do we allow them exit, with a moveable barrier for closing it; to emerge? Why do we allow them to exercise power also, in founding: the little spout in the brim (maybe we cannot prevent it?) and authority (which of casting ladles. Shorter Oxford Englishwe maybe bestow upon them). All this has a special Dictionary interest, not to say poignancy, in the adult education community. VIDENTLY we 'need' gatekeepers to manage We might pause, indeed, on the word community. ELo the social construct known as research, perhaps Are gatekeepers a negation of community in AE, or a for sociological as well as for political and economicdemonstration of its maturation and/or of its reasons. It may help to think of them as the managers external recognition? Gatekeeping is a political issue of little spouts but it does not take the power away. among academic tribes in general'. It has a different How do we come to acquire gatekeepers in the loosely ideological edge in a field of practice whch does not formed and weakly framed field of continuing educa- claim to be a discipline and, at least in Britain, is tion research? What do they do for and to us? divided over being a scholarly activity rather than a movement. SCUTREA, incidentally, is at the leading Who and what is the researcher? edge of the gatekeeper-making business. We had better begin by reminding ourselves what research in continuing education is. There are multi- Becoming a research person ple answers, as there are to the question 'what is I came into research and into the education of adults continuing education?' I suggest that 'research' is asimultaneously and coincidentally. A voluntary exile convenient and necessary professional artefact.In con- from the tribe of historians, I wandered into the tinuing education, it is still an evolving social con- sociologists' camp, enjoyed their discourse but never struct with which to order and contain an area ofworksigned up. Meanwhik doing adult education (first by of increasing salience to the institutions that employ chance, then by choice) I began to build an academic- us and to our own self-concepts and ambitions. cum-development 'career' in teaching and research in If this can be agreed, it clears the way to acknowledg- adult education, and became a research person and a ing something else. In development-oriented adult practitioner researcher. education, as represented and promoted for instanceThe same informing purposes which kept me in AE by the International Council for Adult Education, also oriented me to participatory, action-oriented there is a clear ideological position, a position often kinds of research black inner city residents in Leeds supported and replicated by others in AE research. and Aboriginal activists in Australia partly co-owned From this perspective 'research' appears also as an- th u! process of what the employer saw as my research other name for mystification and for the creation and projects, products and results, though their names control of powerful legitimated knowledge. only seldom appeared, one must admit, on the pub- We do not necessarily always use the same words as lished papers. ICAE participatory research. Other terms alsoI also signed up almost unwittingly for the union of emphasise such characteristics as the subjectivity, teaching and research, teaching as research and re- provisionality, context and groundedness of 'schol- search for and as teaching. It took me a long time to arly knowledge', and the value and validity of other recognise how and why I had bought into and inter- people's and other kinds of knowledge. We assert that nalised this holy union, and I still find myself con- adults' classes are often research groups. Questions of fused and conflicted over it. At the same time I ethical validity and utilisation also come into therejected the sociologist's pure research as promul- consideration. There is then other knowledge and gated 'internally' at Leeds studying the ants in the other research than that which is funded by research anthill acknowledging that I too was an interested 2 councils and produced in universities. Questions ofant. definition, creation, ownership and control ofknowl- Researchers are held to mature and age differentially edge are presented with particular sharpness in adult in different disciplinesmaths and music at one end, education, with its emancipatory traditions and its history at the other. Is there a classic career and career 60 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE profile for the ill-established field in which we prac- serving on review bodies and otherwise advis- tise? Answers to such a question must be culture- and ing institutions on resourcing and other context-specific. I think that in North America AE arrangements for research and relatedac- research now approximates a normal academic field, tivity in the adult continuing education with recognisable roles and career progressions. It is field also, I believe, far more scholarly, alias dissociated advising Government, direct or via eg UFC or from practice and from politics, than is AE research in HEFCE, on raearch allocations as against Britain. other CE expenditure, and as between dif- ferent research bids Gatekeeping research public authorised representation of the AE If this is correct the coming of age of CE research in research community's interests to Govern- Britain ought to mean that research careers, career ment bodies and quangos progression an _1research gatekeepers will emerge informal lobbying and influence with Gov- naturally as tribal elders. The radical and practitioner ernment bodies, quangos, research councils AE traditions might however suggest otherwise. Con- and charitable bodies, etc., as a 'champion' servatism would be normal and natural among gate- of AE keepers. Ageing radicals and no-longer-Young Turks external examining and related activities (mod- will grow up and behave 'responsibly', or be mar- erating, qualityassessment) in relation to ginalised. A natural pattern would be for influential higher degree study and examination elder statesmen (maybe eventually -persons) to exer- infiltrating other tribal camps and influenc- cise control, to express more widely the shared tribal ing their attitudes to AE research (eg. Soci- norms, and to sustain the CE research community's ology, Education, the Development field). values and its place at the dining table alongside other This list is about CEresearch.Given the practitioner `disciplines'. 'Mainstreaming' our research means base of the field in Britain it is not easy to split off getting a seat at that table, where currently Research research promotion and gatekeeping from the repre- Assessment Units numbered 1-72 are allocated places sentation and promotion ofACE itself, with Govern- by the Funding Council. ment, industry and their agencies as well as in the What are the main gatekeeper roles and how are they broader national community. A glance at the role and being exercised? The following list provides just a work of the national institute, NIACE, immediately starting point. illuminates this. editorship of jou rnals, edited book series and This suggests a further point to add to the list: individual volumes representing CE research to the AE easy opportunity for authorship of books and practititioner community and counteract- book reviews (the Matthew effect unto ing scepticism and hostility there. them that hath it shall be given) and to Still less tangibly there may be, in conservative, tradi- influence who else will get such opportuni- tional, heavily networked and controlled British soci- ties ety another element: being a good chap (usually) in refereeing of journal articles and book pro- the places where institutionalised research is allowed posals for editors and for publishers to live or die, so that there is a favourable orientation refereeing applicants for jobs, at least from to the field as 'sound', 'worthwhile', perhaps even research assistantships through to chairs 'respectable'part, in short, of the academic estab- selecting or excluding candidates and poten- lishment. tial candidates for research degrees This list should be disturbing. One question is how mentoring, 'adopting' and promoting the far the gatekeepters control access, open as well as interests of potential researchers in a close the gate for the sector as a whole rather than just proactive way for individual researchers and research groups. Is it a acting as adviser or consultant when the field sectoral or a particular interest that gets promoted? Is is being scanned for likely candidates for it possible to distinguish and judge? Research oppor- appointment tunities go in the end to individuals and groups, not serving as adviser or external member to to the field at large. Perhaps the field does gain most selection panels for appointments where the from the promotion and success of its best players. choice is made serving on research body committees and Facilitation panels to d eterm i ne who gets research grants The emphasis so far has been on gatekeeping: exercis- serving as referee or adviser to research bodies ing control over who enters the grazing paddock, but in relation to research grant application also building access to the paddock and seeking to 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 61 ensure that the gate can be opened. Thus gatekeeping ments and conditions of big science make the context slips into facilitation and into a more or less vigorous very different there. The barefoot nuclear or astro quest for sector resources. It means fighting for re- physicist is less plausible than the barefoot AE re- sources in the broad external environment as well as searcher. Labs and big machines apart, where does the influencing who gets them within the club. CE field differ? Thcre is another side to facilitation: the creation of a It may be that shifting from 'adult' to 'continuing' as supportive and creative 'internal environment' for I have deliberately done provides a simple answer. research within our institutions. There is still a 'Mainstreamed' CE research on 'mainstreamed' CE gatekeeping element, or maybe we should simply call sits us down at the ESRC table with other education it patronage, of the kind exercised for better or for and social science researchers. Now we need to pub- worse by chairs of departments and heads of groups. lish our papers in the right journals and win our spurs There is also a more subtle aspect: the creation of a and our funds. supportive collegial environment in which (especially If however the values and traditions of AE (as in young and other less confident, less established) re- 'radical adult education' and the International Coun- searchers feel able to be bold, to take risks, to do cil for Adult Education) continue to infuse the work, something untried and different, with a sense ofthen gatekeeping and facilitation are more problem- excitement and support rather than threat. This ap- atic, and remain more difficult, than in more conven- plies to research assistants and research students as tional fields of scholarship. The gatekeeper loyal to well as to fully fledged researchers. It applies also to these traditions will not become desensitised to ques- teachers in the AE field generally, whose job condi- tions about the nature, creation and ownership of tions may be arranged to make research feasible orknowledge. Such a gatekeeper will not forget that impossible; and to the way they are encouraged to seeacademically and professionally legitimated knowl- their job, and to see 'research', as something manage- edge disempowers others, whole communities and able, meaningfill and accessible, or as something nations as well as individuals3. Whatever the term or difficult, remote and esotericsomething not forepithetliberal or reformist, radical or incremental them. the applied, practitioner, utilitarian, as well as the Sustaining a research environment can mean raisingdemocratic, participatory whiff of old-style AE will money for IT, or winning a local battle for accommo- linger on, and will influence the way gatekeeping is dation. It may mean seeing that conference and other practised and facilitation pursued. travel opportunities get shared out. It may meanWhether this should and does still happen may be a setting up an effective mentoring system, and ensur- matter for discussion. The sixty-four dollar question ing that official appraisal systems build rather thanwhich this paper leaves unanswered is who are the CE inhibit personal confidence and professional growth. gatekeepers, how do they come to be legitimated, and It may mean instituting buddy systems or quality how and with what effect do they play their gatekeeping circles, and normalising open research-sharing op- roles? port', cities instead of combat-field academic 'semi- nars' where the confident demolish the weak. It will FOOTNOTES involve other aspects of good general management such as listening, modelling, being open and firm, .The term belongs to Tony Becher, Academic Tribes and planning for succession, etc. It will mean fostering Territories (SREIE and Open U P 1989). teamwork rather than rampant competitive individu- 2. The reference is to Professor Grebenik's view that alism, while honouring rather than resenting the sociologists' involvement with their research matter virtuoso performance. should be no greater than that of the (human) observer of an ts in the anthill. It was possible to see light between The specificity of gatekeeping in continuing Grebenik's and the Leeds extramural sociologists' re- education spective ideological positions. Virtually everything suggested above about 3. Recall the work of Ivan Illich, but also the protracted gatekeeping and facilitation could be generalised to debate about modernisation and the impact of linear scholarly endeavour in all fields, although the require- western-driven models on non-western societies.

061 62 RESEARCH: REFLECTING pRACTIcE The lone adult-education researcher: reflections on methodand practice

Annette Greenland University of North Carolina at Charlotte, NC, USA

THE purposes of this paper are to describe and Second Language, and one (me) in adult edncation. critique the pattern of lone' research activityThey and the 60 other faculty in the College of which has evolved over my relatively short career as a Education and Allied Professions are primarily en- university adult educator. After sketching a context gaged in preparing personnel for positions in child for my remarks, I will trace the development of my and youth education. preferences in scholarly inquiry and then pose ques- Adult education carries no certification in North tions for SCUTREA participants. Carolina. Most of my students already work with Defining lone has been a chalknge because we aca- adult learners, in corporate or government-agency demics are all, to varying degrees, solitary in our training, community college literacy and support scholarly efforts, even when our projects list multiple programs, health education, and consultancy. investigators. So I adapted language from the litera- ture of self-directed learning in order to characterize Preparation the lone researcher, using myself as example: someone When I was hired by UNCC, I had just completed my wild, without benefit of ongoing, race-to-face, in- Doctor of Education in adult and higher education at formed discussion with one or more persons ofsimilar the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. I had academic preparation and inclination, makes all the entered UMass with a practitioner background six major decisions about a line of research; that is, years of coordinating off-campus credit courses for a chooses the topic or question; how, when, and where small community college in Arkansas. In those six to examine it; the pace, sequence, and intensity of the years ('lone' in an office 65 miles from the college) I work; how much to expose and scrutinize hisfher had earned my master's in higher education, ventured assumptions and biases; the selection and integration into basic survey research, published my first refereed of others' prior work; the outside expertise to bearticle, and made two conference presentations. sought; the tint evaluation of the project's cohesive- At UMass I discovered adult higher education as a ness arid worth; and the manner of reporting todiscrete, interesting, but not widely understood decision-makers (funders, personnel review commit-subfield of study and practice. Feeling driven to tees). establish a sense of context, I undertook, along with classroom courses, a lengthy independent-study Local context project to identify my positions along a variety of UNC Charlotte is one of16 public universities in the perspectiveshistorical, philosophical, learning style, state system. The Charlotte area, one of the fastest- and others. More solitary work the next year on growing urban areas in the. United States, has about a rwo qualifying papers put me in a frame of mind to half million inhabitants. tackle dissertation research within a nearby but very I am UNC Charlotte's first (and only) full-time, complex context, UMass itself. tenure-earning faculty member in adult education, I wanted to know how responsive UMass was (and hired five years ago not only to do teaching (master's could be) to adult 25 and older undergraduates. students), research, and service, but also for Long respected for serving full-time traditional-age performing program administration and coor- undergraduates, this 25,000-student institution had dination function., advising students, directing had two adult-degree options for about a decade: a theses/projects, providing leadership for Adult University Without Walls program and a general- Education and the adult student within the studies major, the latter offered via the continuing University; work[ing] closely with personnel education division. Both were often perceived else- within the University, with other universities where on campus as marginal to the central mission of within the system, and with community and the institution.

industry leaders .(Chronicle ofHigher Educa- My quest was to locate all across campus tion, 1988, p. B8). support for, and usage of, particular practices suited The Department of Teaching Specialties comprises to serving older undergraduates. The initial stimulus 10 faculty in special education, four in reading edu- for my project was a theoretically grounded publica- cation, three in research methods, one in English as a tion, Postsecondary Education Institutions and the Adult 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 63

Learner: A Se lf-Study Assessment and Planning Guide impact may not be greater than that of several more (1984), which had been designed primarily for use by compact studies of equivalent total effort. My doc- administrator-led institutional teams in carrying out toral research gave me practice in several modes of a campus-wide assessment. More than 200 diagnostic inquiry, but did not prepare me to move comfortably questions, attached to a yes/no/not applicable re- between a lone-researcher frame of mind and a col- sponse format, are offered in such groupings as laborative one. outreach; admissions, orientation, and advising; cur- I find survey research and its literature challenging riculum and instruction; academic policy and prac- and interesting, mindful that my British readers may, tice; faculty/staff development; and mission and ob- if Brookfield's (1989) claim is valid, view survey jectives. research and statistical analysis as 'camouflage' for a My design goal was an institution-wide self-assess- 'lack of analytical capacities' (p. 302)! My ideal blend ment which could be carried out by a single researcher of methodologies at present is gathering quantitative who would use both quantitative and qualitativedata to serve as benchmark or larger context for methodology. I used the Guideas an initial organizing concurrent or subsequent qualitative components. framework and theoretical base for developing surveyAlthough I value both the 'number cruncher' and instruments and open-ended questions. The litera- 'story teller' roles (Alexander, 1986, p. 132), I regard ture on which the Guide was based, including reports the former as a necessary framer and perhaps from 19 conventional self-study teams at other insti- monitor of the latter. tutions, provided further guidance. I developed three pencil-and-paper survey instru- Transition to the present ments (for samples of faculty and academic advisors My 'lone' program-coordinator background prob- and for all department and division heads) and a set ably figured in my hiring by UNC Charlotte more of telephone-interview protocols (for heads of sup-than did my research agenda. I began my scholarly port-service units). I modified the question format to inquiry there on topics which had immediate applica- measure both attitude ('Are you a proponent of this tion (nature and evolution of master's programs in practice?') and usage (Is this your [or your depart- adult education) or which extended earlier work (self- ment's] practice?'), and added new questions based assessment among professional women in higher edu- on the literature. cation). My largest ongoing study is of first-time-at- 01456 persons I asked to supply information for the UNCC adult undergraduates; I have the cooperation study (I included an adult-student component, using of, and considerable input from, the staff member a standardized 'satisfaction' instrument), more than who coordinates student services for 'nontraditional' 80 percent responded. I manipulated the quantitative students. icistudy thus qualifies as a tentative move data using conventional statistics.I subjected re- away from purely 'lone' research, and legitimizes the sponses to open-ended questions to standard con- allocation of time to discussions of progress and tent-analysis procedures. implications with someone who has a significant The resulting dissertation (Greenland, 1988), a hefty investment in (albeit different objectives for) the tome, is usable as a reference for determining the work. relative status of, or climate for, particular practices I was unsuccessful in attracting funding for the above- and for tracing the rationale underlyingspecific men tioned projects, even in the in-house grant com- recommendations. One of the monographs I ex- petitions I have entered every year. Not until the tracted from it (Greenland, 1989) won a nationalEducation reference librarian and I teamed up to award for dissertation excellence. propose a qualitative study of graduate students' information-seeking behavior were the institutional Reflections coffers opened for research support. I recall thinking, 'I'll never have an occasion, the institutional linkages, or the concentrated time to do Monitoring research patterns that complex a study again!' (Hindsight reinforcesReflecting on the ways I have tried to monitor my pride of accomplishment but blurs the amount ofactivity is intended to help me avoid what Bright time and energy invested and the uncertainties en- (1986, p. 102) calls 'bad eclecticism.' I give an extra countered). measure of attention to the knowledge-base context The dozens of separate steps and decisions along thefor my work, going beyond the expected topical way enriched my repertoire of possibilities for a career literature to the broader adult-education agenda- as a university teacher/researcher; none qualified mesetting pieces, the `futuring' literature, and refine- as 'expert' researcher. I continue to believe that large ments of those inquiry skills I value in common with studies, carefully conceptualized and organized, can other educational researchers. be directed by one person, but I'm aware that the I remind myself not to slip into a `grass-is-greener' 063 6 4 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

outlook about others' joint inquiry. The collaborative on University Teachingand Research in Adult Education studies reported in journals and at conferences may (SCUTREA): Papers fiom the annual conftrence (Hull, not have been more smoothly conducted, enthusias- England) (pp. 130-133). (ERIC Document Repro- tically debated, or valued than 'lone' research. As duction Service No. ED 280 995) Jones (1986) reminded SCUTREA, those 'sanitized' Bright, Barry. (1986). The study of adult education: research reports 'give no real clue as to the doubts, Epistomology, the subject specialist and research. in false starts, and uncertainties which accompany any Miriam Zukas (Ed)., SCUTREA: Papers from the an- research activity' (p. 35). nual confirence (Hull, England) (pp. 100-102). (ERIC I'm more confident in presenting partially completed Document Reproduction Service No. ED 280 995) research at professional conferences. Sometimes the Brookfield, Stephen (Ed.). (1988). Developing critically briefest of such interactions serves as welcome forma- reflective practitioners: A rationale for training educa- tive evaluation. tors of adults. in Training educators ofaduks:The theory Much as I'm intrigued by the research-as-self-di- and practice ofadult rducation (pp. 317-338). London: rected-learning metaphor (Candy, 1991, p. 399), I Routledge. caution myself first to use it as an energizer and task Candy, Philip C. (1991). Self-directionfor lifelong karning: reminder and then to reconceptualize myself as em- A comprehensive guide to theory and practice. San Fran- bedded in a community of researchers. cisco: Jossey-Bass. Additional checks and balances have come to mind as Bryant, Ian, and Usher, Robin. (1986). Some tension I prepared this paper: I could develop what Bryant points in adult education research. in Miriam Zukas and Usher (1986) call "an agreement with the (Ed.), SCUTREA: Papers from the annual conftrence self" to set aside time for reflective analysis' (pp. 14- (Hull, England) (pp. 10-19). (ERIC Document Re- 15). Perhaps a journal dedicated just to reflecting on production Service No. ED 280 995) research could be my self-agreed-upon aid. Chronicle of Higher Education. (1988, March 30). [Posi- I can resist the temptation to design overly large tion announcements], p. B8. projects which lead me to expect too much from Greenland, Annette. (1988). Responsiveness to adult under- them. I can work to change departmental workload graduates in a traditional land-grant university: An policy so that encouraging master's-student research institution-wide self-assessment. (Doctoral dissertation, becomes a more recognized use of faculty rime and a the University of Massachusetts at Amherst). stimulus to my own and my colleagues' research. Greenland, Annette. (1989). Responsiveness to adult under- graduates in a traditional Land-grant university: An A call for feedback institution-wide self-assessment. [Chicago]: American How do you talk to yourself about your research? Do Association of University Administrators Foundation. you have a personal reflection journal orchecklist? If [1989 winner of the AAUA Foundation Leo and the latter, what are its elements? Margaret Goodman-Malamuth Award for Excellence How do you perceive the lone researcher I have in Research on the Administration of Higher Educa- described above? As moving predictably and conven- tion] tionally along some continuum of professional devel- Jones, David. (1986). Some issues in adult education opment and outlook? As behaving in concertwith research. in Miriam Zukas (Ed.), SCUTREA: Papers other facets of experience and personality? As clinging from the annual conference (Hull, England) (pp. 26 too closely to past successes and paradigms? 37). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 280 995) REFERENCES Postsecondary education institutions and the adult learner: A self-study assessment and planningguide. (1984). [Wash- Alexander, D. J. (1986). Political perspectives on adult ington]: Commission on Higher Education and the education research with particular reference to meth- Adult Learner and the American Council on Educa- odology. in Miriam Zukas (Ed.), Standing Conference tion. 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS65 Reflecting research practice from concrete experience to abstract conceptualisation

Rita A. Newton University College, Salford

Abstract was researching self assessment, and indeed educa- THIS paper will examine my experiences as a first tion, for the first time. time researcher. The subject of my research was Also, because the subject was unfamiliar I had prob- student self assessment, in which I examined the lems prioritising which areas were important once I practices of self assessment within my own institu- had read them. I found that I wanted to write every- tion. This paper will not focus on the outcome of that thing down, for fear of missing something out. Bell research, but on the learning process. makes the point that I am a Chartered Quantity Surveyor, having gained It is always hard to leave out publications that chartership through professional examinations, where may have taken you hours or even weeks to read, one is trained in a precise manner and there is usually but the selection has to be made. (Bell 1987). only one answer to a problem. Research appeared very So for the next time, I will be researching from the open-ended; you set your own objectives, implement knowledge and understanding of an informed rather the methodology, analyse the results and draw con- than uninformed researcher, which should direct the clusions. But what if the methodology is not success- selection of relevant material. Secondly, unless I hit a ful? What if the analysis is incomplete? What if..? firm obstacle, I shall stick firmly to the objectives. Surely research is an exact science whereby 2 + 2 = 4? I share with you the feeling of delight when the first Learning from the methodology: action-based questionnaire was returned; the dilemma when the research and questionnaires overall return rate was low; the anxiety at each inter- Establishing the methodology was relatively straight- view; the insecurity and lack of confidence; the frus- forward since the research was to centre on my own tration at not having written down those ingenious institution. We had introduced problem based learn- ideas that you always get in the middle of the night;ing within the department but had maintained tradi- the anger at not always knowing the answer; the fear tional and formal assessment methods which were of the unknown; the hard work! During this discus-paradoxical to student autonomy. I was interested to sion of my experiences, I reflect on what I did, and see if self assessment could be used to assess probkm conceptualise on changes I would implement next based learning. I identified action based research as time. being an appropriate method, which has been defined by Bell: Learning from experience on aims and The essentially practical, problem-solving na- objectives setting ture of action research makes this approach The identification of an area of interest, namely attractive to practitioner-researchers who have student self assessment, was a surprisngly easy deci- identified a problem during the course of their sion. An aim was quickly established but difficulty work, see the merit of investigating it and, if arose over the preciseness of the objectives. Surely the possible, of improving practice. (Bell 1987). objectives could be very general, and modified along My first objective was to see if student self-assessment the way? These initial thoughts were contrary to Bell was used within the institution.I sent an initial who suggests questionnaire to every member of academic staff, Unless your supervisor advises otherwise, a pre- which started with a definition of student self assess- cise statement of objectives is generally quite ment before going into more general questions. The sufficient. The important point is not so much aim of the questionnaire was to see who used it, and whether there is a hypothesis, but whether you to follow up their initial response with an interview to have carefully thought about what is, and what extract more detail. Needless to say I had a few is not worth investigating, and how the investi- surprises. My first, was at how excited I was when the gation will be conducted. (Bell 1987). first few questionnaires were returned. Most of these My supervisor did not advise otherwise and con- were negative responses, but the excitement was still curred with Bell. In practicc though I found that apparent. despite having specific objectives it was very easy to My next surprise was at some people's response to the digress. Everything I read was interesting because I questionnaire. I gave a definition of what I meant by 0 65 66 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE student self assessment and I expected respondents to Cohen adds that answer the questionnaire with this definition in mind. Like fishing, interviewing is an activity requiring However some clearly saw the heading of Student Self careful preparation, much patience, and consid- Assessmentand wrote about their interpretation which erable practice if the eventual reward is to be a was commonly peer assessment. Oppenheim describes worthwhile catch. (Cohen 1976). questionnaire compilers: My experience draws me immediately to one memo- The world is full of well-meaning people who rable interview in which I was very conscious of the believe that anyone who can write plain English degree co which my status as a lecturer placed me in and has a modicum of common sense can pro- a subordinate position when compared to senior duce a good questionnaire. (Oppenheim 1966). management within the institution. I spent all of the Oppenheim further explains that these qualities will 45 minutes allocated time sitting in awe, as a result of help but not necessarily be sufficient. I carried out a which I had no control over the interview experience pilot questionnaire exercise but failed to pick up this and we did not get beyond the first of my five loophole of peer assessment. Thankfully I learn from questions. I am consoled by Selltiz et al (1951) who experience so next time I need to be more thorough in reminds us that 'interviewers are human beings and my questionnaire prTaration. not machines'. It is difficult to overcome the problem The last surprise that I will share with you was that of ofstatus as a first time researcher, but more structured a poor response rate to the questionnaire, namelyless questions may have led to a more productive inter- than 25% returned. The question of why?, is some- view. thing which I keep asking myself. My abstract It was interesting interviewing people whom I knew conceptualisation leads me to suggest a couple of within my own department. One member of staff in ideas. In the words of a colleague. 'the institution is particular caused me concern when, during the inter- suffering from questionnaire-itis and we automati- view itself, I sat amazed at what he was telling me. I cally FIB' (file in bin). Alternatively, to pilot staffimmediately formed a subjective opinion of the infor- before the summer vacation was maybe bad timing. mation being given to the questions I was asking. Moser and Kalton (1971), point out that, 'non re-Gavron (1966) refers to this bias and says that it is sponse' is a problem because the likelihood, repeat- difficult to see how in some situations it can be edly confirmed in practice, is that the opinion ofavoided completely, but awareness of the problem people who do not return the questionnaire differs plus constant self control can help. from those who do. I undertook four more interviews which were more Having undertaken research with the aim of produc- successful than the two to which I have just referred. ing a response to an existing or potential problem it is They were not without slight hic-ups but my anxiety important not to generalise. Only a relatively small decreased with experience whilst my expertise in- amount of information was collected which was creased. As a first time researcher, researching within institutionally based. ones own institution was probably a good place to Well prepared, small-scale studies may inform, start. I have learnt also that it is important to be as illuminate and provide a basis for policy ded- objective as possible, and to ensure that the interview sions within the institution. As such they can be is as productive as possible. Also I would have fcund invaluable. There is no need to apologise about using a cape recorder more beneficial than a notebook inability to generalise, but there would be every especially since I cannot write shorthand. need to apologise if data were manipulated in an I always tape interviews because so much hap- attempt to prove more than could reasonably be pens that I'm not able to attend to at the time claimed. (Bell 1987). and I find that listening to it again brings all sorts of new things up. (Marshall 1981). Learning from the methodology: action-based research and interviews Learning by insight, mistake and luck Preparation for the follow-up interviews followed To you, the reader, it might perhaps now seem much the same procedure as for the questionnaires. appropriate to focus on the results of the research. Questions were devised and piloted and methods ofHowever the purpose of this paper is to focus on the analysis considered. The types of questions I used at reseal ch process rather than the analysis ofthe student the interview can be classified as verbal or open self assessment results. What I would like to do, (Youngman 1986). Freedom to allow the interviewee therefore, is to turn to the informal learning that I to talk about their experience was important whilst experienced along the way. maintaining an element ofstructu re so that the objec- The insights, the discoveries and understanding. tives of the interview were met. Wiseman & Aron The pieces fall into place, and the experience (1972) liken interviewing to a fishing expedition, and takes on added meaning in relation to other 19 9 3SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS6 7

experiences (Wright 1970). which at that time meant very little. The book says It is easy not to write everything down on paper. Some that 'we all learn how to do research by actually doing things seem so simple or obvious how could Iit', and now the text makes a lot more sense and has possibly forget them? However, after several weeks or been particularly helpful. Thank you, Ms Bell. months of reading, researching, selecting and analys- ing, memory becomes faulty. Other researchers sug-Where to start and where to stop gest keeping a small notebook/ideas book and Calnan Having carried out the research and analysed the (1984) refers to it as 'the most important book you results, my naivety as a first time researcher led me to will possess'. A research journal is a separate book to believe that the writing of this article would be thc this because the ideas book should ideally be pocket easy part of the process. Lock (1979) examines the sized and carried everywhere during the research question ofwhat makes agood articleand answers this process. It would have been useful for thoseflashes ofby suggesting that 'itis one which has a definite insightwhich seem to come to me at peculiar times orstructure, makes its point and then shuts up.' in unusual places. Insight, as the word suggests comes Further reading however highlighted examples of from within, it cannot be fed by someone else, which researchers preparing as many as six drafts before they might explain its sometimes unexpected nature. The are pleased with the product. Getting started was a Gestalt insight theories are centred on the idea that difficult task and Bogden and Biklen (1982) would the learner gains insight by seeing for himself the concur with this when they describe novice research- whole conceptual pattern of what he is learning. ers as 'big procrastinators'. However it was not only 'Things seem to fit into place' describes thegetting started that was the problem, but also the reaction of one learner who has recognised, by conscious awareness of trying to produce a quality thinking and punting, the conceptual pattern. product involved far more than the production of a (Boydell 1976). mere six drafts. Marshall (1981) describes keeping a small book be- Where do I start? How do I know when I am side the bed for when she wakes up and everything is finished? What are the criteria by which I judge clear. In future I will remember that a flash of insight the product? How do I know if I captured the is quick to come, and equally quick to go, so here's to essence of the phenomenon? Need I satisfy only efficient notebook keeping. myself? What exactly is the process? How do I As I have said, I did not keep an ideas book but I did conduct this conversation between subject and maintain a rather large and cumbersome journal. It medium and translate what I learn into further was a formal book in which I recorded 'what, when, action? (Berg and Smith 1988). where and how'. (Zimmerman and Wielder 1977). I Berg and Smith were talking about the artist Picasso would have said rhat the book was irreplaceable but and the process he went through in order to produce when something so meaningful is stolen in a burglary, an illustration of a bull. The end product comprised you very quickly have to reflect and start to conceptu- only six lines but to get to those six lines Picasso went alise on what to do about it. Calnan (1984) refers to through a long process of constantly changing the the journal 'as the best insurance of preparation; lithographic image, until eventually, presumably, he guard it well'. I had rough notes from the interviews was satisfied. The end product bore no resemblance which could be re-written and I could start to read the to a bull except to Picasso. So perhaps, although relevant texts again and to make fresh notes. My the end product is important, it is the process and the regret is that for the first time in my :ife I wrote about experience that are far more important than the my personal feelings and emotions in trying to carryoutcome. After all, we learn by experience and the out a piece of academic work successfully the ups product is only a small element of that process. and downs of the research process. Some of those emotions are lost forever. More lightheartedly, I also Can anyone carry out research? regret having to re-do a large proportion of the work! What type of person does it take to carry out a The most useful insight to come from the journal successful research project? Is it something that any- experience is that I realise that I do learn by mistake one can do or does it require certain qualities and and never again will I maintain only one copy of askills? Howard and Sharp have examined this issue journal. I now use a duplicate book which means that and conclude that I can carbon copy as I write, and store the work in two Most people associate the word 'research' with separate places. activities which are substantially removed from My final reflection on informal learning examines the day-to-day life and which are pursued by out- dement of luck. It was bad luck that my research standingly gifted persons with an unusual level journal was stolen but such is life. It was good fortune of commitment. There is of course a good deal ...hat I originally read a book on the research process 067of truth in this viewpoint, but we would argue 68RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

that the pursuit is not restricted to this type of fir Education: Introduction to Theory and Methods. person and indeed can prove to be a stimulating Boston, MA, Allyn & Bacon. and satisfying experience for many people with Boud, D. etal(eds). (1985). Reflection: Turning Experience a trained and enquiring mind. (Howard &Sharp into Learning. London, Kogan Page. 1983). Boydell, T. (1976). Experiential Learning. Manchester Having a 'trained and enquiring mind' is something Monographs: Department of Adult and Higher Edu- from my experience with which I can concur. How- cation, University of Manchester. ever my reflection also shows me that there is more to Calnan, J. (1984). Coping with Research: The Complete it than this. Marshall (1981) talks about the relief she Guide fir Beginners. London, Heinemann Medical. feels when finishing a piece of research work and how Cohen, L. (1976). Educational Research in Classrooms and her usual reaction is to not want to look at it, and to Schools:A Manual of Materials and Methods. London, wish she would have done better. Marshall goes on to Harper & Row. say, Frost, P. & Stablein, R. (eds). (1992). Doing Exempfrery And there's a time when I've got to look back on Research. London, Sage. it for some reason, someone prompts me and I Gavron, H.(1966). The Gtptive Wife. London, Routledge eventually pick it up from the desk and feel & Kegan Paul. absolutely surprised and in wonderment at how Howard, K. & Sharp, J.A. (1983). The Management of a good it is. I think, 'I did that and it's good!' That's Student Research Project. Aldershot, Gower. important. Lock, S. (1979). How to do it. London, British Medical Association. Final reflections Marshall, J. (1981). 'Making sense of a personal process', Yes, I have enjoyed the challenge; but no, it has not in P. Reason (ed) (1988), Human Inquiry in Action. been easy. London, Sage. I read an article written by a teacher undertaking an Moser, C.A. & Kalton, G. (1971). Survey Methods in Social Open University Advanced Diploma in Education Investigation. London, Heinemann. Management, who was carrying out research within Oppenheim, A.N. (1966). Questionnaire Design and Atti- his own institution. He identified that his role as a trde Measurement. London, Heinemann. full-time teacher and part-time researcher, a not Phillips, E.M. & Pugh, D.S. (1987). How to get a PAD: unusual combination, (like myself), was at times Managing the Peaks and Troughs of Research. Milton difficult to reconcile. I am trying to remain a commit- Keynes, Open University Press. ted teacher whilst taking on the workload of an Reason, P. & Rowan, J. (eds) (1981). Human Inquiry: A enthusiastic first time researcher. Calnan (1984) sum- sourcebook of new paradigm research. Chichester, John marises Wiley. The recipe for successful research ... is delight- Sellitz, C. et al. (1962). Research Methods in Social Relations. fully simple: hard work and a bloody good idea. New York, Holt, Rinehart & Winston. I've done the hard work; let us hope it was a good idea! Wiseman, J.P. & Aron, M.S. (1972). Field Reports in Sociology. London, Transworld Publishers. BIBLIOGRAPHY Wright, A.W. (1970). 'Participative Education and the Inevitable Revolution' inJournalofCreativeBehaviour, Bell, J. (1987). Doing your research project: a guide for first- 4, pp 234 - 282. time researchers in education and social science. Milton Youngman, M.B. (1986). Analysing Questionnaires. Uni- Keynes, Open University Press. versity of Noztingham School of Education. Berg, D. & Smith, K. (eds). (1981 ). The Self in Social Zimmerman, D.H. & Wielder, D.L. (1977). 'The diary- Inquiry: Researching Methods. London, Sage. interview method' in Urban Lift, 5 (4), January, pp Bogden, R.C. & Biklen, S.K. (1982). Qualitative Research 479-499. 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 69 Nero(in)es of labour': some ethical problems in aduh education research

John Payne University of Leeds

THIS paper does not attempt to cover the field ofWilliams uses people in contrast to bourgeois society, adult education research ethics in a comprehen- seems to me to presuppose a prior political commit- sive way. Instead, I am going to concentrate on a ment to participatory democracy, and again itis number of problems that have arisen within the Leeds Williams himselfwho has expressed this most clearly: Adult Learners at Work project, a 2-year UFC-funded If man is essentially a learning, creating and research programme designed to explore the signifi- communicating being, the only social organisa- cance of Employee Development (ED) schemes in tion adequate to his nature is a participating the private and public sectors for the extension of democracy, in which all of us, as unique indi- lifelong learning. As part of th is project, detailed case- viduals, learn, communicate and control. Any stud ies were carried out at 12 sites in the private sector lesser restrictive system is simply wasteful of our and 3 in the public sector. These involved intensive true resources; in wasting individuals by shut- interviewing of employees, managers and trade union ting them out from effective participation, it is representatives. The main ethical problems that I damaging our true common process. (Williams shall deal with involve the availability of the findings 1961: 118)2 of publicly funded research, and the relationship Itis clear that we do not live in a participatory between the researcher and the researched. democracy and that public education is not a shared Even to begin to complain about the availability ofobjective within that society. It is therefore not sur- research findings supposes some notion of a general prising to find that the kind of objectives so clearly public interest. I want to go back 25 years to 1968 and laid out by Williams do not stand the test of reality. the concerns that many of us had then about the links It is a commonplace o fun iversity education in the 90s between the universities, industry and the military. In that in order to survive universities must seek external an article in The Guardian on 26th September, funding, especially for research. This is just as true Raymond Williams broadened the debate to encom- within the Social Sciences as it is in Technology or pass some of my own present concerns: Science. This in itself is not a bad thing. There are But, in this real movement, the right questions clearly trusts and funds set up specifically to finance seem to me to get asked: not only the local and encourage research in the Social Sciences. There questions about research contracts with outside are also other public bodies (health authorities, local bodies, or about the giving of money for this, the and national government departments for example) refusal of money for that. But also, more gener- with an interest in particular pieces of research being ally, about who is speaking in the name of carried out. Private employers can have similar inter- society: what real public decision is involved in ests. It seems to me that the crucial point here is not the giving or withholdi ng of public money; what the question of public versus private, or even of who version of society is implied in what are called pays, but the question ofwhat is being purchased, and educational requirements and standards. I think who has access to it. I would argue that it should be the the student movement has been right to identify research activity, the commitment to use university the present educational and administrative struc- resources to seek the answers to a specific range of ture with the values of the bourgeois society questions, rather than the results of that research. Let which, in the nineteenth century, created it: the me give an example. During my own research, I rigid selection and distribution of specialised became aware of a relevant study being carried out by minority roles, as against the idea of public the Training and Enterprise Department (TEED). It education, in which the whole socicty is seen as had been contracted to a reputable research institute. a learning process, and in which, consequently, What emerged was a bland and uncritical report access is open, not only for people but for all which highlighted all the benefits and few of the their questions, across the arbitrary divisions of drawbacks of Employee Development. A colleague quotas and subjects. (Williams 1993: 245)' commenrcd that the latter report was simply a 'pub- At the same time, notions such as public education licity exercise', with examples of good practice: a lot and the whole society as a learning process, the way more material was generated by this research, and 069 70 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE some at least is critical. Yet that material is not in the 3. Giving voice a promotional model public domain. If the self-advocacy model is characterised by the use I want to turn now to some of the ethical problems of the first person narrative, the public relations that emerge in field-work research. The theoretical model is characterised by the use of the third person, underpinning for this part of my paper is the tension though it may use some direct quotation. This is the between agency and structure. It is a question ofcharacteristic model used by company in-house maga- giving due weight to the views of the various social zines, but also by the National Training Awards and actors in a research sire, but taking due account too ofthe NIACE Adult Learners Awards. Photographs of the asymmetrical power relationships between them these 'hero(in)es of labour' are often used to empha- and the social structures in which they are embedded. sise the 'reality' of the achievements of individual As Apple has commented: the social world, with workers.In so far as it seeks to enhance the public education as part of it, is not merely the result of the image of a particular employer it seems a very dubious creative process of interpretation that social actors way of exploiting the learning ambitions of individual engage ...'3. In practice, this has direct implicationsworkers. In so far as this aims to promote desirable for research. On the one hand the researcher will wish social goals it has a legitimacy of its own. An example to 'give voice' to those in our society whose voices are would be a local authority which has introduced a seldom heard in soc:.al debate; on the other hand the Basic Skills course at corporate level and now wishes researcher will want to explore in a critical way the to introduce a similar scheme in its Parks Depart- views of the social actors and their interrelationships. ment; the story of the one employee from this depart- Further, there is a clear and important difference ment who so far has attended the council-wide course between the researcher simply recording verbatim the is being used in an in-house magazine to promote the views of social actors, and the educational process in departmental scheme. student writing 'when writing dips people down into that unexpected struggle with telling the truth, what- 4. Giving voice a critical model ever that happens to be, here and now, and for you.'4 In this model, first person material, based on verbatim There are a number of alternatives to choose from in transcripts of recorded interviews are inserted into a developing a relationship between the researchers and critical commentary which, as suggested above, at- the researched: tempts to seek a balance between agency and struc- ture. This allows the critical use of material gathered I. Participative research a co-operative model during the field-work, but places complete control on In many ways this responds to my own ideal of the use of material with the researcher. Further, it research as a collaborative effort between researcher introduces the whole debate about the relationship and researched, part of a more general sense of a between quantitative and qualitative methods, and society talking to or amongst itself. However, I am exposes the research findings to criticism over the also clear that such a methodology needs to be built typicality of the experiences reported. I was particu- into the research plan from day one. At the same rime, larly conscious that since almost all interviews were we have always made it clear hat our commitment as filtered through management, the interviews would a research team is to the social goal of lifelong learn- tend to give an over-optimistic account of the poten- ing. This led us to define the research question in ED tial of workplace learning, and under-estimate the in terms of the extension of lifelong learning rather difficulties. However, given the extent of critical than an employer perspective limited (by necessity or comments made by employees, I am inclined to thiti choice) to business management considerations. This I may have overestimated this problem. Such an also led us to acknowledge that public discourse on approach, with its stress on the use of open-ended vocational education and training is dominated by an questions, gives adequate weight to the different employer view of the world, and that questions ofexperiences of women and black people in the discourse were an integral part of the research.5 workplace and it has always been an assumption of the Leeds project that these issues should be treated as 2. Giving voice a self-advocacy model central to any analys is ofthe potential of the workplace An excellent example of this was produced by the in the extension of lifelong learning opportunities. complementary research project at Lancaster Univer- In conclusion, I have tried to argue in this paper that sity which looked at the development of Basic Educa- a research project of this type should seek to give voice tion provision in the workplace in North-West Eng- to the many social actors whose views are excluded land. Workers from three separate employers spent a from public discourse on education and training. residential writing weekend together and produced a While there is clearly a place for both participatory book reflecting on their experiences of work and research and the type of self-advocacy promoted by education6. the student writers movement, there is also a continu- 070 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 71 ing and vital role for critical social research which uses 2. R. Williams, The long revolution (London: Chatto and qualitative methods to balance the competing claims Windus) 1961. While I always try in my own writing of agency and structure. Both within institutions and to use non-sexist language, I have not excluded valuable within bodies such as SCUTREA, adult education material from any source simply on the grounds that researchers need forums in which issues of method, the author, for historical or cultural reasons, has not with their fundamental ethical implications, can be observed the same conventions as I do. debated. 3. M. W. Apple, Ideokgy and curriculum (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul) 1979, pp 139/40. This and related issues in sociology of education and research ACKNOWLEDGEMENT methodolog arc explored in J. Payne, 'Doing adult education research', in Studies in the Education of The Leeds Adult Learners at Work project is a two- Adults, 22.1 (1990), pp. 77-93 year UFC-funded research project within the Depart- 4. M. Cooper, S. Gardener and J. Payne, 'Editorial: oral ment of Adult Continuing Education, University of histoty and student writing', in Adults Learning, 2.1 Leeds. (1990), p.6 5. These questions are examined in a forthcoming article. FOOTNOTES Like all the substantive findings from the Leeds project, the article will appear as jointly authored by K. Forrester, 1. R. Williams, 'Different sides of the wall', in J. Mcllroy J. Payne and K. Ward. and S. Westwood (eds) Border country: Raymond 6. F. Frank (ed) Notjust a number: writings about workplace Williams in adult education (Leicester: NIACE) 1993, karning (Lancaster: Lancaster University) 1992 pp. 242-246 7. See also Payne (1990)

071 71 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Analysing the effectiveness of distance learning methods with 'disadvantaged' groups in continuing education

Alexandra Withnall Office of Adult Continuing Education Lancaster University Introduction This paper seeks to make a contribution to current ALTHOUGH it has existed in one form or an thinking about distance education through a reflec- other for over a hundred years, it is particularly tive analysis of my own role as a researcher in an during the last two decades with the advent of ad- innovative distance learning project. I begin by de- vanced systems of communication that distance edu- scribing the context of the research and my attempts cation has become established as a teaching/learning to develop a reflective approach; this leads to a brief mode in its own right. At present the terms 'distance discussion of some of the issues which have emerged teaching' and 'distance learning' are often used as from this initial critique of my own practice. though they are interchangeable. However, Keegan (1986) suggests that neither of these terms adequately The research context 'Learning from Home' describes what he prefers to conceptualize as 'distance The focus of my reflective activity is my role in a two- education'. 'Whatever nomenclature is used, the terms year UFC-funded research project which came to be cover the various forms of teaching and learning at all known as 'Learning from Home' based in the Office levels which are not under the continuous, immediateof Adult Continuing Education at Lancaster Univer- supervision of teachers or tutors operating within the sity. The aim of the research was to examine the same premises as their students. The main character- applicability of various methods of distance learning istic of distance education is that it relies on non- to an area of continuing education which has tradi- contiguous, ie. mediated communication (Holmberg, tionally been labour intensive and only partially suc- 1990). cessful 'outreach' continuing education to educa- The rapid expansion of distance education on ationally and/or socially disadvantaged groups in the world-wide scale has resulted in a vast literature area served by the Office through its new programme relating to aspects of distance teaching and learning. of adult liberal education. At the outset, the dangers It is still very much thesubject of continuing research of categorising potential students in this way and the and academic debate as influences from research and multiplicity of meanings which might be attached to practice begin to impact upon delivery in different the term 'disadvantaged' were acknowledged. How- parts of the globe. Much of this research has been ever, the evaluation exercise was conceived as a utili- concerned with problems of understanding and ex- sation model in that conclusions reached about the plaining the circumstances and conditions ofdistance effectiveness of the methods would be used to enable learning; the result has been various instrumental recommendations to be made concerning future policy attempts at improving distance education by facilitat- and practice. In this way, the aims of the project were ing distance students' learning (Holmberg, 1989). consistent with two emerging strands of the Office's However, the value or even the possibility ofdevelop- declared overall research strategy, i.e. to consider ing a single, encompassing theory of distance educa- outreach strategies to attract those having little or no tion is open to debate. previous contact with higher education and to ex- One important characteristic of distance education is plore the effectiveness of open, flexible, distance and its ability to adapt and to transform itself into new self-directed learning in this context. contexts, for example, in Britain, the prototype of the Open University, offering the opportunity to obtain Developing a reflective approach a degree through the use of multi-media learning It is only comparatively recently that a case has been packages has been able to re-shape and develop what made for the adoption of approaches based upon it offers to a wider clientele for example, its critical reflection within research, theory and practice ventures into conti nuing professional education, com- in distance education (Evans and Nation, (eds) 1989; munity education and, more recently, 'leisure learn- 1993). I want to use the reflective experience in three ing'. Other institutions of higher and further educa- ways firstly, to help illuminate whether my activi- tion in Britain have also begun to offer some of their ties as a researcher were consistent with my own conventional courses through the medium of open philosophies; secondly, not as a socially sterile exer- and flexible learning including learning at a distance. cise, but to help develop a 'co-operative spiral' which 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS73 will encourage dialogue, interaction and further per- whilst exploring the possibilities of third-generation sonal reflection; and thirdly, to stimulate changes in technology within the financial and technical re- my practice as a result of self and peer evaluation sources available. In setting up a somewhat ambitious (Hammond and Collins, 1991). I am aware, as Bright programme of 30 courses of varying length, I became (1992) points out, that reflection-on-action is con- aware that the literature on programme development cerned with the analysis of past situations and there- in distance education draws upon a limited and fore obviously involves a distance in time between the fragmented tradition and lacks a coherent general action and the reflective process; in this sense, it is a theory. The task, then, was to make explicit the more conscious, deliberate and contemplative activ- critical tasks which had to be faced. As I envisaged ity than reflection-in-action, although they may exist them, these related to: along thesame continuum. In my case, it is concerned (i) justification of each course and explora- with exploring both the context in which the research tion of design possibilities was carried out and my own motives for the courses (ii) development identifying the kind of of action I took a problem-seeking rather than materials, support system and interactions problem-solving approach. which would be appropriate for each course I am aware, also, that in the process of learning to in order to facilitate learning. practise critical reflection, there were points when I (iii) implementation publicity, recruit- experienced resistance to the reflective process in that ment, dispatch of materials and general ad- it seemed a potentially threatening area of self explo- ministration to ensure efficiency in delivery. ration. As an academic and evaluator ofother people's (iv) monitoring and evaluation obtaining learning experiences, I felt asense ofunease in describ- regular feedback, developing strategies for ing and responding to my own experience. In seeking integrating change into the programme as it to overcome this negativity, I returned to the exten- unfolded. sive research documentation, which included notes of In retrospect, I am aware that implementation issues research meetings and an interim report developed in tended to dominate much of the activity and it was the course of the project as an aid to reflecting upon problematic for researctl team members to learn how actual events as they happened, rather than my retro- to shift the emphasis away from purely organisational spective interpretation of them. I was also assisted by matters towards `what and why' questions which the 'learning conversations' (Candy et al, 1985) which would challenge some of the pre-conceived notions took place both during and after the project had that might have been held about effectiveness in formally ended with other members of the research distance education. team, facilitated by an `outsider' with expertise in delivering distance learning opportunities through Monitoring and evaluating 'Learning from the Open University. Such conversations, which were Home' used for describing activity within the project helped The nature of student-tutor relationships and the me, as a member of the research team, to engage in a imbalance of power within the relationships is an constructive dialogue in order to problematize ele- issue which troubles many educationalists, theoreti- ments of the research process and to face challenges to cally committed, as I believe I am, to assisting learners my practice. However, in participating in these activi- take control of their own learning and become self- ties, I am also made aware of the values and interests directed. In distance education, as Evans and Natbn which framed other individuals' thoughts and actions (1989) have observed, the d istance teacher's autonomy in these specific situations and the nature of the and power are both circumscribed and enhanced by professional and social relationships presumed within the context of distance education since s/he controls the research group (Kemmis, 1985). the `knowledge package' and structures the process through which this knowledge shall be delivered. At Developing a research focus the same time, the notion ofdistance helps to insulate The nature of an externally-funded research project teachers from students and assists in the maintenance with finite monies available necessarily implies the of the power relations between them. In designating need for a tight structure in planning activity. In this our distance learning students 'disadvantaged', a bar- case, the time available for developing pedagogy and rier to the enactment of equality in the tutor-student curriculum and for focusing upon the centrality ofthe relationship had already been erected. evaluation process guided the conceptual framework On the other hand, distance learning necessarily which was developed by the research team. The plan involves students in making sense of course materials was to make use of a range of main modes of delivery, for themselves, in reacting to structured learning eg. on-air TV and radio, videos of on-campus lec-situations in an active and critical manner, and to tures, bought-in and specially written material some extent in shaping their own learning experi- 073 74RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE ences, especially if tutor support is minimal or non- ways of mainstreaming the findings of the research existent (Holmberg, 1989). In selecting a monitoring into the Office's liberal adult education programme. and evaluation model for 'Learning from Home', I Deliberating about how best to move from a research wanted to find out to what extent students had been focus into a different context necessitated a move able to achieve these aims in order that I could towards re-evaluating the perspectives gained from contribute to improved educational practice. Accord- taking part in the research process. As I would no ingly, the research design adapted from the descrip-longer occupy a 'researcher' role in relation to a tion-diagnosis-outcome determ in at i on-p rogram me 'researched' population, it was necessary to shift the documentation model (Dillon and Gunawardena, focus away from 'research' in the sense of systematic 1992), initially used as a research instrument a ques- inquiry into learning outcomes towards the other tionnaire with both open- and closed-ended ques- identified aspects of distance education program- tions administered during and after each course. I ming course justification, development and im- believe my socialisation 2S an academic researcher plementation. At the level of my own reflective activ- who needed to generate data and 'results' and to ity, the need to move this focus is currently helping remain in control of the research procedure initially me to question to what extent the concept of 'effec- led to the adoption of this stance. tiveness' in distance learning can be equated with During the first analysis of returned questionnaires, I `effectiveness in learn ing'. Through an analysis of the became aware that this met'aod was neither offering research programme documentation, which is still to participants any chance to express their real feelings be completed, it should be possible to begin to about the different components of their courses nor consider issues other than the teacher/researcher- generating the kind of feedback I needed to improve student relationship and to reflect upon other factors programme design. Accordingly, I began to experi-such as student access; involvement with new equip- ment with other methods such as student diary- ment and technologies; the degree of complexity for keeping, group telephone discussions and a face-to- the provider; and cost effectiveness. face meeting; these last two methods meant that students were able to interact more readily with each Conclusion other and that I was able to take part on a more equal As a researcher, the experience of reflecting on the footing and to encourage students to themselves Learning from Home project has helped me to clarify reflect upon their motivation and experience. some areas of my research activities which were at Hammond (1990) describes a similar process in aodds with my beliefs about good adult education different setting and goes on to discuss the concepts practice and has stimulated me to consider some of of 'negotiated research' and 'self-directed research' as the broader issues relating to the delivery of distance a means of demystifying the research processfor learning courses. I have also become aware of a range participants. of other issues which need to be addressed in relation As `Learning from Home' developed, the research to research how to extend the process of reflection team decided to experiment with more interactive in the kind of action research observed above; identi- technologies, ie. the delivery of a student learning fying and overcoming obstacles to the process of opportunity through computer-mediated discussion. reflection such as the short-term nature and uncertain I believe it was a sense of dissat isfaction with existing funding of research; as a female, gender issues in the forms of tutor-student communication and a need to development of a reflective stance, to name a few. look for more creative methods of programme deliv- However, if researchers in distance education can at ery in a time of rapid technological change which led least begin to engage in the process of critical analysis to the decision to experiment in this way. In keeping of what they are about, they should be enabled to with this interactive approach, I invited students to produce insights into their own beliefs and practices write an account of their experiences both in learning through a re-evaluation of their experiences; and, it is to use their computers for these purposes and in hoped, to begin to address issues which will have a critically analysing the course materials. Through broader relevance for the field. these methods, I hoped to move responsibility for analysing their learning further towards students them- selves in keeping with my own philosophies and to REFERENCES give a sharper focus to the evaluation process for my own purposes. Bright, B. (1992). 'Reflection and knowledge: aspects and Towards the end of the period of the project, I began problems', in Armstrong, P. and Miller, N., (cds) to feel that I had developed some grasp of what Knowledge and Performance, The Politics ofAdult/Con- constituted effectiveness in learning for these stu- tinning Education, Papers from the 21st Annual dents. However, the next stage was to think about SCUTREA Conference.

7 4 1993SCUTRE! CONFERENCE PAPERS75

Candy, P., Harri-Augstein, S. and Thomas, R. (1985). more consistent with adult education principles', Stud- 'Reflection and the self-organised learner: a model of ies in Continuing Education, Vol.12 (1) 1-12. learning conversations', in Boud, D. et ah Reflection: Hammond, M. and Collins, R. (1991). Self-DirectedLearn- Turningaperience into Learning, London, Kogan Page. ing, London, Kogan Page. Dillon, C. and Gunawardena, C. (1992). 'Evaluation Holmberg, B. (1989). The Theory and Practice of Distance research in distance education', British Journal ofEdu- Education, London and New York, Routledge. cational Technolog, Vol. 23 (2) 181-194. Holmberg, B. (1990). Perspectives of research on distance Evans, T. and Nation, D. (eds) (1989). Critical Reflections education, Hagan, Fern Universität (mimeo). on Distance Education, London, The Falmer Press. Keegan, D. (1986). Foundations of Distance Education, Evans, T. and Nation, D. (eds) (1993). Refirming Open London and New York, Routledge. and Distanee Education: Critical Reflections From Prac- Kemmis, S (1985). 'Action research and the politics of tice, London, Kogan Page. reflection', in Boud, D. et al Reflection: Turning Expe- Hammond, M. (1990). 'Making adult education research rience into Learning, London, Kogan Page.

075 76 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE 3. Auto/biography and life history

Introduction by Nod Miller University of Manchester

THE papers in this section all deal with disjunctures between her sense of herself as aca- aspects ofl de his tory writing, or what demically successful and that part of her which some sociologists refer to as auto/retains the sensitivity of her 'raw working-class biography in order to draw attention nerves' and harbours the conviction that one day to the interrelationship between the construction she will be discovered as an imposter in the of one's own life though autobiography and theacademic world. However, she suggests a sense of construction of the life of another through biog- unity in her desire to continue to learn and to raphy (see, for example, Stanley, 1992; Stanleyremain a student. and Morgan, 1993). The recent publication of aRennie Johnston gives an account of his develop- special issue of Sociology (Vol. 27, No. 1, Febru- ment as a researcher and a reflective practitioner, ary 1993), devoted to papers on auto/biography,exploring some of the tensions in his move from and the fact that the fastest-growing interestadult education tutor to full-time researcher, and group in the British Sociological Association is the insights derived from the process of negoti- that concerned with auto/biography give evi-ating research questions and meanings with both dence of the the keen interest in this approach to research participants and sponsors. research among contemporary sociologists. William Jones describes his changing orientation Several of the contributors here refer to this to the process of interpreting questionnaire data current strand of sociological work, but the pa-from a project evaluating students' experience of pers also derive their insights from feminisma Return to Study English course. He demon- (which has itself helped to shape the sociological strates how, following a flirtation with 'scientism', concerns noted above), history, poststructural is t he reverted to his earlier identity as a specialist in theory, psychoanalysis, English Literature andEnglish Literature, and shows how the poetry of work on reflective practice. This diverse set ofColeridge can provide insights of great value to theoretical bases is perhaps unsurprising in viewthe reflective practitioner. of the multi-disciplinary nature of adult educa-My own paper contains reflections on successive tion research. The recognition of reflection onstages in my development as a researcher, and the researcher's own life experience as central toexplores the notion of autobiographical writing a review of research processes in adult educationas active self-construction. is common to all the papers. Whether the writers Rebecca O'Rourke reveals some of the unease are offering fragments of their own life history, which has arisen out ofher shift from practitioner reflecting upon the process of writing such histo- to researcher; she is conscious of not belonging ries, or revealing self-insights derived from re- entirely to the research world, but ofbeing viewed searches into the live:: of others, they all testify to with suspicion by practitioners. the richness and excitement of auto/biographicalThe papers by Mary Stuart and Alistair Thomson, research, as well as to the uncertainty and discom-who are both based in the University of Sussex, fort often embedded in such work. where the British Mass-Observation Archive is Eileen Fitzgerald Daggett charts her progresshoused, deal with work in the area of oral history. through higher education as a mature student,Stuart describes her experience of conducting and her recent shift from the role of student tointerviews for the purpose of constructing oral that of tutor. She uses the concept of the 'multi- histories, and summarises some understandings ple self to examine the complexity of her per-she has reached about the slippery nature of the sonal experience and identity, revealing someself in social research. Thomson's focus is on a 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS77 project concerned with adult learning and lifein adult education. They provide vivid and often histories. He takes note of debates about thepainful pictures of thc self-doubt and confusion validity oforal history methods among historians which is part of the research reality for most of us and questions raised about the 'unrepresentative' and stand in stark contrast to the dinical ac- nature of data collected through these methods, counts ofresearch methodology often to be found but argues forcefully for the value of such workin social science text-books. Thcy are generally and draws attention to the untapped resource ofinterim accounts ofexplorations in progress, and M-0 material for adult education research. in highlighting the need for further enquiry and Linden West and Fenia Alexopoulou describeanalysis they point to the likely development of a their use of research diaries as a form of reflective rich strand of auto/biographical work in adult research practice. They demonstrate how theireducation research to come. use of diary writing helped them not only to identify and debate theoretical and methodologi- REFERENCES cal issues in their project, but also to negotiate such troublesome territory as that surrounding Stanley, L. (1992), The Auto/Biographicall: the Theory the unequal power relations between the two ofand Practice of Feminist Autobiography, Manchester, them which arose out of their differing condi- Manchester University Press tions of employment. Stanley, L. and Morgan, D. (1993), 'Editorial Intro- The stories told here offer powerful insights into duction', in Sociology, Volume 27, No. 1, Special the self-exploration central to so much research Issue: Auto/Biography in Sociology

077 7 8RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE The multiple self in the unity of adult learning

Eileen Fitzgerald Daggett University of Southampton

MICHEL Foucault tells us that we in the West poor little waste ofspace is curled up and hidden away rely upon confession for the production of inside everything I do, but like most hidden things she truth. He links confession with torture in what he has tremendous power. She is waiting for me at the describes as 'a ritual of discourse in which the speak- bottom of every thought and keeps company with a ingsubjectis alsothesubjectof thestrange assortment of other selves which she has statement' (Foucault, 1979). The torture produced in spawned in her desperate attempt to remain hidden. this paper is of a personal kind, and is self-inflicted. I In the opening to Landscape for a Good Woman, must descend into some dark corners of my Self in Carolyn Steedman, another academic with working- order to demonstrate to my readers the extent to class roots, also tells of the pervasiveness of back- which I use everything which comes in my way as a ground: tool of research. Generally repressed aspects of my I read a woman's book, meet such a woman at a own personality are no exception here. All good party (a woman now, like me) and think quite research demands risk (Usher 8c Bryant, 1989), and deliberately as we talk: we are divided: a hundred the exploration of my own position within my re- years ago I'd have been cleaning your shoes.I search demands that some of the risks I take with my know this and you don't. (Steedman, 1986) Self are costly. I must begin, therefore, with a confes- These poignant words reveal the raw working-class sion. nerves which often lie just below an acquired intellec- In wr iting this paper, I have been driven to face an idea tual veneer. The pain shouldn't persist in this way, that has been lurking within my thinking processes and every professional educator I have encountered since my academic life began in 1986. This idea leads has tried to ensure that it doesn't. But, you see, the to a measure of gidd iness, placed somewhere between small beleaguered children don't go away. Reared in elation at the praise I have received and terror that a culture where 'they hate you if you're clever and those who have bestowed that praise will soon find despise a fool' (John Lennon, A Working Class Hero) out how wrong they were. Since I first became an the early put-downs hammer away at self confidence adult learner on Southampton University's Return to in a way that can never be reversed. Steedman herself Study programme (RTS) seven years ago, I have been belongs to a new academic tradition; she is a scholar- dogged by a persistent conviction that I have been ship child who moved out through grammar school fooling all of the people all of the time. into university and an academic life. What adult From successful completion of two years of RTS at educators in the nineties are dealing with are people, beginners and advanced level, having become adept at like myself, who didn't make it through that initial dressing my inadequacies in acceptable language, I process, but went on to lead quite prosaic lives, went on to persuade the University's English depart- moving and operating within the culture to which ment to allow me in as an undergraduate (and me not they were born and through which they succeeded in even knowing what that meant at the time!). This different areas. These people re-enter the education enormously clever sleight of hand has since been out- process carrying with them more layers of complexity stripped by the fact that they have not only awarded and difference. me an honours degree in English Literature, but have When I drafted my research proposal, I innocently gone on to make me a Master of Arts. That I am now assumed that I was an ideal person to investigate the actually being paid money to research for a doctorate concept ofsuccess when applied to adults returning to in the eduzation of adults is one more step on this study English Literature after a period away from dizzying ladder that a deeply ingrained part of my structured education; my own experience inside the psyche is convinced will lead only to exposure. process would surely provide a measure of at least one The person who initiates these thoughts is not Eileen kind of success and supply subjective material upon Fitzgerald Daggett, M.A., but 'our Eileen'. She comes which to build. from Oldham and is at home in grime and humilia- This certainly remains true in practical terms. I am tion. She has never really left there and she is very still in touch with the world ofthe mature student and small. She hasn't got a single thing to say that anyone indeed this paper has been written around the usual wants to hear and is much better seen (though the interludes with the iron, the hoover and the school benefits of that are open to question) than heard. Thisgate. But rather than exposing paths into the difficult 7 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS7 9 terrain of research into adults learning, my own little space within which woman can operate with her academic experience seems simply to have equipped differing set of values and concerns. Woman has me with the intellectual apparatus to question my therefore become adept at functioning within two position in this bizarre process. Instead of going 'out closed and discrete systems. The world of adult edu- into the field', it would seem that I must first descend cation, though populated, in the arts at least, largely into my Self. by women, retains a masculine tradition and struc- My literary training has taught me how impossible it ture. The kudos accruing to me with each new letter is to write reality. From an enlightened twentieth I can tag onto my name far outweighs any acclaim I century position I can sneer at Rousseau's naivety may ( or more probably may not) receive for mother- when he wrote 'I have displayed myself as I was'. The ing my two children. I make no conscious gesture keeping of a reflective diary generally leads to such towards valorising the one over the other here, rather remarks as 'What kind of creature have I become? I I raise these points only to illustrate the contradictions am a Frankenstein's monster out of control.' In mywhich many adult students in liberal and higher research area I engender myselfi the ultimate in nine- education face. Learners up to twenty-one tend not to ties individualism. This new person, the doctoral need to concern themselves with choices between the student, must learn to move around comfortably spheres. Responsibility to family generally equals self among people from much higher social positions education. Most adult students, however, (of both (when you're at the bottom you're not really in any genders) are continually faced with tension between doubt that the class system exists and operates) to developing themselves as individuals and their duties accept their respect and even their deference whilst to family. making an attempt at retaining some kind of integ- At the time of writing, I feel myself to be more the rity. This person must also speak to people more student than the educator. I have no wish to cross that nearly like herself who have not pursued their studies divide which traditionally separates students from and have come to regard her, perhaps rightly, as teachers. It pleases me to pass on what I have learned someone withdrawn from their level by means of her but not to do this in any authoritative way. I chose to success in an area where they feel themselves to have, present students with what has been shown to or ifnot failed, at least faltered. This doctoral student has discovered by me. I am aware, of course, that neither becomesomeone who beat the odds which conquered the material nor the presentation can ever be neutral them, the one who found a way through where theyor passive, yet within the classes I have had the didn't. This research will not be like into like, rather pleasure (and terror) of leading, my main aim has an aberration into the norm. been to bring out students' already existing knowl- If there is a concept driving these speculations, it is edge and to allow them to watch their own ideas being authori7, or rather the antinomy which arises whendealt with by the group, 'proved upon the pulses' of trying to decide where authority lies. There appears to collective and individual reaction. Ix an idea of an external body of thought; a given I have come to teaching through the patient help and world as it is out there, upon which or against which support of those who have known me throughout my the internal testimony of the Self reacts. The Self then academic career. It is their belief in me that has given produces ways of knowing, some based on reason, me the courage to stand before a class of adults and some on emotion, which triggcr contradictory but at exchange ideas with them. In many ways I feel that it the same time complementary conclusions. is vital for my research that I maintain a sense of John Keats wrote in a letter to John Reynolds on the innocent participation, yet the stresses between au- 3rd May 1818: thority and learner are often revealed and prove to be ...for axioms in philosophy are not axioms until my single most difficult area of participation and at they are proved upon the pulses: we read fine the same time the most rewarding. For those attend- things but never feel them to the full until we ing the class too, this approach places perhaps too have gone the same step 2S the Author. great a burden on them. Generally speaking, adults Building upon this thought, I would maintain that attend a class to be told things, not asked them. adult learners come to the process with internal English literature is the only area in which I feel myself unarticulated axioms of their own but there has been competent to speak. It is intrinsically different from, no shaping external experience to give a formativesay natural history, where the tutor's experience may reflection back. I see my role in adult education as a well outweigh that of the class. English literature deals provider of the intellectual tools which students can with questions of morals, politics and value which learn to use. One main area of exploration is that ofeach individual must explore for themselves, having alternative systems of values. had specific problem areas pointed out to them by the So often the world of reason is the male sphere, the tutor. external patriarchal world which has traditionally left My readers may well be asking themselves where the BoRESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE concept of unity, promised by the title of this paper, education. The past of the group of people in any can be located. In a deeply personal context, I perceive adult alucation class is certainly pertinent to the unity to lie in r !determination to remain a student. outcome of the learning experience which that group In any group of adults there exists a pool ofknowledge produces. It is this phenomenon which kads me to greater than any individual within this group canassert my determination to remain a multiple self contain. My role as leader of the group is conferred by within the unifying experience of any adult education a consensus that I may know more in one specific area group. than the others present. They have assembled there as a result of an agreement to listen to me speak about it, BIBLIOGRAPHY and to exchange ideas within my given area of exper- tise. The study ofliteratu re is a facilitating mechanism FoucAult, M. (1978), The History of Sexuality Volume 1, which allows individual members of the group, (in- translated from the French by Robert Hurley. London, cluding the leader) to explore the extent of their own Penguin. knowledge (and blind spots) not only in the literary Steedman, C. (1986), Landscape ft; a Good Woman. Lon- area, but also in life experience in general. This don, Virago. personal view is perhaps a product of my own peculiar Usher, R. and Bryan t,I. (1989), Adult Education as Theory, background but it does nevertheless appear to me to Practice and Research: The Captive Triangle. London, be a valid view of the processes at work within adult Routledge.

0 8 0 [993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 81 Becoming more reflexive as a researcher

Rennie Johnston Department of Adult Education University of Southampton

TN this paper, I want to focus on two stages in my point was that: development as a reflective practitioner and re- ...reflexivity requires explicit recognition of the searcher: the transition from being an adult education fact that the social researcher, and the social practitioner to becoming a fiill-time researcher; and research itself, are part and parcel of the social the process of nego tiating and creating meanings with world under investigation. (Hammersky and sponsors. I will conclude by raising some questions Atkinson, 1983, 129) about writing reflexively. This inevitably involved a focus on personal reflexiv- ity but went beyond this in that it also investigated the Background theory/practice inter-relationship within the projects In 1985, after a number of years as an LEA adultand the whole process of negotiating and creating educator, I left a well-paid job as Deputy Head at a meanings and knowledge. high profile Community School to become a full- t ime contract resrcher working with unwaged adults, From practitioner to researcher: reviewing firstly on ajoint LEA/Southampton University Replan pre-understandings and negotiating meanings project sponsored by NIACE and then on an FEU with participants Replan project focusing on curriculum development Prior to becoming a contract researcher, I had already issues. The projects ran consecutively over 3-4 years come to think of myself as a reflective practitioner, and I worked on both with two part-time colleagues having taken an M.Ed in Adult Education and Com- and in collaboration with hill-time University and munity Development and written articles analysing LEA staff. I wrote the final reports for both projects my developing practice as an adult educator. I also which were subsequently published as: 'Exploring the had several years experience of developing educa- Educational Needs of Unwaged Adults , NIACE, tional work with unwaged adults where some of my 1987, and 'Negotiating the Cu rriculu m with Unwaged practice was in action-research mode. It was this Adults', FEU, 1989. background that attracted me towards a com munity- A few years later, as part of my PhD, 'Education with based action-research project with unwaged adults. Unwaged Adults as Community Adult Education' Equally it shaped my pre-understandings about adult (1991), I undertook a reflexive methodological cri- education with unwaged adults and the whole process tique of the work of the two projects. This was, at oneof action-research. level, a retrospective reflection on my work in the My new status and situation as a researcher soon projects and, at another, a commentary on the work- required me to question and review these pre- ings of reflexivity, 'bending back on oneself within understandings. My previous work experience had the research. been as a benevolent 'gatekeeper' working from dif- The former involved re-viewing the whole contextferent formal educational bases. As a self-identified and process of the project action andthe construction com mu nityadult educator, I had always been anxious of the texts, therefore it was bound to be coloured by to distance myself, both ideologically and physically, my subsequent experience and knowledge of adult from my parent institutions. Nevertheless they did education theory and practice as a university adult provide me with available resources, a clear educa- educator. Thus in conducting my reflexive methodo- tional identity and tacit authority for an educational logical critique I adopted the concept of 'review'approach and an educational agenda. In my new which Usher and Bryant explain as being a process situation, as a community-based researcher trying to where `..theory is not applied to practice; rather, the set up a learning resource base in prolonged contact process can be conceptualized as one where practice is with unwaged adults, I was to find that my authority reviewed (re-viewed) through theory.' (1989, 93) for conducting an 'educational' approach was no In focusing on the workings of reflexivity within the longer so uncontested it had to be justified and research, I attempted to surface and problematise pre- negotiated over time and at length in terms of its understandings, values and research processes notrQlevance to and impact on the total lives of the fully acknowledged at the time. Here my startingunwaged adults involved in the project.

61 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 8z RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

Carr and Kemmis make the following point in rela- In this way, we began to move towards a more inter- tion to action research: active and reflexive participatory research strategy and The problems ofeducation are not simply prob- understand more clearly Budd Hall's identification of lems of achieving known ends; they are prob- participatory research being 'at the same time an lems of acting educationally in social situations approach of social investigation, an educational proc- which typically involve competing values and ess, and a means of taking action' (Hall, 1981, 455). complex interactions between different people Gradually, as a result of this new more participatory who are acting on different understandings of dimension within the very 'political' area of unem- their common situation and on the basis ofployment, I also began to become more reflexive as a differentvalues about how the i nteractio ns should researcher, become much more aware of my values be conducted. (Carr and Kemmis, 1986, 180) and my situatedness, and so understand better that: It was all very well for myself and my educator ...`significant' research may put the self at risk colleagues to have a shared macro-analysis that educa- ... and that certain kinds of research are likely to tional action alone could not solve the problems of be more suited to certain kinds of selves as unemployment and that indeed too much concentra- personalities and/or holders of particular values tion on employability and coping ran the risk of (Usher & Bryant, 1989, 152). becoming involved in 'education for domestication'. However, in developing our research and credibility From doing research to writing about it with unwaged adults, we also had to work out some negotiating and creating textual meanings authentic way of relating our concerns and our edu- and outcomes cational agenda to their primary concerns: getting a In examining sponsored research, Morgan identifies job and surviving both financially and psychologi- a possible conflict between a sponsor's 'production- cally. It was as a result of this on-going process oforien ted mentality that emphasizes the importance of negotiation, that, notwithstanding the explicit edu- achieving significant useful results' and the more cational aims of our project brief, we began to take on tentative and self-doubting understandings of the board the wider agenda of unwaged adults jobs, reflective researcher, so raising questions about the welfare rights, information, social and political activi-validity and generalizability of the research (Morgan, ties, re-negotiate our aims and purposes and, in 1983, 384). This was a resolvable problem in the first, addressing their primary concerns, see more clearly NIACE-sponsored, project, because of the location how 'education...becomes a methodology rarher of the key players within a general liberal adult than a goal.' (Johnston, 1987, 57) education tradition and discourse. This allowed suf- Increasingly central to the progress of our research ficient common understanding and flexibility to de- was the idea and process of accountability to the velop a more participatory approach with greater unwaged adults involved. In trying to develop this, I unwaged involvement and ownership of research began to realise that I had to re-view my ideas on the processes, meanings and outcomes. nature and dynamic of the action-research process. In writing periodic project reports I was aware that my Our original research approach was intended to be a writing did not constitute any 'objective' viewpoint cyclical process ofaction, reflection and then (revised) but rather was my own construction of events and my action, very much in the tradition of Halsey's 'experi- own interpretation of 'a multiplicity of viewpoints.' mental social administration' (Halsey, 1972). A key The final published report succeeded largely in meet- feature of this approach was the co-ordination, lead- ing the objectives of the key stakeholders. It was ership and ultimate control of a Steering Committee written in a conventional academic style to meet the representing the different parties with a stake in the political agenda of the sponsors and my own personal project. While the original research proposal had desire to be recognised as a researcher and an author; made an explicit commitment to involve unem- it went through a series of drafts, discussions and ployed and local people as active agents in our re- amendments in consultation with unwaged and other search process and even although unwaged adults participants so that it reflected a broad consensus of were represented on the Steeri ng Committee, it gradu- what had taken place and what the major emergent ally became clear that i f we genuinely wanted to work issues were; and it contributed towards the crucial participatively, we needed to supplement this cycli- achievement ofcontinuation funding for the project's cal, set-piece and representative approach with a on-going work. participative approach that was moredynamic, demo- However, greater difficulties emerged in relation to cratic and immediately accountable. Therefore wethe outcomes and final report of the second, FEU- began to operate decision-making on a wider front, sponsored, project. The FEU's research traditions working through a variety of Open Meetings and and attitudes were considerably different from the open working groups. reflective action-research practice favoured by myself 082 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS8 3 and my colleages, and this, in turn, had a very A text was finally agreed and published, but only after different impact on the negotiation and creation ofa number of negotiations and compromises. In con- meanings before, during and at the end ofthe project. structing this, I and my colleagues were continually Whereas in the first project the greatest tension had weighing up what we needed to say to be true to our arisen in negotiating meanings with participatingprinciples and experience of reflective practice at the unwaged adults, here the major problem of meanings same time as what it was possible to say, granted that was with the sponsor itself. Potential difficulties were the FEU had ultimate control of the final report. apparent from the initial project brief. The language With this in mind, I decided not to proceed with any favoured by the FEU emphasised 'innovation' and likening of t he FEU's research approach to Glaser and 'transferability' and the development of 'skills' as Strauss's idea of 'theoretical capitalism', (Glaser and opposed to our previous project's focus on participa- Strauss, 1967), while standing firm on the language of tion and situated outcomes. In keeping with the critical and reflexive practice rather than mere cur- instrumental research tradition ofthe FEU, it becamericulum application. increasingly clear that our identified research task was A final commentary on this whole process of negoti- to operationalise aspects of the (given) Conceptual ating and creating textual meanings is best left to the Framework outlined in their recently published andforeword to the Final Report written by our supervis- widely-promoted FEU manual, 'Adult Unemploy- ing FEU Field Officer: ment and the Curriculum' (Watts and Knasel, 1985). This project ... was originally intended to ex- Lastly, the only really meaningful outcomes for the plore the implementation of the contrasting FEU were to be generalised and written ones. They elements of the Watts and Knasel curriculum were looking for the production of a final report with 'Leisure' and 'Opportunity Creation'. A sub- 'transferable messages', mainly for institutional con- text of this examination might have been to sumption, rather than any further exploration and examine the fitness of different types of institu- reflection on the problems of 'acting educationally' tion (e.g. adult education and further education) with unwaged adults in specific local circumstances or to deliver the different elements of the curricu- indeed positive outcomes for the unwaged adults lum. During its life, however, the project devel- involved. Thus, in this instance, the envisaged text oped these original aims and also built on a was already shaping the research. previous NIACE/REPLAN project to produce Throughout the project, differences of app roach arose what was in effect a critique of the Watts and between myselfand my colleagues as reflect ive action- Knasel framework, as well as creating identify- researchers and the FEU as sponsors, in the way we ing and monitoring good practice in curriculum began to develop a critique rather than a mere appli- development with unemployed adults. In this cation of the Watts and Knasel Conceptual Frame- development, issues connected with institutional work and in our preference for community-based types, though considered, became a secondary rather than institutionally-located project action. In- issue. (FEU, 1989) deed, we were reminded at one stage by the FEU that the initial project brief amounted to a 'quasi-legal Writing reflexively: a postscript document'. My recent experience of trying to write reflexively has Eventually an accommodation was reached on the helped me to be more confident and self-critical in development of project action. However the major acknowledging that: area of contention was always likely to be the text of the notion of reflexivity recognises that texts do the final report. Each interim report and review not simply and transparently report an inde- became rehearsals for what could and should be said pendent order of reality. Rather, the texts them- in the final text. In writing this final report, I was selves are implicated in the work of reality- conscious of a tension between my awareness at one construction. (Atkinson, 1990, 7) level that every act of writing is simultaneously an act It has also made me more aware of some of the of censorship and my understanding at another that: potential problems in writing reflexively: We shouldn't forever be trying to match the the dangers of becoming stuck at the level of substance and form of an account to the expec- introspective and 'confessional' individual reflexivity, tations of a given audience. This runs the risk ocwithout moving on to engage with the wider research simply re-producing and re-inforcing existing process of negotiating and creating meanings and perspectives, rather than challenging and chang- knowledge; ing them. (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983, p. the problems of attempting to speak for others, 228) notwithstanding one's emancipatory intent. 083 84 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

REFERENCES and Policies, HMSO, London, 1972 Hammersky, M. and Atkinson, P., Ethnography: Principles Atkinson, P., The Ethnograpic Imagination: textual con- in Practice, Tavistock, London, 1983 structions of realiry, RoutledF, London, 1990 Johnston, R., Exploring the Educational Needs of Unwaged Carr, W. and Kemmis, S., Becoming Criticak Education, Adults, NIACE Replan, Leicester, 1987 Knowledge and Action-Research, Falmer, Lewes, 1986 Johnston, R., MacWilliam, 1. and Jacobs, M., Negothsting Glaser, B. G. and Strauss, A. L., The Discovery ofGrounded the Curriculum with Unwaged Adults, FEU, London, Theory: strategies fir qualitative research, Aldine, New 1989 York, 1967 Morgan, G. (Ed), Beyond Method: Strategies fir Social Hall, B., 'The Democratization of Research in Adult Research, Sage Books, London, 1983 Education and Non-Formal Education' in P. Reason Usher, R. and Bryant, I., Adult Education as Theory, and J. Rowan (Eds), Human Inquiry: A Sourcebook of Practice and Research, Routledge, London, 1989 New Paradigm Research, Wiley, Chichester, 1981 Watts, AG. and Knasel, E.G., Adult Unemployment and Halsey, A. H., Educational Prioriry Vol 1: EPA Problems the Curriculum, FEU, London 1985

084 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS115 Collecting data and recollecting in tranquillity: reflections ona research project

William R. Jones University of Southampton

T am conscious that in this paper I am straying into dent. It was also the case that questions about the waters well-charted to colleagues in SCUTREAcourse were frequently seeking statistical datawhat but unfamiliar to rne. This weak little nautical meta- proportion ofstudents did go on to higher education? phor comes very easily, since my usual research and What kind of degrees did they get? Was English writing are devoted to nautical imagery in English always the subject they studied? Did the course help literature, particularly of the eighteenth century. Astudents with career prospects? I had my usual tutor's typical example of my writing which comes to mind instincts about the course, and a sense of the rough has the title Images of the sea in English Literatureanswer to these questions, but nothing more quanti- 1660-1815 and was published, as it happens, by the fiable. French Navy, A questionnaire-based s urvey was unfamiliar territory As a tutor of literature my interests are inevitablyto an eighteenth-century poetry specialist, but I had much wider and more mainstream, and indeed thisseen quite a lot of questionnaires in my time and very particular research field has figured very small in constructed mine with the advice of colleagues with a good many years' teaching. Like many tutors in thesocial science backgrounds. The questionnaire was of liberal tradition I have 1. uilt up a personal library ofa very standard type, with boxes to tick, varying routes beliefs and perhaps something ofa pantheon ofdeities through it according to whether, for example, the constructed from my continual receiving of feedback respondent had completed the course, and a final from students and personal responses to my own open-ended general request for comments. Having teaching. tested it on a pilot group of my students I conducted In 1981 I set up a course which for its time was the survey, analysed the returns and wrote up the aconsiderable innovation. It was from the outsetfindings for publication. called Return to Study English and was designed as aThe results were satisfactory, and in terms ofwhat was joint venture with the Southampton University Eng- revealed about the course, reassuring. A much higher lish Department for adults who wanted to follow an proportion of students was successful in admission to intensive course, perhaps with a view to maturehigher education than I would have guessed, for admission to a degree programme. The course was example. I had my hard data, my answers to the successful from the start, and in 1990-91, its tenthquestions from admissions tutors, prospective em- anniversary year, at a time when it seemed appropriate ployers, radio interviewers, graduate students from to review its progress and assess the outcomes for the other universities conducting their own investiga- 200 or so students who had followed it, I was asked to tions into mature learning and access. I had satisfied write a chapter about the course for a book on adultmy own determination to give my chapter a solid students and literature. This review was the project on foundation of factual data on which to base my which this paper reflects. review. I was accustomed to trying to assess the success or So my first reflection was a rather complacent one. I failure of courses by the informal ways familiar to anyhad produced a set of findings based on quantifiable sensitive tutor of adults, and by the occasional semi-data, not on hunches or anecdote or the true but formal use of evaluation questions at the end of a partial account of those students with whom I hap- course. But for this exercise in reviewing a course I pened to still be in contact. I had also achieved what took the conscious decision to adopt a much moreseemed to me, as an arts-based research scholar, an schematic and, asI believed, orthodox, research enviable degree of objectivity. method a questionnaire survey of all students who But other reflections are less comfortable. I was sur- had enrolled on this course. I chose this approach prised on the occasions of presenting these findings at partly because the course had much more clearly- seminars and conferences at the questioning reaction defined objectives than many liberal adult education of my audience, who tended to be more experienced courses, and it seemed therefore that it would be in mainstream adult education research. Questions possible to ask unambiguous questions about theprobed my own choice of method -- my quest for achievement or not of these objectives for any stu- 'hard data', and then on my reliance on these data. 0 85 86 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

They may be hard, but where was the test of reliabil- with positivist 'scientism', so the same experience had ity, and relevance? What I found disquieting ( and engendered the kind of reflection and adaptation/ ironic, given my own background), was that there was innovation in theory and practice which I subse- greater interest in the responses to the open-ended quently found in the writings ofSCUTRE.A members general final questions than in the specificity of myand their international colleagues. ticked boxes. Like any other experienced teacher of adults I have These reactions were on the one hand galling, givenlong been accustomed to adapting practice through the time and effort I had spent schooling myself intoexperience and reflection. Ofcourse, as recognised in my own image of an educational researcher with a the literature on this, the point at which such reflec- foundation discipline of social science, and on the tion and adaptation emerge into consciousness and other reassuring in that I was being invited to replace consequent conscious action will vary, but again there this assumed persona with something much more like is a close analogy here with the point at which the my 'real' seif as both analyst of the most subjective ofcreation of a writer's imagination emerges into con- all text poetry and teacher within the main- scious 'literary' text. stream liberal adult education tradition. Indeed it seems to me there is a most interesting And anyway, my own reaction to my hard data had its correlation between current thinking on practice and complexities. The response-rate of the questionnaires theory/research and the thinking of a writer far more was good certainly adequate. But the response rate familiar to myself the poet Coleridge. Perhaps from students who had dropped out of the course more than any other literary figure Coleridge pos- without explanation was much lower, and left me tosessed a balance of a fine creative imagination and a rely on my subjective resources to incorporate a mind given to analysis of the creative process. His degree of weighting into my findings. More general much younger contemporary Keats characterised was the evident phenomenon of students construct- Coleridge famously as someone who would ing their own texts out of their reading of my ques- let go by a fine isolated verisimilitude caught tions (something I was of course perfectly aware of, from the penetralium of mystery by being inca- and habitually alerted my students to, in their reading pable of remaining content with half knowl- of poetical texts!). This, added to the equally inevita- edge.2 ble construction of the responses, both individually Coleridge was perhaps the first of the reflective prac- and collectively, into a discourse of my own, pro- titioners (as opposed to philosopher) in his analysis of duced the kind of textual matrix which I entirely the workings of the poetical imagination, an analysis expect in a poem, or in a student's essay, but to which promoted by his response to the poems of his then my adopted 'scientific' methodology had desensitisedclose friend Wordsworth, and to the creative collabo- me. I had willed myself into the behavioural tendencyration which existed between them and produced the of the adult student who will trust the 'scientific' Lyrical Ballads of 1798. rather than the personal' except that I had not the Coleridge would have recognised the role of 'the self student's excuse of lack of confidence. in the research arena'3. Hib starting point for dismiss- This error did not, and does not, damage my belief in ing Hartley's law of association as the mechanistic the findings of my project, but it did drive me away explanation of literary creativity (and indeed of all from my assumed scientism and back into the arenamental activity) was his awareness of the mind as a of my educational practice before I was able to turn combination of the sub j ective and the objective which my data into a recognisable reflection of ten years' produced 'the mind's self experience in the act of experience of this course. In other words it propelledthinking'4. This led him to his definition of the me into the now familiar role of reflection as practi- imagination as the presiding faculty of human per- tioner and recognition of the inevitable presence ofception and creativity (not just that of poets), a faculty one's self in any educational research activity. which had the unique capacity for continuously rec- I would like to claim that this mismatch between reating the self through the constant accumulation of research and everyday educational professional prac- experience: tice arises from the dilemma of the academic subject The Imagination ... I hold to be the living power specialist finding himself or herself in an educational and prime agent of all human perception, and as unit of assessment for research purposes, and there- a repetition in the finite mind of the eternal act fore scrabbling for a foothold in a new research area. of creation in the infinite I AM ... It dissolves, And to some extent such a claim is justifiable. diffuses, dissipates in ordcr to re-create... it strug- But it would be easy to protest too much here. In the gles to idealise and unify. it is essentially vital, same way as my professional experience had perfectly even as all objects arc essentially fixed and dead.5 well equipped me to handle my students' question- Attempts to define literature are notoriously difficult, naire responses once I had overcome my flirtation but in any such attempt the word 'experience' will be 2,93SCUTREA CONPERIENCI PAPIRS117 not far away. The practice of the poet is to a large paper entitled Images of the Sea In English Literature extent the definition of experience, and for the imagi- 1660-1815, published by the French Navy 7. nation to work on, and define, such experience re- quires, according to Coleridge and Wordsworth, REFERENCES reflection, or, in their words 'recollection in tranquil- lity.' It is then that everyday experiences such as the 1. Usher, R. (1985), 'Beyond the Anecdotal: Adult Learn- sight of a field of daffodils can become assimilated ing and the Use of Experience' in Studies in Adult into the perceiving self as they 'flash upon that inward Education, Vol.17, No 1, pp59-74. eye.6 2. Keats, J. (1817), Letter to George and Tom Keats, The poet as practitioner then, having assimilated December 21/27 1817. experience, and reflected on the working of the imagi- 3. Usher, R and Bryant, I. (1989), Adult Education as nation, can incorporate such refined experience into Theory, Practice and Research: The Captive Triangle, his or her developing self as creator. For Coleridge London, Routledge, p150. perhaps his greatest example of the creative imagina- 4. Coleridge, S T. (1906), Biographia Literaria. London, tion was 'The Rime of the Ancient Mariner' in Dent, 1906 (reprinted 1977), p72. which his central character reflects on causality and 5. Coleridge, op cit., p167. expiation in a poem which is itself an extended 6. Wordsworth. 'I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud', 21. metaphorical voyage into the imagination itself. 7. Jones, W R. 'Images of the Sea in English Literat ire 'Which, curiously for a subject specialist caught out- 1660-1815,' in Guerres et Paix 1660-1815, Serv ice side his 'proper' discipline, is a point I made in the Historique de la Marine, Vincennes, 1987. 8 8 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Doing adult education research through autobiography

Nod Miller University of Manchester 1

MY aim in this paper is to develop some ideas I stumbled into ... [an important] piece of self- about the relationship between research and insight as I sifted gloomily though my dusty file autobiography, to sketch some of the changes in my of content analysis data some time in 1983 ... I own orientation to and understanding of the research was conscious at times of an extremely negative process, and to summarise what I think I have learned emotional reaction to the sight of my coding through my own autobiographical explorations. I schedule or the dog-eared notes fro:n interviews believe that researchers concerned with understand- conducted around the pubs of Fleet Street or ing the processes of adult learning need to be centrally Farringdon Road, and I generally interpreted concerned with their own learning, and hence need to these reactions as stemming from my self-dis- acknowledge the autobiographical dimensions oftheir gust at having dragged around the baggage of research. this project for so long. However, returning to the material after a long My life in research: untangling personal interval, I recognised that my frequent desire to and professional strands jettison the files of newspaper cuttings had been My career as a researcher began in the mid-1970s prompted by a mixture of confused and painful when I registered as a Ph.D. student in the University feelings. These were associated with the period of Leicester and embarked upon research into the of my life spent 2S a research student, during coverage of educational issues in the British mass which I left my husband, in the midst of a tangle media. I spent over two years conducting content ofemotional and domestic turmoil. When I read analysis of newspaper stories and television news through my coding schedule, for example, I broadcasts and interviewing journalists who reported could remember the circumstances under which on education. I was at the 'just writing-up' stage of my I added a particular category; sometimes I could research when I was offered a post as a lecturer in recollect the day of the addition, and the demor- Department of Adult and Higher Education in the alising argument which had occurred the day I University of Manchester. I became so absorbed in came across a particular cutting. Notes from an the teaching in my new post that my research interests interview would evoke the memory of the fact lapsed. My content analysis sheets and interview that I had packed my bags to leave the marital notes gathered dust and I developed a wide repertoire home for the third time on the day before I ofexcuses not to return to my research and writing up. talked to the man from that particular national It was not until nearly ten years later that I made daily. It was easier, in the relative calm of 1983, serious efforts to complete my thesis, and by then I to look back and react in an intellectual rather had shifted my focus from media treatment of educa- than emotional frame, but the events starnt)ed tion to an evaluation of my own practice as an adult into the fabric of my interview notes and coding educator and a group relations trainer. (The full sheets had for several years given me nightmares, version of this story appears in Miller, 1992, which quite literally. (Miller, 1992, pp. 10-11). was completed as a thesis in 1989.) By the time II think that it was this sudden realisation of the propelled myself into the writing up, my researchimpossibility of separating personal (marital) and interests and orientation had changed, and I had professional (research) concerns and the recognition considerable doubts about the validity of my original of the complex interplay between the primarily intel- project. I felt that to continue or repeat a research lectual activity of doing research and the inner emo- process when I was so uncertain about its value would tional life of the researcher which brought me to my be at best an empty ritual and at worst a fraudulent present belief that all social research constitutes an exercise. autobiography of the researcher. The initial urge to move from my original research Of course, researchers vary considerably in the extent focus came out of my unease with the theoretical and to which they make their personal story explicit; often methodological bases of the 1970s project, but I camethe only clues are to be found in acknowledgements, to realise that there were other reasons for my reluc-prefaces and methodological appendices. My thesis tance to return to this work. In the Preamble to mytook the form of an explicit sociological autobiogra- thesis, I recorded how phy. For example, in the chapter which approximated

8 3 'il=1111: 1993SCUTREA CONFRRENCE PAPERS$9 to a review of relevant literature, I attempted to chart editor. Fewer colleagues will have come across an the influences on my thinking in the fields of educa- earlier, scruffier and more scurrilous tabloid, to which tion and communication studies and to link interper- Scoop perhaps owes its existence and certainly some of sonal relatonships with academic influences. I have its style, namely, the Bongo Times. This paper came observed that even in texts which purport to give theabout in the course of some work in which I was 'real story' of a research project (see, for example, the engaged with Jim Brown during the mid-'80s, in papers in Burgess, 1984), there is still a tendency to which we experimented with the design of experien- cite relevant literature in a way that signals detach- tial learning events, conceptualising conferences as ment and distance. In my experience, most academics microcosmic societies. At the same time, we were read (and, hence, cite) authors and texts not merely on attempting to understand and to influence the poli- the basis of library searches and explorations in pub- tics and dynamics of the Group Relations Training lishers' catalogues, but through personal and profes- Association, a professional organisation of educators sional relationships with colleagues in their field. and trainers which pioneered the use of T-group When I read the work of people I know, it is clear to laboratory methods in Britain, and in which Jim and me that much of the literature which they cite isI were heavily involved. During the 1985 GRTA written by their friends, colleagues, students, spouses, Conference, we set ourselves up as capitalist entrepre- lovers, ex-partners and so on. To the insider's eye, neurs of the leisure industries within the micro- many a list of references provides a concise case studyeconomy of the conference. We hired a marquee in in invisible colleges (see Crane, 1972). Rarely do theorder to operate a nightclub for insomniac conference lists of names and dates arranged in their neutralising participants, and, as it now seems, in order to ensure brackets give this away to those not already a part of that we spent the entire conference in a sleepless state, the network in question, although there are writerswe established ourselves as proprietors and editors of who have turned the dedication of a text into an the conference newpaper, the Bongo Times. For the artform. Two examples of which I am particularlyfirst day of the conference, we went so far as to fond are Laud Humphreys's dedication of the book produce the Bongo Timeis ':ival' paper, The Daily which recounts his sociological study of casual sexual Rupert, as well. encounters in public lavatories to his wife and chil- Immediately after this expenence I remarked that I dren 'whose encouragement and love made this re- had learned more about journalists' ideologies and search possible' (Humphreys, 1970, p. v), and Reg practices in the three days of the conference than in Revans's dedication of his text on action learning to nearly a decade of reading sociological studies of hi.; wife 'in hope of forgiveness' (Revans, 1982, p. iii). journalism. However, while I would not wish to diminish the importance of the experiential learning Action research: retangling myself as acquired through my entering the roles of editor and research subject and object news-gatherer, I recognise that I would have per- The action research projects which I conducted dur-formed these roles rather differently had I not had a ing the 1980s and which described and analysed in detailed knowledge of journalism as a researcher and my thesis involved me as both subject and object ofconsumer of journalistic products. Indeed, if I had the research process. Most of these projects, involving not been socialised into media research, or had not experimentation with techniques based on the T-been a sociologist, I should probably not have con- group laboratory, were far removed from the focus of ceived of the Bongo Times at all. my 1970s work, in which I used a combination ofThe contrast to which I wish to draw attention here qu an titative and qualitative methods ofcon tent analy- is that between research about an occupational group sis and conducted an occupational study ofjournalists conducted from the outside, with the group in ques- from the position of an 'outsider'. The data on which tion clearly conceived of as 'other' to the researcher, I drew for my analysis of the later work were made up and research which involves the researcher as an for the most part of volumes of personal diaries, insider, or a member of the community being re- workshop plans and brainstormed lists generated on searched (and, indeed, where the research is formu- many sheets of flip-chart paper. lated with the intention of promoting change, and One aspect of my recent research which provides where the politics of the researcher are made explicit). some continuity with my earlier excursions into the My research orientation remains broadly in accord analysis of mass communications is that involvingwith the position exemplified in the Bongo Times practical exercises in media sociology, where, at least project, although these days I find I have slightly less for short periods of time, I have become a newspaper stamina than I did in 1985 when it comes to action editor. A number of participants at this conference research which involves staying up all night. will probably have seen Scoop, SCUTREA's newslet- ter, of which, with David Jones, I am founding co- 90 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

Reading my autobiography: reviewing which I research other selves. relations with other selves One piece of research in which I am currently engaged In working through my life history, I have tried to is concerned with the facilitation of learning. I am understand the influences on my own learning as an investigating what some of those generally agreed to adult, and, in particular, the way in which my per- be expert facilitators see as important elements of sonal and professional development has been shaped their practice. This work has grown out of my reflec- as a result of my membership of a variety of reference tions on my own experience of facilitation and my groups and invisible colleges. attempts to identify key features of my own practice. Isee reference groups as being those which provide for Another current project focuses on the nature and me 'a frame of reference for self-evaluation and atti- extent of invisible colleges within the international tude formation' (Merton, 1957, p. 283). It is impor- community of adult educators: the interconnections tant to stress that a referensx group is not necessarily between scholars and researchers, the common points one of which I am a member; sometimes groupsin their biographies, the networks and groups to which help me to define what I am not or what I do which they belong, how they decide what to read and not want to be are as significant as those towhich I to whom they talk, the conferences they attend and belong, or to membership of which I aspire. Refer- how they see the professional world they inhabit. It is ence groups to which I belong include thosemade up clear that the way I have constructed the research on of adult educators, sociologists, feminists, working-invisible colleges has come out of reflection on my class kids made good, T-group trainers, and, in membership of(and construction of) reference groups. more recent times, gatekeepers and managers.Groups And my discoveries about how others construct their to which I do not belong, bur which havehad asocial and professional worlds in turn shape the way significant impact on me in terms of helping me toin which I conceptualise my own. establish my identity through an understanding of what I am not what constitutes 'other' include Writing my autobiography: actively those made up ofpsychologists, quantitative research- constructing myself ers and Rogerian counsellors. Re-reading the autobiographical account of my re- The term 'invisible college' is used to define a phe- search from 1989, I am struck by something ofwhich nomenon in academic communitiesdescribed by I was much less aware at the time, namely the artful Derek de Solla Price in the following way: nature of the construction in which I was engaged. It For each group there exists a sort of commuting seems to me that, at the same time as I wasgiving a circuit of institutions, research centers and sum- critical perspective on others' texts and interpreta- mer schools giving them an opportunity to meet tions, I tended to privilege my own accounts such as piecemeal, so that over an interval of a few years those contained in my diaries. I think that embedded everybody who is anybody has worked with into my 1989 text was an assumption about the everyone else in the same category. Such groups possibility of discovering truths about the past (and constitute an invisible college. (de Solla Price, about myself) through the analysis of contemporary 1965, p.85). documents and through a revisiting of past experi- The colleagues I have met and worked with in ence. SCUTREA constitute a significant part of one such I am now more inclined to see the process of autobio- group. The boundaries of SCUTREAdo not equate graphical writing as an active construction of myself precisely with the boundaries of the invisible college for a particular audience and purpose. I construct to which I belong in the field ofadult education, since myself through writing [about] myself, as, indeed, I significant others in the group include non-membersdo through my everyday conversations. Much of my of SCUTREA for example, there are a number ofsocial life involves meeting with friends and exchang- North Americans in my group. ing accounts and analyses of recent history. I tell By describing and analysing my own patterns ofstories of what has recently happened to me; often the operation within such groups, and by employing a narratives are tried out with one friend and then model of experiential learning (in which reflection on honed or edited with another. I am sometimes con- experience leads to the development of theory and thescious of working on the characterisation, pace and formulation of future action, which in turn becomes punchline of a particular narrative. Over time the the object of further reflection and theory-building), issue becomes not so much whether the story is 'true' I have begun to advance my understanding of theseor 'exaggerated', but ratherwhether its timing is groups in a broader sense, and myinsights have appropriate and whether its elements ore arranged in become the basis for further explorations and othersuch a way to maximise drama or ironic effect or to research projects. There is, therefore, interplay be- provide a climax or whatever it is I am trying to tween the way in which I research myselfand that inachieve with or from my audience. In writing the 090 1993 SCOTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 91 process is more clearly open to scrutiny. I type one recollection of the events themselves. version of the story of an event and then read and re- read and tinker with the words, consult the thesaurus, Conclusions insert synonyms, change the order of phrases to I think that adult educators benefit greatly from the enhance the rhythm and flow ofsentences, cut, paste, periods of sustained reflection on personal and pro- and chop out unnecessary sections. What ends up in fessional experience which autobiographical analysis the final version, 1 realise, is more to do with what fits and writing require. Certainly I believe my own my criteria of what works on the page than with what practice to have been enhanced and enriched as a might be more or less 'true'. result of this activity. Liz Stanley is a feminist sociologist who has written However, some of my colleagues have expressed extensively on life-writing (see Stanley, 1992; 1993;severe doubts about the value of autobiographical Stanley and Morgan, 1993), using the term auto/ research, dismissing this type of work as 'subjective', biography to indicate the close relationship she sees 'unscientific', 'unreliable' or 'unrepresentative'. One between writing accounts of one's own life and writ- colleague who participated in a seminar which I ing accounts of the lives of others. She suggests that presented a few months ago on the theme of autobi- recent sociological concern with biography and auto- ography as research (and research as autobiography) biography may be seen as arising from two diverse said he thought that many of his mature students sources: firstly, from Robert Merton's sociology ofwould greatly enjoy being given the opportunity to knowledge (see, for example, Merton, 1972; 1988), write autobiography, and enquired what advice and secondly, from concerns with reflexivity in femi- would offer such students. When I said that my advice nist research and feminist praxis. Feminist research, would be to `go for it', he asked, 'But what for? As a to be consistent with feminist politics and principles, form of therapy?' In my view, w tiring about one's own demands that researchers write themselves into their life has benefits far beyond the personally therapeutic. accounts of the research process. Paul Armstrong's account of the theory and practice My own autobiographical explorations have been of what he calls the 'life history method' in educa- iniluenced by my reading of Merton's account oftional research (Armstrong, 1987) provides a forceful sociological autobiography as 'a personal exercise... in argument for the advantages to be derived from this the sociology ofscientific knowledge' (Merton, 1988, method and shows that it can be seen as a particularly p. 19), by my reading of feminist research and episte- appropriate approach for adult education researchers mology, by my e-tperience as a feminist and by my to adopt, in that it facilitates the development of contact with other feminist sociologim such as Liz praxis and the operation of participatory research Stanley herself. (I should also acknowLdge, in theparadigms in this field. spirit of making personal influenceexplicit, my know!- The current interest in autobiography amongst social edge of Liz's work comes as much from conversation scientists and adult educators (evident in many of the as from reading her academic texts, since she is a close papers in this volume) may be seen as far from an friend.) ephemeral enthusiasm amongst researchers. The fo- I suspect that the process of constructing and reading cus on the researcher's personal experience can be sociological and feminist autobiography is an ongo- seen as a return to long-standing concerns in sociol- ing process of conducting a dialogue with different ogy with self-reflexivity and to established definitions 'selves' over time. One version of a text becomes the of social scientific activity C. Wright Mills, for data for the next version: intertextuality indeed. The example, argues that 'as a social scientist; you have to 'voice' of one version of an autobiography becomes ... capturewhat you experience and sort it out' (Mills, the initiator of a conversation with one's self from 1970, p 216), and asserts that 'the sociological imagi- another point in history. nation enables us to grasp history and biography and In writing about the past, I actively construct the past the relations between the two within society'(ibid., p. for myself as well as for others. Earlier in this paper, I 12). Autobiographical research and writing, in ena- quoted an extract from an account I wrote in (I think) bling researchers to link the personal and the struc- 1987, and edited in 1989, of events which took place tural, individual life-nistories and collective social in 1983. I chose here to quote that account because movements, and private and public worlds, can be my recollection of the events to which I refer has been seen as central and fundamental to the social scientific shaixcl by that account of the 1983 experience writ- enterprise. ten in 1987, completed and edited in 1989 and published in 1992. I have avivid mental picture of the REFERENCES desk at which I wrote the account quoted above, and the room in which I completed the editing of that Armstrong, P. (1987), Qualitative Strategies in Social and account a couple of years later. but a much hazier EducationalResearch: The Lif eHistoryMethodin Theory 091 92 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

and Practice, Newland Papers, No. 14, Kingston-upon- ciological Lives: Social Change and the Lift Course, Hull, University of H ull School ofAdult and Continu- Volume 2, Newbury Park, CA, Sage Pi rmcations ing Education Miller, N. (1992), Personal experience, adult learning and Burgess, R..G.(ed.) (1984), The Research Process in Educa- social research, Adelaide, Centre for Research in Adult tional Settings: Ten Case Studies, Lewes, Falmer Press Education for Human Development, University of Crane, D. (1972), Invisible Colleges: diffusion ofknowledge South Australia in scientific communities, Chicago, University of Chi- Mills, C.W. (1970), The Sociological Imagination, cago Press Harmondsworth, Penguin Books Ltd. (first published De Solla Price, D.J. (1965), Little Sdence, Big Science, New 1959) York, Columbia University Press Revans, R. (1982), The Origins and Growth of Action Humphreys, L. (1974), Tearoom Trade, London, Gerald Learning, Lund, Studentlitteratur Duckworth 8c Co. Ltd. Stanley, L. (1992), The Auto/Biographical I: the Theory and Merton, R. (1957), Social Theory and Social Structure, Practice of Feminist Autobiography, Manchester, Man- revised and enlarged edition, New York, Free Press chester University Press Merton, R. (1972), 'Insider; and outsiders: a chapter in the Stanley, L. (1993), 'On Auto/Biography in Sociology', in sociology of knowledge', in AmericanJournal ofSodol- Sociology, Volume 27, No. 1 ogy, 77, pp. 9-47 Stanley, L. and Morgan, D. (1993), 'Editorial Introduc- Merton, R. (1988), 'Some thoughts on the concept of tion', in Sociology, Volume 27, No. 1, Special Issue: sociological autobiography', in Riley, M.W. (ed.), So- Auto/Biography in Sociology

rt C 94 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 93 Changing places: issues for the practitioner turned researcher

Rebecca O'Rourke Department of Adult Continuing Education University of Leeds

C INCE 1978 I have been involved in the world ofsometimes be a problem and sometimes not. creative writing as a student, a critic, a writer, an The privilege of seeing so many classes at work, of adult-education organiser and as a tutor. When I was talking with such a range of tutors and students about appointed last year to work on an HEFC-funded their motives for doing creative writing and the research project, Evaluating Creative Writing in Adultdifferent ways in which they approach and value it, Education in Cleveland, I felt confident that this genuinely is a privilege. The ways that I teach and experience would 'naturally' inform and shape the argue for my subject will never be the same again. I feel research. Such experience, I assumed, qualified me to an obligation to make available the research findings look at creative writing activity in the county andin such a way that as many people as possible can would lend authority CO my observations and conclu- experience the challenge to, and consolidation of, sions. their ways of working that exposure to such diversity I should have known that there's rarely anything and debate entails. natural about natural and in this session I want to But before that wonderful moment arrives, I have to facilitate a discussion with others ofsome of the issues do the research and that means setting aside my which arise when a practitioner turns researcher. In tutorly, writerly self and becoming the researcher. the session we'll work together on some questions and Who am I when I do that ?Who, and what, do people a case study, but firstI want to give you somethink I am when I do that ? What positive and background about who I am and what my pre-negative aspects does the tension of this movement occupations are. bring to my research practice ? 'We haven't really got you at all,' said my projectI have a hunch that other research workers have director rather ruefully in the early days of the worksimilar experiences. I want to know where it is and as we attempted to disentangle development issues isn't the same for you. I want to know the conse- from research issues. This is the heart of it. Had I quences for our research of leaving these questions moved to the area for any other reason, includingunresolved, and for our teaching if and when we taking up an organising or teaching post at the centre, return to it. I hope the workshop will act as a model I could have been instrumental and interventionist in of research practice itself by offering a critical and Cleveland's writing culture and, knowing me, I would sympathetic space in which to explore the nature of have been. I've lots of experience, some of it not well who we are, what we do and how well we do it. represented in the area, and a lot of enthusiasm, but Research, in the sense of wanting to find things out as a researcher instrumentality and intervention areand then use them to extend my own and other problematic. people's thinking and practice, has been a fairly A potentially attractive solution is simply to ignore or constant element in my life since the mid 1970s. blur the distinction between research and develop- However, it is only in the last few years that I have ment. Put down the pencil, switch off the tape become a professional researcher, with a fiill-time recorder: participate. Get my hands dirty. Deal with paid job and identity. Although it is this changewhich the conflict by ignoring it. Work with a developmen- most concerns me, I do not want to suggest that only tal bias. Call it action research. Get away with it. But researchers can do research, indeed I find that ten- I didn't want to. dencyworrying. Theconflicts I'm outlining are present I wanted the chance after years of immersion in doing, in an even more acute form for researchers who are to stand back and reflect on the range of processes and still and simultaneously practitioners. It is different outcomes involved in that doing. I wanted to ask though. Previously my work, and my identity with myself and others where we were getting it right work, was located in a network of regular, structured and where we were getting it wrong. I wanted to stay contact with students and tutors; in informal contact with the awkward questions that I hadn't the time or with friends and colleagues doing similar work and in sometimes the courage to confront. I was prepared to the political hurly burly of fighting a corner either besurprised and changed by what I found out because within an institution or as part of that institution thc flux of everyday life makes it hard and some- against the local or central state. In that work I had the times impossible to see the patterns, structures and kind of running (and often on the run) commentary implications of what it is that you arc part of. Outsid- on my practice that all part-time tutors have. It was ers do see things that insiders don't, and that can often closely tied to a particular incident or person, 093 9 4 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE whether tutor or student, and usually needed a quick when I've been subjected and I use the word resolution or closure. I also knew who people thought deliberately to research, it has sometimes seemed I was and on what basis they were making their a waste of time, simply dealing with the self-evident judgments. I was, on the whole, well thought of, in superficial and banal ways. At other times it has respected and validated in what I was doing by the taken the opposite course, all very well in theory but people I did it with and for. you try working here and putting that into practice ... Research changed all that. Sometimes I feel like aIt's all about sorting out the common purposes from duckling who has been patterned on sheepdogs. There the crossed purposes and I am struck by how power- I am, bounding up to people, wagging my tail at thefully the meshing of those two things define my prospect of meeting, talking, learning, changing to-situation here in Cleveland. If we assume common gether and suddenly they draw back their teeth and I purpose, we're more likely to get crossed wires. We realise that nobody has taught me how to fly and that have to build our common purposes, and build them I am, after all, an awkward ungainly creature who fully aware that there will be conflicts and disagree- does not really speak their language. I like that image. ments. Nobody outside of the full-time staff of the It captures all the pathos of failing to connect and beuniversity had a stake in this research project before it appreciated that is too often a feature of my workingbegan. The majority of people engaging in creative life these days. And it echoes the fairy story of the ugly writing activity in Cleveland didn't formulate the duckling who one day becomes a swan and soars, research project, they didn't own it then and they beautiful, above the world that mocked her. And isn't don't now and most of them would probably prefer to successful research sometimes like that ? see the money spent on something else. That's an image of myself as researcher that feels right The third factor that can make participating in re- to me, but I know that the people in Cleveland whosesearch a positive or negative experience is the conse- work and leisure it has become my job to observe, quences of the research. At Centerprise I learnt some comment on and discuss have different images of me. important things about this: first the researcher is I'm the little spy, a shark, a wolf, a fat cat. Predatory, oddly powerful and powerless. Second, research has menacing, threatening. I'm the school mistress, the several distinct kinds and sites of effect, immediate hanging judge, the bureaucrat. I'm awaste ofprecious and cumulative, on the researcher, on those engaging time. And although I silently express outrage at this in the research process and those engaged by the travesty of myself, the tutorly, writerly me realises that research findings. One of the hardest tasks we have as of course they will think this, and believe it to be true. researchers is conveying this accurately to those we are I've done it myself. doing research with, for and about. I want our discus- When I worked at Centerprise, an innovative com- sion to tease out and explore the complexities of this munity centre in East London, researchers ofall kinds relation to power, information and change. were a constant and often frustrating fact of life. It Researchers cannot guarantee outcomes although helps me now to consider how we perceived them this is often the first thing people ask about. I find it then, to see what makes the difference between a hard to answer questions like: What are you going to meaningful or meaningless research encounter as thedo with this? What will happen as a result of it? researched experience it. Emphasise your lack of power and people don't see Three factors are involved. The first is loosely covered the point of giving up their valuable time to you; fail by professionalism and it refers to things like: clearto emphasise it sufficiently and people either think communications, legible correspondence, punctual- you will solve all their problems or that you willclose ity and so on. We had to feel that the researcher their classes and undermine their ways of working. iespected the constraints under which wc worked andTell them it's all in the process and ... don't be understood that we could not: prioritise the research surprised if they hit you. project to the samc extent that she/he did. I am intrigued and frightened -- and dismayed Secondly, we had to understand the purpose of the by the perceptions people project on to me. I may research. We had to know why it was being done,well be ruthless, unfeeling and intimidating, but it what its broad political or ideological framework was does seem to me that at least some of the explanation and why the researcher was interested. This area is for this negative response to research lies in the low pivotal. At Centerprise our reactions to researchers' esteem and low status (not) enjoyed by part-time reasons for doing research varied. Infuriated, when tutors in our profession. people described , yet again, this unique round thing Research and researchers will have to work very hard they were going to call The Wheel. Appreciative,indeed to turn around a situation where the people when people spent time we couldn't justify explain- who are the bedrock of our work feel diminished ing in detail what a valuable and important place weeither because they fear that their practice will be were. Wary, when people made a bee line for our found wanting in some way or they resent that it is not grubby compromises and tarnished idealisms. perceivc,' as valuable until an outsider comes along At Centel-prise and elsewhere in adult education and says so. 1995SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS95 'Speaking personally': the 'self' in educational oral history work

Mary Stuait Centre for Continuing Education University of Sussex

Self-definition through educational This feminist perspective has been developed in the experiences area of autobiography, particularly in Liz Stanley's WHILE interviewing a woman in her sixties who work, The Auto/Biographical 12. This work posits a was labelled during her school career as being 'self or 'identity' as a major contributing factor in 'mentally handicapped' (sic)she told me she wrote theboth the development of the research question and letters for the women she lived with who could not the research itself. Stanley identifies a self that is social read and write. Rather than seeing this as a supportive in every respect, constructed in terms of gender, class, action, she asked, "You don't think I'm forward do race, age, etc. This self is a composite of attitudes and you? People have said that, teachei., and staffhave said feelings which effects our research process. This is an that." essential realisation in reflecting on research. Stanley I was shocked that a society could remove so much of is exploring the complexity of notions of the self and a person's self esteem that they saw actions which are it is this aspect Of reflexive feminist sociology on helpful to others, as a sign of being arrogant. I tried towhich I wish to build. reassure her that I felt she had been kind and thought- Most conceptions of the self still spring from a ful. This incident highlights many of the issues which developmental psychology which may argue over the I hope to focus on in this paper. stages and ages of development but which ultimately Feminist theory has emphasized the social process suggest a fixed personality. Within sociology we have which keeps women within the 'private domain', been more concerned with the external forces which where they are expected to be passive and not put determine our personality; but the personality is still themselves forward. Challenging this process is seenat some point a fixed construct. as a threat to their femininity. This gendering ofI have been interested in the conception of the self as women is further overlaid in the labelling of women develop(d initially by George Herbert Mead, a social with learning difficulties. psychologist in the 1930s3.Mead's 'self' is con- Education both formal and informal is central to this structed in relation to a 'generalized other' in other socialization process. Traditional education research words, a society. The 'self symb-lises meaning or has focused on quantitati-e methods and has not comes to 'know' itself, through interaction. recognised the importance of the 'self conception' in What I take as important from this persr.ctive is an educational experience. More recently researchers inherent notion that interaction is an on-going proc- have begun to examine qualitative methods, such as ess. There is no age or stage at which it ends. it is social, personal interview and life history material. My initial in that it is through interaction with the `Othcrs', that thoughts on my research were concerned to explore we come to understand ourselves. These 'Others' can how these factors of gender, learning difficulty, edu- be either individuals who are imbued with social roles cation and self interrelated and converged. Life his- and identities, gender, class, race, etc, or institutions tory interviews seemed a good approach. which reproduce these 'identities', such as 'the family' or 'the education system'. It is also personal in that it The personal in research is our own individual expression of that social mix. As revealed in the story at the beginning of this paper, This process of identity definition is constantly being I found that it was impossible to exclude myself and developed. my opinions when I was interviewing. Ann Oakley's There arc of course specific moments which particu- work from the early 1980s is still an excellent refer- larly shape our 'self, but in the on-going process of ence point for the relationship between researcher interaction many 'selves' may emerge. There are and researched in interviews. She states: many life histories in each of us. If we accept this It becomes clear that, in most cases, the goal of perspective it has implications for any analysis of the finding out about people through interviewing life history interview. The 'story' or 'self' as revealed is best achieved whcn ... the interviewer is pre- in the life history interview is developed in an inter- pared to invest his or her t,wn personal identity active moment. It is a moment of 'creation' rather in the relationship'. than the recounting of a fixed past or self. The

5 5 96 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE interactive process, within the interview, structures a I never settled and constantly wished I could live with new definition ofself for both people involved in that my mother. I had embarked on this research project, moment. investigating the lives of women with learning diffi- culties living in a convent, but had nor recognised the Researching the self in educational terms connections between my own experience and the I would like to highlight these issues in a discussion women I wanted to understand. The interview had about my relationship with one woman I interviewed 're-made' my history. It led me to question whose life in the summer of 1992. I had become aware in history I was really researching. previous discussions that education had a major effect Two years ago Martha was encouraged by a social on the lives of the women I was interviewing. Thisworker to take up the Open University's course operated both in practical terms, with most of them 'Patterns for Living' 5. This course examined the choices being referred as 'men tallysu b-normar by their teach- in lifestyle open to people with learning difficulties. ers and educational psychologists, and in personal Martha enjoyed the course and it had a major effect terms through their self-definition being centred on her life. She had chosen to move out of the convent around issues of intelligence. The women wouldhome. Her social worker's perception of the course comment, 'It's because I'm stupid' or 'They said I was was that it had been a complete success. Although stupid but they're wrong, I can read'. I began to pleased that it had helped her situation, Martha felt include questions about educational experience spe- that she had never really benefited. The social worker cifically in the interviews. had her agenda, to help Martha make a difficult decision, bur Martha's agenda was also to get recog- Martha and Mary nition for learning. Martha Lewis4, an intelligent women in her sixties, "They never let me do the assignments and send had lived in a convent home since turning 18. She had them in. That wasn't important to them. I never moved out in 1991. She referred to her entry into the got the chance to do the exam. Having done the convent as 'a life sentence.' I enjoyed spending time work, they should have let me try. It's a bit like with Martha. She was interested in her family history school all over again." and had traced it back to 1740. It seemed to me that I found myself becoming involved. I helped Martha her desire to 'know' her family's past was a way ofget registered for the course and I am currently affirming her present as well as a concern for history. helping her with the assignments. She is doing well I asked her what she thought of this suggestion. and she is more confident. I conducted my final "Well I suppose, ... I do get pleasure knowing official interview with Martha in January of this year. I'm descended from a wealthy Bishop. It makes We spent the time discussing how she saw my in- me feel less like a nobody, if you know what I volvement in her life. mean." "When I first met you. I wondered what you Her determination to understand her past had pushed wanted to know. I hadn't met a researcher her to develop the limited reading and writing skills before, but I'd heard about you lot, you academ- she had acquired at school. ics, from the Open University and I wanted to "No-one bothered much with me at school. carry my course on, so I was happy to meet you They didn't in special school, sort of thought 'cause I saw it as a way I could carry that on, you couldn't make it, so they didn't try. But I 'cause I thought, she'll be interested in me, being worked on it. Everyone put me down, said I was a university student herself, and that's true isn't too bold, they didn't see any nced for education. it, we've done that." Then the sisters tried me out to live in the world Martha was determined to re-model her-self outside ... mymother blew her top and told them they of the label of 'learning difficulty'. She had been were never, never to let me out." caught within the 'pseudo-scientific' definitions of This comment immediately developed a rush ofeugenics in the 1930's. She said to me, 'If I have a conflicting emotions in me. I remembered my ownlearning difficulty, it must be a very mild onc.' The experience of being left by my mother at a convent. ability to be a university student was for her an This was a part of my life history which I had not important recognition of her intelligence. included in the 'telling' for many years. It was not so She carried on, 'I was also interested in your life. much that I had forgotten it,it had not seemed When you told me you'd been to a convent and all relevant to myself. However I became aware that my that well, it made it easier.' choice of this research project was connected to this This comment confirms the perspective that personal aspect of my life. I had been left at a convent boarding involvement in interviewing assists the research. school at the age of fou r. I had lived there till I was 10, However I would go further and argue that it is visiting my separated parents during school holidays. impossible not to be a 'person', a 'self in research. I 096 1 9 9 3 SCOTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 9 7 asked Martha, "Was there any time you thought, Oh expand their horizons. I had not envisaged this hap- no it's that Mary again what a nuisance?" pening. In Martha's case, she had, from our first "Oh no don't be silly, well there was the one meeting, planned to ask me to help her with her time I had that awful cold, but you didn't stay course. remember, but no. I'm really interested in what Doing research with people in this intimate way, you're doing anyway. means we cannot be outside:s, or an audience in the "Do you think anything's changed 'cause of our process of research. It is clear to me that we are actively talks, in you, I mean?" involved in shaping and changing people's percep- "Changed? that's a good one. You mean like, do tions of them-selves and they of our-selves. We are I feel different about things?" neither ofus, researcher or researched, rigid personal- "Yes sort of." ity structures unable to negotiate a meeting space. "Well you know me, I want people to know I'm Being aware of this flexibility does help break down here and the talking and sorting it all out helps the traditional power structures within the research that. I suppose I feel I'm more here." process. It also alters the parametc.rs of research. It expects a different 'final product', as well as a different Reflecting on the relationship approach in the research moment itself. It is essential An important concern in oral...history work centres on that we too, our-selves, not just our research, are open the nature of the power relationship between theto scrutiny. researcher and the researched. As researchers we can spend time with people and be seen to take away parts FOOTNOTES of their lives to use as we will. I was concerned for this not to be the case in my project but Martha had 1. Ann 0^1cley (1981), p. 41 in Doing Feminist Research, overtaken me. She had her own agenda in agreeing to Ed Helen Roberts, Routledge. spend time with me. She had seen me as a way of 2. Liz Stanley (1992), The Auto/Biographical 1 Manches- finishing I-er course. She was not passive in the ter University Press. See also a number of relevant process. The power relationship was not one way. articles in the special issue of Sociology. Vol. 27 No. 1, attempted to leave the research in a sort of space February 1993. between myself and the woman who was telling me 3. George Herbert Mead (1934), Self her story. We agreed that as I wrote work up I would 4. This name is a pseudonym chosen by 'Martha'. discuss it with the women concerned. What was 5. Patternsforliving(1986), devi sed as an Open University significant to me was the way the women used me to half credit course.

097 98 ftESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Adult learning and life histories: opportunities and issues for qualitative research at the British Mass-Observation Archive

Alistair Thomson Centre for Continuing Education University of Sussex

THIS paper outlines the early stages of a project chology and anthropology they showed how to deter- researching adult learning and life histories. A mine the bias and fabulation of memory, the signifi- data set of 453 educational life histories which are cance of retrospection and the effects of the inter- available at the Mass-Observation Archive in theviewer upon remembering. From sociology they University of Sussex provides a superb resource for adopted methods of representative sampling, and educational research. In the paper I discuss the back- from documentary history they brought basic rules ground to the project and outline a range of ways in for checking the reliability and internal consistency of which these life histories might be used by researchers, their source. The new canon provided useful sign- and some of the issues arising from such research. At posts for reading memories, and for combining them the conference I will provide a selection of excerpts for with other historical sources to find out what hap- workshop discussion. pened in the past.' However, the tendency to defend and use oral history From oral history to adult education as just another historical source to find out 'how it A further, implicit concern of the paper is the way in really was' led to neglect of other values of oral which the life history of the researcher shapes the testimony. In their efforts to correct bias and fabulation research agenda and research approaches. This re- some practitioners lost sight of the reasons why indi- search is an attempt to connect my own background viduals compose their memories in particular ways, in oral history -vith a new role as an adult education and did not see how the process of remembering researcher, and to bring theoretical issues and ap- could be a key to understanding the ways in which proaches from life history work into adult education certain individual and collective versions of the past research. are active in the present. By seeking to discover one My academic zraining is in the field ofhistory, and for single, fixed and recoverable history, some oral histo- much of my working life I have been employed as an rians tended to neglect the multivalence of individual oral historian in community, institutional and aca- memory and the plurality of versions of the past demic oral history projects. Like many oral historians provided by different speakers (as well as different an initial and on-going impetus for seeking oraldocumentary sources). They did not see that the testimony has been to recover voices from below, the 'distortions' of memory could be a resource as much stories of individuals and communities whose lives as a problem. In recent years oral historians have have been hidden from history. Yet in the 1970s these become more interested in exploring the relation- democratic aspirations and methods of the resurgant ships between memory and subjectivity, and between oral history movement were subjected to savage criti- collective memory and remembering. We are now cisms by traditional, documentary historians. Themore self-conscious about the distinctive character of main thrust of the criticisms was that memory was oral testimony, and assert the theoretical and meth- unreliable as a historical source because it was dis- odological values of the qualitative approach in oral torted by the deterioration of age, by personal bias and history research.2 As Paul Thompson commented in nostalgia, and by the influence of other, subsequent the editorial of Oral History in Autumn 1989: versions of the past. Underlying these criticisms was Our early somewhat naive methodological de- concern about the democratisation of the historians' bates and enthusiasm for testimonies of 'how it craft being facilitated by oral history groups, and really was' have matured into a shared under- disparagement of oral history's apparent 'discrimina- standing of thc basic technical and human issues tion' in favour ofwomen, workers and migrant groups. of our craft, and equally important, a much Goaded by the taunts of documentary historians, the more subtle appreciation of how every life story early handbooks of oral history developed a canon to inextricably intertwines both objective and sub- assess the reliability of oral memory (while su wdly jective evidence ofdifferent, but equal value.3 reminding the traditionalists that documentarysources For example, in my own oral history research about were no less selective and biased). From social psy-Australian war veterans, I moved from exploring the 098 19 93 SCOTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS9 9 hidden histories of working class soldiers to assessing particular event (such as the Falkland and GulfWars, the impact of the Australian national war legend (the and the 1992 General Election). Over 400,000 pages Anzac legend) upon veterans' memories and identi- oftyped and hand-written material have been amassed, ties.4 More recently, now that I have moved into representing the contributions of over 2,500 volun- adult education work (in one sense a natural progres- teer writers from all over the United Kingdom. sion from community oral history projects which In the years between the two M-0 projects, quantita- often served as a site for informal adult education and tive sociologists denounced the research validity of learning) I am trying to bring the new theoretical and M-0 material and targetted the inaccuracy of recall, methodologial approaches in oral history to bearthe likelihood of fictionalisation, and the upon adult education history research. A proposed unrepresentativeness of a small sample ofself-selected joint Sussex-Kent oral history project will contrast the respondents. Researchers using either set of M-0 diverse experiences of organisers, tutors and students material need to meet those criticisms. In response to in the inter-war tutorial class movement, and will the latter criticism of the 'unrepresentative sample', it explore how stories from below compare with theis perfectly possible to produce a profile of M-0 accepted histories of the movement. But we will also writers (including details such as occupational status, be exploring how those histories, and the collectivegender, age and regional location), and to compare memories or myths of adult education, have influ- the profile of respondents to a particular directive enced the memories of participants, how the pOtent with the national profile. Indeed, the Archive is experience of adult education shaped the identities ofcurrently facilitating such approaches by producing a adult learners, and how the present-day identities ofcomputerised database of respondents. our interviewees affect their remembering. This ap- However, as Dorothy Sheridan argues, "representa- proach will help us to understand both the historical tiveness" itself is ideologically constructed; its domi- nature of the tutorial class movement and its continu- nant meaning focusses on the individual, a single ing resonance for individuals and society.5 voice, and on the assumption that people can only be seen to represent themselves, and that the quality of Autobiographical writing and the representativeness lies not in what they say, but in who Mass-Observation archive they are (as defined by selected socio-economic char- The criticisms suffered by oral historians and oralacteristics)'. Sheridan, who is both Archivist and testimony have also been directed at research using researcher at M-0, asks us to consider who and what autobiographical writing, and indeed at qualitative the Mass-Observers are writing for and representing. research data and methods in general. The example She argues that they often write for 'the experience of with which I am most familiar is the debate about the others sharing the same or similar historical experi- Mass-Observation project and archive. Mass-Obser- ences'. Their writing 'is at the same time singular and vation (M-0) was a British social research organisa- collective'. Furthermore, Mass-Observers also write tion influenced by earlier Polish and Chicago socio- for an audience of inscribed or imagined readers logical traditions of using 1 ife documents for research. ('people like them', descendants, the archivist, future It operated between 1937 and 1950 and recruited readers, posterity), so that their writing is negotiated volunteers to join a 'panel' ofwriters recording aspects and shaped in relation to that perceived audience.6 of their everyday life. In 1981, the Tom Harrisson Sheridan's analysis of M-0 writing, which is detailed Mass-Observation Archive, which houses the diaries in a number of publications, takes M-0 researchers and detailed questionnaire responses produced by the beyond the narrow criticisms of quantitative positiv- original project, initiated a revival of the panel ofists, and opens up exciting issues about the forms, volunteer writers. meanings and significance of different types of life The new M-0 was closely related to the development history documents. Sheridan reasserts 'the privileged of oral history in the 1970s and 1980s and its aims ofaccess which autobiography can provide into a di- validating the lived experiences of 'ordinary people'. mension of human reality which would be difficult to Yet the new project differs from oral history by come to from other means: specialising in written material and accumulating sets Through autobiography we may come to learn ofautobiographical writingabout contemporary rather about people's hopes and fears, their individual than past experience. Three or four times a year panel choices in relation to wider social and political members are invited to respond to open-ended and change, their rational and unconscious motives discursive questionnaires (Directives) about subjects for acting, and, above all, the mcaning and ranging from international and domestic political significance which they give their lives.7 issues to everyday personal practices. Occasionally For example, I found M-0 diaries to be an invaluable panelists arc asked to provide detailed one daydiaries, source to find out how British people of diverse or to record their experiences during the course of a backgrounds and experiences responded to the Falk- 099 100 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE lands War and the Gulf War. I used the material to asked to record their own thoughts about the value of help students explore the complex relationships be- education, and about the present situation of educa- tween nationalist ideologies and popular supporttion in Britain. (and opposition). Other researchers have used theResponses to the Education Directive from 453 Mass contemporary Archive material to explore issues rang- Observers now fill four archive boxes, and range from ing from the changing pace of life, attitudes to the hand written Jingle sheets to book length educational weather and environmental change, literacy practices life histories. Becky Garrett, a volunteer in the Ar- and personal cleanliness. M-0 material is enriching chive, has performed an invaluable service for subse- both the findings and the presentation of social quent researchers by profiling EducationDirective research. respondents. She has established that the Directive had a comparatively low response rate (41% of Mass-Observation and educational research panelists). The gender balance o f the 453 respondents Paul Armstrong has produced an invaluable essay and 345 were women and 108 were men roughly guide book which outlines practical and theoretical matches that of the panel as a whole. A higher issues for using life history methods in educational proportion of male respondents were in the older age research.8 He notes that in the past educational brackets (two-thirds in their 60s or 70s), while the research has also been dominated by the quantitativewomen were more evenly spread out in the 30 to80 paradigm, but that in recent years there has been a age span, with the highest proportion intheir 60s. testi, gance of research usingqualitative strategies. The south east of England had the highest geographi- Armstrong lists the following multifaceted contribu- cal representation (28.1% of women and 37.12% of tions which the life history method makes to educa- men), but most other regions were reasonably well tional research: it facilitates exploratory studies and represented. It is very difficult to ascertain the ethnic complements other source material; it enables explo- background of Mass-Observers, as to date such infor- ration of individual subjectivity and of process V. nd mation has not been gathered or collated. Nor is there change in life history; it helps researchers to locate an occupational or class breakdownof the Education particular experiences within individuals' overall life respondents, though Garrett has established, for ex- histories, as well as in the broad socio-historicalample, that about a quarter of the male respondents background; and it encourages critical analysis ofwere graduates. i° Using the computerdatabase of educational assumptions and generalisations. Quali- Mass-Observers which is currently in preparation (for tative approaches also facilitate praxis (making links the moment it only includes female observers), it will between theory and practice) and participatory re- be possible to contrast the profile of Education Direc- search, both ofwhich have been significant features of tive respondents with that of Mass-Observers in much adult education research, and arguably adultgeneral, and with the British population as a whole. education's major contributions to research method- Becky Garrett has also produced a document which ology. summarises the educational life history of each re- Armstrong lists a number of adult education research spondent under the categories of pre-school, infant projects which have used life history methods. To his and junior school, secondary school, further and list might be added current British projects such as thehigher education, and adult education. She notes that research into the motivations ofAccess students being there is 'a good deal of overlap and there remains conducted by Fenia Alexopoulou and Linden West, considerable work in classifying "grey areas", for and Mary Stuart's investigations into the educational example, extra-curricular activities during school life histories ofwomen who have been socially defined years... and the variety ofdifferentforms of education as having learningdifficulties.9 subsumed under " further/higher" and "adult". These As far as I am aware, M-O has not yet been used for last two categories need to be more precisely broken substantial educational research, though it has rich down in future analysis'. Despite such reservations, research possibilities in this field. The first part of the the summary sheets are an invaluable short cut into Spring Directive of199I focused on education (subse- the life histories, and suggest the range and richness of quent sections posed questionsabout the uses ofthe life history material as a source for research about reading and writing, and about taking risks), and is adult education and learning (I will provide a sum- appended. It asked Mass Observers to outline their mary sheet handout at the conference). educational life histories and to reflect upon their experiences of education. 'Education' was defined toUsing the Education Directive include lifelong (formal) learning: 'don't forget to The Mass-Observation educational life histories might start right at the beginning (nurseries?playgroups?) be used in the following ways for adult education and bring it right up to date with evening classes and research (other fields of education will have addi- adult education if it applies to you'. Panelists werealso tional issues and concerns): 100 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 1011

1. To pose underlying theoretical and methodologi- pared to women; different occupational groups or cal questions, such as: social classes; graduates compared with people with- how do people remember and articulate out formal educational qualifications; regional dis- their educational life histories, and what are tinctions; age cohorts younger as opposed to adult the factors influencing that articulation (writ- respondents. ing for M-0, the nature of the directive, the 4. We could chart changes in educational experiences, age, educational background, occupation and over time and for different age cohorts: for example, gender of respondents)? how was the education of the generation which grew who responded to this directive and why up in the 1940s affected by the war, and how has that (influential factors as above), and how does experience influenced their subsequent attitudes to, the profile of respondents compare with that and experiences of, education? of Mass-Observers in general, and rf the 5. Or we could focus on the processes and changes in British population as a whole? individual educational life histories, charting the what if anything is special or distinctive changing interconnections between social and educa- about the educational experiences and atti- tional comexts, motivations, needs and experiences tudes of respondents (compared with the (we might even go beyond the Directive responses to results of national quantitative or question-produce an additional Directive, or to interview a naire surveys), and to what extent can any number of respondents in more detail). differences be attributed to the selective na- ture of the sample, or to the contribution ofA workshop case study qualitative life history evidence which high- In the last part of this session I hope we can break into lights the perspectives of adult learners (and small T groups to read and discuss two of the Direc- non-participants)? tive responses, for which I will provide photocopies 2. To explore specific issues about the nature of adult I don't wish to direct that discussion, and will be education and learning: interested to hear what you make of the writing, and how are the nature and values of different the issues and discussion which it provokes. The two educational stages perceived? respondents are identified by their M-0 number what are the relationships between school for reasons of confidentiality names are not supplied experiences and post-school education (or to researchers. The background information which is non-participation)? readily available (but which might be supplemented what are the motivations for participation by reading other Directive replied by thesame panelists, or non-participation? including the autobiographical piece which they sup- what has been the take-up and significance plied upon joining M-0), is as follows: of different forms of post-school education (higher education, vocational training and A1223: female, 66 years, retired clerk. continuing professional education, liberal B1520, male, 71 years, retired printer. adult education, so-called 'leisure classes', distance learning, informal learning...)? FOOTNOTES what is perceived or defined as 'education' 1For a summary of conservative criticisms, see Paul or 'educational', and how might the wording Thompson, The Voice ofthe Past: Oral History, Oxford of the directive have shaped those defini- University Press, Oxford, 1988, pp, 68-71, and his tions? editorial in Oral History18, 1, Spring 1990, p. 24. For what has been positive or negative about the Australian debate see the 'Oral History: Facts and adult education experience? Fiction' exchange in Oral History Association of Aus- what factors facilitated or hindered partici- tralia Journal5, 1983-84, passim. pation in education at different life stages? 2 See the 'Popular Memory' issue of Oral History 18, 1, what have been the varieties of educational Spring 1990; the revised discussion of memory and pathways and learning routes? ,ubjectivity in Thompson, The Voice ofthe Past, 1988, what have been the outcomes of adult pp. 150-165; the debates in the InternationalJournal of education? Oral History 6, February 1985; the international an- how have particular educational experi- thology edi ted by Raphael Samuel and Paul Thompson, ences shaped attitudes to contemporary is- Myths We Live By, Routledge, London, 1990; and my sues, including contemporary education own adaption of these ideas in 'Using Memory Biogra- pol icy? phy to Explore Masculine and National Identities: an 3. We might also consider responses to those ques- Australian Case Study', in Valeria Di Piazza (ed.), tions by specific groupings of respondents: mcn com- Memory and Multiculturalism, Papers from the VIIIth 101 102 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

International Oral History Conference, Universita degli 7 Dorothy Sheridan, `Wri ting to the Archive: Mass-Obser- Studi di Siena, 1993. For similar developments in the vation as Autobiography', Sociology, 27, 1, February United States see David Thelen, 'Memory and Ameri- 1993, p. 28. See also Dorothy Sheridan, "'Ordinary can History', Journal ofAmerican History75, 4, March hardworking folk?"; volunteer writers in Mass-Obser- 1989, pp. 1117-1129; and Michael Frisch, A Shared vation 1937-50 and 1981-91', Feminist Praxis 36/37, Authoriry: Essays on the Craft and Meaning of Oral and forthcoming 1993; Dorothy Sheridan (ed.), The Torn Pub lic History, State University of New York, Harrison Mass-Observation Archive, A Guide For Re- Albany,1990. For Australia see John Murphy, 'The searchers, University of Sussex Library, April 1991. voice of memory: history, autobiography and oral 8 Paul F. Armstrong, Qualitative Strategies in Social and memory', Historical Studies, 22, 87, October 1986, pp. Educational Research: The Lift History Method in Theory 45-54. For ways in which psychology has also taken on and Practice, Newland Papers Number 14, University these ideas, see David Middleton and Derek Edwards, of Hull School of Ad. and Cont. Education, 1987. Collective Remembering, Sage, London, 1990. 9 Fenia Alexopoulou and Linden West, 'Motivations of 3 Oral History 17, 2, Autumn 1989, p. 2. Access Students', Sussex Continuing Education Re- 4 Living W4th the Legend: Oral History and Anzac Memories, search Forum, 8 March 1993; Mary S wart, '"Speaking forthcoming, Oxford University Press, 1994. Personally" the "self" in educational o ral historywork,' 5 Linden West, Alistair Thomson and Akc Barbrook, in this volume. SCUTREA 1993 (forthcoming). 'Myth, Remembering and Oral History in British 10 Becky Garrett, 'Analysis of Panel replies to the Spring Adult Education', ESRC Proposal, March 1993. 1991 (Part 1) Directive, personal experiences and 6 Dorothy Sheridan, 'Writing For.... Questions of repre- attitudes towards education, Report of Work in sentation/representativeness, authorshi p and audience', Progress', Unpublished paper, Mass-Observation Ar- Unpublished paper, University of Sussex, 1993. chive, University of Sussex, 27 May 1992.

102 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 103

APPENDIX I

MO SPRING DIRECTIVE 1991 if in doubt, include it. There's a lot here! Take a deep If you are (or have been) employed in breath and read it through first. education in any capacity please Answer at your leisure. Remember say so in block capitals at the be- this might be the last directive, ginning of your reply. You might also The first part of this directive is like to comment at some point on how about education your own experi- your experience within education ences as a young person and in your influences your views. adult life, as a parent (if you are one), and your observations and views Looking back on the current situation. The second What do you feel you got out of your part of the directive has been pre- education? What would you have like pared in collaboration with Dr Brian to have got out of it? Do you have Street, a social anthropologist with any regrets? Do you feel that your a special interest in the practice of education prepared you for your adult reading and writing in different life? Do you consider your education cultures. There is a short Part III over? which is about the risks we take in everyday life. Professor Sandra Please write as fully as you feel Wallman, the Archive's new trustee, able covering, if you can, the dif- is especially interested in your ferent stages of your schooling, your answers to these questions. relationships with teachers and other Please bear in mind that these points pupils/students and the attitudes of are mainly for guidance. You should your parents and other family members feel free to include additional to your education. points if you think it is relevant. And if you can't respond to a point. The value of education or if you feel it isn't relevant to In your opinion, what should educa- your situation, please say so. tion be for? Who should decide what is to be taught? Ard who should pay PART I: EDUCATION for it? How important is it compared to other priorities in the national About you budget? Please start by listing your own schools and colleges with dates and Education today your age. This is NOT another request What are your views on the present for a Self Portrait! We just want the situation in Britain? Please comment bare bones. You don't have to provide not only on schools but on the whole the full names of places but it would spectrum of education. be useful if you could indicate what kinds of institutions they were. Obviously this is a vast subject and Please include a note of any qualifi- you won't be able to cover everything cations you received. Don't forget to uinless you are very enthusiastic! start right at the beginning (nurser- Can I suggest that you concentrate on ies? playgroups?) and bring it right those themes you think are the most up to date with evening classes and important and relevant. Please illus- adult education if it applies to you. trate with your own experience and Please include apprenticeships and observations wherever possible. You day release and any other training may want to compare past with schemes you can think of. The rule is present.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 104 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE On keeping a diary: a new approach to reflective practice

Linden West and Fenia Alexopoulou University of Kent

Introduction elaboration. THIS paper considers the concept of researchAll of which underlines the necessity of an open, diaries and their role in nurturing reflective critical reflectiveness on the part of researchers, about practice within qualitative, interpretive research. Our themselves in general and towards the resea. -h more interest in research diaries emerged in thinking about specifically. We hoped that creating diaries might Access student motivation and its meaning in the contribute to the emergence of such a culture in our totality of a person's life history. Our aim was to project. improve the practice of research by using diaries to encourage critical reflection, individually and in col- The idea of a diary for reflective practice laboration. As Usher and Bryant' have suggested, Diaries have a well-established place in educational good research, and the conditions for its realisation, research and Burgess3 among others, has written of depend upon a continuous negotiation and reflection their importance to 'ethnographic' research. He sug- in action by researchers before, during and after gests that diaries can be used for four main purposes: any investigation. to make field notes of a substantive, methodological The nature of life, history/autobiographical research or analytic kind; to record participants' accounts; to makes reflectivity and self-awareness on the part ofgenerate further data to complement observational researchers critically important. The process of depth and interview material; and to compare data from interviewing may, unwittingly, shatter an interview- researchers with those from informants. ee's personal allusions or myths and increase anxiety These four functions were relevant to our work. We as well as insight. There are troubling questions in all planned to interview a small group of students, in- interviews about how far to go, about how much todepth, on a number of separate occasions before, delve in turbulent, murky waters. Moreover, the act during and after a course. The interviews were to be of interviewing is, as the word implies, a shared complemented by participant observation in the class- encounter in which the behaviour of one person room as well as conversations with significant others, shapes that of the other; in which the researcher's including tutors. We therefore required the means to personality, psyche, more general state of being and record as many impressions as we could, to assist us in capacity to relate, as well as ideological orientation, understanding changes in individual student percep- may be crucial to understanding the interaction and tions as well as to chart the evolution of the research its interpretation. itself. Critical reflectivity, and self-awareness, may be espe- But there was a further, ambitious refinement to the cially important where great empathy, even solidar- above. Conventionally, the diary's prime use is to ity, with interviewees is essential to gaining co-opera- observe and comment on the research subjects as well tion and trust. Empathy and commitment bring the as the evolution of the research itself with less empha- danger of muddle: the agenda and needs of the sis placed on the phenomenology of the researchers researcher and researched become entangled. Confi- themselves. The task of self-reflection in any system- dence in self-expression as well as knowledge ofatic sense, of surfacing what might otherwise lie research and its language, (and the distribution of hidden or obscured, is either overlooked, considered power which results), are uneven. We may inadvert- subsidiary, or, worst of all, dismissed as bad science. ently end up with the interviewees mirroring the We wanted to be more honest and to problematise researcher rather than any understanding of the inter- practice by identifying and sharing informal or pri- viewees themselves. vate theories in use as research workers as well as Usher and Bryant2 have suggested, that the process of understand ourselves better as practitioners. understanding individuals and, by extension, the There were three main influences in our use of diaries research encounter, is analogous to hermeneutics in this particular way. First, thc writings of Schon4 the study of ancient text in order to interpret its and Bright5 pointing to the critical role of public and underlying and often obscure meaning. This analogy private 'theories in use' in understanding professional might therefore apply equally to researchers. They too behaviour. The notion of 'theories in use' can include are crucial to understanding what may be happeningconscious and publicly expressed opinions and and their 'text' may also be obscure and requiring rationalisations as well as private, concealed, and even 4 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 105 unconscious factors. A private 'theory' might involve psychoanalyst, kept a diary over many years. Her reservations about a particular research method which diary acted as a bridge between different levels of it may be difficult to articulate publicly; unconscious psychic functioning, integrating mind and body, factors might include behaviours which contradict thinking and feeling, concepts and percepts, reason stated positions someone, for example, who es- and imagination. Professional and personal puzzles pouses warmth and empathy in research appearingwhich may have confused or irritated would, over cold and distant in practice. time and with patience, become startlingly clear. The importance of 'theoriin use' may of course be Linden too has kept a diary for a number of years and denied or obscured in a language of technical ration- had similar experiences. Using prose, poetry, drawing ality. But Schön and Bright argue that good practi- and non-discursive symbols to explore the intercon- tioners will bring all such 'theories', private as well as nections between different experience has been a public, to the surface, at least to themselves, however means to both professional as well as personal insight. uncomfortablz this might be. But using diaries in an intensely personal way is of They point to the reality that the private 'theories in course quite different from sharing them in collabo- use' are either absent from, or their role ignored, in rative research. It may simply not be appropriate to do many conventional research accounts. Research isso. While the freedom to withhold information was often presented in a highly sanitised, disguised way; as therefore absolute we nonetheless decided to try to Usher and Bryant have asserted: 'the hunches, assump- create greater understanding, mutual openness and tions, false starts, informal theories and inner reflectionsreflectivity by sharing some of the material most ofthe investigators 6 are excluded for fear of appearing directly relating to the research to discover how much to be 'unscientific' or overly 3ubjective. There is too this might, or might not, enhance the project overall. often pretence, even deception, at the heart of many research accounts. Experience so far The second influence was psychotherapy with par-The first diary was written by Linden and Fenia ticular regard to uninteeded, unanticipated dynamics produced the next. Linden's diatycontained a lengthy, in the research encounter. It has already been sug- chronological account of early meetings, interpreta- gested that the researcher, consciously and uncon- tions ofpilot interview material and an exploration of sciously, may have a profound effect on the re- personal motivation in undertaking research of this searched. It is axiomatic in all forms of therapy that kind. the therapist has a profound impact on clients. This In the diary Linden analyzed, on the basis of his might include, for example, transference issues where reading, interests and personal experience, the con- the therapist represents a significant figure from the cept of the 'self as a way of thinking further about the client's past and his/her behaviour can only be under- processes involved; the pilot material, alongside the stood in that light. The analogy with in-depth re- ideas of psychanalytic writers such as Frosh9, sug- search is obvious. While the act of reflecting on and gested that students could be seen as being engaged in seeking to interpret a life history may not be explicitly a reconstruction of identity, of buildingdifferent therapeutic, powerful dynamics of a similar kind may selves. The individual experiences an existing self as be triggered. distorted or restricted as, perhaps, significant others Al Thomson's experience7 of interviewing formertouch the deepest chords of uncertainty, envy or Anzac soldiers illustrates the point. He has shown, trigger an awareness of a self which might have been. with great honesty, how his emotional investment in There are feelings that the existing self, as in much some old, 'forgotten' working class men ispartly women's writing, is false and that the emergence of a explained by the significant nurturing role of an deeper, truer self has been frustrated. elderly, semi-retired army batman in childhood (Al Fenia was interested in a more sociological notion of was a product of a middle class military family).He an encounter with change and, asCourtney18 puts it, became aware that the research was partly driven by a the act of participation being understood as evidence need to recapture the warmth and meaning of this of a desire or lack of desire for change. One may argue highly significant other. Moreover, some of the old there is much overlap and potential compatibility men found in him a young healthy well educated between these ideas. man from a military family a powerful personal The diary encouraged an early, intense debate about resonance which locked into material from their own the theoretical rationale underlying the research youth including pain and deep frustration. It was as if which frameworks offered the most useful starting they were looking at an idealised version of them- point for our work. The original project proposal had selves, a life that might have been. emphasised socio-psychological concepts such as Marion Milner's work8 provides the third influence, marginality and transition, hypothesising that stu- alongside personal experience. Milner, adistinguished dents might be in transition between worlds whose 105 i06 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE norms and values conflict. Education was a means toas these except the diary seems to be a particularly resolve conflict at a social and psychological level; to good one. affiliate to a new community or group or to retreat In this paper we have argued that questions of power, into a previous identity were potential 'solutions' to control as well as the role and importance of personal what could be thought of as an unstable state. The 'theories', and the researcher's subjectivity more gen- diary enabled the concept of the self and the manage- erally, are ignored in much research. Like the denial ment of change to be debated alongside these initial of anger or frustration at a very personal level, to ideas in an open, extensive way. ignore conflict might prove more damaging in the The second diary focused on crucial questions such as long run. To ignore private theories and personal the diary's purpose, its aims, what it should contain as agendas is to simplify and distort a research process. well as how the life experiences and personality of the Our hope is that surfacing the issues early, which a researchers can influence a project. One of the prac- diaty allows, might mean some pain today but profit, tical problems roised in this second diary was thatdeeper reciprocity and insight tomorrow...The proc- diaries are very time consuming: the use of tapes ess continues. offered one possible solution to this difficulty. The climate between us became generally supportive as one encouraged the other to reflect, voice ideas and FOOTNOTES express feelings on an equal basis. Self-reflection and reflection in action are about experimenting, uncer- 1. Robin Usher and Ian Bryant, Adult Education as Theory, tainty, unpredictability, risk and even loss nf control. Practice and Research, the Captive Triangle (Routledge There were times we experienced feelings of hurt, 1989) p167. impatience, anger, defensiveness...but the diaries en- 2. Ibid p29. couraged the beginnings of real self-expression, self- 3. Robert Burgess, 'Keeping a Research Diary' in Judith description, and shared understanding. Bell et al Conducting Small Scale Investigations in Most importantly, the diary forced us to confront Educational Management (PCP, 1984) n. I 98-205. major questions of power, authority and role very 4. Donald A. Schon, Educating the Rlective Practitioner early on which might otherwise have lain dormant or Uossey-Bass 1987) been denied. At one level the arguments were about 5. Barry Bright, 'Adults: Professional Culture in Practice' the composition of an advisory group and the owner- inNod Miller and Linden West (eds), Changing ship of knowledge who was generating the ideas Culture and Aduk Learning, SCUTREA, 1992. and whether their source was being appropriately 6. Robin Usher and Ian Bryant, op cit p193. acknowledged. At another, the issue was one of own- 7. Alastair Thomson, Living with the Legend: Oral History ership and control in the project. While great stress and Anzac Memories (Oxford) forthcoming. was placed on equality in the team, the reality was 8. See Marion Milner, Eternio,'s Sunrise, A Way ofKeeping conceived differently by the two of us. Fenia was on a Diary (Virago 1987). a short term contract, her status was temporary and 9. Stephen Frosh, Ideiuity Crisis, Modernio,, Prychoanalysis there seemed a potentially unequal relationship in the and the Self (Macmillan 1991) extent of field work and decision making. No doubt 10. Sean Courtney, Why Adults Learn: Towards a Theory of there are other ways of surfacing difficult issues such Partiapation in Adult Education (Routledge 1992)

106 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 107 4. Practitioner-based research

Introduction by David J. Jones University of Nottingham

THIS set of papers is about practitioner-bias and the dassic need for objectivity arc also based research and draws on the experi- raised by Hazel Hampton and William Hamp- ence of those who ate teachers, students ton in 'Practitioner research as continuing self- or organisers in adult education. Generally the education'. These authors see research as a quest research is carried out by the practitioners them- for understanding rather than proof and ques- selves, though there are occasionally inputs and tion the need for objectivity; they prefer to value guidance from professional academic research- the subjective experiences of the researcher and ers. Much of this work is done by adult educators the researched and advocate co-operative enquiry studying for a higher degree. groups as a research method. There is, ofcourse, a danger that practitioners are Issues around the relationship between the re- too close to the events or phenomena beingsearcher and the researched are also addressed by studied and a danger that they find it difficult toMike Davis in his paper, 'Practitioner-based en- be impartial, that they have a vested interest. This quiry: in-service teacher education as a research issue is addressed by Anderson, Boud andenvironment'. He explores the tensions which Sampson in their paper 'Issues in researching a exist between thc needs of pmctitioners and the common practice' where they address the prob- ability of the researcher to meet them. lems inherent in researching what others might Finally, Ian Bryant examines how adult educa- find commonplace and produce guidelines fortors, as practitioners, understand the concept of this type of research. Mary Thorpe, in her paper'reflective practice' and make use of it in their 'Practitioners as researchers or is it evaluation? teaching and professional development. In his and does it matter?' similarly offers guidelines.paper, 'Whose line is it anyway? The use of She describes what she considers to be an appro- transcripts in researching reflective practice', he priate stance for practitioners researching/evalu-looks at the act of transcribing interviews as ating curricula and argues that this sort of evalu- reflective practice and asks important questions ation is different from the classic academic ap-about the authorship of the transcript. proach to research. What all these papers have in common is a focus Peter Watson in 'Adult educators' reflections onon issues of bias and objectivity in practitioner- M.Ed. research projects which they had under-based research. These theme is approached in taken' looks at the issues from the point of viewdifferent ways but remains central. Ethical and of the research supervisor and similarly warns philosophical questions arc raised about the own- against the dangers of bias when a tutor elicitsership of research and about the need for, even information from students, in this case students the existence of, a classically objective approach on an M.Ed. course. Issues concerning possibleto this type of research. 107 TOE RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Issues in researching a common practice

Geoff Anderson, David Boud and Jane Sampson University of Technology, Sydney

AS a field ofstudy adult education has traditionally lies ininaking the practice work. Unless there emerges drawn upon the experiences of practitioners to a general realisation that the practice has substantially develop many of its theoretical frameworks. Thedeparted from the intention, some other trigger may linkages between research and practice have always be needed to encourage people to return to the been close and remain so. However a field which relies original assumptions and assess their current rel- heavily upon practitioner-based knowledge is also evance. There are many reasons why people closely likely to be a field which contains shared but untested involved with the praaice are reluctant to do this. assumptions. This can create difficulties in research- ing what has become the common practice in a A consensus of silence particular setting as the researchers may appear to beA survey of staff in the School (Anderson, Boud and challenging embedded values and beliefs. Yet unless Sampson, in press) revealed more variations in the use we review our practice and question our assumptions of learning contracts than had been expected. Staff we are failing to apply our own professed belief in the were modifying the original system to suit their own importance ofcritical reflection and continuous evalu- preferred style of working, the needs of their students ation. or the nature of their courses. Yet they were not Thirteen years ago the forerunner of the School of making these changes public. Staff raised concerns in Adult and Language Education at the University ofthe initial survey which had not previously been Technology, Sydney, introduced into its first pur- expressed. In short, prior to the survey there seemed pose-designed courses for adult educators an idea to be a consensus of silence. which many considered radical. This was to allow We considered the possible reasons for this. It seemed adults to negotiate what they wished to study and how to us that when a practice evolves over a period of time they wished to be assessed. The aim was to makesmall accommodations are sometimes made on a undergraduate and postgraduate professional courses small scale without the wider context being consid- more relevant to the individual needs of participants ered. Changes which occur solely as local variations or with diverse backgrounds, most of whom were alsoto suit a particular circumstance are not generally experienced practitioners. To achieve this a system ofpublicised since theyseldom affect the integrity of the learning contracts negotiated between students and original conception. The individuals who make these their course advisers was introduced (the practice was changes may be hesitant to challenge that which has strongly influenced by the writings of Knowles 1975, been institutionally endorsed and which seems to be 1986). generally well-accepted by professional colleagues. Since that time the innovation has become the com- Thus minor variations occur while the system itself mon practice and is pervasive across all courses offered remains intact. Moreover, the philosophy and com- by the School. While many of the initiators of the mitment shared by the original innovators may not be practice are still with the School they have been joined understood to the same extent by those who have over the years by newer staff, including many part- joined since and were therefore not party to the timers, 1...d a constantly changing student popula- original decisions and this may lead to the introduc- tion. This leads to a continuing challenge to people tion of variations which depart from the earlier con- encountering the system for the first time as they have ception. Perhaps the institutional culture has been to reconcile it with their existing notions of assess- inadequately transmitted or the original imperatives ment in higher education. Yet over the years it has have changed. Perhaps too it is difficult to expound become difficult to question either the assumptions and gain commitment to a philosophy of education upon which the practice is based or the manner in during the normal induction of new staff. which itis being implemented. To ask questions Other factors are also at work here. For xample, apart about the basic practice may appear to challenge the from course handbooks there is little shared docu- strongly held values of staff and indeed the very mentation and little opportunity to discuss variations identity of the School itself. to teaching practices beyond a few departmental To research what has become a common practice colleagues. After many years of successful practice a requires a critical perspective which may be difficult degree of inert ia is u nderstandable--if it appears to be to acknowledge by those whose immediate concern working well, why change it? To modify one's own 1 8 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 109 practice could be interpreted as a lack of faith in the respecting their professional values was recognised popular conception, hence there is a strong incentivefrom the outset. For this reason the process did not not to acknowledge such modifications more openly. start with the soliciting of views of students, critics or In addition to this is the fact that the micropolitics of outside parties (such as employers), but with the staff. change can be difficult for individuals to grasp, espe- Following an open-ended questionnaire to collect cially when they feel dependent upon more experi- information and opinions we held individual discus- enced or more senior staff to display leadership initia- sions and a group workshop to clarify, and organise the tives. Those with formal responsibility for course information staff had supplied. administration would be expected to initiate changes The value oflearning contracts in practitioner educa- to the system and for others to take the lead may be tion was strongly confirmed. The variations uncov- seen as undermining their role. Such a situation exists ered and the concerns expressed allowed a fuller and even when there are good personal relationships be- more fruitful discussion ofassessment issues than had tween those involved; when this is not the case the previously been possible. A School retreat and several initiation of change becomes even more problematic. departmental meetings used the ideas generated by Responses to the staff survey suggested an awareness the research to help formul ate pol icies and approaches. of certain problems with the use of learning contracts Staffwere also interested to hear the views ofstudents but it seemed staff were prepared to accept these as and thus a major survey of over one hundred students they would the foibles of a familiar friend. In an was subsequently undertaken (Sampson, Anderson academic environment there is usually a considerable and Boud, 1992). This revealed some quite different tolerance of ambiguity and a willingness to accept the concerns, particularly to do with initial orientation idiosyncratic practices of colleagues. We trust the and support. The implications of the views of stu- professional judgements of those we work with even dents are currently being worked through and an if we do not always agree with them. While this may orientation manual for students and staff is being be beneficial for workplace harmony it does not developed. follow that the system itself benefits. So while there was an awareness that the system could be improved Lessons from the research there was a reluctance to initiate such improvement. Staff within the School are currently reviewing assess- ment practices and many are now more prepared to Researching the practice modify' the original Knowles-based approach to the It is unwise in a situation such as this to set out to find use oflearning contracts. Variations have been openly problems. Cooperation and support can hardly be acknowledged and explained to others (including, built on the basis of fault-finding. Instead we ap- with one course, the decision to abandon contracts proached staff in the School as expert practitioners entirely in the very early stages). While some reserva- and colleagues to ascertain the qualities they lookedtions were expressed in the survey responses about for in both learning contract proposals and in com- specific aspects of contracting, there was no sugges- pleted work. In this way a picture of what constituted tion that a different method of assessment should be a 'good' learning contract would emerge together introduced. There was no desire at any level or in any with an indication of how the current system wasgroup for a change of method. Criticisms of the working. system, such as the need for greater consistency and The trigger for the research was provided by a new better orientation, are currently being followed up in Head of School who had a particular interest in an effort to improve what was generally a well- negotiated learning and assessment and who was regarded practice. Ten years later the original philoso- aware as an outsider of the extent of the innovation phy is still shared by the staff and is, unfortunately, which to insiders had become commonplace. Joining still regarded as radical by most other universities. him in the team which formed was a relatively new The research aimed to place current practice in per- staff member and a course coordinator well known for spective. As researchers we had neither the desire nor her advocacy of the teaching approaches espoused by the authority to impose a new commonality. Given the School. There was a range of scepticism and the difficulties involved in researching a well-estab- commitment reflected in the members of the team lished practice we were pleasantly surprised by the but all valued an active role for students in decisions willingness of both staff and students to be honest and about their learning. open in their responses. This, we like to think, is a The project was conceived as research, not evaluation, reflection of an approach to adult learning which the and would celebrate achievements as much2Sany- is the cornerstone of the system. thing, since the system enjoyed a good informal Following the projcct we summarised a number of reputation ovel all both inside and outside the School. ideas regarding this type of research. The main ones The importance of retaining rhe trust of the staff and are listed below. 109 510 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

Start with what is positive and can be cel- ences to seek critical feedback from them. ebrated This is an important safeguard against the A positive reference (in this case starting with danger of being coopted into accepting the the qualities of good practice) invites contri- blinkers of an 'in-group'. butions and helps remove any perceived threat. Condusion Researchers who set out to investigate what others Start with the people most directly involved regard as commonplace may face any number of Trust depends upon a direct and open ap- obstacles. We do not pretend to have overcome all of proach from the beginning. This is hard to these, nor even to have resolved all of our initial achieve if people feel you have formed your questions about the use of learning contracts. How- views by talking with their critics. ever the process of undertaking the research revealed how much is possible when a research project is built Respect the expertise and the perspectives of upon a high degree of participant involvement and a those involved willingness to share ideas with others. The project If we hope to gain their respect for the enabled links with colleagues to be strengthened and research we must demonstrate our respect issues of mutual concern to be openly discussed. It for their experiences. We provided variousdemonstrated that common assumptions are not opportunities, formal and informal, for peo- always shared as widely as commonly supposed. It ple to contribute during the project and we also demonstrated how research into a common prac- used their comments to help shape it. tice can enrich that practice while reinforcing values that we often simply take for granted. Encourage involvement and participation One of the special features of this project was that Early consultation and regular briefings al- while there were differences of view between staff, lowed staff to become a part of the pro iect. these were not fundamental; the practice being exam- This resulted in useful additional unsolicited ined was sufficiently robust that it was supported comments and suggestions being offered. from a variety of ideological perspectives. In other contexts when this is not the case then the issues Provide feedback in a ussl and convenient involved in researching a common practice become firm more complex and contested. However, our experi- Workshops, meetings and discussions kept ence prompts us to suggest that it would beuseful in staff informed of our progress and provided such a context to start from a focus on the shared feedback more immediate and relevant than values of the competing groups rather than on the that which might come from a final report. differences. If cooperation between groups is neces- sary for effective practice then it is necessary to plan Work as a team research so that it starts and ends with what is shared Forming links with colleagues and being no matter how divergent it becomes in between. prepared to learn from others enabled a variety of perspectives to inform the research. REFERENCES The team reflected a variety of perspectives and roles within the School. Anderson, G., Boud, D. and Sampson, J. (in press). 'Encouraging effective learning contracts'.Research Model the values of the culture and Development in Higher Education,14. Cooperation can be improved by approach- Knowles, M.(1975). Self-Directed Learning: A Guide fir ing the research in a way consistent with the Learners and Teachers.Chicago: Follett. organisational culture, for example by en- Knowles, M. and Associates. (1986).Using Learning Con- couraging discussion or negotiating with oth- tracts.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ers as to fiiture directions. Sampson, J., Anderson, G. and Bond, D. (1992). 'Partici- pating in education decisions: students' experience of Adopt a critical stance. the use of learning contracts'. InAduk Education.* a To enable us to stand back from our work we Democratic Culture,Papers from the 32nd National found it important to write papers and ex- Conference of the Australian Association of Adult and pose our work to external groups at confer- Community Education, Canberra: AAACE, 1-10. 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS III Whose line is it anyway? Theuse of interview transcripts in researching reflective practice

Ian Bryant Department of Adult Education University of Southampton

Y presenting an extended segment of an inter- scriber is struggling to make clear decisions about Bview transcript, this paper reports one particularwhat exactly is said, and then to represent those words episode in a personal research project which asks 'how in a conventional orthographic system' (p. 165). do adult educators understand the concept of " reflec- Edwards & Potter (1992) propose a 'discursive action tive practice" and make use of it in their teaching and model' (DAM) to suggest ways of exploring reflective professional development?' Specifically, I consider practice by examining the ways in which people talk one aspect of researching practitioners' under- about their practice. For them, the issue of reflexivity standings, namely the use o f in ter -iew evidence in thearises in writing their own account of other people's form of transcribed talk. accounts. It is interesting to note in this connection I start from two observations, both negative. First, that Schon's canonical texts on reflective practice adult education researchers have paid little if any (1983, 1987) do not themselves reflect on the above attention to the nature of transcript evidence or to the sequence, nor indeet ,. do they refer to the procedures procedures for its generation and use. This is surpris- used for generating the transcribed teacher/student ing in view of the theoretical and practical importance talk incorporated in these works. attached to documenting and authenticating the ex- A paradox for the transcriber is that dense perience of adult learners, and the value assigned to ethnomethodological and discourse analytic rendi- the process of generating text (e.g. in the form of a tions of talk intended to capture the nuances of an personal journal or portfolio) as a vehicle for reflec- exchange are full of paraverbal markers. But they look tion. Second, and subject to correction, I know of no odd, making extended scripts difficult to follow. On extended conversations that have been published the other hand, 'straightforward' renditions of talk between adult educators on the subject ofeach other's allow the discourse to flow and are easier to read, but (reflective) practice. may miss the important tacit understandings that A transcript is both more and less than the experience especially characterise the verbal exchanges between it reports. There's many a slip 'twixt talk and text, and those in a collegial relationship. And it is the latter no simple prescriptions for the construction and use which are particularly important to unpack in any of transcripts. How do we get to the point where weinvestigation of reflective practice aimed at surfacing can use interview evidence to develop our under- understandings. Since there is no straightforward standing of adult teaching and learning as scripting correspondence between the text of a guided conver- and exchange? My own experience in conducting and sation and associated marginalia and what was 'actu- transcribing interviews in a variety of contexts sug- ally' said, this raises important questions about the gests that we have a multi-layered and reflexive se- authorship (and authority) of the transcript record quence (a) of some kind of practice, (b) interview talkthat the mere attribution of specific comments to about that practice, (c) the recording of that talk, (d) individual respondents misses. There is a sense in the textual rendition of the recording according towhich the resulting text both does, and does not, transcription conventions, (e) the reading of the 'belong' to the interlocutors. transcript, (0 marginal commentaries on what is The context for the following interview extract is that happening at different points in the text (g) the it is part of a conversation which took place between selection of strips of transcribed talk as evidence for myself (IB) and a colleague (B) as joint teachers on a some proposition, and h) their incorporation in the Master's course entitled 'Reflective Practice'. IB in- researcher's own exposition. troduced Rorty's notion of a 'final vocabulary'(l 989) Since the transcription, reading and use of interview to the class; JJ explored students' written cases about material is a practical accomplishment, how one is a chosen practice episode in the context of Argyris' transcribing and reading is itself a question about (1974) ideas about 'theories-in-use'. The selected reflective practice. Paraphrasing Stubbs (1983), Pot- conversation takes up our differences in approach to ter 8E Wetherell (1987) note that 'transcription is ateaching for reflective practice. I invite you to add constructive and conventional activity. The tran- your own marginal notes to the transcript, to consider 112 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE its construction as text and its content as evidence ofway to interrupt that. And so I need to develop thinking about reflective practice. What do you make heuristics which would be little rules ... of it? IB: Hm Jfi It seems that for you, it sounds like you putJP . . . which need to have attached to them what language as, somehow you've brought it into the Heller would call a 'flag'. I need to have some little flag foreground where I sort of put it in the background. that can go up that gets my attention so when I see the I've got, so the question for me is 'what do I have in flag, I can interrupt myself and pull in a new rule. the foreground?' I would have how you reason and Otherwise I'm just gonna go down the same old path act, I'd have the way you make meaning, I'd have I've gone down before. counter-productive reasoning, I've lots of things in I B: And you see final vocabulary ... the foreground. And language in a sense is the best JJ: Final vocabulary ... and only data to gain access to how you're reasoning. IB:. . .the concept of a final vocabulary ... Now, it's funny when you say 'texe, when you say 're- JJ:. .. as aflag. reading' you bring language to the front. And I'm I 51: As a flag, OK. saying 'well, yeh, but er, that's a vehicle to get ..' forJJ: So that what I need to do is I need to, now there's me the place I want to focus my attention, which is lots of other flags that people could have. Final behind the language is a way of reasoning and that's vocabulary may work as a flag. Now what I want, what what I want to look for, so that I see the language as I wanted, what I was doing today in fact in class was a vehicle er, (pause) whether I'm making, when I hear saying if final vocabulary works for you as a flag, and you talk I sort of, my reaction is (pause) there's too in J's case there's what we've now come to call final much attention being put at a place that (pause), well, vocabularies. My meaning behind a final vocabulary there's more attention being put in some place than I is that you state a position and you appear to be closed would put there. I'd put my attention some place else.to anything that would influence it. So that's the Er, and I guess, why am I doing that? meaning I pur on final vocabulary. 'I'm the boss'. IB: But you also said to me the other day in relation That's the bottom line of final vocabulary. to the work we did on Thursday that putting it in the IB: 'These are the facts'. forefront in some senses gives an additional, theJJ: The meaning for me, what I wanted to explore additional possibilities for framing practice in a differ- with the class is what is the meaning behind final ent kind of way, gives it an additional kind of dimen-vocab...why does final vocabulary put you off, or sion. Like the notion ofdealing with the final vocabu-close down discussion? What's counterproductive? lary, OK. Like the notion of scripting, and the fact Then the question is can you think of it differently, that we are independent agents to some extent. But can you invent new sentences? So in some sense I we are also scripted in a sense, OK? Now I like that don't want to analyse the text, so the words in a sense kind of vocabulary, and I think that partly might be are not, the words are important. What's more impor- a function of the way in which we've been raised as tant though is when I think that's a final vocabulary, educators - you through an educational psych tradi- I set in motion a whole set of things. So it's not a tion, me through a sort ofstructuralist tradition ifyou specific set of words, it's that when I hear those words like, I don't know. I think 'final vocabulary', when I think 'final vocabu- JJ: Y eh. lary' I believe you're not going to listen to me, when IB: I think we're coming from different places as I believe you're npt going to listen to me I get angry. practitioners, and I wonder if we're going to different And what comes out is, I walk away from the conver- places. I don't ... sation. So that to spend a lot of time with the specific JJ: Well, that's not clear to me yet. words is less important, although very important, but IB: .know the answer to that less important than when you see the words you think JJ: Er, 'final vocabulary', when you think 'final vocabulary' IB: It's not clear to you yet? you feel this, when you feel this then, there's awhole JJ: No. chain of events that I wanna, what Argyris would call IB: No? ladder of inference, I wanna go up the ladder and then JJ: No. See what's interesting for me that I really like be able to go back down the ladder and recognize your idea of final vocabulary. The reason I like it is er, what's on the ladder and that kind of stuff. So final it's a concept, it, er, I can tell a little story. The story vocabulary for me is like a flag, it's something that is our actions are very skilled. They're automatic, in people can say 'oh, oh, that's a final vocabulary' and fact that's a definition of being skilled, that they come do two things at once. They can recognize the loop so fast I don't have to think about themmuch. So they may go into that may be counterproductive and what I need to do when I find mysel f behaving in ways what's counterproductive about that loop, and also which are counterproductive is to try and invent some have a new rule to insert. When you think of some- 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS113 thing that you hear is a final vocabulary, think and say proach is not to pay a lot of attention to the text as text this rather than whatever your thoughts said before. there, but to pay attention to the meanings put on So I mean that's why I like 'final vocabulary', that's a those texts. nice hook to hang things on. Do we have other hooks to hang things on? and let's find hooks to hang things on. Er, we had one the other day, I should keep a REFERENCES journal in my class, but we had couple of others that Argyris, C. & Schön, D.A. (1974), Theory in Practice: were really good hooks, and yet they come along Increasing PrOssional Effictiveness (Jossey-Bass, San rarely but they're the kind of thing that you, it's a Francisco) powerfill organising principle, it's a powerful mne- Edwards, D. & Potter, J. (1992), Discunive Psychology monic, it's a, those are, none of those are the words I (Sage, London) mean but they're really a good concept that you can Potter, J. & Wetherell, M. (1987), Discourse and Social hang something one that's clear when it comes up, it's Prychology (Sage, London) easy to recall, you can, it's a good heuristic that's what Rorty, R. (1989), Contingency, Irony and Solidariry (Cam- it is. And 'final vocabulary' I think works like this in bridge University Press, Cambridge) this class, because of the way you've introduced it, Schon, D.A. (1983), The Rdlective Practitioner (Basic because they've got lots of examples to connect it to, Books, New York) because it connects with their experience. But in Schon, D.A. (1987), Educating the Reflective Practitioner essence it seems to me it also illustrates, it may (Jossey-Bass, San Francisco) illustrate th n. difference in our approaches. My ap- Stubbs, M. (1983) Discourse Analysis (Blackwell, Oxford)

113 I4 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Practitioner-based enquiry: in-service teacher education as a research environment

Mike Davis University of Manchester

THIS paper is based on some ongoing work in ing of evidence about this process. Like the earlier three Lincolnshire schools being carried outwork, the project was to have an action research under the auspices of Lincolnshire TVEI. The schools orientation, csystematic enquiry made public' are very different in character: a GM mixed secondary [Stenhouse in Gurney, 19891), and part of the focus modern school, a GM boys grammar school and a 4- of concern was to reflect on the process of change as 19 school for physically disabled children. What theywell as initiate and sustain the change in curriculum have in common, however, is a need to respond to the and teaching style that was both sought and antici- requirements of the national curriculum and TVEI pated. So while the context of this paper is Lincoln- criteria to introduce cross-curricular themes. In many shire schools, economics education and the manage- senses, the report on the work is premature but the ment of change, the focus c f' concern in the paper is opportunity to explore it in this environment is part the process of enquiry and the impact it had on some of my attempt to deconstruct and reconstruct the of the teachers involved and on the university based meanings of the work in progress and to engage in researcher. Both of the economics education projects some public reflection. (Day, 1993) based in Manchester had their origins in the work of Since the late 1980s, Lincolnshire LEA and later the the Economics 14-16 Project, which had been a central TVEI team have been collaborating with two major project with a curriculum development phase economics education projects based at the University lasting from 1980 to 1986 and which was designed to of Manchester, mainly through the university staff take on in-service teacher training functions as part of providing in-service training in curriculum develop- its brief something which gave the project some ment workshops for clusters of schools and some funding from the Schools Council to supplement individual schools who had identified particular staffwhat it received from elsewhere. This approach, in development needs or who had made specific bids for clear rejection of the prevailing "Research, Develop- financial support under the TVEI arrangements for ment i Dinemination", or centre-periphery model, school development planning. While these have been took on a more practice-focused approach exemplify- generally successful in encouraging individual teach- ing a model of curriculum renewal that involved ers to consider the implications of exploring eco- teachers in development, trial, review and dissemina- nomic issues within their core and foundation sub- tion stages, often described as a periphery-periphery jects, institutional change has been more illusory, model. This continued within both Economic and leading Davies (1992) to conclude that in schools Industrial Awareness Programme (EIAP) and EcATF throughout the country: and was the development strategy which informed ... in mostschools staff involvement ... was on their work with schools which by 1990 were having to the basis of individual goodwill. Co-ordinators make curricular provision for economics education (or in some cases a Deputy Head) sought out under the requirements of the 1988 Education Act interested colleagues and nurtured their partici- and the various statutory orders and non- statutory pation through informal contacts. guidance that had emerged from the National Cui- The outcomes in general, and particularly in the riculum Council, This latter issue is in itselfproblem- context of this paper, in Lincolnshire, were an aware- atic, given that school-based curriculum develop- ness that work thus far was not having the wider ment is conventionally thought of as being a mecha- impact intended and that there was no permeation nism through which teachers' professionalism is vali- into dcpartments or schools arising from the indi- dated, while the national curriculum has been de- vidual contacts that had been made. The project that scribed as a process of proletarianisation. Contrast emerged from discussion between members of Lin- this: colnshire TVEI central team and the writer, by this the idea of teachers as curriculum developers time a researcher with Economic Awareness Teacher topples the traditional hierarchical order ofteach- Training (EcATT) based in the School of Education ers located at the bottom of the professional in Manchester, was one whose focus was more to- pyramid, with the two upper strata occupied by wards institutional change, and thc deliberate gather- curriculum developers and researchers. ... The 1 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 115

focus of contml over what counts as valid educa- their professiond expertise as subject teachers, and to tional knowledge is thus shifted from external explore the nature and extent of their uncertainties in agencies to the schools themselves (Keiny 1993) regard to new knowledge brought to them by the with the demands that are made on teachers through external agent. In responding to the uncertainties, the the statutory requirements made in national curricu-teachers then explore the potential within their exist- lum documems. it is this contradiction that is, I ing curriculum, for enhanced effectiveness (plan). believe, the origin of the paradigmatic uncertaintyThey then try out the enhanced model in their own within which this research, and other national cur- classrooms (teach) and, using the opportunities for riculum related developments, is located. This, per- collaboration with colleagues from their own or other haps, needs to be examined more closely. schools, they explore the events, the materials and the Keiny (iW), quoting Skilbeck, argues that school- learning (review). These uncertainties are, for Schon, based curriculum development is guided by three key features of the process. As he writes: principles: [they are] the potential basis for enhanced effec- increase [in] autonomy of the school as an institu- tiveness. They constitute a positive and inevita- tion; ble facet of dassroom life wherein teachers who a curriculum that meets the specific needs of the recognise them as such are able to accept the particular school populations, to be generated challenge of implementing new strategies whilst by teachers (ie, the school's internal 'pool of simultaneously acknowledging and assimilating resources'); and revised pedagogies. Enhanced practice is founded enhancing motivation and transferring responsibil- on perceived wisdom, not accounted deficien- ity to teachers by involving them in the process cies. (Broadhead, 1989) of integrating their teaching experiences into a Plan-teach-review mirrors that process described by curricular unit. Carr and Kemmis (1986) (ibid) as 'planning, acting, In marked contrast, an (admittedly hostile) review ofobserving and reflecting' and while it could be argued Curriculum Guidance 4: Educating for Economic that the planning in the project as a whole did not start and Industrial Awareness, commented: within each institution, the decision to participate in Curriculum Guidance 4 offers a pretty convinc- the project did, as did the executive planning in the ing impersonation of a subject: delineation ofcontext of components of the school's curriculum. knowledge content, identification of key con- The extent to which the external planning compro- cepts, suggested topic approaches for teaching. mises the process as a whole depends on its perceived (Mackenzie 1990) remoteness from the school: decisions had been made On the one hand, the model of development is by Li ncolnshire TVEI to offer this provision to schools; intended to be humane and empowering, and on the more nationally, either economics education could be other, it is expected to subscribeto, and produce seen as a desirable outcome of the educational process approaches and outcomes which meet pre-determined (something which had been engaging economists and requirements and which are located outside of the economics educators since the mid 1950s) or as school. The task of the research activity, then is tosomething which was being imposed by parliament strive to overcome this paradox through a process and an unsympathetic state curriculum body. Either which perhaps inevitably, undermines one of theway, the external researcher was not imposing a positions described. personal research agenda, rather exploring ways in The role of the outsider in action research has been which insiders could respond to the potential within rehearsed in a wide variety of places and the general their own subjects for addressing wider concerns. conclusion would seem to be that in partnership, The teachets in the schools directly involved in this outsiders and practitioners could collaborate to pro- project had different levels of awareness of these and duce the desired outcomes, subject to certain condi- related issues. For some, there was an acknowledg- tions: and that reflection on the process was as impor- ment of the value of incorporating cross-curricular tant as reflection on the direction of the activity and themes; for others there was a recognition that their the nature of the outcomes themselves. The contrast responsibility (for historical or situational reasons) seems to be between the action research which uses could be eased by involvement in the project; for practitioners as data gatherers within parameters setothers there was a commitment to aspects of the by academic researchers and that which sees practi- approach and a genuine desire to see the entitlement tioners as full participants in determining the nature extended to all pupils. As summed up by one ofthe co- and the extent of the enquiry. ordinators: "in the earliest days of TVEI we were The model of practice which had grown up with both baffled, bewildered and slightly hostile to the themes. EIAP and EcATT was one described as 'plan-teach- Courses had not been particularly informative but review' and which encouraged teachers to draw on rather simplistic and pie-in-the-sky. Many of my 116 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE colleagues regarded the themes as mickey-mouse". aged to maintain autonomy over the early sages of Another co-ordinator spoke of her initial sense oftheir developments sometimes to their personal relief that support was to be given to her to enable herdiscomfort. For in attempting to avoid a situation to 'fill the role' for which she was being paid, within where answers are there for the taking, I have strived a structure where a senior member of staff had set the to create one in which the co-ordinators are looking school objectives which in turn had been transmitted beyond their immediate practices to the wider politi- and agreed by the county WEI management under cal significance, for unless: the bid and contract arrangements. The co-ordinator ...reflective teaching requires that public theo- in another school, used as a pilot opportunity to ries are translated into personal ones and vice explore aspects of the initial data gathering phase, saw versa ... teachers are going to allow themselves to the project as a way in which his work would be done be turned into low kvel operatives, content with for him: that the outcome of what was described, carrying out their tasks more and more effi- wrongly, I think, as an audit, would absolve him of ciently, while remaining blind to the large issues further responsibility under the bid and contract of the underlying purposes and results of school- arrangements made with TVEI management. ing (ibid). Expectations for the project, then, were mixed but the If the project is to succeed in doing this, it is the more extent to which individuals involved had been engag- authoritarian positions adopted within the imple- ing in reflection on their practice was limited to what mentation of the Educational Reform Act that will be was possible in the time available, viz perhaps rneeting undermined. three of the five levels in Griffiths and Tann's model of reflective practice: 'rapid reaction, repair, review' (Day). What was lacking, perhaps, in the earliest days, REFERENCES was the later levels: research, reformulation; or more importantly, a clarity of purpose of the reflection. In Broadhead, P. (1989), 'Working Together Towards a his article 'Reflection: a necessary but not sufficient Better Understanding of the Primary Classroom', in condition for professional development', Christopher Lomax. Day subscribes to a more critical interpretation and Day, C. (1993), 'Reflection: A Necessary But Not Suffi- use to which reflection might be employed, describ- cient Condition for Professional Development', Brit- ing it as a form of political action which has institu- ish Educational Research Journal, Vol 19, No 1. tional as well2Sindividual outcomes and one in Gurney, M. (1989), 'Implementor or Innovator? A Teach- which, as he quotes Kemmis: er's Challenge to the Restrictive Paradigm of Tradi- It is a practice which expresses our power to tional Research' in 'Amax. reconstitute social life by the way we participate Keiny, S. (1993), 'School Based Curriculum Development in communication, decision-making and social as a Process of Teachers' Professional Development', action (ibid). Educational Action Research, Vol 1, No 1. If this is a dimension which is to be achieved in this Lomax, P. (Ed) (1989), The Management of Change, project, it still has some way to go. What has been Clevedon, Multilingual Matters Ltd. achieved is a degree of independence for the school- Mackenzie C. (1990), 'Cross-cu:ricular dissensions' in based co-ordinators in that they have been encour- Management, November, 1990

116 1993SCUTREA.CONFERENCE PAPERS 117 Practitioner research as continuing self-education

Hazel Hampton and William Hampton University of Sheffield

Introduction 'you/they' centred (Hampton 1993), both the proc- OTH the positivist and naturalist traditions have ess and the product may have to be constantly restated Bstressed the need for an objectivity that implies by individual practitioners. There will always be a distinction between the researcher and the re- different starting points when approaching both a searched. This distinction denies the importance ofpractitioner research problem and its solution: differ- the subjective experience ofthe researcher except as an ent starting points in terms of personal background, embarrassment to be overcome. The unique onto- experience, and the nature of the problem. logical position of the researcher is considered a Systematic strategies for reflection through the use of hindrance in the search for replicability upon which diaries, methodological 'logs', and supportive peer scientific respectability depends. These concerns aregroups are central to the unique research process of now giving way particularly, though not exclu- practitioners. The practitioner-researcher is combin- sively, in naturalist research to the pursuit ofing two roles to the ultimate benefit of both, but the understanding rather than proof. Within qualitative benefits do not exclude the potential for role conflict research, the subjective experience of researchers is inherent in the marriage of two occupied concepts: becoming valued as data. The practitioner-researcher 'practitioner' and 'researcher' (Hampton 1988:10). is understood to have access not simply to internalBoth concepts have an overt power status linked to records, but to understandings drawn from personal them which should inform our reflective activity reflection. The distinction between researcher andfrom the outset. For example, our professional posi- researched is conflated as the subject and object of the tion may empower us to define the health or educa- research become one. tional needs of other groups; when we add a research Practitioner researchers engage with their 'lived expe- dimension to that estab!ished position, we may ap- rience' (Manen 1990) in structured and responsible proach participants in a research role, but be received ways in order to gain a deeper understanding of by them in a practitioner role. Alternatively, partici- professional problems. This understanding is fed pants who are familiar with the term 'researcher' and back into their practice. Within this strateg of action its power connotations may approach us as research- research, skills of reflection are developed which allow ers rather than colleagues. people to develop more fully as human beings: prac- The space between the two positions of practitioner titioner research becomes a form of continuing self- and researcher is reduced by reflecting on the value education. Continuing adult educators are conccrned implications of what we propose to do. The practi- with these issues: both as teachers developing learning tioner-researcher will reflect upon the extent to which environments in which greater responsibility is placed s/he is working with or on the researched. Such upon the learners through such approaches as dis- reflection should lead to a research methodology tance learning and accredited prior experiential learn- consistent with the stance of a practitioner who ing (APEL); and as practitioner researchers reflecting continues to be within and of the research site. The on their own practice at a time of change. practical and ethical need to work with, rather than on, those who agree to co-operate with us in research The Role of the Reflective Practitioner presents a challenge. Neither the practitioner-re- Practitioner research places the practitioner at thesearcher nor the participants can anticipate the out- centre of the research context with the question: come of a research process may have various 'What is it I am actually doing?' (Devereux 1967:7). implications for participants (Hampton 1992:175). We may imagine the research arena as a vast space of Living the experience should imply that validation competing ideologies ready to colonise our research procedures are located within an ethical framework. endeavour with epistemologies developed for other Part of that framework will have implications for purposes, and we must have the confidence to pitch adult educators who should be experienced in com- our tents in our own space and to find ways ofmunicating complex ideas in plain language. Re- speaking our own problem in our own way. Wesearch reports written in traditional 'didactic dead- should follow the rules of the arena by being system- pan' (\Watkins 1963) are ill-suited for a discussion of atic and by exposing our work to public gaze byt, reflective learning, or for communicating the in- because our goals are `I/thou' centred rather than creased understanding of a professional problem to 117 II8 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE busy colleagues or other participants: 'Rather, the before she had analysed what they had said! (Hamp- process of writing and rewriting ... is more reminis- ton 1993). The daily process of jottings, analytical cent of the artistic activity of creating an art object ... memos, and diagrams is further enriched as we use the that often reflects the personal 'signature' of the data to think with as we read the relevant literature, or author' (Manen 1990:131-2). We can draw on litera- listen to a lecture, or take part in discussion with a peer ture, relationships, music, gardening, childhood, any- group. thing that helps to deepen our understanding and Reflection as self-education as a goal for adult educa- make creative connections around our professional tion courses cannot be tacked on as an interesting problem. requirement by tutors for students who are also busy practitioners; it demands a specific learning/teaching Reflection as self-education environment which starts in the experience of the Writing and re-writing, often in the form of a first- students rather than external structures. Such strate- person account, is the manner in which reflective gies for fostering reflective practice can challenge the practitioners can hold a mirror to their growingstructural organisation of departments of adult con- understanding (Manen 1990:124-133). Structured tinuing education, particularly when the ethos ena- encounters with participants in research generate a bles practitioner-students to co-operate in learning wide range of perspectives around a common theme. tasks that enter the assessment process. Whatever the tone of those encounters: hostile, suspi- cious, negative, or evasive, we are encountering other The reflective group ways of making meaning which will help to captureAny researcher can benefit from the comments of a our 'fringe thoughts' (Mills 1970:216) and enable us 'critical friend': but such benefits become qualita- to break through our 'taken-as-given' ways of think- tively different when a group of practitioners reflect ing. A personal notebook for jottings of impressions upon their own experience. Thus Coleman (1991) following such encounters helps to 'fix' the data in our and her colleagues explored 'the question: in what minds; it also gives us insights into how, at that stage way do women experience their organisations' (p1). in the process, we are making connections (HollyHer monograph has its origins in a dissertation for a 1989:76). The writing process allows us to meditate Masters Degree during which she reflected on both on the action we have just left: perhaps we are angry the research question and the research process with at what we considered were outrageous views; perhaps the co-operation of a group of women. Neither our participant was unaware of the importanceofColeman nor any other member of the group was what s/he contributed; perhaps another participant either 'subject' or 'object': they were co-operatively has been indiscreet and burdened us with informa- researching lived experience. This co-operation in the tion we are not able to share as a researcher, but which, research for the dissertation caused some discussion as a practitioner, we could have shared with a col- among the examiners, but any doubts about the league. The act of wri ting allows us to look at how we project were removed by the brilliance of its execu- think: to ask the question, 'How do we know what we tion. If such projects are to become more common- think we know?' (Sidell 1989). Of the many answers place, as surely they should on post-graduate degrees to that question, one may be that earlier personalintended for experienced practitioners, then exami- experiences are affecting how we are listening to other nation methods will need to be reconsidered. people. That knowledge enables us to suspend such Less contentious are groups of post-graduate students interferences in future while we continue our re- which provide peer support. For example, one group search. In addition to private notebooks, other records of MEd students in Sheffield met regularly without such as research logs or diaries enable practitioners to their tutor, first to develop each of their dissertation make connections with other experiential ways of proposals and subsequently to review progress through- knowing. out the year. These groups can enhance the perform- If we feel we have experienced a stigmatised identity ance of each participant through a process of interac- emanating from skin colour, gender, poverty, or tive reflection (cf. Reason 1988a). disability, then the act of writing becomes a protec- The interaction between lived experience and schol- tion against the loneliness and stress of our developing arship or research forms part of the tradition of self-knowledge. The diary and methodological log ofuniversity departments of adult continuing educa- one of the present authors, for example, helped her to tion. These departments have been prominent in the identify the extent to which early childhood experi- development of such subjects as trade union studies, ences were affecting how she listened to participants; local and labour history, and women's studies. In such and, during the early part of the research process, to subjects the distinction between 'tutor' and 'student' realise how her professional anti-racist discourse was often becomes blurred as experiences or life histories leading her to label some participants as 'racist' even interact with theoretical exposition and the develop-

1 8 5993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 119 ment of the syllabus. There is also a growing tendency ACKNOWLEDGEMENT to involve adult students at every stage in the evalua- tion of courses. This evaluation is itself a time for We benefited from the discussion of an earlier outline reflection on the learning process. of this paper presented to the staff/student research From the research perspective, the potential for devel- seminar in the Division of Adult Continuing Educa- oping co-operative inquiry groups in departments oftion, University of Sheffield. adult continuing education is considerable. Reason (1988b) discusses such groups in terms familiar to REFERENCES adult educators who negotiate their curriculum: 'peo- ple...discuss the project, have some influence on its Coleman, G. (1991), Invest:gating Organisations: a Femi- design...[but] co-operative inquiry is not an un- nist Approach. University of Bristol: School for Ad- structured process...[it] involves a rigorous iteration vanced Urban Studies. between action in the world and reflection' (pp 23 Devereux, G. (1967), From Anxiety to Method in the and 26). The topics researched by groups can range Behavioural Sciences. The Hague: Mouton. widely over the popular subjects taught in adult Elliott, J. (1989), 'The Professional Learning of Teachers', continuing education. The method can, however, Camblidgehurnal ofEducation, Vol 19, No 1, pp 81 have a particular significance for people who come 101. together as practitioners to research their own prac- Hampton, H. (1988), 'Practitioner Research: A Method- tice, as teachers, nurses or managers for example. ology for Cultural Diversity?', Multicultural Teaching, Adult tutors should realise the potential, also, for Vol 6, No 3, pp 8-13. forming their own staff groups to reflect upon their Hampton, H. (1992), 'One of the Small Details that Got practice. Here is a basis for the research into adult Overlooked: School meals as Response to Cultural education that is often lacking in busy teaching Diversity', Research Papers in Education, Vol 17, No 2, departments. pp 173-194. Hampton, H. (1993), 'Behind the Looking Glass', Educa- Conclusion tional Action Research, Vol 1, No 2 (forthcoming). The concept of reflective practitioner-researcher of- Holly, M.L. (1989), 'Reflective Writing and the Spirit of fers a shared methodology for tutors, post-graduate Inquhy', Cambridge Journal ofEducation, Vol 19, No professionals and general course students. The blur- 1, pp 71-80. ring ofdivisions between tutor and student referred to Kemmis, S. (1985), 'Action Research and the Politics of earlier is completed as reflection becomes 'a social Reflection', in D. Boud et al (eds), Reflection: Turning process, not a purely individual process' (Kemmis Experience into Learning. 1985:143). The values underpinning this social proc- Manen, M.van (1990), Researching Lived Experience: Hu- ess, for example, co-operation, openness, responsibil- man Science fir an Action Sensitive Pedagogy. Ontario: ity, tolerance of ambiguity, and the valuing ofself and The Althouse Press. others, create the conditions that enable practitioners Mills, C.W. (1970), The Sociokgical Imagination. Penguin 'to develop their rOexive powers, ie their capacities to Books, first published by Oxford University Press, monitor the self-in-action and to direct its future 1959. development in the professional context' (Elliott Reason, P. (1988a), 'The Co-operative Inquiry Group' in 1989:97). The strategies to achieve this goal: diaries, P. Reason (ed), Human Inquiq in Action. Sage, pp 18 journals, first-person accounts, co-operaC..ve peer sup- 39. port groups, and 'critical friends', ensure that we keep Reason, P. (1988b), 'Introduction', in P. Reason (ed), our inner worlds awake (Mills 1970:217) and arrive op.cit., pp 1-17. at a deeper understanding of how we live in the world. Sidell, M. (1989), 'How do we know what wc think we Practitioner-research as continuing self-education al- know?' in A. Brechin and J. Walmsky (eds), Making lows adult educators to develop a distinctive form of Connections. Hodder and Stoughton, pp 261-9. research entirely congruent with their own, and their Watkins, J.W.N. (1963), 'Confession is Good for Ideas', students, needs and strengths. The Listener, 18 April, pp 667-8.

118 110 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Practitioners as researchers or is it evaluators? And does it matter?

Mary Thorpe Open University

THIS paper discusses issues surrounding particu- level, both therefore counting towards postgraduate lar routes towards the professional development qualifications in the School of Education. Students of practitioners in Adult Continuing Education and are usually practitioners in some area of provision for Training (ACET). This assumes some understanding adult training or education or guidance. Although of what it means to be a professional, and while this both courses may lead the student to engage in is not central to my concerns here, a brief comment is activities normally associated with research prima- necessary. My own view for some time has been that rily interviews and questionnaires their orienta- professionalism is the practice and continuing devel- tion and criteria for assessment have important differ- opment of expertise and that to be 'professional' ences. requires continuing to learn about the field in which I shall argue that some of these differences relate to one practices. the distinctions that can be made between evaluation There is a continuing active interest in enquiring and research, and that thq might therefore have a into the bases of practice and a continuing effort significance wider than my own immediate concerns to develop the efficacy of that practice. A profes- as a course author and tutor. The desirability that sional is someone alive to the key issues in their teachers should do research has been well developed area, actively concerned with perhaps a sub-set in the sphere of schooling, and at least some of the of the whole rather than everything at once arguments also apply to teaching in post-compulsory (Thorpe, 1988a). and adult continuing education and training (ACET). Professions, such as medicine or law, emphasise the But if we are going to require that professional com- application of a body of knowledge based in the petence should incorporate abilities in this area, it is sciences. Carr and Kemmis, discussing these issues in important to clarify whether the model is closer to relation to teaching in schools, outline three features that of evaluation rather than conventional academic characteristic of a profession: the use of techniques research. Since the differences between these two are and skills supported by a body of systematicallyoften disputed, it may be preferable to avoid the produced knowledge, primary commitment to theterminology of 'evaluation versus research' and to well being of clients, and professional autonomy attempt instead to specify what aspects ofprofessional 'the right to make autonomous judgements free from competence are the desired outcomes ofproject based external non-professional controls and constraints and research based course work. Without such clarity, (Carr and Kemmis,1986). If we place emphasis how- there is a risk of students misunderstanding the crite- ever on the continuous development of knowledge ria against which they will be assessed. There is also a through professional practice, as Schön and others risk that some students' work will be judged against have done, then the ability to learn from practice takes inappropriate criteria. centre stage. In the case of practitioners in ACET, the Before I attempt to justify the position I am putting component practices of various kinds of evaluation forward here, an account is required of the student and research can play a productive role in this, and I experience in the postgraduate courses I tutored. have myself written and tutored courses oriented First, the half credit project course E860 (approxi- towards the professional development of practition- mately 250 hours study) completes the Diploma in ers, which require data collection of one kind orPost Compulsory Education. Most students com- another. I believe it is important to clarify the ex-pleted this as the last of four half credit courses pected outcomes from coursework of this kind, both covering areas of adult learning, open learning, pro- for the student, who should be clear about what skills gramme design, issues in policy administration and are to be developed, and for the assessor, who needs management, and special needs. The student's task is very clearly specified criteria against which to make to design and carry out a project assessed on the basis judgements. of the methods used, the analysis of data, use of In the last five years, I have tutored and examined relevant literature and presentation of findings. The Open University students completing two project- Project Guide notes : based courses, one at diploma level, the other at MA The assessment procedure centres around your 1993 scuTP.E.A CONFERENCE PAPERS 121

professional competence to analyse a problem, are available for discussion. This position also arises draw conclusions and malT appropriate recotn- from the fact that most teachers of adults have not had mendations based on the evidence. (Disserta- an extended initial training or periods of study of tion Module, E816) relevant theoretical and research based literature. The MA module (c. 450 hours study) by contrast Separately from these practical difficulties is the issue adopts a classical research paradigm of theoretical of underlying distinction between what is required of analysis as the basis for choice of research question, Diploma students versus what is required of MA sophisticated grasp of methodological issues and rig- students: professional rigour versus academic rigour. orous presentation and analysis of findings. The I think a case can be made for both, and one which candidate's dissertation is assessed according to crite-does not conclude that one is intrinsically 'higher' or ria which include the following: more advanced than the other. Issues ofstatus should, clearly specify a research question; I think, reflect the extent ofexpertise ofthe individual include a sustained, sound, and coherent aca- in either professional or academic rigour, and the demic treatment of the topic approved for the requirements of context, rather than the expertise dissertation; itself. There are distinctions to be made, for example, demonstrate an adequate level of competence about the appropriateness of expertise in one rather in the research methods appropriate to the dis- than the other in relation to the requirements of sertation, provide a reflexive account of the different contexts and practitioner roles, but that is methodology used and make clear the relation- not to argue that one must always take precedence ship between the starting point and the eventual over the other. outcome of the dissertation So what: do students find difficult about the Diploma demonstrate adequate knowledge and critical project course? This course draws upon two litera- perception of relevant literature in the field tures directly: practitioner as researcher and action (Ibid.). research. Both these areas overlap with the literature Students are advised that they must see themselves on educational evaluation and share the emphasis on from the beginning as writing for an academic audi- context and problem as driving the issues for research ence, and the distinction between professional and and to some extent, methodology used. Problem academic is underlined. Although the topic chosen analysis and organisation analysis are also central, may relate to issues of professional relevance to them- given the very close relationship between research and selves and their colleagues, the requirements they are practice which is at the heart of this group of litera- to fulfil (identification of clear research questions, tures and practices. These are also literatures and defence of research methods, and so on) relate prima- practices which have grown up out of critiques of the rily to academic research criteria. Thus, whereas stu- conventional research paradigm as weak in relation to dents on the diploma project course arc encouraged to effects on practice and as a means of bringing about formulate a set of professional recommendations desired change (Nisbet and Broadfoot, 1980, Ashton arising from their study, MA module candidates are et al, 1983). Students of the Diploma project course told to compile any professional recommendations are practitioners who start from the perspective of only after they have completed their dissertation. their own practice as the basis for their project and any These recommendations are in any case largely irrel- data collection and analysis which it may involve. evant to the criteria determining pass or failure on theThey characteristically find that, of the requirements MA. arising from the course, these are the most challeng- My experience of students in the ACET field is that ing: they find the strictures of both these courses demand- formulating specific questions to which their study ing, and that those of the MA module are marginally will provide answers, however provisional, rather more difficult to meet than those of the diploma, than reiterating the issues they perceive in their primarily because of the academic rather than profes- context generally sional audience rubric in the criteria for assessment of retaining focus on the questions chosen and not the MA. Perhaps this would also be true ofcandidates being distracted by new events and the morass of whose direct experience is as school based practitioner.s detail which threatens to overwhelm them However ACET students often have an additional corn mu nicati ng in writing so that a professional not difficulty which is that thcy are interested in topics based in their immediate context can grasp their where there is not already a large and established problem issue and the findings presentedsuffi- literature to which they can refer. Thus it is difficult ciently to be able to review its relevance to their own for them to demonstrate how their research questions immediate professional context arise from and relate to, more general theoreticalThese challenges are of course additional to the concerns where other findings, concepts and theories perennial and general problems all students face in 121 122 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE pacing their work and fitting it in to already over- existing literature, there would be grounds for crowded lives. resubmission, possibly even outright failure. T believe Therefore if this course is successful in developing it matters in a more general sense however, in that I professional rigour, it means that students have learned would want to argue that professional development something about problem and context analysis, skill should certainly encompass the idea of professional in written communication, and a degree of confi-rigour, but could see as much more optional, the dence and personal persistence in tackling a limited development of academic (in the sense of the conven- problem rather than distraction across all availabletional research paradigm outlined) rigour. problems in their area. They may also learn some- I f we were to accept this, it has implications for those thing about data collection and analysis skills, whether designing courses for practitioners, where we need to postal survey, interviews, observation or a combina- be clear whether the desired outcomes of coursework tion of methods are used. Although these methods fall within approaches more typical of evaluation or tend to dominate the students' perception of what research, or indeed whether the primary concern is they have to learn I suggest they are secondary to the professional competence/development. One aspect first set of professional skills. of being a professional for example, ought to be an In contrast, students pursuing the academic rigour understanding of evaluation and at least some ability model of the MA Module have, in my experience, to to carry out self evaluation as a teacher, but not learn these things: necessarily academic research. I realise, of course, that That immedate professional issues have to be articu- research and evaluation overlap, and that a core set of lated with available discourses and fields ofknowl- skills could be said to underly both. But there are edge and research, in order to make a contribu- important distinctions, and arguably the most impor- tion. In other words, we have to speak a shared tant is that the evaluator takes as given a particular language, even if our contribution is very spe- context and its learning forms and derives issues from cialised or a minority concern in the larger these perhaps even has to work with issues already whole. formulated by those directly involved. The researcher Methodology is different from listing the methodsby contrast takes direct responsibility for the formu- used. We have to give some time to issues about lation of issues, taking into account a wide range of how knowledge is legitimately accumulated and contexts and learning forms, and the findings ofother our own responsibility to be self critical and relevant studies. For the researcher, understanding aware as the person collecting data and inter- the significance of the immediate context may be one preting it. of the outcomes of research rather than the starting Other researchers and colleagues have a right to read point for it. about what the findings were, separately from I :ice there being a strong case for including familiarity our own interpretation of their meanings and with the requirements and procedures of evaluation the conclusions to which they give rise. in the definition of the core role of a practitioner in As I implied earlier, what seems like the greater CET (see Thorpe 1988b for the application of the difficulty practitioners/students experience in meet- case to open and distance learning). More in-depth ing these learning needs may reflect the fact that the understanding, perhaps even the development of requirement to be conversant with an existing body ofskills in carrying out evaluation, might be seen as part literature is not part of the experience of most practi- ofstaffdevelopment and, in the context of this paper, tioners, whereas being conversant with a set of profes- professional development. Professionalism as the de- sional issues, even a policy making context, is much velopment of formal qualification structures which more likely. However there may also be areas which set practitioners further apart from their learners or could be said to be intrinsically difficult; methodol- students, is not always a process with desirable results ogy, for instance, is often an area where students find for the learners. But to be professional can also be seen it very difficult to see what the issues are about and more positively, as incorporating ideas of self critique why they might matter so much. and awareness the ability to learn through practice The first question of my title asks whether the model which is at the heart of Schön's reflective practi- of practitioner as researcher would be more appropri- tioner model. The adoption of this model, and of the ately titled practitioner as evaluator, and the second general idea of learning from practice, does not have asks whether this matters; are we not splitting hairs ? to take the form of adopting the paradigms of aca- Obviously it did matter for my students since the demic research. Practitioners have much to learn in criteria for success hinged in part on the distinctions this area, even without taking on the goals of theoreti- between the two. For example, if a candidate for the cally based research questions and sophisticated meth- MA failed to show awareness of any conceptual link odology which are the hallmarks of the academic between their research questions and those of an researcher. 122 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 113

Schon's ideas grew out of a critique of the technical the only way of legitimising time away from the rationality model, where the professional is defined as immediate demands of provision and of finding the one essentially applying a knowledge base developed time to reflect on, and therefore to learn from, the during prior academic study. If this can be seen as practice in which one is engaged. flawed in the case of med icine, architecture, engineer- Notwithstanding the many difficulties that current ing and the rest, how much more so in the case of adult working conditions for ACET practitioners may cre- learning? What we do know about how people learn ate, the diverse models of both evaluation and of tells us that large areas of learner response is unpre- research offer valuable and distinctive routes towards dictable. Squires' contingency model of learning ex- personal and professional development. The distinc- presses this well, in asserting that what and how we tions do matter in the case of assessed course work, teach is contingent on who is learning and what is to where work which might not meet academic research be learned. Add to this the variable of context, that criteria can be productive in the development of where we learn, be it workplace, home or academic professional rigour and assessed appropriately. The institution, also affects the process, and there is a very implication is that practitioners do not have to be- strong case for structuring the responsive stance of the come bona fide academic researchers in order to practitioner, through regular evaluative activities. develop professionally, whereas they might be re- However effective our pre-course investigations, it isquired (as one element in being an effective practi- impossible tc, predict the detailed response oflearnerstioner) to be able to interpret and possibly to use the and therefore necessary to have some means of check- findings of evaluation and research, and to be able to ing that out in a reasonably systematic way. undertake at least some forms of self evaluation. It Given the diversity ofpractitioner roles in ACET, not seems to me that this is a necessary if not sufficient all will have direct links with a particular course, but condition not only for well founded practitioner the case for the role of evaluation and research in development, but for what has been referred to as 'the professional competence can also be made in relation notion of a conversational educational research com- to guidance, organising and policy making activities munity' (Hustler 1991). (Thorpe, 1992, Edwards and Thorpe 1992). This does not mean that practitioners should necessarily become experts in questionnaire design or other REFERENCES techniques. It does mean that they should be able to stand outside their own context and describe it, both Ashton, P.M.E., Henderson, E.S. Merritt,E. Mortimer,D.J. orally and in writing, in a fashion which clarifies the (1983) Teacher Education in the Classroom: Initial and issues embedded within it, and enables the In-Service Croom Helm. 'outsider'(whether external colleague or a tutor) to Carr, W. and Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming Critical: Edu- grasp its general significance. This may seem like a cation, Knowledge and Action Research Falmer Press basic skill but it is certainly one which, in my experi- Edwards, R. and Thorpe, M. (1992) Guidance, research ence, practitioners do not necessarily possess co the and evahation, National Association for Educational degree they require for their own professional devel- Guidance for Adults, Occasional publication no. 17. opment. Hustler, D. (1991) 'Introduction: the reflective practi- Involvement in either evaluation or research also tioner, initial teacher training and teachers' profes- means that practitioners need to be able to work sional development' in British Educational Research within a defined focus for a sustained period of time, Journal vol. 17 number 4. in order to pursue a planned study. That requires the Nisbet, J. and Broadfoot, P. (1980) The Impact ofResearch development of personal qualities such as persistence, on Policy and Practice in Education. Aberdeen Univer- and confidence in the value of one's own insights. sity Press. However, it also requires that working conditions Schon, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner, Temple Smith. allow some control of time and energies; and we are Thorpe, M. (1988a) Approaches To Adult Learning, Profes- all aware of the constraints under which many prac- sional Studies in Post Compulsory Education, Module I. titioners in ACET work, constraints which make it Milton Keynes, The Open University. extremely difficult to develop the elements of profes- Thorpe, M. (1988b) Evaluating Open and Distance Learn- sional and academic rigour which are being discussed ing, Longman. here. There are occasions, however, when the imple- Thorpe, M. (1992) 'Counselling and Research: a necessary mentation of some 'research' or 'evaluation' project is partnership' in Open Learning vol 7 no.1 .

123 12 4 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Adult educators' reflections on M.Ed. projects which they had undertaken

Peter Watson University of Leeds

Aims of the study school teachers. Adult education students are at lib- THE theory of curriculum development tells us erty to take some of these other modules, though that we should evaluate our courses (Henderson traditionally they tended not to, with exceptions I 1978). If we took a systematic approach to this we shall mention below. should assess our students before the course and then Adult education modules are provided by a small again after the course to examine what and how much group of tutors who tend to provide courses on development had taken place (e.g. Watson 1975, general topics, such as the history of, or policy of adult Potter 1980). We rarely do this systematically foreducation etc, rather than, for instance, courses on practical reasons. teaching specific subjects such as science or music. However I wanted to look at some aspect of evalua- Occasionally students have opted to study a school- tion with our M Ed course for Adult Educators which focused classroom module, such as language teaching has now been running for ten years. While the taught or to study the research methods module provided components have changed substantially over these primarily for the schoolteacher students. years, the Research Study has remained basically For the majority of the ten years we have provided an unchanged, so I decided to examine that. optional non-assessed series of seminars for adult Another idea that is behind this project is that we try education students. These have included seminars on to develop in both our students and ourselves the research methods and also presentation of research ability to work as reflective practitioners (Scholl 1987). projects. However most adult education students are Part of this entails that when we have completed not formally taught research methods. something we ought not just to rush on to the nextThe student usually takes some taught components, task which confronts us but we ought to stop, reflect then chooses a research topic and is allocated a mem- on and evaluate what we have done and what we can ber of staff to supervise the research study. Students learn from it. may be local authority tutors or FE lecturers but A project to evaluate an educational course could equally they may be vicars, trainer-tutors from the approach the course from several angles but in view ofarmed forces, police, or paramedical professions. We the last point I wanted primarily to obtain from the also have a few students from overseas, mainly Chi- participants of the current study reflections upon nese. The vast majority are part-time students. their experiences. Method Background: the course The nature of the project, involving 80-plus students, To put the study into context, an outline of the course with limited time and resources, indicated the use of will be useful. Typically three-quarters of it consists ofa questionnaire. Considering the usual balance be- taught strands, the other quarter being a researchtween a long detailed questionnaire which might project, although a student may opt to do half the provide a lot of information but a poor response rate, course as taught components and the other half, and a brief questionnaire which restricts the informa- rarely, as a larger research project. tion returned but might produce a better rate of The taught component originally consisted ofa series return, I chose the latter. of year-long options. However from October 1988 After piloting, the questionnaire was sent with a the course changed and students now chose six term- stamped addressed envelope to all the students. It long modules. This gives them an opportunity to could be returned anonymously or otherwise. A sum- study a wider range of subject matter, but usually in mary of findings was offered to any respondent who rather less depth. By coincidence, roughly hal f of the wanted one. In a few cases the questionnaire was students in the study took the course under the old followed up with an open-ended interview. format and the rest have studied under the present format. Questions and expectations The adult education modules are a small number in Often in research a survey of the literature leads to a very large number of modules provided across the questions and a set of hypotheses. Here, with limited Faculty of Education, most of which are aimed at background literature I shall just indicate how I got to 124 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 125

the questions, and rather than hypotheses, I shallConsidering the normal steps taken in any research merely note a few possible outcomes. project, there will be for each step, a student who finds I am interested in what motivates professionals to that step difficult. However the theme that came up undertake continuing education (e.g. Watson 1992) most frequently was the limited time available. An- and considered that here, concerning these research other difficulty which came up in different forms was projects, motivation would be evenly split betweenthat the student had ended up with more data than interest and vocational utility. As this survey is con- was usable, with the resultant problem of how to ducted by a tutor (ie. me) not an outside researcher, handle it. On a different tack, a problem noted several the results might be contaminated for instance a times was a feeling of isolation. This is when the person might out of politeness mention one of my student, who previously has got into the student courses as being useful. We know that supervision group/support atmosphere of a taught class, suddenly varies (Youngman 1989). I expected very mixed views finds him/herself without this support. about supervision. Q. 5. What would they do about these problems if they Returning to my opening remarks about reflective were to rerun the study? practitioners, questions I try repeatedly to get stu- Obviously the ideas of taking a longer time, starting dents to consider, near the end of a study, are what earlier, etc., came up. Also there were suggestions to difficulties did you have? and how would you im- focus on one issue, or a narrower subject. Of course, prove your study if you did it again? Responses to there were conflicting ideas. One said 'I wouldn't use these would be, for me, sbme of the most interesting a questionnaire again but would have more inter- comments. I consider that a lot of useful work is done views', while another suggested cutting down on in M Ed studies, but that unfortunately not enough interviews and using a questionnaire instead. When is done to disseminate it. Finally I expected that a asked how they would improve their study a few said person's future research would be related (in content they would choose an entirely different topic. or method) to their M.Ed. research. Q. 6. What was the feedback to their subjects? About half said the question did not apply to their Resuks: responses to the questions study. This is interesting, giving an indication ofwhat Q. I : What influences a person in choice ofresearch topic? proportion of the studies was of each type. There was As this M Ed is being taken by people who are no significant change in rate over the decade. working, one would expect that a majority would be Q. 7: Students were asked whether their findings were motivated to do something related to their work. In disseminated. fact over 50% said they were equally motivated by I should first note that at Leeds, as at many places, a both interest and usefulness for work. Only a few copy of the research study report is kept in the mentioned use for work by itself. About a third said departmental library, and so, in that limited sense, the they were motivated mainly by interest. findings are available. However otherwise most re- Q. 2. What courses most influenced the choice ofstudies? spondents said they had either given a formal verbal The courses cited as most influencing the studies, by presentation of their study at college or workplace or a large margin, were Psychology and Continuing had presented a written report to their Management Education for the Professions. The only others men- or lodged a copy of their report, for example, in their tioned more than twice were Philosophy and our college library. Very few said they had presented their introductory overview course, Policy and Practice. As findings at a conference and in even less cases had the I teach psychology and CEP, there is possible reason, work led to a publication. as mentioned earlier, to be cautious about this result. Q 8: What consequences did participants see their On the other hand as the majority of students had studies as having? indicated they wanted to do something related to Before considering the replies to this, I must remark their work, these two courses are among those most that the question, as asked, is a leading question. easily applicable. However, to the question as asked, about a third said Q. 3. Having chosen a topic, what were students' viewstheir study had no consequences. There was an over- about their preparation for their study? lap between these people who said the project had no A sizeable minority suggested that courses on meth- consequences and those who said they were moti- odology, statistics and/or computing would have vated mainly by interest in answer to question 1. been beneficial. While some said the supervision they Respondents who did note some consequences can be had was good, some said their's could have been moresorted broadly into those who noted consequences for challenging; as one student said, 'less chat and more themselves as individual teachers, and those who rigorous stuff. Acouple were quite critical. indicated wider-ranging consequences. From the first Q. 4. Getting into the study, what were the maingroup, we find the study might alter a person's difficulties encountered? teaching for example a teacher's attitude to stu- 12 6 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE dents or the study findings might enrich thea very valuable learning experience. On theother content of a syllabus. In a few cases the teacher did a hand a few students said they were disappointed in the detailed content analysis of a syllabus of a traininglittle they had achieved in their project and again course, getting for example responses from practi- there were a couple of fu rther criticisms of supervision tioners concerning the value ofspecific items, and this received. Finally a person considered, now in hind- led to syllabus changes. Some people reported that sight, that the research-study findings were their experiences provided a model when they later publishable, but commented that this had not been were supervising their own students. More generally suggested. some studies were reported as leading to student self- development, e.g. in terms of confidence or increas- Brief comments ing the person's self-awareness. The research study is generally seen as a useful and Among the other group, there were consequences enjoyable exercise. While some supervision is good, wider than the students' immediate work: for exam- some could be improved. We should all, for example, ple a study might be influential in institutional policy encourage any student who appears to be doing changes, or lead to a regional or nationally adopted otherwise to restrict the study to a manageable size. A scheme, or, for example, a study of student motiva- methodology course ought be available. We should tion led to recruitment changes and increase in insti- encourage some students to present their work at tutional student numbers. Three respondents noted conferences or publish it.It would be useful if that following their M Ed they changed jobs. While SCUTREA published each year, say in Scoop, a list of one indicated that this was influenced by thesubject titles of M Eds completed that year and available for of the research-study, the extent to which the studyconsultation in the various Universities. Further re- and degree were influential in the other two cases is sults are noted and a wider range of implications is unclear. discussed at the conference. Q. 9: Did students follow up their work with father research? Concerning question 9 about later research, we must REFERENCES recall that for some, the M.Ed. may include their first experience of research and obviously it is interesting Henderson, E.S. (1978), Evaluation of Inservice Teacher and important to see whether this is followed up by Education. later research. In answer to this question about a half Schon, D. (1987), Educating the Reflective Practitioner. said they had not undertaken any further research, Potter, L. et a/ (1980), Changes in Conservatism of Prison although a few indicated they were intending to. Of Officers, Police Officers and Social Workers Duting7 rain- the rest who had undertaken further research, the vast ing, University of Leeds. majority reported some similarity in their new re-Watson, P. (1975), 'Pioneering at Parklane' in Special search and that of their M Ed study. Education 2.4. Q 10: The final question gave participants the opportu- Watson, P. (1992), 'Changing Culture and Adult Learn- nity to make other comments about their research study. ing,' in Miller & West (eds), Changing Culture and An oft-repeated comment was that while the study Adult Learning, SCUTREA. was arduous, the person enjoyed it; indeed, onesaid Youngman, M. (1989), Rok Expectations ofResearch Super- it was the best part of the course. Others said it was visors and Students. 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 12.7 5. External relations and accountability

Introduction by Janice Malcolm, University of Leeds

THE papers in this section represent attempts to is essential ifpolicy interventions are to be meaningful explore, from a number of different perspec- and constructive. The paper by Andrew Gonczi, Rod tives, the relationship between research activity and McDonald, Paul Hager and Geoff Hayton considers the wider context in which it takes place and is the position of vocational education in Australia. utilised. This involves examining both the constraints They criticise the predominance of 'client-specific' exercised from outside upon the processes and prod- over 'general issues' research in the field, arguing that ucts of research, and the effects that research can or a longer-tet :n perspective is needed if a usable policy should have beyond the production and small-scale critique is to be developed. consumption of academic papers. The remaining papers focus upon specific manifesta- Several of the papers focus on the actual and potential tions of the relationship between research and con- political pitfalls ofthe research process. PaulArmstrong text. Ruth Winterton gives an interesting account of and Kirit Patel each provide rather painful accounts ofcollaborative research as a means of 'empowerment' the difficulties involved in commissioned research, for a particular group and as a conscious tool of where attempts may be made to 'buy' particular industrial struggle in this instance, the campaign findings or to persuade the researcher to select only to avert the demise of the coal industry. Keith Forrester those findings which fit the sponsors' purpose. considers the practice of collaborative research as a Armstrong places the researcher's dilemma in the means of integrating research with its context, blur- context of the `supplier-customer' relationship which ring the boundaries between the two and thus trans- is increasingly being imposed upon educational trans- forming both the process ofresearch (including estab- actions, and questions the extent to which researchers lished methodologies) and its epistemological basis. should accept the dictum that `the customer is always Boti: papers raise important questions about the right' clearly a question that also merits further extent to which collaborative research can function as discussion beyond the field of research. Patel's paper an effective political tool. highlights the uncomfortable situation of the re- The phenomenon of inexperienced students con- searcher who feels politically involved with the 'sub- ducting research in adult education centres is exam- jects' of research but remains dependent upon spon- ined by Helen Jones, who argues that the ends in this sorship for professional survival. In my contribution case are insufficient justification for the means. A case I explore the political and practical dilemmas of the is made for the greater involvement of experienced 'independent' policy researcher whose findings may practitioners in the selection and design of research still be used for purposes unrelated to her own, projects, on the grounds that a collaborative approach suggesting, however, that ignoring or avoiding 'diffi- would more effectively meet the centres' needs. Avtar cult questions' leaves the continuing education com- Brah and Alison Kaye's paper considers the effects of munity in a fundamentally weak position in policy changes in the local political and social context upon debates. a particular research project and on the relationships Another theme evident in this section is the use ofbetween researchers and their 'subjects'. research as a generator of and aid to policy. Clive The papers approach their related themes from differ- Millar's contribution suggests that a research focus on ent angles, converging in their recognition that re- practice, at the expense of more fundamental theo- search does not occur in asocial and political vacuum, retical questions, may be exposed as a weakness when but can have should have? potentially serious the political context changes and a contribution is implications both for researchers and for those who required from the academic community to the devel- provide them with their data. This is not such a truism opment of policy for social reconstruction. Although as it might appear. In a changing and increasingly he is writing in the South African context, which uncongenial political and social climate, and particu- clearly has been and remains considerably more tur- larly at a point where CE itself has at last become the bulent than our own, there arc important resonances subject of policy debate, all of those engaged in here for those of us in Britain. Millar suggests that, research have a responsibility to analyse more care- although th._ process of demythologising (even the fully the relationship between the research process most 'radical') practice discourse may threaten to and the context within which its fruits are produced undermine the interests of practitioners, the process and consumed. 127 I2 8 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Keeping the customer satisfied: research, accountability and the market place

Paul Armstrong Main Frame Research and Consultancy Services London Borough of Haringey

Total quality research organisation that needs to be both competi- Atotal quality organisation will seek to keep its tive and at the same time, to be seen to be quality- customers satisfied. The core values of atotal driven, poses some interesting challenges to conven- quality culture include tional research practices, and to research in the market putting the customer first place. anticipating and knowing customer expectations; and Meeting customer requirements meeting and exceeding customer expectations. Meeting customer requirements has two major ele- The onus is on the organisation, if it is to be successful ments: in the marketplace, to monitor customer require- identifying those customer requirements ments and to invite the customer to comment onthe and degree of satisfaction with the services or products ensuring that those customer requirements can be provided. Customer care is a key feature, and builds met or even exceeded at minimum cost. a link between being competitiveand promoting the This paper raises the possibility that there is a danger image of a company or organisation as caring and that we could focus too much on the end user or the considerate. Quality indicators include such aspects customer. There are a number of aspects tothis shift as how the telephone is answered,whether car parking to a customer service orientation (we arehere only to is provided, how visitors are received into the build-serve you) which emphasises publicrelations rather ing, whether the working environment is attractive than improving quality service, which is manipulative and comfortable, whether correspondence dealt with and aimed at changing customers' perceptions rather promptly and politely, and so on. than reality. A second aspect is that we need to Such general customer requirements are often over- remember that there is a possibility that the customer looked, but these can make a lasting impression is not always right; and nor can we ever guarantee to particularly in the public service sector, since the always meet customer requirements under all circum- organisation, its employees and the premises are, stances and conditions. Nor is it alwayspossible to put ultimately, there only to provide a quality service to the customer first, if only because and this is the customer. particularly the case in providing research services and But who really is the customer? Total Quality distin- products it is not always clear as to who the real guishes the external customers (those who receive or customer is. This is an aspect of quality management purchase a service or a product) and the internai that is easy to both misunderstand and to misapply. customers (staffor other employees) since everyonein an organisation is both a supplierand a customer of Customer service a service or product, andwork processes are defined in Let us be clear about our starting point. In an educa- these terms. Unless internal customers are satisfied, it tional context, is unlikely that external customers will have their Customer service is not about potted plants, requirements met, first time, every time. carpets, glossy brochures and carefullyscripted This customer orientation is then a key aspect of the receptionists. These factors can be significant development of a Total Quality Culture that provides but are only manifestations of a fundamental the foundation of Total Quality Management. Like obsession with satisfying the customer. There is most of the principles of TQM, muchof this is at the tern ptation to assume that smartness equalsqual- level of rhetoric and exhortation. The practice, the ity but there is little point in having a sophisti- reality, feels quitedifferent. In focusing on the issue of cated reception are if it is difficult to find, if the the requirement to provide customer satisfaction, appropriate person is not available and if the TQM provides a challenge to research organisations quality of (...) learning is not the central focus of that provide both services and products (findings, any discussion. reviews of the literature on cus- Working for a tomer service produce lists of strategies, manyof reports, action plans, evaluations etc.). 0 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS12,9

which fall into the 'have a nice day' syndrome that serves a particular purpose. Payment by results is (John West-Burnham, Managing Quality inonly a little distance from this position. In turn, the Schools, Longman 1992; p.36). supplier could offer a range of levels of quality service The difficulty that those of us engaged in research as a small monitoring procedure that satisfies fund- a professional practice have with this is that some- ing bodies can be carried out for 1% of the funding, times our processes and products lead to someone not a short summative evaluation for 3%, or a fuller having a nice day. It may be that the results of ourformative and summative evaluation for 10%, de- research require the management of an organisation pending on the needs and interests of the customer. to confront a difficult problem; or, that the staff in an The buying of results is a major concern. In my organisation are required to be more efficient and cost experience, systematic, careful, objective and profes- effective or to take voluntary redundancy in thesional research actions are being increasingly chal- interests of better external customers; or that the lenged because they do not lead to the kind of results residents of a community in the minority lose out to that the sponsors (that is, the customer) expected or the views of the majority. 'Whilst the processes and needed. The use of research for specific purposes has results of much research activity are confirmatory or always been a political issue, but now those who comforting ('we already knew this'), what are the control the purse strings feel they have the right to buy limits of the responsibilities of the researcher when particular outcomes. Not only that but customers are the findings are challenging, pessimistic or requirebecoming extremely sophisticated in understanding further action? and utilising the power and influence of evaluation The politics of research determine the limits of ac- procedures and outcomes. countability and specification of the customer. In a paper to the 1986 SCUTREA Conference, I ad- Case studies dressed this issue with respect to undertaking evalua- The reader may have guessed that I am writing this tion research, recognising that evaluation is always from bitter experience. To illuminate the problems I political in nature and derived from biased origins. shall now present two case studies. They both raise the The power of the sponsors over others as well as the problem of establishing who your customer is before researcher ensures political and professional account- your agree to undertake a consultancy project, and in ability. In terms of objectivity and taking sides in the both cases there was an element ofwishing to buy the debate, the song remains the same (see paper by Patel results. In true social science style, the cases are real in this volume). Except that the economic and com- but names are omitted to protect the guilty. mercial dimension has now been added in. The contract relationship has taken over the professionalIntroducing quality assurance into a commitment. The financial and legal basis of the college of further education relationship establishes the supplier-customer rela-A friend who was an Education Officer in another tionship, where professional, political and ethical London Borough recommended to the Deputy Prin- decisions made at an earlier stage become a commit- cipal of a Further Education College in that borough ment to the customer. that she should contact me regarding advice on qual- Decision-making pervades all stages of the research ity assurance systems for further education as she was process, and a decision at one point in the process in the process of putting a bid into the Employment inevitably is constrained by decisions already madeDepartment for funding to carry out a project that and in turn constrains subsequent decision-making. would develop and eventually embed a quality assur- A trading relationship in the market place will cer- ance system. I went along to the College to discuss tainly strengthen the nature of these constraints and issues with a team that had been set up to think about give less flexibility for the researcher to change their the issue of quality. This was an exploratory meeting, mind. The competent researcher now needs to be nd I largely based my views on the experiences I was more far-sighted, more able clearly to see the likely having in a college in my own borough doing some- outcomes of a research project than before. The thing similar. As a result of this input, an agreement openness and exploratory nature of qualitative re- was made between the Deputy Principal, and my search procedures do not fit this research environ-friend, the local authority Education Officer, that I ment, where the researcher might well bc expected to should be approached about doing the work of co- anticipate the outcomes of the research process in ordinating the project on the basis of two to three days advance of undertaking that research. The logic ofa week. The project submission was successful in offering a customer-oriented service becomes more gaining the financial support of the Employment apparent, to the extent that the researchers might Department, though only 60% of what was required ultimately be required to provide a guarantee that was to be given. The project was to be managed by the they can produce a report not only to schedule, but local authority, not the College.

129 3 0 RE.SEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

At this point, when offered consultancy, I was more ment and staff, and staff and students. Theidea of concerned about the fact that a friend was by-passing learning contracts was not new, but the college staff local authority regulations about competitive tender- were treading warily because they were notclear ing for such work than that I was to end up with three about what would happen if they or the students sets ofpeople to whom I would have to beaccountable failed to deliver the contract. The contract between the funders of the project, the Employment De- management and staffwas a tension and needed tobe partment; the managers of the project, thelocal discussed in the context of such sensitive issues as authority, and the primary customers, the Collegeperformance appraisal. 'What was clear was that the and in particular its senior management team. Regu- project was being used to take on board a number of lar steering committee meetings madc me increas-controversial aspects of organisational and human ingly aware of what was expected. On the whole, in resou rce development issues thathad not been agreed. the early stages the pressures were not too great, as By this stage we had completed the first year of the there was consensus as to what the purpose of theproject, and because the methodology was sound if project was, how it would be implemented, and what somewhat pedantic the issues had been contained, the outcomes would be. Difficulties arose when dif- but the tension as evident. ferences in views on quality assu ranee began to emerge The second year became much more difficult. The particularly between myself and the Deputy Princi- College needed a new principal. The Deputy Princi- pal. What were quite marginal differences at first pal applied for the post but was unsuccessful. Instead, began to get quite large and significant. Part of thethe job went to a senior LEA officer, previously the problem it appears in retrospect was about my loca- line manager of my friend, the Education Officer who tion. The context was that this was a period ofhad got me this contract in the first place. This increasing tension between LEAs and Colleges of FE complicated matters further because (a) although as they were approaching incorporation.This was to there was increasing divergence between the Deputy be a difficult transitional period for both LEAs and and myself and the strategies I was developing with colleges. It was assumed by the LEA Officer that I the College team, at least we shared a commitment to would be based at the local authority offices, but quality, using indicators chat were both quantitative would spend considerable time in the college. The and qualitative. The new Principal understood the Deputy Principal wanted me to be based in thelanguage of performance rather than quality indica- college, but because they did not sort out appropriate tors. My colleague had also began to shift hisground accommodation for me, I continued to work from the from being fairly neutral and asking the steering LEA offices. I was therefore seen as representing thecommittee to trust my professional expertise in un- LEA view, and this was confirmed by the otherdertaking this kind of action research, to also wanting activities I was engaging in with the local authority 'quick and dirty fixes' to problems, if only to impress identifying the training needs of the College gover- his ex-manager, now the College Principal. The sec- nors, and developing a monitoringand inspection ond year of the project continued in a depressed framework that the LEA could use with the College. atmosphere in the College as the new Principal made This was quite naive of me in the context ofsuspicion his mark, and started wielding the axe in the interests and tension. This reflected itself in terms of the of economy, not efficiency nor effectiveness. perception of my methodology. I was working with a The gulf was widening, and having not got the team from the College and although Idid have some Principal post, the Deputy took a lower profile in the influence as a consultant, on the whole I felt I was project, and shortly after was appointed Principal of being responsive to the needs of the team. In some another College elsewhere in London, and then spent ways this was another problem,because the team were most of the time in her new institution,showing little largely grassroots lecturing staff with trade union interest in this project. But now there was the new representation. If anything, these became my fourth Principal. Several efforts were made at getting the set of customers, and probably those thatI developed Principal involved. He did not attend steering com- the closest affinity with, as we worked together on a mittees, and several meetings that had been set up regular basis for nearly two years. From the Deputy were cancelled because he had more pressing engage- Principal's perspective I was aligned to both the LEA ments. There was just one opportunity,shortly before and the quality assurance project team in the college. the project reported, to meet with the College Senior One particular issue illustrates the tension. Although Management Team. Because of a lack of information not explicitly made clear at the outset,the Deputy about the future structure of the College, it had been Principal's perspective on the project was not merely easy enough to develop evaluationand quality assur- on quality improvement,but was about using the ance procedures, hut there was noorganisational and quality framework as a management tool. There was decision-making framework within which to locate some discussion about contractsbetween manage- them. The meeting with the Senior Management 130 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 131

Team revealed that some blueprint existed but that it refused to change the report any more, but left a could not yet be made public until it been agreed with version with the Education Officer on disk, and asked the governing body, but as this was not meeting until that if he, as project manager, chose to make any after the project deadline set by the Employment changes, he removed reference to my research organi- Department, it was always going to be difficult to take sation. I do not know whether further changes were on board these new arrangements, which would vi- made. But the recommendations have never been tally shape what was possible. implemented. The report itself addressed the project aims, objec- tives and outcomes. It was able to present the findings Changing organisational structures of the action research process undertaken by myself My boss rang me one morning. Tve got a job for you'. and the project team, and discussed the difficulties we I immediately entered my defensive mode. But no, I had been working under. A draft of the final report would enjoy this and it could lead on to more research was presented to the final steering group. This was and consultancy work. I was to carry out some inter- mostly received favourably, particularly by the Em- views for the newly appointed Head of Human ployment Department. The College Principal had Resources of the Council, whom they had brought in been sent a copy but no comments were received by from industry. I was to talk to all Directors of Council the time of the Steering Committee. Most discussion Departments about the work of three central units: was around the recommendations. Although they finance, legal and committee administration, to find were considered fair and as emerging from the project out whether they would prefer to leave them central methodology, it was felt that they were biased towards or to decentralise them into their own directorates. the improvement of the college from the point ofview The choice of the three areas was not made clear, but of the staff and students, but were not realistic and afterwards I found out that two of the three were red could not be delivered in the current environment. herrings, and the third was the area that was targeted. Some minor amendments in wording were agreed I had two days to carry out the interviews and produce and the steering group accepted the report subject to a report. The interviews also had to include the those amendments being made. I had just completed managers of the central services in question. Everyone the agreed amendments and was about to go to print but me knew what was going on, it seemed. There had when I received an urgent message from the College been agreement to this in a council meeting, but only Principal, not to proceed with the report until he had within certain parameters which were not clearly an opportunity to discuss it with me. I tried in vain to communicated to me by the new Head of Human contact him over the next few days, but he was always Resources. He confirmed that this was to be an open- too busy to deal with this. The Employment Depart- minded, exploratory piece of research which would ment asked me why I had not yet delivered it, and they inform their decision-making. What I found surpris- reiterated that as far as they were concerned they were ing was that in carrying out the interviews, the only happy with the amended version. My colleague, the ones who held strong views were the three managers Education Officer, told me that I should not go ahead who felt threatened, and the Head of Human Re- with the report, as the College Principal had serious sources, who was quite clear what the outcomes of the doubts about the report. A member of the project research should and would be. After two or three team informally told me that the Principal had told interviews with Directors it became quite clear that him that it was the 'worst piece of writing he had ever their views were discrepant with those of the new seen'. Some achievement, I suppose! Eventually, Head of Human Resources. Before writing the report through the Education Officer, contact was made and I checked with my line manager about whether I it turned out that the disagreement was around the could write an objective report, even if it disagreed recommendations. Some of the recommendationswith the Head of Human Resources' perspective. He had resource implications. This, I believe, is inevita- assured me that I could. And so I did. I completed the ble. Quality is not free, nor even cheap. College staffproject report within the 48 hour deadline, personally could undertake this as part of their role without more delivered it to his secretary to ensure it arrived on support and without some in-depth staff develop- time. Five hours later I received a message to ring the ment. However, the College Principal wished me to Head of Human Resources immediately. I assumed re-write the recommendations, and gave me advice he wanted to thank me for getting such an impressive, on what to write. As some of these did not come out well researched report to him by the tight deadline. of the research process I would not concede to them Him: 'You've not done what I asked you to.' all, but did make some amendments which I thought Me: 'What do you mean? I've interviewed everybody were reasonable to compromise on. The Principal was and written a summary rcport'. still not happy, and after consultation with the Em- Him: 'I wanted a statement of the advantages and ployment Department, and the Education Officer, I disadvantages of centralisation of resources.'

1.31 132RESEARCH:REFLECTING PRACTICE

Me: 'That's what you have got', should only be looking at budget contiol, I contacted Him: 'Yes, but I wanted it laid out in asimple way nothim and he confirmed that I should be taking a lost somewhere in a report.' broader perspective. Surely he would need to agree, if Me: No problem, I can do that from what I'veI felt the changes were justified as it is his report.' written first thing in the morning.' Director of Finance: 'No, it isn't, it's my report. I Him: 'There is something else.' asked him to have the research done, and all four of us Me: 'What's that?' and he met to discuss it. The Borough Solicitor took Him: 'I can't see my views included in there.' the minutes, didn't you? Didn't we say it was only Me: 'Yes they are, in several places. For example, on budget control?' page 5, I've written "Only one person expressed the Borough Solicitor: 'Yes, I've got it quite clear here in view that the Committee administration should be the minutes in front of me.' centralised; all others were quite happy with the status Me: 'Okay, I'll agree to take that out, and I'm quo"; prepared to correct factual errors I've made, but I'm Him: 'Didn't I give you a list of the advantages of not going to change any interpretations I have made. centralisation of the Committee administration?' They still stand, even if you disagree with them. The Me: 'You did, but they were insignificant compared paper was intended to stimulate further discussion, with the points made by the Head of Committeeand so there is not point in me sanitising the report Administration.' now so that there is no scope left for discussion.' Him: 'Look, I want to see my views expressed more clearly.' Concluding comment Me: 'Okay, I'll see what I can do.' It is easy enough to take an ethical position in these And so I looked at what I had written again. I inserted situations which is purist is intent. To refuse to a table which identified a number of aspects ofchange the findings of a report at the request of senior centralisation and summarised the views for andmanagement of an organisation because it has re- against, laid out in two columns. I decided not to alter source implications, or of the sponsors of a project anything else, and delivered a revised report first thing because the conclusions do not coincide with their the following morning. own views, is justifiable. We cannot expect, however, Two days later, I had a telephone call from the to receive a further contract again through that senior Director of F inance. He wanted to meet me to discuss management or sponsor again because they may not the report that had been circulated. I said that I would always share the researcher's professional ethical stance. need to check with the Head of Human Resources as Moreover, we may not wish to contract with organi- I had not been commissioned to undertake wider sations that are prepared to demand outcomes regard- consultations. Hesaid that would be no problem, andless of the research -process. We can refuse to tender that I should enjoy it, but could I let him know for work for this government department, that local afterwards what was discussed. When I turned up forauthority, this university, that college of further edu- the meeting, the Director ofFinance was not alone; hecation, this private company, that vol un tary organ isa- had with him the three managers of the central tion. services I had interviewed to get some of the data. HeOn the other hand, would a researcher wish his or her said they wanted to go through the report, correct own organisation to come to be known as one that is some errors and make some changes. prepared to sell its soul along with predetermined Director of Finance: 'First of all, you will need to results? The effect in any case would almost certainly delete the second to fourth paragraphs on page two2S be to undermine the validity and reliability of such you were only asked to look at budget control, not findings, and the research organisation would still audit and the other services.' end up failing to thrive in the market place. So if both Me: 'Hold on a minute. I'm quite happy to listen toa moral and an immoral stance is likely tolead to your comments and justify what I've written, but Ifailure, then there is nothing to gain from being can't sce that I can change the report as it wasanythingless than professional in the commissioning, commissioned by the Head of Human Reso; ices. He planning, implementing of research and the delivery specifically told me that I should look at Finance in its of its findings. Virtue may have its own rewards, if entirety. In fact, when your colleague told me that I only we can survive that long.

132 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 133 Researching educational and training guidance needs of bilingual women: issues in research

Avtar Brah and Alison Kaye Centre for Extra-mural Studies Birkbeck College, London University

Introduction fifties. This was initially the movement of males for THIS paper examines particular aspects related to work, with family reunification occuring in the 60s. the use of qualitative research methods on aBy no means an homogenous population, the early, research project concerned with addressing the edu- predominantly Sikh Punjabis were joined by East cational and guidance training needs of bilingual African Asians with British passports from Kenya and women living in West London. Set predominantly in Tanzania. In the early seventies, Ugandan Asians Southall in the London Borough of Ealing the project began to arrive, expelled from Idi Amin's Uganda. had its roots in a former developmental project run at The year 1979 marked a watershed in the struggle the Centre for Extra-Mural Studies, 'Extending Edu- over resources when an anti-fascist demonstration cational Opportunities to the Asian Adult Unem- resulted in the tragic death of Blair Peach. In the ployed'. Funded by the UFC, it has two stated aims: eighties anti-racist activism was in part supported by (1) to analyse the education and training guidance GLC initiatives and an activist voluntary sector flour- needs of bilingual ethnic minority women. ished for a while. (2) to analyse the factors in successful provision In recent years, many of these initiatives have become through a study of the principles, structure and more difficult to support in an era of increasing delivery of current guidance provision. conservatism and recession. The population profile of In terms of carrying out the research the project Southall has also changed as refugee groups, amongst divided neatly into two separately funded stages ofthem Somalis, have moved into the area, bringing one year each. The first year of the research was with them pressing needs related to education, hous- primarily concerned with interviewing the two se- ing and health. lected groups of women, Asian and Somali, in order to document their expressions ofeducation and train- Stage one: bilingual women interviewees ing guidance needs. The following and present year 7he interviews with bilingual women, like those with has so far being preoccupied with mapping and educational and training guidance providers, were documenting current guidance provision for adults in carried out using qualitative research methods. For the fieldwork area, the London Borough of Ealing both sets ofinterviews, structured interview schedu les and has consisted of interviews with a variety ofwere drawn up based upon previous informal meet- providers of adult education and training guidance. ings with the relevant groups. All in:..rviews were Prior to discussing the interviews and particular issues tape-recorded and transcribed. arising in more detail the first section of the paper Four groups ofwomen were outlined: women return- considers the geographical location of the research ers; women with overseas qualifications; unemployed and the significance of place. This is followed by a and those wanting to re-skill. An initial pivotal con- further two sections; the second provides a brieftact was Jasbir Panesar, the worker on the CEMS profile of the two groups of bilingual women inter- 'Asian Unemployed' project. Her wide network of viewees, how interviewees were contacted and focuses contacts provided an important and broad range of in brief upon the use of interpreters in research of this contacts, many ofwhich, especially those at grassroots nature. The final section describes the range of inter- level, would have otherwise been very difficult for me viewees who participated in the second stage 'pro- as an outsider and as a white woman to have estab- vider' interviews and looks at how the structural and lished. financial reorganisation of adult education services Jasbir introduced five key contacts; Shanti Niketran, affected thc pre..ess of ;he research. an Asian women's family centre based in a block of council flats in Southall; Golf Links Community Place Centre on thc Golf Links estate, where women at- Southall in the Nvest London Borough of Ealing has tended ESOL and Pre-school Playgroup Association one of the larges Asian populations in Britain. Asians classes; the Dominion Community Centre in the from the Punjab began to migrate to the arca in the heart of Southall, again via PPA classes and Pathway I 3 4 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

College (now part of the Ealing Tertiary College) for (1988) in particular has spoken about the apprentic- students whose first language is not English; a local ing of oneself in work with women of different racial authority outreach project. Avtar Brah carried out ten and ethnic backgrounds, a concept which became interviews in Punjabi through contact at the Shanti useful in this instance. Niketran Centre and the remainder Alison Kaye carried out by prior arrangement in individuals homes. Provider interviews Contact with Somali women was also made through Interviewees came from both the public and volun- the community centre network via Somali groups. tary sector and included local authority ESOL pro- Ultimately, one group, the Ealing Somali Welfareviders; Adult Education; Community Centres; Ca- and Cultural Association based in West Ealing proved reers Service; Ealing Tertiary College; West London to be the sole point of contact. The ESWCA provides TEC; Southall Black Sisters; Southall Law Centre; an important focal point for many Somalis living in community groups. The breadth of interviewees re- Ealing, providing as it does ESOL classes for women, flecting by and large the multi-faceted and wide Saturday classes for children and help and advice on ranging nature of education and training guidance a range of issues from housing to immigration. provision for adults in the locality. The interview Twenty-five Somali women, twenty-two via Somali schedule was designed to gather information about interpreters were interviewed by Alison Kaye. practioners knowledge, expertise and practice of adult education and training guidance. Interpreters Several of the interviewees had been contacted on an Interpreters were crucial to the success of interviews informal basis approximately one year previously as with Somali women as Alison Kaye, the researcher,part of the initial familiarisation with the structure spoke no Somali and the majority of women to beand provision of local guidance. During the elapse of interviewed spoke little or no English. In turn the that year several changes had taken place in the choice of interpreters; background and experience structure, funding and staffing of adult education and (RTEC 1992), gender and in the Somali context, clan guidance provision, so that when it came to inter- affiliation was central. In carrying out interviews ofviewing the 'providers', who and what had existed just this nature with women, especially refugees who have twelve months before was no longer the case. What undergone highly traumatic and intense life changing had become familiar and had initially been used as a situations in a short, troubled period of time, one ofbasis for the research had changed. This had several the main aims is to make interviews as relaxed and consequences as far as both the research aims and the unitirnidating as possible. Ideally the interpreters actual process of research were concerned, both of would be familiar with the women who agreed to be which are of course closely interconnected. interviewed. Initially the task which presented itself was to docu- Fortunately, the ESWCA was able to suggest two ment the changes, both to map new vistas ofguidance fluent English speaking women, Asha and Khadiga,1 provision and to identify interviewees for the second refugees themselves who agreed to act as interpreters. stage. There were two major changes but with myriad Asha and Khadiga were both involved in the activities and as yet largely unkown effects; one was the shift in of ESWCA and were therfore well known to the financial and organisational lesponsibility for adult women. Both had previous experience of interpretingeducation from the local authority to Ealing Tertiary in a variety of situations and were skilled in bothCollege (known as ETC!) and the second savage interpreting and interviewing. As refugee women across-the-board cuts in council services and person- themselves they shared a common background with nel. the interviewees who in turn could identify withThe national movement in the shift to tertiary col- them, a crucial factor in these interviews. leges manifested itself in Ealing with the amalgama- In fact their knowledge and experience became as tion of Southall, Ealing and Acton FE colleges, important to the research as their interpreting skills Southall having incorporated Pathway College for and they came to act as 'key informants'. Both in the students whose first language is not English the particular areas of the research and in the broader previous year. The result of this was that Pathway, issues facing Somali refugee women in rebuilding previoulsy independent, had now been incorporated new lives for themselves and their families in London. into the wider college and, as elsewhere, its staff and A vital aspect ofwork with interpreters is the relation- student services suffered redundancies and cuts. As far ship which develops between the interpreters and theas the researh was concerned, Pathway was an impor- researcher. From the beginning both interpreters tant contact, given its role as a major providerof FE were closely involved in the developmentof thefor bilingual students in the borough. Prior to the interview schedule and were closely consulted about restructuring and cuts it had provided an in-house the background of Somali refugee women. Spel manguidance service with a multi-disciplinary student

13 4 1993 SCUTRIA CONFERENCE PAPERS 135 support te.un which seemed to be an ideal model. stage interviews and there were no plans for its future. This had now disappeared. Asian women attending However the workers remained employees of the the college had alreay participated in the research and council, albeit in different posts. Did we go ahead and it had been anticipated that further research would be interview workers about a project which was now in done there. the past? Similarly, cuts within Ealing Council had also altered How interviewees chose to react was undoubtedly the map of guidance provision for adults. Partly as a influenced by the cuts and changes in job descriptions result of central government pressure and the advent so that confidentiality, always an integral part of of a Tory council in 1990, Ealing residents, as far as research, became a pressing matter for several inter- guidance provision is concerned, have effectively lessviewees. Connected to this was how individuals rated public access to guidance services than in the past ten the intrinsic and immediate value of the research. yeais. Cuts in guidance provision have been affected Often demoralised by the changes which had occured by three issues; the first referred to above is the shift and frequently unsure of the future, both in terms of in provision of adult education to the tertiary colleges; their individual careers and in that of adult guidance, secondly the shift in emphasis to the TECs 2S EGSA justifying the research and its potential benefits had to providers although they are under no legal obligation be approached with a great deal of tact. to provide it; the third is the fact that local authorities Finally there is the issue of how the research is written like the TECs do not have to provide adult guidance up. Given the restructuring which has taken place, as a statutory obligation unlike Careers Guidance for how is the future of educational guidance and train- 16-19 year olds, so that the council cut its already ing to be presented? How and in what light is the limited, oversubscribed, non-publicised service for material to be presented? adults. The effects ofthese transitions upon the research were FOOTNOTE several-fold. Practically there was the question of contact; targetted interviewees had often stayed in the 1 'Asha' and Khadiga' are aliases to protect the identity of same organisation but shifted jobs, whilst several had the women employed 2S interpreters on the project. undergone greater or lesser changes in their job de- fcription. As a researcher trying to contact people telephonically one of the most immediate impres- REFERENCES sions created by the change was that people had become considerably more difficult to get hold of and Brah, A. (1979), Inter-Generational and Inter-Ethnic Per- seemed to have become, if they had stayed in work, ceptions: A Comparative Study ofSouth Asian and Eng- much more embroiled in bureaucratic organisation. lish Adolescents and Thdr Parents in Southall. Unpub- The extent to which they had moved away from lished PhD thesis, University of Bristol. guidance work with adults varied and this caused Marshall, T. (1992), Careers Guidance with Refagees. RTEC, considerable confusion both on the part of the re- London. searcher and the potential interviewee. For example Spelman, E. V. (1988), Inessential Woman: Problems of an outreach guidance initiative run by the council had &elusion in Feminist Thought. Thc Women's Press, ceased to be in operation by the rime of the second London.

135 13 6RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Collaborative research practices and the wider community: the case of the trade unions

Keith Forrester University of Leeds 1

Introduction research activity and the wider trade union through THE increasing importance and significance, over the development of trade union plans of action. In the last decade, of research activities in British each ca., a group of employees worked with a team universities for institutional well-being and individual of adult educa:ionalists. A detailed evaluation of these career development has, it seems, mirrored a parallel research expert mces has been provided elsewhere trend which increasingly views the nature of social (Forrester, 19%). This paper will instead reflect on research as a given, non-problematic activity. Increas- those research p,rojects and focus on how Tawney's ingly absent from the recent social science literature 'social interests' shapes and influences the character are the debates and broadsides angrily firedoff by the and direction of social research activities. In particu- likes of Lynd (1939), Becker (1967) or C W Mills lar, the paper will focus on the nature of a collaborative (1959). Increasingly absent too is the recognition by research experience and how this collaboration im- the industrial relations research community of the pacts on conceptions of research. It will be argued that partiality resulting from too close an association with such a collaborative project, involving other social employers' interests or money. Recent exceptions to audiences, must confront and contest five critical this growing trend include the growing literature on issues. These critical issues raise much larger theoreti- feminist methodology (Hammersley, 1992; Harding, cal concerns but nevertheless forcefully push the 1987; Bowles et al 1983; Harding et al 1983) and 'doing of the research' along particular paths. within education studies where there has been a long established interest in pupil-teacher learning con- Understanding the process of collaboration cerns (Winter, 1979;Kemry is et al 1982). TheAttempting to understand the nature of 'collabora- pedagogic concerns of University adult continuing tion' within a research practice is complex. At its most education has similarly ensured that the category ofsimple level, collaboration implies a sentiment of research remains a contested area to a greater extent cooperation, mutuality or solidarity between the than is evident in most other areas of scholarship. researcher(s) and research subjects. Collaboration Nowhere is this perhaps more evident within adult suggests a jointness or sharing of tasks and experi- continuing education than in the areas of community ences. A workers' report or a communityresearch and labour education (Ward et al 1986). Despite the project might be so labelled because the research forebodings of various practitioners such as Collins question has been essentially formulated by workers (1991) who warns against the 'increasingly array of or community activists. At its most minimallevel, the pedagogical techniques' and 'trappings of a cult of 'collaboration' might have resulted from the financial efficiency' within adult continuing education, a prac- buying of research expertise over a particular ques- tice linked to satisfring collective economic and social tion:an unfortunately common occurrencethat needs ensures that conceptions of research remain often results in disappointment and cynicism by the contentions and problematic. As Tawney (1926) sponsoring voluntary organisation. argued some seventy years ago, 'if you w-mt educa- Noble2Sthe above sentiments may be in understand- tion' or research, 'you must not cut it off from the ing the nature of collaboration within the process of social interests in which it has its living and perennial research they are ultimately inadequate. A collabora- sources'. tive research experience is one which, by the very This paper reviews three colt aborat ive research projects process, confronts what is understood byresearch. involving different groups of trade unionists in the The distinctive feature of the collaboration is a meth- Yorkshire area undertaken in the 1980s. Leeds odological concern. Collaboration, in other words, is busworkers sought to understand the sources of their ultimately noz about who pays or who formulated the ill-health, catalogue mail-order workers sought to research questions or the membership of the research develop altetnative strategies to those of the employ- team (such as trade unionists, community activists, ers in the introduction of new tech nologand finally, women) or who is involved in the data collection representatives from a number of manufacturing com- techniques. Rather, collaboration shapes and influ- panies investigated the link between local workplace ences what can be known, how can wc knowand why 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 137 we want to know. A collaborative research experience research itself is a small but important aspect of a confronts what can be accepted or legitimated as wider audience such as tenants on an estate, unwaged knowledge. As such there is an intimate relationship people in a community or employees within a com- between methodological concerns and epistemologi- pany. The research activity 'intervenes' within this cal issues. Methodologically, collaborative research greater whole while being, at the same time, one of the activities engage with the more common or tradi- nurr er aus forms of activity undertaken by the non- tional conceptions of 'how research should be under- researching collective. Failure to integrate adequately taken'. the research within the wider audience will result in the research activity becoming marginalised, or 'aca- Collaborative research in practice demic'. A weakness of those challenging the dominant em- Fourthly, the rok of the independent researchers piricist conception of science (McNiff, 1988; Usher within a collaborative research design is part of the Byrant 1989) is often the absence of articulated research process and available for scrutiny in the conceptions of practice characterising alternative re- results of the research. Far from being an invisible, search strategies. Listed below are, it is suggested, the anonymous voice of au thority detached and objec- essential methodological characteristics of a collabo- tive as is usually the case in social research, the rative research practice. Each of the areas contribute researchers appear as real, historical individuals with towards a conception of the research process which concrete specific values and interests. 'Only in this qualitatively differs from dominant understandingsway can we hope to produce understandings and of 'what is to be understood' as knowledge genera- explanations which are free (or, at least, more free) of tion. Firstly, a collaborative research project is shaped, distortion from unexamined beliefs and behaviours of throughout the activity, by the views and experiences the social scientists themselves' (Harding, 1987:9). of the participating research 'subjects'. From the Fifthly, collaborative research practices are likely to be origins of the research activity and formulation of characterised by not only a logic of research but also research questions through to the various outcomes, of action. The process of 'knowing' is intimately the incorporation of community or labour experi- linked to a wider objective of'doing' and then ences are central. The traditional invisibility of such perhaps 'knowing' again. Emancipatory objectives concerns and the detached and distancing of such are in tricably linked with the production of knowl- experiences within traditional research designs are edge. The 'truth' and value of knowledge generation rejected. What questions are asked, and, even more activities are not ultimately dependent on particular significantly, those that are not asked contributeprinciples and rules, but on the potential to orient the towards the adequacy of the final picture. process of praxis towards progressive emancipation Secondly, a collaborative research experience will and humanisation' (Mies, 1983:124). This linking of develop and use a range of methods of data collection 'knowledge' and 'activity' is perhaps the most fragile denied to traditional methodologies and so have a yet complex of tasks. Given that the research phase is greater explanatory power than traditional social in- likely to be part of wider project involving a larger quiry. Uncontentious techniques familiar to much (sometimes, much larger) audience with its own social research will be in evidence but, additionally, decision-making structures, there is the distinct pos- other methods available only to the participatingsibility that the integration, patterns and sequence of audience will be identified or designed. Involvement 'learning' and 'doing' will be severely disrupted and so in the process of research together with the develop- severing the researching from the wider collective ment of innovative methods qualitatively contributes activity. 'Getting it right', on the other hand, prom- towards an understanding of what can be known and ises a qualitative deepening and extending of the whether 'subjective truths' count as knowledge. Rather research activity. than being relegated to the domain ofphilosophers ofIrrespective of the complexity in forging a collabora- science, such epistemological concerns are an integral tive research activity and the tensions inherent within part of 'doing the research'. such a relationship between the researcher and re- Thirdly, a collaborative research design will include search 'subjects', the five areas listed above advocate questions of decision making and forms of account- and provide the basis of a different framework of ability as central continuing concerns of the research understanding and thus a different framework for process. The nature, dircction and outcomes of anyestablishing 'facts'. What is to be understood as particular collaborative research experience will be 'science' from this perspective rests on distinct meth- crucially affected by thc decision making within the odological and, therefore, epistemological principles research process and the forms of accountability link- to the more dominant natural science tradition. Both ing this research activity to a wider collective audi- traditions, it can be argued, rest on different assump- ence. In most examples of collaborative research, thetions and principles regarding what is knowledge 137 1 3 8 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE about the social world and how it can be legitimately Reali, Dordrecht, Reidel. produced. Uniquely, however, the collaborative re- Harding S. (ed) (1987) Feminism and Methodology, search perspective flows from Tawney's 'social inter- Bloomington, Indiana University Press. ests' and at the same time develops the means by Kemmis, S,. Bartleth, L. and Gellard, G. (eds) (1982) The which people in the community or at work confront, Action-research Pkinner, Victoria, Deakin University critically and creatively, reality in the attempt to Press. transform that reality (Forresteret al.1993). Lynd, R. S. (1939) Knowledge fir What? Social Science, Privacy and Ethics, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books. REFERENCES Mies, M. (1983) 'Towards a methodology for feminist research' in G. Bowles and R. Duelli Klein, Theories of Becker, H. S. (1967) 'Whose side are we on?' in Social Women's Studies, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul. Problems, 14, pp 239-47. Mills, C. W. (1959) The Sociological Imagination, Oxford, Collins, M. (1991) Adult Education as Vocation: A Critical Oxford University Press. Rote fir the Adult Educator, London, Routledge. Tawney, R. H. (1926) Adult Education in the history ofthe Forrester, K. (1992) Research as Engagement: Strengthening nation, paper presented at Annual Conference of the the links between Trade Unions and Research Organisa- British Institute of Adult Education. tions. PhD Thesis, Leeds, University of Leeds. Ward, K. and Taylor, R. (eds) (1986) Adult Education and Forrester, K. and Thorne, C. (eds) (1993). Trade Unions the Working Class: Education fir the Missing Millions, and Social Research, Aldershot, Avebuty. London, Croom Helm. Hammersley, M. (1992) 'On Feminist Methodology' in Winters, R. (1978) Action-research and the Nature ofSocial Sociology. Volume 26, No 2, pp 187-206. Inquiry: Professional Innovation and Educational Work, Harding, S. and Hintikka M. (eds) (1983) Discovering London, Macmillan.

138 1993 SCUTREA CONPE.RENCE PAPERS 139 Student research and LEA adult and continuing education: 'They always promise never produce'

Helen Jones University of Leeds

WEN university staff talk about research, they involvement could lead to new opportunities. Addi- are referring to a wide range of activities tionally, this would avoid circumstances where the leading to the increase in the sum of knowledge, only immediate beneficiaries of the research were the greater understanding, modification of practice and, students themselves. As one worker pointed out, of course, publication. When students talk about patients in hospitals are accustomed to being sur- research, they are referring to an exercise which, first rounded by student doctors who are not yet qualified and often foremost, contributes to the attainment of to diagnose and treat. This relationship between the qualification for which they are studying. It is the student and subject requires sympathy and patience experience of being the victim of the latter which has on the part of the subject and is of no assistance to led to concern amongst staff, students and users ofthem but is of incalculable value to the student. LEA adult and continuing education centres which However, the worker suggested that this is not a could have serious implications for their future co- desirable model in the context of students undertak- operation both with staffand with students undertak- ing research, despite the fact that the students are ing research. Anecdotal evidence concerning being future workers in the field. There is no reason why the subject of research is not hard to find and ques- students undertaking research should not engage in tions concerning experiences elicit responses which investigations which local workers believe to be useful can be strong. One experienced worker said that and thus refute accusations of 'leeching' off people. researchers, 'regard people like us as a resource a Many workers could suggest suitable small scale lost tribe' and that they 'show scant regard for us projects which they would value, sometimes out of despite their proclaimed liberal attitudes'. It is impor- interest but often in order to measure the effectiveness tant to examine the areas of concern raised by adult and impact of their work. The student could have the and continuing education workers together with their advantage of perceived neutrality and achieve studies suggestions which could lead to a more fruitful, two- impossible for workers to undertake themselves. way relationship between students undertaking re- An additional aspect of the question of students search as part of pre-degree and first degree courses undertaking research into areas for which they are not and the subjects of that research. Research is now an necessarily suited is the position into which this forces element of courses as diverse as architecture, youth the workers in adult and continuing education. It and community work, health education, organisation could be suggested that University and college staff studies and social work as well as teaching and educa- held some responsibility for not explaining difficul- tion. Adult and continuing education workers, stu- ties and guiding students into more suitable areas, for dents and users have encountered researchers from example allowing men to imagine that they would be this entire list. able to undertake research in a women's centre. The first difficulty involves the selection of the actual Although university and college staff may imagine subject or topic for research. Workers observed that that there is an important learning experience for the students often seemed to be attracted to a narrow student researcher in meeting such a situation, this is range of topics. Sometimes individuals, inexperi- presuming on the confidence and experience of the enced in undertaking research, seemed to have been workers in the community adult education centre and ill-advised by university or college staff. The instance also assumes that they have time to spend on work was cited of white students researching the sensitive that ought to have been done within the course. subject of the suicide rate among young Asian women. Furthermore, some researchers' initial approaches Adult and continuing education workers agreed that were also found to show a lack of sensitivity. Given they could suggest interesting and fruitful topics that the work is inherently flexible, they imagined suitable for student research which would benefit all that visits were always welcomed and no official involved. Whilst students' freedom to select a topic is approach prior to the research was required. Quoting important, there is the possibility that they are not the centre's publicity, which invited people to 'drop fully cognizant with the full range of possibilities, in', one researcher was angry when nobody was avail- especially if they are new to a town, and workers' able at that moment to participate in a survey. Others t 40 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

failed to appreciate the role of local management copies of the research were not forthcoming and that committees and omitted to approach them to seek this was illustrative of a lack of sensitivity and respect their permission or agreement before the research was on the researchers' part. Seidman, writing about started. There was also a lack of sensitivity to issues ofinterviewing, describes one model; 'My practice has race and gender both in choice ofsubject and manner been to offer to share with participants any material of approach. that concerns them. I especially want to know if in The second area of difficulty is closely related. For working with the interview data I have done anything example, research into the levels of racism operating that makes them vulnerable, or if I have presented within a centre, a topic ofappeal to students, ought to anything that is not accurate...I retain the right to reveal to the workers something of which they arewrite the final report as I see it'2. Participants are aware. Only longitudinal research will tell workers entitled to have their rights to anonymiry, privacy and whether thework they are doing is having any positive confidentiality respected. In addition, they are enti- impact or neutral or even detrimental effects. Al- tled to have their wishes respected; for example, a though the organisational demands of an academic refusal to be photographed may be based on previous course may appear incompatible with research with a experience of the misuse of photos. time lapse element, it might be possible to arrangeThe Data Protection Act offers protection against links between single courses and centres. This would inaccurate computer dara. Many records have to be make longitudinal research possible although differ- available to individuals concerned. However, where ent students would be involved each year. The re- research is concerned, there seems to be no opportu- search itself would be of potentially great value to nity for such access. Workers remarked that research- adult and continuing education workers and would ers often promised to discuss drafts of their reports thus render the experience of the researcher infinitely and always promised to send a copy of their com- more satisfactory than the customary one-sided rela- pleted work but that they never delivered. This could tionship. have serious implications for workers, management Workers suggested that there were often a lack ofclear committees and centres as a whole, particularly within research objectives or conversely, an unshakable hy- voluntary organisations where there were possible pothesis which research was undertaken to prove. funding implications. In some cases, conclusions Both were thought to be the result of insufficient included criticism which, in the workers' opinion, guidance by university and college staff. The dangerwas based on an incomplete understanding of the of finding evidence to support utterly opposing sup-context, background and environment, or was the positions is particularly acute in community contexts result of the workers' failure to explain what they and the short time allotted to much student research meant intelligibly. Where practice is questioned, it is increased the risk. Mitchell, writing on the topic ofimportant that the findings are shared with the work- being researched, describes a researcher who, 'had a ers and users whose work, attitudes or behaviour are very cliar preconceived notion and whose research criticised and that researchers appreciate the fact that ;was being used to provide evidence to confirm her their work could have results beyond the gaining of a already fixed ideas'1. This was clearly unlikely toqualification for themselves. Bell advises researchers generate confidence in participating workers, stu- to inform participants whether the information is Tor dents and users who needed to feel that the researcher your eyes and those of the examiner only' 3. This is was willing to listen and learn and did not holdunlikely to be possible due to cross-marking and entrenched ideas or prejudices. external examiners. There is a possibility that the Continuing education centre students and users tend researcher may not appreciate the fact that their work to react in one of two ways at the prospect of being may be read by university or college staff and external involved. A few are suspicious, a feeling sometimes examiners who coincidentally have a role on bodies resulting from experiences with various officials and where local policy or funding priorities are deter- agencies. Many are pleased to talk about their opin- mined. Although staff and external examiners will ions and experiences and feel that this shows that theirshow integrity, there is clearly the chance that 'inside ideas are valued. The researcher has to take responsi- information' could inform the decisions they make, bility for explaining the nature of the research, the even unconsciously. Thus there could be serious participants' rights and what would be done with the implications for thc very existence of the project. results of the study. The right of the staff, users and The implications of the experiences of the victims of students who had been researched to read the com- research include not only the obvious reluctance to pleted work should be established, or it would need to participate in future or the withdrawal of co-opera- be made clear that confidentiality would mean that tion but also the temptation to indulge in deliberately this right did not apply. Workers were unanimous in mischievous fabrication of anecdotal evidence. There agreeing that participants were disappointed when arc several possible forms ofaction which can be taken

1 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 141 to improve the situation and workers in adult andThe number of pre-degree and first degree courses continuing education appear keen to see the develop- requiring students to undertake research is grow;mg ment of systems which they feel would benefit all and so it is timely to address the subject. Although parties involved. Firstly, workers might be involved in workers in LEA adult and continuing education outlining possible topics for student research; theircentres are busy, there seemed to be a general enthu- co-operation and corn m i tment would be greater where siasm for involvement in research and for the new research was of interest to their centre as well as perspectives which students offered. Workers' con- meeting the personal and academic requirements ofcerns and suggestions are often based on years of the researcher. Such discussions could end the phe- practical experience and their involvement could lead nomenon ofwhat one worker described as 'research of to students having the chance to undertake work of the bloody obvious' either by encouraging the re- practical use to workers, students or users in centres. search of previously unexplored topics or by showing Provided an environment of mutual respect and workers that 'obvious' was their personal and subjec- understanding is established, all parties involved will tive interpretation. Secondly, preparations for re- gain from the experience and it could prove to be a search should include the establishment ofclear crite- useful and exciting opportunity for everyone in- ria with regard to the rights of participants especially volved. vis-a-vis confidentiality, anonymity and the sharing of the final report. Courses need to include discussion FOOTNOTES around these issues together with that ofsensitivity to the people and subject matter of the research since 1 Mitchell, P., (1985), 'On being researched' in Shipman there is potential for disruption and even damage if M. (ed), Educational Research: Principles, Policies and inappropriate behaviour or methods are employed. It Practices, The Falmer Press, Lewes, East Sussex, p86. is essential that colleges and universities take respon- 2Seidman, I E., (1991), Interviewing as Qualitative sibility for ensuring that all students undertaking Research, Teachers College Press, New York, p74. research understand that not only are people 'who 3B:11, J., (1987), Doing Your Research Project, Open agree to help ... doing you a favour'4 but also that University Press, Milton Keynes, p46. participants have rights. 4 Bell, J., op.cit., p47

141 142 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Negotiating the minefield: practical and political issues in policy research

Janice Malcolm University of Leeds

ONE of the major strands in continuing educa- on a day-to-day basis, or from ephemeral documen- tion research has long been a focus on practice tary evidence of questionable status. The most obvi- the facilitation and individual experience oflearn- ous frustration in this situation is the phenomenon of ing which may, intentionally or otherwise, exclude 'instant history' no sooner has a sentence hit the any broader analysis of the social impact of particular page than the tide of events seems to deprive it of forms of practice. Another major strand has been the whatever validity it may have had. But this is some- focus on the actual and desired roles and functions ofthing one can learn to live with. Of greater signifi- CE in its political and social context how things are cance are the methodological difficulties of research- and how far this diverges from how things ought to be ing policy in continuing education, and the political often with little explicit attention to the changes in and ethical difficulties which work in this field poses policy and practice which might result in desirablefor both the researcher and the researched. change. These two 'micro' and 'macro' strands have The conceptually slippery nature of policy as a field of usually run parallel courses and have only rarely been study may be one of the reasons why it has remained combined to produce a perspective on the social an unattractive choice for many CE researchers. The consequences of specific aspects of educational prac- arguments about the competing claims of various tice. This lack of a more fully integrated perspectivedisciplines to 'ownership' of the field, and whether has given rise to a situation where arguments about particular areas of policy require their own varieties of continuing education policy frequently rake place on analysis, not to mention long-stand ingdisputes about a largely speculative (albeit obviously ideological) theory, methodology and measurement, might sug- level; policies are advocated or opposed as if the gest that there are more secure and respectable ways of protagonists were certain of their consequences, al- employing one's research skills. However as we know though the evidence from which this certainty derives there is, from a methodological standpoint at least, no may be either flimsy and circumstantial, or purely such thing as secure research. theoretical. Policy research can be seen as a possible The practical difficulties of carrying out policy re- point of intersection between these two strands, where search are not confined to the field of education, attempts can be made to integrate the evidence gleaned although they have been more comprehensively ex- from practice with broader social and political analy- plored in other areas. Classical 'experimental' designs ses. for evaluating the impact of policy usually involv- One possible explanation for the relative scarcity ofing control groups who are not exposed to the policy policy-oriented research in CE is that it is just too 'treatment', and the measurement of variables at the difficult todo. It presents particular problems, whether beginning and end of a programme are well-nigh it is research on policy or research for policy the impossible to arrange, and in any case raise a number distinction may amount on the face of it to little more of questions about the ethics, desirability and validity than a difference in funding, but this in itself has of such an approach which have been well rehearsed implications, both for the ease with which the re- elsewhere. The simplicity of the experimental design search can be carried out, and for the political con- may nevertheless have a superficial attraction for the straints to which it is subject. Often it is concerned epistemologically-challenged researcher, despite its with a situation which continues to develop unpre-major weaknesses, because its scientific antecedents dictably as the research is being carried out, and which seem to offer the tantalising hope of finding data that has no clearly-defined boundaries. A historical per- might just be construed as facts. Unfortunately it may spective is required to enable the situation to be be thecase that, as a number ofwriters havesuggested, explained in terms of its evolution, and this is likely to the greater the degree of technical rigour employed in present problems which are common to other varie- assessing the impact ofpol icy, the more likely it is that ties of historical research. However, much data-gath- the net effects will be found to bc zero. (Rossi and ering in policy research involves examining very re- Freeman, 1985) This might provide an (albeit cyni- cent or even current events and eliciting information cal) clue to the reasons for the alleged lack if rigour in from people who may still be engaged in these events much educational research; if rigour would simply 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 143 permit us to demonstrate that our work had no that, regardless ofwhether the researcher's theory will discernible impact on anything, we should perhaps be withstand scrutiny, it may not be the only theory foolish to pursue our research in any but the sloppiest applied to the research findings. Research about policy manner possible. Less cynically, one might suggest always has at least a dual function: it helps to inform 1 that the marked preference for exclusively qualitative our own arguments about which policy initiatives are methods in continuing education research, whilstlikely to produce particular outcomes, but it also providing us with many valuable insights, has left the provides policy-makers and other interested parties field unbalanced and unnecessarily difficult to defend with evicitnce about the utility and social conse- and promote in policy terms. quences of particular educational initiatives. The Policy researchers in continuing education often find researcher may have very little control over the uses to themselves working backwards in experimental terms. which his or her work is put; and this is where They may start by considering a current situation questions of morality and political expediency begin the 'results' of policy and use this as a basis for to loom large, both for the researcher and for the discovering the original aims ofa policy initiative, the subjects of research. These are of course not new extent to which it has been 'successfully' imple- questions, either in education (e.g. Finch, 1986) or in mented, and what its effects have been. They are thus social science in general (Becker, 1967 and countless piecing together the theory of the policy, which may others since), but one could argue that they require not be congruent with their own theoretical perspec- further consideration in continuing education, a field tive, and the processes involved in implementation, of policy in which the bases and processes of formu- on the basis of evidence which is likely to be both lation and implementation have been only partially highly subjective and incomplete. At the same time explored, and are now being transformed. they must maintain their own theoretical perspective A practitioner colleague recently commented on a in order to evaluate both the theory and the processes draft paper of mine concerning policy issues: 'Don't involved; they are therefore frequently working on ask questions to which you don't want to know the two levels simultaneously. To give the problem a answers'. This defensive and expedient view was more sophisticated formulation, they probablyperhaps illustrative of a common problem. I did wouldn't have decided to go there in the first piace (ifindeed want to know the answers, but whatever they 'there' can be identified at all), but if they had, they turned out to be, they could have no consequences for wouldn't have started from here. This naturally mag- me other than intellectual ones; a minor revision of nifies the usual difficulties of inferring causality be- my Weltanschauung, or an interesting new angle on tween policy and outcomes, identifying the 'slippage my research, perhaps. But for others practitioners, between planning and implementation' (Chen, 1990 managers, students, institutions the answers, de- p. 56), distinguishing specific conditions for out- pending on how they were interpreted and utilised, comes, and the perennially-vexed question of meas-could have far-reaching consequences which might urement, to several times their normal size. be neither predictable nor necessarily positive. Of Methodological problems, of which those cited here course it might be argued that to imagine one's are only examples, might be seen as a mere irritation research will have any consequences at all is either or even an irrelevance if pol icy were simply an abstrac- narcissistic or naive, or both; Booth's avuncular ad- tion and of interest only to a small and obscure group vice is that while it is right for [policy researchers] of academics; one could argue and theorise indefi- to believe in the value of what they do it is arrogance nitely without ever impinging on the lives of others, to have too much faith in its importance' (Booth, or indeed reaching even the most tentative of conclu- 1988 p. 253). Clearly it is possible that no-one will sions. However, academics in continuing education read one's work but perhaps John Patten will, and actually engage continually in debates with others his interpretation of it may differ markedly from one's about whether and why particular policies should be own. Finch cites the example of a researcher, a sup- adopted, retained or discontinued, and how they porter of comprehensive schooling, being discom- should be implemented. Policy decisions about con- fited to hear her work being cited on a radio pro- tinuing education, whether they are taken at an gramme by Brian Cox as evidence that educational institutional, a national or an international level, selection should be retained (Finch, 1986 p213); the must eventually have tangible consequences for indi- meaning attributed to research findings is clearly at viduals and for social groups, and this is presumably least partially dependent upon the ideological stance one of the reasons why we bother to argue about of those who use them. It is therefore equally naive to them. attribute so little practical significance to one's work One response to methodological despair is to point that the range of possible consequences is ignored. out, with some justification. that research is only as The choice for the researcher is to abandon the issue sound as the theory behind it. Thc problem here is on the grounds that some questions arc best left 143 14 4RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE unasked, or to take the risk of asking the question in turn can lead to unhealthy professional entrench- the hope that the 'answering' process may ultimately ment. This leaves continuing education in a weak have positive consequences, either in terms o fa cl earer position when its practices and professional wisdom understanding of the consequences of educational are subjected to unsympathetic or even hostile inter- processe, (better theory), or in the form of improved rogation, as has been happening recently. It is now less educational provision (better practice). easy than it once was to use a cloak of professional Questions about the power relations between re- expertise or political purity to protect ourselves from searchers and their subjects, accountability in re- 'inappropriate' questions about the social (or even search and the possibility or desirability of 'ethical economic!) value of our work; we are forced into a neutrality' have exercised the minds ofsocial scientists position where justifications for practice have to be for many years. Two of the roles commonly adopted provided, often in terms we consider to be inept. by continuing education researchers as a means of However, it is preferable for those of us in continuing dealing with some of these questions are those of the education proactively to ask difficult and delicate advocate or of the committed and active participant; questions, and to attempt to provide answers for these roles may feel more comfortable to the re- ourselves, than to react indignantly and defensively to searcher than the adoption of a spurious neutrality, outsiders who have the temerity to demand answers particularly since educational research, unlike much which we do not have. The process of doing this is social science research, is frequently carried out bydeeply problematic and also risky; it requires us to practitioners themselves. They may also help the explore more fully the subtle distinctions between an researcher to avoid uncooperative responses from admitted lack of neutrality and a straightforward wary or vulnerable subjects and in policy research surrender to bias, and to seek an unaccustomed the subjects may also be practitioners or other distance between ourselves and our practice. A clearer 'stakeholders' in the policy process, who perhaps haveand better-substantiated theoretical basis for our con- good reason to be wary. However the adoption oftributions to the policy process is necessary if our such a role clearly raises a number of political, ethical interventions are to amount to more than a prag- and indeed epistemological problems; in extreme matic, and possibly misguided, plea for the retention cases it may give rise to 'the danger of becomingand extension of that which already exists. excessively committed to a 'cause' to the point where integrity is abandoned for the blind pursuit of an REFERENCES obsession' (Heller, 1986 p. 15). A more common and less extreme scenario is that the researcher's explicitly Becker, H.S. (1967) 'Whose side are we on?', Social Prob- partisan stance sanctions a selectivity in the use, lems, 14, 3 manipulation and interpretation ofdata which can be Booth, T. (1988) Developing Polity Research, Avebuty sufficient to cast considerable dcubt on the validity Chen, H. (1990) Theory-Driven Evaluations, Sage and applicability of the research, although the re- Finch, J. (1986) Research and Policy: the Uses ofQualitative searcher's 'integrity' remains intact. Methods in Social and Educational Research, Falrner This approach rarely throws up any unpalatable an- Heller, , F. (ed.) (1986) The Use and Abuse ofSocial Science, swers; that is not what itis intended to do. It is Sage therefore more likely to confirm than to challenge the Rossi, P.H. and Freeman, H.E. (1985) Evaluation: a researcher's own theoretical framework, which in Systematic Approach, Sage 1 9 9 3 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 1 4 $ Research and development issues for vocational education and training

Rod McDonald, Geoff Hayton, Andrew Gonczi and Paul Hager University of Technology, Sydney Australia

AST year an Australia-wide government-funded profession than others. Research problems arise partly Lproject was established to provide advice in the from these issues, as well as the problem generally of formation of a national research and development vocational education and training generally having strategy for vocational education and training. Dur- less 'kudos' attached to it, a problem that carries over ing the course of the project (McDonald et al. 1993) into research. a number of basic issues emerged which areas relevant to all adult education research as they are to the Categories of research and development specific area of vocational education. These issues are To help us discuss the different types of research and the subject of this paper. development, we classify R&D under the following headings. Applied research is categorised as either The background `general-issues-based' or 'client-specific'. Although Research and development in vocational education there is sometimes some overlap it is useful to discuss and training in Australia has spanned a remarkably them separately: diverse range of agencies, subject disciplines and research methodologies. This diversity is both a RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT strength and a weakness. The strength arises from the IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING wide and rich range of perspectives that are available from the disciplinary origins of vocational education FUNDAMENTA APPLIED DEVELOPMENT and training researchers, which include psychology, RESEARCH RESEARCH sociology, econom ics, labour markets, industrial rela- tions, physical sciences, philosophy and history. This GENERAL CLIENT - ISSUES ORIENTED brings with it the potential to apply the different APPLIED APPLIED disciplinary backgrounds to research, although there RESEARCH RESEARCH arc still relatively few researchers with expertise in the disciplines of economics and industrial relations. The weakness ariscs because there is little dialogue be- Types of research and development tween researchers across subject disciplines and few cases of multidisciplinary investigation of the major Current research expenditure issues requiring research in vocational education and Only about half as much is spent on research in training.A significant recent development is the in- vocational education and training (as a proportion of creasing research activity in vocational education and recurrent expenditure) as is spent on research in the training in some of the new" universities. Academics other sub-fields of education. in these universitio , in which vocational education Nearly all of thc funding is for problem-oriented and training schoo"s and departments are mostlycommissioned research, and very little funding is located, are being encouraged to undertake research, directed to general-issues-based research or funda- and this is leadint,4 to a rapid increase in research mental research in vocational education and training. activity in vocational education and training.The Most resources are, in fact, allocated to development amount of rasearch carried out, however, and the projects, particularly curriculum development at na- extent of its application, remain at an unsatisfactory tional, state or local level. Furthermore, the propor- level. Research into vocational education and training tion oftotal funding allocated to research is extremely has in some ways reflected some of the problems ofsmall. The level of expenditure on research in voca- vocational education and training itself. Vocational tional education is low relative to education generally, education has never really been accepted as part of the and very low relative to research expenditure in other education profession or as part of the economic and fields. This again might be related to the perceived labour market profession, and vocational teachers low status of the sector compared to education and and trainers arc less part of the general education other fields. 145 146 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

Shortcomings in Australia's current research c. Lack of use of research Throughout the course of the project, the messagesEven more of a problem than the small amount of on the state of R&D in vocational education and research is the lack of application of research; there is training were clear: a need to reapply the outcomes of good research conducted in the past to current issues of concern, a. current research is fragmented; although this will often require the adaptation of b. there is little fundamental and general-issues- terms into today's language (see Stevenson 1992 for based research in vocational education and an elaboration of this point). There is also potential to training; apply some fundamental research in other fields and c. the research that exists is often not applied; disciplines to vocational education and training con- d. the big issues in vocational education and cerns. training need much more intensive research; e. a strong critique of vocational education and d. Concentrating on the 'big' issues training policies and programs is absent1. There was also agreement on the need to focus research resources on the 'big' issues in vocational education and training. Examples of `big' issues that a. Fragmentation of currentresearch were cited include Current research is seen as too thinly spread over a the economic benefits of vocational education and wide range of topics, with many important issues training, being under-researched or not researched at all. This the relationship between workplace training and perception is supported by an analysis of the research productivity literature in vocational education and training pub- workplace changes and their effect on vocational lished from 1987 to 1992. education and training, The analysis of the research literature also shows that the value of competency-based training few Australian researchers are researching each topic. learning processes In most of the areas of research seen as important, the assessment of competency and key competencies. number of researchers is seen as below the critical This need is not unique to Australia. The following mass needed to make significant progress; further- f,tatement (made about one of the above issues) ap- more, many researchers work on a wide range ofpears in a recent British book: topics over time. One likely reason for this is the high With the imminent wide scale introduction of proportion of commissioned research in vocational National Vocational Qualifications ... one might education and training. Researchers are being funded have surmised that Competency Based Learning to do research in issues or topics selected by the major would have assumed a prominent and impor- commissioning bodies, and the issues or topics tend tant focus for research and debate in British to be relevant to the commissioning organisation's universities. This is not the C2.Se . . . Whilst there short term information needs, which are prone to are isolated examples of CBL research under- change from year to year. taken by academics in some universities, this Anothersignificant point is that vocational education work appears to have had very little impact on and training is the one sub-field in which universities outside publics. (Burke 1989) do not have a natural claim to be doing the most or the best research. e. The lack of a strong critique of policies and programs b. Relatively little fundamental and Another shortcoming is the lack ofa strong critique of general-issues-based research vocational education and training policies and pro- People perceive that there is relatively little of thegrams. When the Green and White papers into the more fu ndamental and general-issues-based research-- structure of Australia's higher education system were thatis,research that builds theories or general re'icased in the late 1980s, there was a flood of articles understandings of issues that are applicable to a wide and critiques examining the proposed changes and in range of contextsand this is supported by analysis many cases attacking them. By comparison, the mas- of the relevant databases. sive changes in vocational education and training over It is also ironic, given the direction ofdevelopment in the last few years have attracted very little discussion Australia, that the areas of 'Industry issues' and `Or- or comment. If the changes to the sector are to be ganisation' have received considerably less attention beneficial and long-lasting, there will be a need for a from researchers than 'Policy and economics', 'Stu- national debate, informcd by research and theoretical dents and trainees', 'Teachers and trainers' and 'Cur-perspectives, on the issues involvedno matter how riculum'. uncomfortable this might be for some involved in 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 147 policy formulation from time to time. The need for proaches to competence, equity and access, and so on. such a critique was seen by a wide range of people, Many issues are raised by this work, including: including not only practitioners and researchers but whether there should be a nat ional strategy for R&D also, significantly, senior government officials and in vocational education, to coordinate the re- policymakers. search effort and to reduce fragmentation; the role of universities in researching this area, The need for a strategic approach particularly to establish research consortia and Given the shortcomings above, we cannot help but be strong multidisciplinary teams, and to ensure drawn to advocate a strategic approach, possibly at a better communication between researchers; and national level. What is lacking is the planning of how research can make the most appropriate use of research in the context of national needs, for both the perspectives of its ultimate stakeholders decision-making and for the development that will industry and the vocational education systems. need to take place to support all new directions. If Onlywhen these questions are addressed will research resources are to be allocated to research in vocational in vocational education play its necessary role in education and training, the establishment of a strate- supporting the work of this critically-important sec- gic plan for research (and the development and dis- tor. semination of its results) will increase the likelihood ofsuch research being well-focused and implemented. FOOTNOTE

Criteria for setting priorities I. Some, but not all, of these findings are similar to those The single most important criterion voiced by partici- of a review of educational research in Australia con- pants in the project was related to the short term ducted at the same time as this project (McGaw et al. imperatives imposed by the changing vocational edu- 1992). cation and training agenda. That is, the fact that directions have been embarked upon which lead to REFERENCES. enormous changes in vocational education and train- ing has meant that prior research, which should have Burke, John W. (1989) Competency based education and been essential, has been missing. Such research could training. Lewes: The Falmer Press. provide sound guidance on both the assumptions Kearns, Peter and Papadopoulos, George (1992) A Review underpinning these changes and effective ways of ofResearch and Devdopment Structures and Practices fir implementing them. Vocational Education, Trainingand Employment in Five This raises a major issue of how to balance short term OECD Countries. Canberra: Peter Kearns and Assocs. criteria with the longer term research needs of voca- Keeves, _LP. (1990) 'Knowledge Diffusion in Education', tional education and training. Walberg, Herbert J., and Haertel, Geneva D. The So far as the medium and longer term are concerned International Encyclopaedia of Educational Evaluation there are a range of other criteria which might guide pp 715-723. Sydney: Pergamon Press research. In our view one of the most important ofMcDonald, R., Hayton, G., Gonczi, A. and Hager, P. these is the extent to which research undertaken can (1993) No Small Change. Proposals for a research and form a foundation for further research, either exten- development strategy for vocational education and train- sions of it or as more applied versions of it. The reason ing in Australia. Report: Vocational Education, Em- for elevating this to such a high place is the dearth of ployment and Training Advisory Committee, Aus- this type of general-issues-based research in this field tralia. Sydney: University of Technology, Sydney. and the need to safeguard the quality of the inevitably McGaw, B., Boud, D., Poole, M., Warry, R., and McKenzie, increasing research effort carried out by people both P.(1992) tducational research in Australia: Report ofthe inside and outside universitiesin the vocational Review PanelStrategic Review of Research in Educa- education system and in industry. We believe that this tion. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing criterion would also be used to justify projects which Service. were innovative methodologically as well as those Ramsey, Gregor (1992) Higher education: TA FE and train- concentrating on issues of substance. ing research. Paper presented at the conference on Training Research in Higher Education, University of Conclusion Technology. Sydney, 16-17 July. This paper presents some of the results of an Austral- Stevenson, John (1992) Perception of vocational education ian study. However, it is likely that the results will be research: relevance in the eye of the beholder. Paper relevant to many English-speaking countries, many presented at the conference on Training Research in of which arc at present grappling with similar issues: Higher Education. University ofTechnology, Sydney, the role and structure of vocational education, ap- 16-17 July. 4 7 1 4 8 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE University-based adult education and the field of practice : a South African case

Clive Millar University of Cape Town South Africa

I. Introduction ownership of the problem under conditions of eco- THE paper is an attempt to analyze the impact of nomic recession and burgeoning numbets of unem- changing social conditions in South Africa on ployed black school leavers. the relationship between university-based adult edu-The social costs of illiteracy for community-based cators and field practitioners particularly in the organizations working under repressive conditions in area of research and study. It derives from a researchopposition to the state were very differently per- project by a staff team at the University of Capeceived. Engagement by donor-funded voluntary lit- Town.' eracy organizations exploited the provision vacuum, The paper moves through three inter-related ac-with philanthropic intent or in a collective project of counts: first of the impact of changing social condi- organizing and mobilizing for social change. Such tions on a key adult education discourse the work though limited in scale had the highest symbolic practice of adult basic education/literacy; second, ofvalue and constructed tlx intellectual terms and the role of u niversity-based adult educators in engage- commitments of the field of literacy practice. ment with the field of practice stabilized by apartheid The negotiation of a democratic constitution by the conditions; third, of the demands new social and major political and economic actors displaces the political conditions place on adult educators in uni- grounding narrative ofThe Struggle. The new narra- versity locations. tives of Reconstruction and Development are The wide-angle lens treatment required by the scope those of civic inclusion and of state responsibility to of the subject will produce an abstracted and poorly all so included. The social costs of illiteracy in this new textured picture but hopefully an accurate one in South African nation with an estimate of 10 to 15 its general structure and argument. million black adult illiterates are transformed. Illiteracy becomas a political problem ofsocial stabil- 2. Social change and literacy discourse ity for the new democratizing state; a development The dramatic shift of February 1990 from enforce- problem for the economy reconstructed through new ment of and armed opposition to white minority rule forms of co-operation between capital and labour. to a process of negotiation towards power sharing in Three powerful new stakeholders register through a democratic constitution changes the ground rulesofa range of inter-related considerations the social social policy in ways that have specific implications costs ofilliteracy.2 for the discourse ofliteracy. What are transformed by This new 'ownership' carries with it a transformed the process of political settlement are assessments ofevaluation ofthe illiteracy problem from a totalized the social costs of illiteracy. even mythologized condition of need constructed by To deal first, in the brieft of terms, with pre-1990 oppression and resistance, to specific forms of social conditions. disadvantage and disqualification. These are open to The ground rules constructed by the enforcement ofnew and competing criteria for prioritization with a apartheid were simple and bipolar: the master term consequent differentiation of ABE/literacy provision was The Struggle and the protagonists were theacross a range of sites. People and the State. Under such conditions blackThe practical consequences of such recognition are illiteracy was not perceived as a social cost to govern- dramatic, especially for the field of community-based ment: indeed, it was arguably a social benefit in areas practitioners who have carried the symbolic and of economic competition and political advancement. intellectual leadership of the field: The state's position created a vacuum in both policy massive inflows of donor funding into and provision: the cost of illiteracy would have to be literacy and ABE development, with institu- met if it were to be met at all by the illiterates tionalizing intent. themselves or by the private sector. Private sector pressure to transform the scale of ABE responses were more complex but neither `social operation and provision. responsibility' nor profit-rdated assessments justified for national ABE policy and pro- 1 4 8pressure 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS149

vision as a responsibility of the new state. having no contribution to make to a counter-culture ambitious blueprints for national ABE of mass mobilization and organization for social systems that reflect new areas ofco-operation transformation. In their bureaucratic functions it was and consensus between labour and capital. business as usual for these universities in common a discourse of exchange value, equivalency with others though the business was more anx- and articulation across systems of secur- iously conducted. ing the terms and functions of ABE engage- In their informal-consultative function, however, the ment as political and economic settlement situation was very different. The political irrelevance with little interest in the curriculum that of the university as formal structure, the harsh state provides educational content or the educa- upression of the liberation movement and the inter- tional vision of practitioners. national academic boycott, propelled two forms of These then typify the changed 'field conditions' uni- response by university intellectuals: private alliances versity-based adult educators have to engage with. I with and engagements in sectors of the popular turn now to their capacity for doing so. movement, and organizational initiatives within the university, usually on its fringes, to mediate resources 3. University-based adult educators and the to organizations of the movement. ABE/literacy field: conditions of the eighties Such initiatives took a variety of forms: resource University-based adult educators in South Africa in centers, un iversity extension projects and programmes, the eighties in very small departments and sub- education policy units, non-formal training pro- departments concentrated (with one exception) in grammes and ways of popularizing academic work the traditionally white, liberal, 'open' universities through new forms of media development. The com- made their major contribution to ABE development mon thrust was mediation of university resources through affiliative engagement with and service to the within newly constructed sites of political and cul- field ofpractice constructed by community organiza- tural relevance; the social gains were the repossession tions in opposition to the apartheid state. I shall label of ideological authority and a renewed sense ofpoliti- this as work in 'informal-consultative mode'. cal relevance. Many such university-based agencies Their work in what could be called 'formal-institu- drew members ofthe 'community' into contract posts tional mode' the formalizing and professional izing and attempted to conduct themselves as community of the field of practice through training and certifica- organizations with the university as their 'site' ofwork tion was by contrast small-scale, anticipatory and rather than their organizational home. ambivalent, this despite excellent innovative pro- Under such conditions radical adult education dis- grammes. The ambivalence is to be seen in a reluc- course provided the narrative ofThe Struggle with the tance to use the university system to construct apositive terms of the educational contestation be- hierarchy of professional qualifications for adult edu- tween People and State: non-formal, empowering, cators and in the project nature of innovative pro-popular, democratic, conscientizing, counter- grammes for the field both directly related to the hegemonic. University-based adult educators in absence of state funding. contrast to academics in mainstream education de- Similarly, their work in 'public-intellectual mode' partments servicing the schooling system found contribution to the field by free-standing, critical their field of practice authorized by The Struggle research and study, work that shifts the terms ofas alternative education with the capacity for social public policy debate and professional curriculum, transformation. They operated with considerable le- and in which the university exercises most explicitly gitimacy in the project world of small organizations its authorizing capacity was largely displaced by with a field of practice lying between educational and the priority of direct service and support to the field. organizational work a fidd that maximized their The concern of the paper is the tension between an process and strategic skills. Such engagement ensured agenda of service and responsibility to a field ofthe flow of donor funding into university depart- committed practice and one that can no longer be ments ofadult education: they were resourced, in fact, authorized by prioritizing practitioner interests. This through demonstrated distance from the university. requires a brief account of the work of university- Research in public-intellectual mode, by contrast, based adult educators in thc service mode typical of was thwarted or displaced by the immediacy of issues the eighties. and the pressure of practitioner needs. No coherent While traditional Afrikaans med iu m un iversi ties were research programmes were developed within or across substantially insulated against the calls and pressure university departments. Such research as there was of the liberation movement in the eighties, the posi- prioritized experience and engagement with the field tion of the 'open' universities was more complex and through action research, case studies and project ambiguous. Structurally, universities could be seen as evaluation, valorizing the theory-making nature of 149 I 5 0 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE the project world. And it became difficult for univer- mission and the theoretical resources to undertake, sity-based adult educators to conceive ofa programme even if only potentially at this stage. of intellectual work driven by basic theoretical ques- In the key area of policy studies university-based adult tions that could itself serve as a major contribution to educators are having to gain with indecent haste the social reconstruction. comparative perspectives and the bureaucratic stance required to engage in fundamental design and devel- 4. Research demands of the nineties opment work on a national scale including the We face the challenge of the nineties, then, over- legal, fiscal and institutional aspects of system plan- prepared for a role of service to the field. The new ning. We have also to begin to grasp the technological demands address themselves precisely to our points ofimplications of any responsive system of adult educa- weakness large-scale institutional structuring oftion provision in a country of 40 million people with professional practice and the production of intellec- extremely diverse social and linguistic backgrounds. tual work incisive enough both to contribute moral There are many tasks for different agencies enacting and intellectual grounding for this practice and, even adult education as a narrative of development and of more urgently, to impactthe construction of national redress in the emerging South Africa. Universities will policy. serve this collective enterprise bestby identifying In the field of adult basic education the major research those that are their particular and unique responsibil- task lies in the demythologizing of the literacy dis- ity. What the new conditions of the nineties offer the course a project that could be perceived asactually universities is a fresh opportunity to demonstrate underminingpractitioner interests and commitments. their relevance to the construction of adult education We have a particular responsibility in this matter. policy and practice. We hope that this will be a project Universities have not simply shared in maintaining that will engage international participation. the mythological character of this discourse, they have been major beneficiaries of the process. They FOOTNOTES have co-operated through their espousal of progres- sive practices and methodologies to the very program- I acknowledge the key contributions of my colleagues, matic assumptions that short-circuit understanding Tony Morphet and Mastin Prinsloo, to the ideas of relations between need and provision. And they developed in this paper. 2 have no tradition of ethnographic research to draw on However, it must be said that all this is happening under that could prioritize the practices of learners against what might sadly be our version of a Prague Spring. the plans of practitioners. The narrative of The Struggle remains leashed pending This is a new and difficult way to be part of the a satisfactory distribution of powerand consequent solution by reconceptualization of th e problem, but it delivery of social goods through economic develop- is a task that only universities have the institutional ment. 1993 SCUTREA CCNIFFRENCE PAPERS 151 The politics of research: taking sides

Kirit Patel Main Frame Research and Consultancy Services

IN conducting research there are researchers Although the aim was the identification of the train- for whom taking sides may not be a big problem; ing needs of these communities the assumption be- they may have no choice and so are resigned to this hind this was that it was these communities who fact. For o, hers who have decided that working for the needed to take the initiative in order to train to secure organisations they do, this may not be a problem, e.g. employment. The practices and the polices of train- those who work for a trade union or a pressure group. ing providers were not examined to identify any However, not all researchers have such experiences. positive practices (apart from an interview conducted For the majority the question of takingsides is crucial. with a careers officer in one further education col- The market place now is much more competitive and lege). This is not to assume that all minority ethnic grant bodies arc in a more powerful position to choose and refugee communities are homogenous; their needs to whom to allocate the funds. depend on their emergence as a community within Given this, what does a researcher do when faced with different contexts. making an application for a researcher grant? What The reason for conducting this work was to establish questions need to be asked when tendering for re- a working relationship with the local TEC, so that in search funds? the future it would place my organisation in a strong Why is the research to be conducted? This raises the position tobid successfully for contracts. Equally issues of what outcomes are sought and who is to important for the values of my organisation was that benefit from the outcomes. Does the researcher ten- it provided a service to the local community. der for a project knowing their results will be used to While I could see the logic of this it was difficult to further a political cause? lithe answer is yes, then does explain to the TEC at the time that doing no more s/he tender in the belief that it is possible to influence than examining these communities would provide a the outcome by using a methodology that will ensure one-dimensional view of the situation. Moreover, thedesired outcome? In pursuing this course ofaction government-sponsored employment training courses will the researcher jeopardise the reputation of his orarc reputed to be of poor quality and examining the hcr institution or personal professional reputation? practices of training providers in the TEC region may This a dilemma that I want to discuss by an illustra- (perhaps) reveal some good practices. When I sug- tion of a case study. gested that it might be fruitful to ask training provid- Two years ago I was involved in drafting a bid to ers what procedures or systems they had to monitor conduct research into the training needs of minority the quality of their provision, I was met with the stern ethnic and refugee communities in North London. reply that it was not a relevant issue as far as the project The research was to be funded by the local .1-raMing was concerned. Enterprise Council (TEC) which was at the time was On a political level I see such courses as being de- in the process of setti ng i csel fup. The objectives were signed to keep the reserved pool of labour off the to produce a profile of these communities and provide employment register a form of social control. a snapshot of their existing skills and their tra:ning Given that I decided to work on the Project, did I have needs; included in the latter was the type ofwork they co take sides? If yes, whose side? hoped to secure. The results of the research were to be If I took `no side', then I would be providing the used by the TEC to plan the allocation of employ- funding institution with the outcome it desired, i.e. ment training funds to training providers, the as- the institution would be buying an outcome suited to sumption being that a market exkted which training its policy requirement. It was not possible to restruc- providers would need to meet if they were to receive ture thc methodology as this was contractually agreed. funds from the TEC. The methodology on which the If I took the side of the researched or the 'subordi- TEC representative was keen included desk research nates' (Becker, 1966), how could Iinfluence the to draw up a profile, interviews with community outcome? From Becker's assertion, if I sympathised groups and staff from a local further education college with the researched would it distort the fesearch? and getting members from thc communities to com- Most minority ethn ic communities and refugee groups plete training needs analysis questionnaires which have been the subject of research to varying degrees, were distributed to community groups, training pro- and their needs and experiences arc well documented viders and at job centres. (not to assume that their needs don't change); how- 151 1 5 2 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE ever the practices of service providers have notalways When I mentioned this to one of the members of the met their demands, even where 'equal opportunity' steering group, it was suggested that I should not pay policies exist. Furthermore, I found that in discus- too much attention to such statements. The aim of sions with representatives from these communities the voluntary group was to use evidence from the that such issues as access to training courses which research to seek more funding in order to deliver these recognised their existing qualifications from abroad,services and develop their organisation. While this language support and institutional racism had been was not overtly spelt out it was an underlying assump- raised before with training providers, with littletion. At the second steering group meeting I found progress. that this was a sensitive issue amongst some of the The final report was to be presented to the Board members. There was disagreement with the view that members of the TEC and I explored the idea ofthe youth wanted a separate organisation and it was inviting representatives from the community groups questioned whether my sampling frame was repre- to this session; however this was not seen as practical sentative of the majority. The council representative at the time by the representative from the TEC. The pointed out that the borough had limited funds and Board members were not in a position at the time to it would look more favourably at providing resources have any form of dialogue with community repre-to an existing organisation than to those who were sentatives. Another reason given was that it was not aiming to set up a new organisation. clear to what extent these individuals were representa- While I could see the sense in this, I felt that the real tive of the communities from which they came. At the needs of the youth were been marginalised. The issue final meeting of the project I was given less than ten was complicated by the fact that the young women minutes to answer questions from the Board. None ofwanted their own centre and did not want to share the questions related to the concerns of the commu- one with their male counterparts. While the female nity groups but rather related to their existing skills members of the steering group sympathised with this and to the types of employment they were seeking. concern, their over-riding concern was to develop In another case, which contrasts with the one above, their own organisation. I was approached by a voluntary group who were I agreed with the stated aim of the voluntary group concerned that the youth from one of the minority that the needs of the youth from this minority ethnic ethnic communities did not have all their social and group had to be met but the question for me was training (for employment) needs met in one L,ondon whether this group should be responsible for provid- borough. I agreed to conduct the work as I sympa- ing them. Given the limited funds available, would a thised with the aims and objectives of the research and research report indicating a strong desire amongst also with some of the political views of the voluntary those researched for a separate centre mean that they group. The research was funded by the local council, would receive no funding at all? After all, the council who had a representative on the project steeringwas in financial difficulties; could it meet such a group, and in addition there were membersfrom thedemand? The steering group asked me to consider minority group who whose needs were the subject of these issues in drawing up the draft ofthe final report, the research; the latter formed the majority on the the underlying message being that I should be selec- steering group. The methodology was to interview tive with the evidence I had gathered. Here while I was youth workers, other voluntary organisations andin sympathy with the objectives of the project and those in the council responsible for planning youth could see that the sponsor was in a better position to provision. A sample ofyouth was to be interviewed at secure funding, I could not ignore the results of my youth clubs and asked to complete two separate evidence. An easy way out would be to write a report questionnaires one on training needs analysis and as the Project Steering Group wished; thiswould also the other on social needs, (i.e. access to youth clubs, mean that in the future I might get additional work or guidance for personal problems, etc.) would be recommended to other organisations in a As I was having problems arranging meetings with the positive light. youth the completion date was extended and I passed Before drawing up the final report, I felt that a way on new information to members of the project steer- forward would be to arrange a meeting between the ing committee as the interviews progressed. steering group and a sample of the youth. To my In the course of the interviews with the youth I found surprise, the project steering group agreed, and at the out that they would prefer to have their own youth meeting although the issue of a separate centre was facilities rather than use the existing youth centres, not settled it became apparent to some of the steering which they found limiting, and more importantly group members that the issue aroused strongfeelings. they wanted to manage these facilities themselves The majority of steering group members agreed that rather than having other voluntary groups managethe final report should contain all the evidence I had these services. gathered. 152 1993 SCUTREA C O N F E R E N C EP A P E R SI 5 3

In both the above cases taking sides has its difficulties. strategies. In trying to survive in a marketplace some In the former case, while I disagreed with the sponsor values that a researcher holds dear may be compro- and sympathised with the researched, there was little mised as institutions funding research are now more I could do to influence the outcome. In the latter case, sophisticated at purchasing and manipulating out- while I agreed with the objectives of the research and comes (see Armstrong in this volume). In taking sides on the face of it thought it would be a straightforward we need to ask why we work in education. Is it that project, I had to take sides in the end. I don't believe some of us believe in social transformation? that in taking sides I have distorted the research. There are other issues that may influence decisions on REFERENCE taking sides. Both the above projects were short term, and the room for influence is limited. However, in a Becker, S. Howard (1966), 'Whose Side are We On?' in long term project it may be possible to identifr Social Problems.

153 1 5 4 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE When the chips are down: the miners, conflict and change

Ruth Winterton Department of Adult Continuing Education University of Leeds

COAL mining must rank among the most re and organising support for left candidates in Union searched of all industries, yet surprisingly fewelections, but this was entirely separate from the day academic studies have involved the active participa- release provision. Although Professor Vic Allen, who tion of miners. Various forms of adult education had a close involvement with the Forum, was based at provision have provided educational opportunities Leeds University, there was a tacit agreement that he specifically for miners, and an extensive programmewould not be involved in teaching on the minets' day ofresearch has been undertaken with the involvement release course, for fear ofjeopardising support for the of participants in these programmes. This paper course from the right-wing leadership of the NUM describes the evolution ofsuch research over the past YorkshireArea as much as from the NCB. Indeed, few decade and analyses the complex relationships this of those who taught on the miners' course during has entailed between students and tutors, between Arthur Scargill's time as a student could be described teaching and research. as left-wingers, and certainly were nor responsiblefor In the early 1950s day release courses were established his indoctrination! at Sheffield University for Derbyshire miners, and at During the 1980s this pattern was to change, when a Leeds and Sheffield Universities for Yorkshire min- group of academics based at Bradford University(the ers, such provisions having existed at Nottingham Working Environment Research Group) came to- University for Nottinghamshire miners since 1924 gether to investigate the impact of new technology on (Barratt-Brown, 1991). Over the years most of the the mining industry (Winterton, 1993a). During leading activists in the National Union of Minework- teaching sessions on the Miners' Day Release course ers were educated through the miners' day release at Leeds University it became obvious, in discussion courses; most were elected to branch positions and with students, that a profound change was taking some, like Peter Heathfield and Arthur Scargill, be- place in the labour process as a direct result of the came full-time officials at the highest level inthe application of microelectronics. The group devel- Union. Many became more active in Labour Party oped a framework of analysis which initially focused politics as local councillors, and some, like Kevin on four major substantive issues: potentialjob loss; Barron and Mick Clapham entered Parliament as changing content of work; job control and health and NUM-sponsored MPs. Clearly the skills developed safety. These were all issues that had been identified by those who attended the extra-mural classes were by students on the miners' course as major areas of being put to good use, yet the rich resource of theirconcern. Throughout the whole investigation,infor- collective experience for many rars remained un- mation on the development of new coal technologies tapped by the academics involved in their education. and their impact on the working environment were When Wilfred Miron, former chairman of the East continually being fed back to the group by the miners. Midlands Division of the NCB, wrote a secret report Such action research represents a process of empow- to NCB chairman Sir Derek Ezra on the emergenterment, both for the miners who influenced the left-wing leadership of the NUM in December 1973, direction of the research, and for the researchers he also made reference to the younger activists: whose work attains a new legitimacy (Winterton, In the field, at the pits, there are other young 199313). men. Marxist indoctrinated, who within the This close partnership resulted in two major reports next 10-15 years will emerge as a 'new genera- being commissioned by the NUM national executive tion' augmented by student (University and (Burns et al, 1983; 1985) outlining a dramatic reduc- Polytechnic) tuition to take the places of okler tion in employment in the coal industry. These men who will be retiring or moving upwards publications were dismissed by the NCB as "alarmist (quoted in Winterton and Winterton, 1989: ...building a myth out of nothing", and "politically- 10). motivated mischief'. The NUM, on the other hand, Certainly at that time there was a left-wing network who had not always experienced an easy relationship within the Union, known as the Miners' Forum, with academics in the past, re_sponded positively to which was campaigning for more militant policiesthese reports, after the group had presented their 1 9 9 3 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 1 5 5 conclusions to the Grading and Technology Sub- friends fighting for the survival of a way oflife and the Committee and to the full National Executive Com- right to secure employment. We were accepted as mittee of the NUM. Unknown to the group, the job 'honorary' members of the mining community, in- loss projections concurred with information that had cluded in various community events and activities, been obtained by the NUM from independent sources and introduced as members of the mining group, not in the NCB. as academics. There was some reticence on the part of The predictions exceeded the miners' worst fears andNUM full-time officials to sanction our study and it generated some interest amongst the local authorities, was our own network of day-release miners who who became increasingly concerned with the impact assisted us in the distribution and collection of the that the potential job losses could have on the local questionnaires that formed an integral part of our economy. West Yorkshire County Council requestedstudy. These miners vouched for our integrity and from us a report which specifically focused on the job our support of the case for coal and assured respond- implications of NCB restructuring policies for West ents that the information provided by the miners and Yorkshire. The West Yorkshire report (Winterton their families would not be misused. Within six and Winterton, 1985) gave an overview of the na- months of the end of the strike, detailed semi-struc- tional dimensions of restructuring and the underlying tured interviews with key respondents at all 57 collier- processes involved and emphasised the unevenness of ies then operating in Yorkshire had been collected, the restructuring between and within areas. Our pit and almost 2,000 questionnaires had been completed by pit analysis ofWest Yorkshire collieries was under- by men and women who were active in the strike at taken with branch officials providing recent operat- local level. This unique set ofdata could not have been ing results and Yorkshire Area NUM granting access collected without the support and assistance of former to consultative committee minutes. The report pre-students. The study subsequently published as Coal dicted the imminent closure of over half of the pits Crisis and Conflicroutlined the origins of the strike, its then operating in the area; out of21 collieries in 1985, mobilisation, organisation and maintenance through only three are left and two of these will be closed the eyes of its main actors, the miners and their before 1995. families; it also began to analyse the aftermath of the There proved to be little time to develop with the miners' defeat. miners a strategy for coping with the pressures exerted Having completed a study of such a significant con- by the restructuring, as had been the original inten- flict (the most dra. latic since the 1926 General Strike tion of the technology assessment. Towards the end and Lockout), it was almost by habit that we contin- of I 983, it was clear that a major confrontation was ued to assess the changes that followed, tracing the imminent. Contacts had been made in the union at all emerging pattern of industrial relations in British levels and in all areas during the build-up to the1984- Coal and contrasting this with developments in other 85 miners' strike through the Miners' Day Releasestate and privatized corporations (Winterton and Programme in the Department of Adult Continuing Winterton, 1993b). Since 1985 we have been analys- Education at Leeds University and through my work ing the processes of restructuring in the coal industry, at Northern College (a residential adult educationwork which provided important theoretical insights college for trade union and community activists) applied in studies of restructuring in other industries, which is situated near Barnsley, in the heart of the here and in New Zealand. The analysis of restructur- Yorkshire coalfield. The college had a close relation- ing entails a continuous refinement of projections to ship with the NUM and the Yorkshire Area, provid- take account of changing circumstances, both exter- ing an educational programme involving five-week nal (e.g. imported coal, gas-fired power stations) and block release programmes and numerous weekend internal (e.g. productivity, costs, reserves). This work and day schools. was of great interest to the Coalfield Communities Three months before the strike began in March 1984, Campaign and local authorities in the mining areas. we planned to study the conflict in detail, anticipating As a result, in the past seven years, we have presented a protracted stoppage, although not one lasting twelve evidence to nine committees in the Commons and months! From bases in South and West Yorkshire it Lords, to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission was possible to monitor developments at pit area and and to a European Parliament Public Inquiry. The national level. Hours were spent in area strike centres, Working Environment Research Group was dis- union headquarters and at the picket lines, interview- banded as members moved to different institutions, ing and observing. We attended meetings of rank and and in its place the Work Organisation Research Unit file strikers and were given access to all records of the was established, which continues to draw upon a union's strike committees. Our involvement was not network of day-release activists. just as academic observers; it is impossible to maintain Since the 1984-85 strike, the industry has been trans- a detachment from the hardship and struggle offormed: almost 80 per cent of former annual output

155 156 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE is now achieved with 22 per celit of the previous tinued to ensure its contemporary relevance. workforce, and productivity has increased by 147 per cent. Colliery closures, at the root of the1984-85 REFERENCES strike, continued apace, providing opportunities for action research in the preparation of cases for indi- Burns, A., Feickert, D., Newby. M. and Winterton, J. vidual pits corning before the Independent Review (1982) An Interim Assessment ofMINOS, Report no.4, Body. Out of 170 mines producing before the strike Working Environment Research Group, Universityof in March 1984, only 51 were still operational by last Bradford. October, when the Government proposed to close 31 Burns, A, Newby, M. and Winterton, J. (1984) Second of these. This latest crisis stimulated further work on Report on MINOS, Report no.6, Working Environ- strategic implications, especially the waste of physi- ment Research Group, University of Bradford. cal, human and capital resources and the effects on Barratt-Brown, M. 'The Sheffield University programme security of energy supply (Winterton and Winterton, of day-release courses in the 1960s', Industrial Tutor, 1992). We were involved in preparing an economic Vol.5, no.4, pp.9-15. case for one of the collieries, MarkhamMain, threat- Winterton, J. (1993a) 'New technology and trade union ened with closure (Winterton and Winterton, 1993a). activities:experience from two projects', in K. Forrester Our report on the economic viability of the pit was and C. Thorne (eds), Trade Unions and Social Research, produced through discussion with branch officials, Aldershot: Avebury, 1993, pp.193-213. activists and the utilisation of NUM documentation, Winterton, J. (1993b) 'Research as empowerment: meth- especially the mining engineer's report which pre- odologies of collaborating with trade union activists', dicted a viable future for the pit; its closure was Industrial Tutor, Vol.5, No.7, 1993, 14-28. confirmed on 30 April. Winterton, J. and Winterton, R. (1985) The Implications In conclusion, just as the miners' work place continu- ofNCB Restructuring Policies fbr West Yorkshire, West ally changes with the advance (or nowadays retreat) of Yorkshire Metropolitan County Council Report. the coal face, so the focus ofcoal research has changed. Winterton, J. and Winterton, R. (1989) CoaL Crisis and From investigating the structural patterns of strikes, Conflict: The 1984-85 Miners' Strike in Yorkshire, concern moved to the effects of newtechnologies, to Manchester: Manchester University Press. the processes of a major strike, to restructuring and Winterton, J. and Win tenon, R. (1992) Strategic Implica- new patterns of industrial relations,and then to tions of Proposed Colliery Closures, Report no.1, Work energy policy. Coincident with thischange of focus Organisation Research Unit, University of Bradford has been the attrition of the Miners' Day Release Management Centre. programme at Leeds and Sheffield Universities,and Winterton, J. and Winterton, R. (1993a) The Case against of the NUM courses held at Northern College. The the Closure of Markham Main Colliery, Report no.2, network of respondents has grown beyond the UK to WorkOrganisation Research Unit, UniversityofBrad- include academics and practitioners from France, the ford Management Centre. USA, Australia and China. Nevertheless, the locus ofWinterton, J. and Winterton, R. (1993b) 'Coal', in A research has remained relatively constant, and the Pendleton and J Winterton (eds) Public Enterprise in collaborative approach adopted from the outset, in- Transition: Industrial Relations in State and Privatized volving the subjects in the research process, has con- Corporations. London: Routledge, pp.69-99.

156 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 157 6. Relationships with the researched

Introduction by Paul Armstrong Main Frame Research and Consultancy Services London Borough of Haringey

THIS year, 1993, is the 25th anniversary they objects?), to writing up the report and of the Becker-Gouklner debate on val- disseminating (or suppressing) findings?. Whilst ues in research. I n August 1966, Howard the central question is the relationship with the Becker took a major step forward in reflecting on researched, the debate is broader than this, and research by claiming that the issue is not whether interlinks with considerations about the purpose researchers 'should take sides, since we inevitably or kind of research (academic or applied?, ex- will, but rather whose side are we on?'. Less thanploratory or evaluative?, and so on) that is being two years later, Alvin Gouldner published hisundertaken, and for whose benefit. Whatever seminal paper on The Sociologist as Partisan. It else we may say publicly, a substantial amount of was he himself who five years earlier than Beckerresearch undertaken serves the purposes of re- attacked the dominant ideological myth ofvalue- searchers, not the researched. Career develop- freedom. Becker's statement made Gouldner ment through academic certification (M.Ed.s, aware that the attack on one myth was merely to Ph.D.s, etc.), and promotion based on publica- replace it with another the rejection of value-tions ensure that research has both primary and freedom, and that Becker was voicing the opin-secondary purposes. Sponsors of research also ions ofa growing number ofsociologists, particu- play a significant role in determining the rela- larly from within the sociology of crime andtionship between the researcher and the re- deviancy. We were now on the side of drugsearched, as Kirit Patel's paper in another section addicts, jazz musicians, 'nuts, sluts and perverts', indicates. But mostly researchers still feel that or the side of the underdog, those more sinned there is some flexibility and freedom in negotiat- against than sinning. Sentiment and sympathying a role for the researched. Since the 1970s, had replaced detachment and objectivity. Mereparticipatory, empowering, collaborative, romanticism, an obsession with the quaint, said transformative, emancipatoty styles of research Gouldner. By not answering his own question, have grown in acceptability, as the papers by Kate Becker had missed the point. The issue was not so Day and Joanne Highton reflect. More conven- much to do with values as with ideology and tional approaches to research, including evalua- power. Subordination to the research process wastion, have become democratised. Democratic raised but quickly pushed aside because it con- evaluation, for example, as Shuttleworth's and tained too many paradoxes and contradictions Lawrence's papers illustrate, has been popular- that the liberal world of the mid-1960s preferred ised and rescued from the mainstream. not to confront. As Gouldner recognised, value This set ofpapers reflects a more recent history in commitment is not merely an inescapable fact ofthe relationship between the researcher and the nature, but is a necessary condition ofobjectivity. researched. By focusing on the dynamic, inter- He believed that researchers must be committed active and reciprocal aspects of the relationship, to values. examini ng issues o f power, status and ownership, One wonders just how many undergraduate es-the most significant influence is not the ageing says have been written about this debate. TheBecker-Gouldner debate, but the feminist per- issue for the researcher is not whose side are we onspective on research, which since Ann Oakley's Becker or Gouldner? but rather it is ainfluential work on interviewing women has practical issue. How does this debate about com-done more for the practical application ofsharing mitment to values affect our research practice,and co-operating in the research process than the from the selection of the research topic, themore masculine debate about objectivity and methodology, the subjects of the research (or are value-freedom.

1 51 I5 8RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Access course feedback: the interactiveeffects of research

Kate Day Centre for Teaching, Learning and Assessment Joanna Highton Centre for Continuing Education University of Edinburgh

Overview of the research off-putting factors, family and friends' attitudes, out- UR collaborative research concerns the moni- side responsibilities, financial concerns, confidence 0toring of an established Access Course, run in academic skilis, time spent, sources of help and jointly by the University of Edinburgh and Stevenson support, likes and dislikes about the course sofar. College, for entry to university studies in the arts and 68% of students responded (13/25 men, 37/48 social sciences. The original focus of the monitoring women). In February '92 a probe questionnaire sent project, which was additional to routine course evalu- to selected Directors of Studies askedabout the ation, was to explore the effectiveness of the transi- preparedness of former Access Course students for tional nature of the course. How well was it preparing university study and any particular strengths or diffi- adult returners from various backgrounds for what culties. The second student questionnaire (Q2) was they would experience as undergraduates aca- administered in May '92. It asked about workloads demically and otherwise? Undergraduate discontinu- over the two terms, reactions to coursework exten- ation rates and course results were crude measures sions, availability of books, self-assessment capabili- and other information was anecdotal. We thus wanted ties, plus their two chosen subjects. The response rate to take a closer look at the workingsof the course from dropped slightly to 63% (14 men, 31 women). The the student perspective, and also to test the viability same self-description sheet used inthe pilot was of tracking the experiences of access-route under- distributed in October '92 and produced thirty-five graduates. The aim was to clarify the strengths and replies. weaknesses of the Access Course and so generate information and ideas useful to its further develop- Introduction to the paper ment. We went into the research enthusiastically.JH We wish to discuss the interactive effects of the welcomed the opportunity to learn more about doing research just outlined. This is not altogether easy research, especially if the course which was her main- because our research was only one of several sources stream responsibility would thereby benefit.For Kt) of information about a course which views teaching it was a chance to re-engage in practical research in an and learning as a joint enterprise and so encourages interesting area. Bur we were rather less well placed as open communication amongstall concerned. Our regards resources and clearly the work would be done findings were thus set alongside and triangulated in marginal time.* with what was already coming through from stu- In October 1990, the twenty-six students from the dents, staff tutors and external examiners. Neverthe- '89-'90 Access Course cohort about to embark on less, this research did exert specific influences which studying at Edinburgh were invited co a reunion affected what happened on the course, the nature of meeting. Twenty-three attended and filled out a self- the student experience and us as researchers. At the description sheet indicating how, on a number of same time as the research \yds having animpact on the dimensions, they had changed during the access year. inter-connected web of course structures and proc- They also took away for complezion a background esses, the learning opportunitiesavailable to students, information sheet and quite a lengthy questionnaire, and the confidence and commitment of staff as which looked back over the course and took stock of managers and teachers, the research wasitself also their current intentions and expectations. In January being shaped. It is this dynamic and reciprocal rela- '91, the students were invited back to share and tionship between research, the researchers and the discuss the pilot phase findings, which were more researched that will now be illustrated. widely disseminated in March at an Access-Related Research Forum. The main research phase involved Course design and development the '91-'92 Access course cohort (n=73). In Novem- A. The focus in all three questionnaires on students' ber '91 we briefed students on the monitoring project workload and acquisition of academic skills, and in and gave out a somewhat shorter questionnaire (Q1). thc self-description sheets on the personal impact of Queries included reasons for taking the course, any thc course, arosc from concerns central to the transi- 158 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 159 tion function of the Access Course. How appropri- levels and, by allowing for choice, enhanced the ately was the course managing to strike the difficult course's promotion of student autonomy. The balance between, on the one hand, being sufficiently changes have also become part of the course's challenging and enough of a preparation for the folk history, demonstrating responsiveness to demands of University work, and on the other hand student needs and commitment to course aims. satisfying the need of students still developing and When asked in Q2 to compare how challenging unsure of their higher order abilities not tofeel the two terms were for coping with the total threatened and incapacitated by the amount and level workload, there was a near-even 55%/45% split of work required? in student opinion. The rating of term 2 as more This was a live issue for actual and prospective stu- challenging for 'planning out study time' and dents, the course management, and staff in the receiv- 'completing written work in time' accords well ing institution, including Directors of Studies. And with the intended progressive nature of the the research findings were able to give several useful course. pointers about relevant aspects of the student experi- ence. B. Asecond prime concern, which stemmed from the Clusters of items from the self-description sheets involvement of a number of tutors and the multi- showed that students perceived the course asdisciplinary nature of the course, was the harmonis- moving them towards being more confident, ing of standards and practice so as to provide compa- ('confident'-'determined'-'clear-sighted'-'inter- rable sets of learning opportunities for students. ested') and competent ('knowledgeable-'organ- One obvious tactic was to ask the same questions ised'-'resourceful'-'analytical'). At the same rime about each of the different courses, which was a half felt more or much more stressed, overforty done in Q2. This produced rich data about the per cent more or much more anxious,and al- difficulty and amount of course material, most a quarter less or much less healthy. presentational pace and style, the usefulness of As regards the development ofconfidence in specific handouts, tutor feedback and availability, competencies and the attendant support needs, whether the course was as interesting as expected the students indicated having less confidence in and how students felt they were getting on. It the more narrowly academic tasks, such as tak- was a useful check on, and sometimes provided ing exams and writing essays, and rather more in explanations for, impressions gained by other areas, such as studying on their own andreading means. The information helps receptive indi- effectively, where they could presumably draw viduals to improve particular courses, and for on more transferable skills. newcomers it highlights 'good practice' (such as In the matter of how much time per week students the blending of tutor input with opportunities spent on their coursework and preparation for student participation). Knowing what sub- outwith classes, the consistent finding was that jects students took also made it possible to for a clear majority ofstudenrs the load was close unpack, by means of cross-tabulations, general to or just under the target twenty hour mark. responses which otherwise were not very in- This confirmation was both reassuring to staff formative. A good example concerned 'access to running the course and advising applicants, and books and other resource materials' which pro- useful in on-course guidance. duced a 49% yes149% no answer that concealed The workload findings were also influential in important subject variations. helping to determine how much writing experi- The issue of tutor feedback on student work, which ence was appropriate during term 1 in order to was associated with efforts made to improve equip students for the raised expectations and essay writing skills, was addressed in both Q1 specialist demands of term 2. The original six- and Q2. Students rated comments on scripts, teen short assignments had resulted in students the assessment grid, tutorial and individual dis- performing well subsequently, but feeling over- cussion as useful. But thei r open-ended responses stretched in the first term. Halving the number revealed that what had been intended as stand- of assignments led to students experiencing dif- ard practice across the course was in some cases ficulties in meeting the second term standards not happening or not working as envisaged. It and did not reduce the sense of overload. Since became clear that students wanted but were the amount of time actually put in by most reluctant to take up offers of individual sessions people remained close to twenty hours, the available on request, regardless of how approach- compromise solution was to revert to giving able the tutor was or their desire for more sixteen assignments, but to require completion feedback on intellectual development and po- of only twelve. This has upped performance tential. With this knowledge, J H as course coor- 160 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

dinator was in a strong position to recommend work was sometimes hard. changes which included requiring the use in Yet there were several ways in which our different term 1 of the summary assessment grid (revised backgrounds and motivations turned out, as we had to encourage more explicit tutor feedback and hoped, to be very productive. general progress comments), and the submis- One was the welcome curb put on the temptation, sion part way through term 2 of brief reports on which we both experienced, to pursue what was individual students. In addition, the lecture 'interesting' from either a 'knowledge about sequence in first term was halted at two strategic access students' viewpoint or from a methodo- points for formally timetabled individual tutor- logical perspective. The constraint operated be- student meetings, instead of relying on informal cause we effectively obliged one another to weigh arrangements. up and to justify the practical costs/benefits likely to accompany particular lines of enquiry. Students and the research process A second gain was the sharing and exchange of From the outset we wanted students as collaborators expertise. This meant that as we grew more whose reactions and responses were important in knowledgeable, about the course and research helping to shape the evolution of the course and the respectively, we became more effective in focus- research. Accordingly we have consciously fed find- ing and framing questions. Thus the number of ings back to them, kept them in the picture about any areas which we failed to tap satisfactorily defi- consequential action contemplated or taken, and nitelydeclined and the questionnaires gotshorter. been alert for signs that participation in the research They also became more collaborative in tone as process might be having detrimental rather than we felt more able to preface specific questions positive effects. with contextual information that helped re- One side benefit has been the contribution made by spondents appreciate why certain aspects were the research to building up a sense of involve- being targetted. ment in the course and of continuity among The third benefit was the holding up of mirrors to Access students. They know that what they have one another's practice. 'Naive' questions were to say is listened to and gets taken into account. not only challenging but had the effect of caus- They also know something of how their contem- ing us to articulate fundamental assumptions poraries and predecessors have reacted and can about the course or doing research. During the take comfort from realising the 'normality' of, construction of Q2, for example, JH wanted to for instance, having a very mixed bunch of include a question to gauge perceptions of 'locus reasons for doing the course, finding it difficult of control' in the learning process. KD's attempt to make UCCA choices, worrying about fi- to link this general notion to some concrete nances or personal relationships, doubting feature of the course led to the identification of whether they are 'really up to it' and considering a proxy measure (the student's self rating of leaving the course. ability to evaluate their own written work before Effects in the reverse direction resulted from our submission for formal assessment). But it also set growing awareness that once people become JH wondering whether the course was being undergraduates they want the freedom to choose sufficiently proactive in fostering the develop- whether and when to retain or shed their access ment of autonomy in learning. One of the identity. A further questionnaire already drawn practical results was further to encourage self- up began to feel unduly intrusive. It was impor- help groups, and the inclusion of guided study tant to keep the interests of students centre stage groups as an integral part of the new evening and so, for ethical as well as pragmatic reasons, Access Course. we abandoned ideas of trying to keep close tabsIn conclusion, we have certainlylearned a lot on their undergraduate experiences and rcscoped about the course, about Access students, about re- the research. search and about ourselves. Even this paper's attempt to identify and trace through some of the elements The research process and us within the powerful web of interactive effects has The collaboration presented us each with different been instructive. Moreover it has been good to see the problems. For JH there was the tension between benefits which have accrued to the course and its running the course and monitoring it, plus thedanger participants as a result of the research. of the technical aspects overwhelm ing and alienating Stamm on an Apple Macintosh was used for the her. For KD the project was at the periphery of formal quantitative analysis. We are gratefil for the processing professional responsibilities so that sustaining suffi- work done in tAe later stages by Mairi-Ann Cullen who ciently close contact and doing the necessary 'busy' is now at the Scottish Councilfor Research in Education. 460 1993 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 161 On the relationship between researcher and researched: in pursuit of methodological integrity, congruence and the democratisation of the research process

Catherine Edwards Division of Adult Continuing Education University of Sheffield

THIS paper is being written as a workshop contri Devising an appropriate methodology bution for the SCUTREA conference in JulyThe research was located in a Local Authority where 1993. Participants at that workshop will be invited to the author worked within a small team of training offer further illumination and critical comment on officers. It was undertaken in 'collaboration' (Nodie the issues raised, based on their own experience. Oja and Smulyan 1989) with a group of 25 women The paper offers an analysis of certain aspects of my managers of the Domiciliary Care Service, the major- recent research experience as a practitioner in the field ity of whom described themselves as 'working class'. of adult continuing education and training. The Together, we looked at the extent to which their research in question comprised of 'a study of the experience and learning 'en route' to becoming man- employee roles and learning in the context of organi- agers had adequately prepared them for the demands sational change'. It was undertaken when I was em-of the role, particularly in relation to changes in the ployed as a local authority training officer and work- nature of service provision following the NHS Com- ing with a group of women managers. munity Care Act of 1990. It involved an ongoing The paper explores the multi purposes of the practi- evaluation of the education and training in which we tioner/researcher to influence, in this instance, the were currently engaged together. These elements of management practice of first line managers, my own the study were then set in the context of a critique of practice as a trainer, and to write a Masters Degree the employing organisation, whose recognition and thesis and how these led to the development of an support of them in that management role was cur- action research methodology (Lewin, 1947; Gill and rently limi9d by a perception of them as administra- Johnson 1991) using a variety of methods for 'data tor/organisers as opposed to social work or manage- selection'. It explores how the combined roles ofment Professionals. Thus the research activity grew 'practitioner' and 'researcher' were sometimes com- organically out of the author's professional practice as plementary and sometimes in conflict. And it looks at an educator and trainer of adults and had several key questions of power, status and ownership which arose purposes. from the relationship between 'researcher' and 're- to improve the management of the Domiciliary searched'. Care Service Finally the paper focuses specifically on how this to improve my (our) practice 2S educators and relationship began to shift significantly when a 'life trainers and work history' approach to interviewing (Dex etal to enhance the image of the managers within the 1991) was used as one of a number of research organisation in order to procure the resources methods. This was only one of several 'arenas' within and support they needed to do the job ad- which they could reflect on their practice 2S managers equately. and their relationship as women to the employing to analyse and write about the above. organisation. Its particular value was that it gave Both the purposes of the research and the values of the immediate access to a longitudinal perspective on the researcher led to the development of an action re- participants' formation as managers and as women search approach. which could not otherwise have been achieved within The key characteristic of action research past the time span of the research period. In addition, for and present is collaboration, which allows for many of the participants, it offered a valuable tool mutual understanding and consensus, demo- with which they could become co-researchers, using cratic decision making, and common action. the narrative of their accounts for their own 'objec- (Nodie Oja and Smulyan, 1989:12) tive' analysis and reflection. Over time this could no The author felt that this would be congruent with her doubt have been developed even further and to greater espoused 'humanistic' values drawn from adult learn- effect. ing d iscourse (Freire, Rogers, Knowles etc) and mind- 6 2 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE

A model of Po relegonetip beAuran 9,. preraeoner research end Ora 'researched'. ful of her political commitment to anti- toe process of meting deeper tnderstencing, now mewing. end better practice. oppressive practice, in relation to class and gender in this instance. classtorg conciplusleng .410 °AKIN. 9.notal Roles, status, power and ownership OxplaranOn trwory The nature of the professional relationship ACCCUrt between Training Officers and Domiciliary Care managers inevitably affected that be- Fralmerclur(s) hosilly Encounter ar. Rsioarehed laken nib 0:01/11, Io be wtotrasble santenoss and d 301110 tween 'researcher' and 'researched'. How- axouni, - ever much we, as Training Officers and I, as

a 'researcher' aspired to practice in an em- Amami ol SiOremettlole iwponsiOn powering 'egalitarian' vein it seemed there wocic subpdiv would always be 'unequal' aspects of that ClosolpOve Illusitanng relationship which could never entirely be Illkowsiong Catholine Edwards overcome. The theoretical models used to April 1993 analyse the 'power' aspect of that relation- ship were drawn from Transactional Analysis (Berne, ers were gaining in confidence and asserting their own 1967), Organisational Development (Handy 1976), 'analysis' of their situation more readily. This was to and from socialist/feminist discourse.Inequalities some extent because, over time, the trust between were both real and perceived. Training officers were them and the training team had deepened as our graduates with professional qualifications. They did earlier collaborative aspirations were beginning to not have regional accents and did not originate from mature. Thus they become co-researchers, whilst the local working class community as the managers what was being 'researched' remained their practice as did. They were also perceived as having much more managers, ours as trainers, and the organisation. influence at the centre of the organisation over issues I will now focus specifically on the life and work of policy and practice although this was not always history interview as a method, note some of the necessarily the case. 'Research' in this context was particular problems it threw up and explore its poten- seen as a privileged, albeit useful activity. As a re- tial for involving participants in the analysis of the searcher I was more likely to persuade the managers to data as well as the provision of that data. participate with 'my' research than would have con- versely been the case. This was mainly because I was Using life and work history as a collaborative their Training Officer, and because the research and and empowering tool the training sometimes coincided. On the other hand Truth is a matter of the imagination. The the Domiciliary Care Managers had much more soundest fact may fail or prevail in the style of its power over their staff and ehe service they managed telling ... If at moments the facts seem to alter and were possibly more influential than they realised with an altered voice, why then you can choose at organisational level. The way forward, both for the fact you like best; yet none of them is False, professional working practice and for research (prac- and it is all one story. (Le Guin 1973) tice, reflection, analysis and writing up), seemed to be Twenty three Domiciliary Care Managers were inter- by enabling one's awareness of these inequalities to viewed on their own in order to gain further insight actively inform both training and research methods. into their individual life, work and educational histo- This involved distinguishing, at any point, the extent ries. It was hoped that this would provide evidence to which for example our experiences as women in the about what was helping or hindering their develop- organisation were the same regardless of our different ment as effective managers. Part of the purpose was to job descriptions, and the extent to which they were explore whether they felt their life experiences as different because of our different educational andwomen had something of special value to offer their class backgrounds and because of the fixed and insti- management role, and what could be done about the tutionalised difference embodied in our different fact that this experience was often perceived by them- professional roles. selves and within the organisation as detracting from The diagram below offers a picture of the research rather than enhancing their effectiveness. relationship. At the beginning of the action research The tape-recorded interviews were semi-structured in process thc 'researcher' is the author; the 'researched' format, and were conducted in an open-ended con- both the organisation and the Domiciliary Care versational style.Thc influence of the perceived Managers. `sameness'and 'difference' between us as women and Towards the end of the research period the relation- as professionals affected what aspects of their 'stories' ship was beginning to shift significantly. The manag- they chose to tell me and which elements of those 162 199; SCUTEEACONFERENCEPAPERS 163 stories I chose to give credence and significance to in of data grew initially from my experience as a woman the thesis. There were a number of problems inherent and from knowledge of the participants' concerns in this approach. As we all worked in the same from earlier work with them in the organisation. It organisation it was natural that we would share some was also amended after a number of pilot interviews, of the same experiences and taken-for-granted as- and continued to be amended each time I encoun- sumptions. We were less likely to question or see the tered the unexpected, the hostile and the 'different'. significance of these perhaps, than an external re-The thesis I wrote offers an analysis of the partici- searcher (Platt, 1981). As women, there was also the pants' strengths and needs as managers, ofwhat might danger that I would focus naturally on issues where help or hinder their future development. The life and I felt there was greater empathy between us and work history method informed that analysis. It has minimise those where I felt some hostility. For exam- also provided participants with a means by which they ple, a minority of participants were not at all happy can continue to reflect on and analyse their learning with the emphasis on gender and did not want to be and practice. This can be utilised in training, supervi- thought of as women managers. This 'difference' was sion or peer group support. And the shape, content, ultimately respected both in the report and in the and form of these 'stories' will be influenced by the variety of further training initiatives which emerged context in which they are told, by the needs and partly as a result of the research. But it would have purposes of the moment. been easy to have minimised this difference in my This paper emphasises that the integrity and congru- anxiety to pursue and act on the main `thesis'. ence of research methodology with research purposes There was also the complex issue of confidentiality. may always be limited by expediency and by contex- Some of the interviews contained some very personal tual factors we do not yet have the power to overcome. information. I could offer assurances as a researcher In action research the best we can aspire to is to be as that this would be treated with sensitivity and respect honest as possible about our own research stories and, and that they could veto its use in writing. But as their when writing, to present our 'truths' as ours indeed, Training Officer I could hardly forget what I had whilst using methods which have the potential to heard. In addition it was important that the rest oftheempower and contribute to collective understanding. training team should have access to those aspects which related to our joint work. A thorough discus- REFERENCES sion of these issues before each of the interviews, and with the training team helped establish a workable Davis, L. (1985) 'Focussing on gender in educational agreement for all concerned. research' in Burgess R. Field IvIethods in the study of In spite of these problems the dialogue which devel- education, Falmer Press, Lewes. oped through these interview conversations, never- Dex, S. (ed.) (1991) Life and Work History Analysis. theless provided a real opportunity for reflection and Routledge, London. analysis on their practice as managers and on their Egan, G. (1989) A Handbook of Counselling in Britain, relationship as women to the organisation which Tavistock/Routledge, London. genuinely enhanced that practice and their develop- Freirc, P. (1974) Education:The Practice ofFreedom, Read- ers and Writers Publishing , London. ment generally. The conversational style enabled the Gill, J. and Johnson P. (1991) Research Methods for Man- analysis to develop through dialogue, with researcher agers, Paul Chapman, London. and participant sharing ownership of that process. Handy, C. (1976) Understanding Organisations, Penguin, London. Conclusions Knowles, M. (1973) The Adult Learner: A neglected Species In most kinds of qu al itative research there are as many Gulf Pub Co., Houston, TX. shades of the `truth' as there are storytellers and Le Guin, U.K. (1973) The Left Hand ofDarkness, Panther, indeed 'none of them is false and it is all one story' (Le St Albans, Herts. Guin: Lewin, K. (1946) 'Action Research and Minority Prob- One of the ethical responsibilities of thc researcher lems' in Journal ofSocial Issues 2 Vol 2 No 1 and of practitioners who aspire to 'empower', is to Nodie Oja and Smulyan, L. (1989) Collaborative Action acknowledge this to research participants and to offer Research, Social Research and Educational Studies se- ries, Falmer Press, Lewes. them some kind of access to the analytical process, as Platt, J. (1981) 'On Interviewing One's Peers', British well as the rationale of the methodology. Thus the Journal of Sociology, Vol 32 No 1. role of the researcher enhances that of practitioner in Rogers, C. (1967) On Becoming a Person, Constable, contributing further opportunities for reflection and London. learning. Scott, S. (1985) 'Femi n ist Research and Quali tative Meth- My own particular conceptual framework for shap ing ods' in Burgess R Issues in Educational Research, Falmer the interview questions and subseqt. ently the analysis Press, Lewes. 163 1 6 4 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Evaluation and accountability in the research process

Barbara Lawrence Birkbeck College, University of' London

Abstract don to women. THIS paper discusses questions about the mean 2. a more detailed case study of the characteristics of ing of the term evaluation in the research proc- the current student body on first year under- ess, arising out ofa study ofAccess to sciencestudents. graduate courses in Science, and Social Science In negotiating access to students attending an Access courses at the University of Brenton (the name course in science, problems arose over the issue of is fictitious). confidentiality to the researched, and the usual two- 3. the recording of the process of setting up the way interaction in evaluation of educational perform- University of Brenton Access course in Science ance. This conflicting mis/understanding of evalua- which began in September 1992. tion in research and evaluation in the educational The second year of the project is following closely the process is explored. students on the Brenton Access course in Science through their year at the University of Brenton. By Introduction comparison with students on an established Access This paper arises out of a study of students attending course in Science !inked with anotherUniversity, the a science Access course in whichproblems arose over investigation aims to gain an understanding ofi the negotiating access to the students. It is thought that effectiveness ofa part-time Access course in Science as some of the problems were due to differing interpre- a preparation for a Science degree; andthe experience tations of the term evaluation and this will be ex- of participating in such a course and its impact on plored, but the issue of accountability and the posi- lifestyle, using the following methods: tion of the researcher and the researched versus the 1. a questionnaire to all course participants at the gatekeeper to that access is important. beginning and end of the course. First I (the researcher) will describe the study, its aims 2. in-depth interviews with a sample of course mem- and research methods. Second, I will put the study bers and tutors in order to provide a series of case into a political context in relation to the institution in studies on the courses in the two institutions. which the main part of the study is situated, and third, The questionnaire was structured in such a way as to I will describe the process of negotiating access and enable respondents to write freely on a number of the problems which came out of this. Finally, I will topics, but the interviews were intended as the main discuss generally the issues and questions involved. method of gathering data and were modelled on the methods of Glaser and Strauss (1968) in a modified Aims and research methods form of grounded theory. The study has been funded for two years (one year at a time) by the UFC. It is investigatingfactors making The research in context for successful access to and completion of under- The Science Access cou rse at the University of Brenton graduate courses in science by mature students with evolved out of a concern, in a University which is particular reference to women. It focuses on the access committed to providing opportunities for mature of adult students, particularly women, to part-time students, to do three things. First, it was committed undergraduate courses in science, in the context of to furthering a developing programme of Accessand national discussion about appropriate models for foundation courses which would enable a broader science courses in Higher Education and the entry ofrange of mature students to beprepared for the mature science graduates into the labourmarket. rigours of part-time evening degree courses. Second, Because the two years of the study have been funded there was a desire to increase the success of a dwin- separately, each year can be seen as a discrete piece of dling undergraduate science programme. It was felt research in its own right, but with obvious connecting that thete was a greater need for a basic level of links between them. Both qualitative and quantita- scientific expertise than in other disciplines to enable tive research methods have been used. mature students witnout previous fort,lal qualifica- The first year of the project had three stages: tions to participate in the science degrees being run at 1. a national profile of some university courses pro- the University of Brenton. Third, there was a strong viding access to undergraduate courses in sci- commitment to matching a strong scientific research ence for mature students with particular atten- programme with an equivalent degree programmein 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 165

the University. idea ofa one-way process is redundant. While it could be suggested that a woman interviewing women is Negotiating access, issues of confidentiality unproblematic, this has been shown by others not to and evaluation be the case (eg Scott, 1984; Finch, 1984). And, An important part of a discussion of the research McKee and O'Brien (1983) have shown how the methods used in this study concern the question offemale interviewer may be at some risk in the inter- access and confidentiality. It is common practice in view situation with men. While this risk may be sociological research that in order to conduct in- minimal in practice it can have a considerable influ- depth interviews the question of anonymity and ence over an interviewers interviewing style. And confidentiality be paramount. Equally, questionnaires interviewing style is crucial in building up a rapport are usually completed so as to guarantee the respond- which encourages the respondent to share personal ents the same confidentiality. Consequently, ques- information. Pettigrew (1981) discusses the whole tionnaires and interview tapes and transcripts (I taped issue of the 'powerful' interviewing the 'powerless', the interviews which were then transcribed t-y abut fails to recognise the potential power of the typist) are coded to preserve anonymity. Names of interviewee over the interviewer. Oaldey (1981) and respondents are only used for contacting participants Finch (1984) have described the instant rapport by post with questionnaires and for arranging inter- which commonly occurs in the interview situation views. Names, addresses and codes are kept and filed between women, but other factors can upset this separately and it is considered important that re- 'balance', such as gender, ethnicity, class or profes- spondents/participants can be absolutely sure of this sional status. confidentiality. There is another way in which the whole process of Problems may arise, and they did on this particular interviewing can be viewed as instrumental in under- project, when the research is considered in terms ofan standing the evaluative process as either one-way or evaluation. Having previously interviewed mostly in two-way. Oakley (1981) has defined the interview as the area of health and health care, I was well-versed in a one-way process which 'objectifies' women. As she the issues of confidentiality in the evaluative process. comments: However, when interviewing in the educational field, ...when a feminist interviews women: (1) use of the term evaluation may take on different connota- prescribed interviewing practice is morally inde- tions. The Chambers dictionary meaning given for fensible; (2) general and irreconcilable contra- the term 'evaluate' is `to determine the value of'. This dictions at the heart of the textbook paradigm gives no indication of how this may have evolved in are exposed; and (3) it becomes clear that, in practice. Consequently, sociological research meth- most cases, the goal of finding out about people ods and evaluation have tended to stress the one-way through interviewing is best achieved when the confidentiality of the evaluative process, while evalu- relationship of interviewer and interviewee is ation in the educational process has become a two- non-hierarchical and when the interviewer is way interaction between teacher/lecturer/tutor and prepared to invest his or her own personal iden- student in evaluating each other in an open situation. tity in the relationship (Oakley 1981). As such, evaluation of educational processes in socio- This all suggests the importance of the interviewer/ logical research has a validity of its own. In this researcher in thewhole interviewing process. Cicourel particular example, however, evaluation in both senses raised the issue of the part played by the researcher: was in operation. Nor only was the research being Field research...is a method in which the activi- undertaken, but a separate course evaluation was ties of the investigator play a crucial role in the being conducted by the course co-ordinator, although data obtained (1964). this was largely conducted with the use of a question- However, as I have suggested elsewhere, the 'dynam- nai re. ics' of the research process continue into the ar However, classifying the evaluative process as either and writing up of research and beyond. This is an one- way or two-way is in itself misleading. In the issue which has been taken up by Opie (1992) where sociological research process, this idea of a 'one-way' she discusses the 'empowerment of participants on a direction ofinformation from respondent/interviewee personal and broadly therapeutic plane'. She suggests to interviewer has been discussed and criticised exten- that some participants are able to reflect and re- sively in the literature. The feminist literature in evaluate their experience as part of the process of particular has examined the whole interviewing proc- being interviewed. However, she also identifies the ess in qualitative research. As I have suggested previ- problem of appropriation in which the researcher's ously (Lawrence, 1987) understanding the influencedominant view may subsume the participant's com- of gender as a dynamic in the interviewing process is ments and interpret and analyse them according to particularly important, and as such implies that the their own particular representation or view. As she 6 6RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE says: equilibrium. This aspect of the research is particularly This is achieved through a filtering of the new relevant to this study because the comparisons be- (information) through the old (knowledge) so tween the courses at the two institutions (one a part- that the new is suppressed in favour of the old; time evening course, the other a fiill-time day course) and the potentially destabilising imprecate of could be expected to affect participants' domestic new knowledge is subverted by a process which situations in different ways. An analysis of these permits the established view to retain its domi- differences is particularly useful for course planning nance (Opie,1992). and development. It is of course important to be aware of this potential This leads to questions about the need for confiden- when embarking on an analysis of any data but in tiality in the research process. While the guarantee of particular in that of qualitative research because o f its confidentiality to the respondents seems in opposi- implied less 'objective' nature. Opie (1992) attempts tion to evaluation in the educational process, it is to show how a deconstruction of textual practice may apparent that for the research project overall, confi- bring about a reduction of appropriation. As she says: dentiality is crucial in ensuring the most 'open' par- A deconstructive analysis requires the detailed ticipation from respondents. To use the example of assessing of the participant's world...The re- the discussion of their domestic situations again, searcher... is engaged in a fluid process of iden- experience has shown me that people are loath to tifying and questioning ideology (her own, not expose this aspect of their lives to general view. For merely the other's), her location within the instance, even with a guarantee of confidentiality, it literature, the nature of her textual practice and would appear that far more households have an equal the personal and political implications of rneth- or near equal domestic division of labour than is in odology for the participants in the study (Opie, fact the case. On probing a breakdown of who does 1992). which domestic chores it is apparent that tasks are The essence of this discussion has been to show how divided for the most part along traditional gender the idea of evaluation as either a two-way interaction lines (see Lawrence, 1987). This is the sort of infor- in evaluation of educational performance, or a one- mation which would not be forthcoming without way research evaluation process is a false one. An that guarantee of confidentiality. extensive literature demonstrates the attempts made Finally, discussions of the part of confidentiality in in the research situation to limit the one-way trans- the research process have led me to review who it is mission of information into a dynamic situation that I am accountable to in conducting such research. between researcher and participant. And an under- The two-way evaluation in the educational process standing of this dynamic must be carried through into ensures that all participants in such an exercise (i.e. the analysis. As discussed above, the feminist litera- students and teachers/tutors) are accountable to each ture has been particularly illuminating in examining other. In the research situation it is the responsibility and understanding what may be happening in the of the researcher to ensure that the data and analysis interview situation and in the evaluative/research are treated in such a way as to be absolutely account- process. able to all who have participated in the research The main problems which I found arose over my process (i.e. students and teachers/tutors/course co- obtaining access to the students and this seemed to ordinator). This can be done by ensuring that the stem from this so-called differing interpretation ofanalysis is built upon a fair representation of all the evaluation by myself (the researcher) and the course views expressed, and to bring about a reduction of co-ordinator. This occurred despite similarities in appropriation (Opie, 1992). practice over the actual procedures on this occasion. It was these apparent differing interpretations of the To sum up term evaluation which lcd me to review and recon- This paper demonstrates a number of issues about sider my own research practice. In reflecting on what accountability in the evaluative and research process. I was doing I am able to suggest how there were It opens up for discussion the need to reflect on our differences in the two 'evaluations'. First, the evalua- accepted research practice. I found that I was unpre- tion of the course in the research process is one part of pared for the reactions of the course co-ordinator to a broader piece of research. In essence, the research is what I considered were tricd and tested methods, wider than the course in that it was also discussing widely used and rarely questioned. It led me to reflect with students things which are not directly related to on my practice in a number of ways. the course, but rather arc about what it is like doing Thc paper has discussed a number of issues and a course. Crucial to this are the discussions about attempted to clarify an understanding of differing participants' home lives and domestic situations and interpretations of evaluation in the educational and the impact of studying/attending a course on ;ts research process. The discussion has centred around 166 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 167

the feminist literature for an analysis of the interview thesis: University of Aston. as a central feature of the research process. This has led McKee, L. and O'Brien, M. (1983) 'Interviewing men: to questioning the way in which ensuring confidenti- taking gender seriously', in E. Garmarnikow, D. ality for participants in the research is effective in Morgan, J. Purvis and D. Taylorson (eds) The public enabling accountability to those participants. and the prWate. London: Heinemann, pp 132-161. Oakley, A. (1981) 'Interviewing women: a contradiction REFERENCES in terms', in H.Roberts (ed) Doing feminist research. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul..pp 30-61. Cicourel, A.V. (1964) Method and measurement in sociol- 0 pie, A. ( i 992) 'Qua! i tative research, appropriation of the ogy. New York: Free Press. "other' and empowerment". Feminist Review No 40, Finch, J. (1984) 'It's great to have someone to talk to: the Spring. ethics and politics of interviewing women', in C.Bell Pettigrew, J. (1981) 'Reminiscences of fieldworkamong and H.Roberts (eds), Social researching: politics, prob- the Sikhs', in H.Roberts (ed) Doing feminist research kms, practice. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp 62-82. 70-87. Scott,S. (1984) 'The personable and the powerful: gender Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1968) The discovery ofgrounded and status in sociological research'., in C.Bell and theory. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. H.Roberts (eds) Social researching: politics, problems, Lawrence, B. (1987) Genderandgeneralpractice: the single- practice. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp 165- handed woman general practitioner. Unpublished PhD 178.

167 1 6 8 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE Working collaboratively on research intocollaborative working: I thought I saw a palindrome

Sue Shuttleworth Department of Adult Education University of Hull

Introduction research application, policy and evaluation. Some THIS paper will offer an overview of recent debate researchers are uncompromising in their views, relat- touching on evaluation, particularly as it relates ing this heightened focus on accountablilty to 'where to qualitative research, and willoutline work cur- the money is' (Finch, 1986), and the recognised need rently in progress at the University of Hull, which can to satisfr research funding bodies whohave been be seen as an attempt to overcome some of the sceptical of the relevance and validity of qualitative problems in assessing the value of qualitative research findings. Others have taken a more general view, by operating within a collaborative framework. arguing that a common interest is inherent in the Throughout this paper, 'qualitative research' is taken reflection of research communities on the worth of to include ethnography, fieldresearch, participant emerging and established processes and outcomes observation, case study methods, and in-depth un- (Burgess, 1993). Argument about the usefulness of structured interviews, but with the recognition thatqualitative research then, has over the past decade while similarities of enterprise and concern exist, been brought into sharper focus, and within this, the these terms are not completely interchangeable. How- issue of evaluation and how to assess qualitative ever, a common approach can be identified,grounded research can be seen as a key problem. I will now look in what might be seen as a shared aim of building more closely at some of the issues inthis debate. understanding from 'experience, empathy and in-Hammersley offers a useful starting point in con- volvement' (Rist, 1984), and a view of the social structing a conceptual framework based on an over- world starting from the perspective of the participant. view of work spanning several years. He sets out 'Evaluation' will be used in a very broad sense to potential assessment criteria around three fundamen- include attempts to examine, judge or assess the tal positions: effectiveness and adequacy of processes or outcomes (i) that no appropriate criteria exist to evaluate quali- of research. tative research; (ii) that qualitative research, as an alternative ap- The qualitative paradigm and developing proach to quantitative research, can only be evaluation criteria evaluated by internally consistent criteria; After more than a decade of debate, leading contribu- (iii) that quantitative and qualitative research should tors in the field are arguingthat the qualitative be evaluated by the same criteria. paradigm in social scientific research has now achieved The dominant perspective in the qualitative tradition a legitimacy which waspreviously strongly contested. is the second position, so it would be appropriate to Hammersley (1992) for example, while perceiving examine contributions to this viewpoint. I will focus this current state as problematic and as a climate of on four examples: Lincoln andGuba (1985), Marshall detente between what have been seen as opposing and Rossman (1989), Burgess (1993), and methodologies of quantitative and qualitative re- Hammersley (1992). search, nevertheless has said: " ....fashion in many oftheAs an earlier and detailed formulation within the social sciences has swungfrom quantitative to qualitative dominant tradition, it is worth looking at Lincoln and methods. The value of the latter is now widely accepted, Guba relatively closely. They set out argument for 1 and in some fields there may even be the danger thatmore accountable social sciencearound four criteria qualitative work will largely supplant quantitative re- of evaluation: firstly the notion of ' truth value; this search?. In many ways the current trend towards being the truthfulness of the findings of a particular growing popularity and acceptance rests on the more study; secondly, the applicability of those findings to concentrated attention of practicing qualitative social other settings or social groups; thirdly the consistency scientists on the need to be rigorous and systematic. of findings, particularly in terms of their replicability; In part, this focus on and argument about the desir- and finally, the neutrality of a study, or how far ability of 'tightening up' qualitative research can befindings reflect the subjects and the research focus seen within awider research contextofgeneralisability, rather than researcher biases. These, according to 1993SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS169

Lincoln and Guba, are the dimensions along which all Burgess offers a slightly different framework, indicat- research should be assessed; however, they go on to ing that an evaluation ofsocial research should exam- say that quantitative and qualitative paradigms need ine three interconnected areas: to make differential use of them. For the quantitative (i) general methodology or the principles guiding approach the dimensions relate to internal and exter- investigation, nal validity, reliability and objectivity. In the qualita- (ii) research strategy or principles of research design tive approach the dimensions are more appropriately and utilization, conceptualised as constructs of credibility, transfer- (iii) research methods or techniques employed in an ability, dependability and confirmability. This means investigation. that truth value (as an aspect of internal validity) In dealing with these general criteria of evaluation, becomes credibility which is measured in terms ofBurgess goes on to suggest a range of questions to accurate description and truth to the subjects studied. address, for example, how did the research begin? Applicability (as an aspect of external validity) be- What theoretical perspective is employed? What prin- comes transferabilio,or generalisability of the study to ciples of selection are involved? What methods of other settings, a dimension most often seen as the investigation are used? What form does data analysis weakness of qualitative research, but which Lincoln take? 'What is the impact of the study? What kinds of and Guba argue is off-set by the strength of internal research questions remain unanswered? validity and its grounded conceptual frame, andAt this point it would be useful to return to additionally by triangulation, an approach growing in Hammersley who makes what seems to be an impor- use as an aid to external validity. Consistency (as an tant distinction between criteria and means a aspect of reliability) becomes dependability, a concept distinction potentially useful in clarifring spheres of assuming a dynamic social world, an emergent re- thinking when considering research evaluation. He search design, and therefore a probleMatic approach argues criteria relate to the standards by which re- to replication. Finally, neutrality (as an aspect ofsearch results should be assessed, while meansrelate to objectivity) becomes confirmabilitywhich emphasiseshow this might be achieved and the evidence which the strength of data, and the extent to which analysis might be used in an assessment. Much existing work is grounded in the data, rather than the objectivity ofattempting to set out principles of qualitative evalu- the researcher in judging the findings of a study. ation confuses these two dimensions. A brief reading Marshall and Rossman build on a range of frame- particularly of Marshall and Rossman and to some works (including Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Glaser extent Burgess, goes some way to illustrate this point. and Strauss, 1967; and Schatzman and Strauss, 1973), Their discussion ofcriteriaseems to draw on processes and suggest a number of additional criteria for assess- ofevaluation and standards of evaluation but without ing what they refer to as the 'value' and 'trustworthi- explicitly distinguishing one from the other. In addi- ness' of qualitative research. These include: making tion, although both Burgess, and Marshall and data collection methods explicit, and making use of Rossman, discuss their outlines in terms of the evalu- data in documenting analytic constructs; the discus- ation of qualitative research, it might be argued when sion of biases of personal, professional and policy looking across the range of their identified criteria and related interest, and theoretical biases and assump- more directly focussed questions, that thny might tions; the presentation and discussion of competing equally hold in the assessment of any research, quali- hypotheses; making public the range of strategies tative or quantitative. adopted for data collection and analysis; and, docu- Hammersley's own position concentrates more clearly menting decisions which alter strategies or substan- on evaluation criteria, and standards which would tive focus. In addition Marshall and Rossman list relate to both qualitative and quantitative research. potential controls as solution to the problem of re- His outline telescopes earlier frameworks into a much searcher subjectivity, particularly as this relates to bias more simplified reformulation of criteria around two in interpretation of data. Their suggestions include: basic dimensions of evaluation truth (or validity) the use of a 'devil's advocate', which is a research and relevance both of which apply to assessments partner who critically questions research analyses; a of qualitative and quantitative research. The criterion constant check for negative instances; practicing valueof truth or validity rests on measures of plausibility free note taking; and conducting an audit of data and credibility; the centrality of a claim to the argu- collection and analytic strategies. Many of these con- ment presented; and the type of claim made, ie cepts cluster around the notion of researcher rlexiv-whether itis to do with definitions, descriptions, ity, a widely used qualitative term and an important explanations or theories. Relevance rests on an assess- part ofqualitative research strategy relating directly to ment of the importance of a topic and the contribu- the information given to the reader about the research tion to knowledge/literature of research findings. In process. 169 70 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE addressing the 'means' or 'evidence' used to assess the peer/practitioner/policy comment and analysis presence or absence of these criteria, or theirrelative of qualitative and quantitative data. The evalu- strength in a research study, however, Hammers ley ation should determine whether the stated ob- argues there may be differences according tothe case jectives, and where set, performance indicators and according to the qualitative or quantitative na- (in the sense of attainment targets) have been ture of a study. achieved. (p3, 2:6). Discussion so far, then, indicates that researchers All this is set alongside questions which assessors differ in their views about how qualitative and quan- should ask, such as: titative research could be evaluated. Earlier formula- Has the expenditure achieved high quality re- tions took the position that distinctive criteria are search which contributes significantly to knowl- necessary. Developing argument is to some extent edge, methodology and/or theory and which has moving away from this towards a view that qualitative a high utility and impact? (p3, 2:6). and quantitative criteria have dimensions in common It is not clear in relation to evaluation criteria and which could indicate evaluation by the same funda- evaluation means, in this brief reading of ESRC mental criteriais possible (particularly when the fram e- policy how far potential differences in qualitative and work is as concentrated as Hammersley's criteria ofquantitative research might be recognised, and the relevance and validity), but some reformulation ofwhether adequate evaluation should make use of means might be necessary, that is how andby what differential dimensions of assessment. The language evidence research is evaluated, particularly around of the `definition' of evaluation (in other words certain issues in the qualitative paradigm for example criteria outlined) appears consistent with qualitative relating to confirmability/ objectivity, and applicabil- and quantitative approaches for example research ity/ external validity. quality, rigour and management, which I have iden- tified as aspects of research truth or validity, are Linking discussion on research evaluation to acceptable aspects of assessment for any kind of evaluation policy: distinguishing evaluation research. However, it is less clear that this is the case criteria and evaluation means when considering how assessment will be carried out. Evaluation Criteria The language here appears more positivistic and thus In 'A Policy for Evaluating ESRC-Funded Research' potentially closer to conditions of quantitativeness (ESRC, 1992), evaluation is defined as: retrospective than qualitativeness. For example, evaluating the assessment ofresearch quality, contribution, rigour, im- 'qual icy, rigour and management' ofa research project pact, management and policy (p1, 1:1), aframework by considering whether 'stated objectives had been which I will parallel with Hammersley's in that both achieved', might prove more problematic for qualita- offer standards to apply in evaluations of qualitative tive approaches owing to the apparently ad hoc and and quantitative research. Also, in terms of earlier necessarily more emergent nature of this than other discussion, it is possible to suggest these are 'criteria' forms of research. Similarly, in considering criteria of of evaluation rather than `means' research quality, `contribution and impact', and their assessment in rigour and management would relate to the validityofterms of `significance of contribution to knowledge, a research project; whilecontribution, impact and methodology or theory', the issue of when to assess policy might relate more closely to the relevance of a might pertain differently in qualitative and quantita- research study. tive terms if, as may be possible, time to absorb findings of theoryand methodology occurs unevenly. Evaluation means Such examples, then, go some way to illustrating The means or the actual evidence used to assess the developing argument, that criteria of evaluation can presence, absence, or relative strengthof these criteria be formulated in an encompassing way, but setting in any research project is outlined in the ESRC policyout the meanswhereby these criteriamight be assessed in a number of ways depending on whether the is much less straight forward. Drawing on peer com- evaluation is of a Research Project, a Research Initia- ment within a research community would to some tive and Programme, or a Research Centre. However, extent address this difficulty. However,within the in outline terms, a number of general principles qualitative framework a further possibility accrues in relating to means arc set out: relation to the established tradition of reflexivity in Evaluation should be based on comprehensive which researchers maintain a concern with formulat- and up to date evidence, and on external com- ing what might be termed grounded means, that is, in ment. Where selection of researchpublications generating a formal, on-going or emergent assess- and materials is necessary this should be done by ment of general methodology, research strategy,and the researchers themselves in consultation with research methods. In the next section I will discuss the the evaluators. Assessment should be based on implications of this in relation to work in progress at 044 1 9 9 3 SCUTREA CONFERENCE PAPERS 171

the University of Hull. tandy for our research into the educative value of collaborative research, reflexivity has implications for Current research at the University of the development of theory in that Hull, Industrial Studies Unit ... the theories we develop to explain the behav- Our research, entitled 'Worker Collaborative Re- iour of the people we study should also, where search as Education', is an examination of workers' relevant, be applied to our own activities 2S research projects in the UK and internationally in researchers and should aid in the development of relation to theories of learning, research and educa- research strategies. (Hammersley, 1983). tion, and is an assessment of collaborative enquiry in In taking up this final point in our research, we are the generation of knowledge. That is, we are inter- aiming to move towards a use of reflexivity which ested in the educ:>tive value of the experience of operates simultaneously along two levels of our en- working together to achieve a particular end eg quiry: as a generative device in exploring issues and identification and solution of work based problems, developing theory within our primary research focus policy change, or individual development for of worker collaborative research and the educative participants labelled by us as workers and academics, value of this for participants; and as a reflective device from a range of education and work related back- in looking at ourselves working collaboratively as a grounds. The kind of approach adopted would there- research team, and the educative value of this for the fore be research with workers rather than the more quality of our understanding as researchers of the traditional orientation of research for or on workers. dimensions involved in the formulation of our prac- Within this structure, our research picks up on a tical and theoretical understanding. This approach number of points raised so far, specifically, it can be might be termed 'heuristic reflexivity' heuristic seen as an attempt to explore methodologkal issues means to 'cliscover'; it requires the use of personal alongside our primary research focus of worker col- knowledge (Rogers,1977); tacit and always question- laborative research. Indeed, it was the nature of our able assumptions, and researcher insights (Polanyi, research focus which in part triggered a broader 1983). In addition, the heuristic process is said to be concern with our own collective workings as a re- about search team. Developing dimensions for us are there- ... understanding the cw:nce of a phenomenon' fore to do with reflexivity in the research process, and through shared reflection and enquiry with co- the link between reflexivity and collaboration; col- researchers as they also intensively experience laboration as an aid to evaluation in the cultivation of and reflect on the phenomenon in question a more systematic approach; a particular orientation (Patton, 1990). towards evaluation as on-going and emergent rather The notions of shared reflection and co-researchers than primarily sumrnative or formative; and finally, thus bring us back to collaboration, and our process evaluation as democratic and group generated rather of working together while researching the process of than essentially a matter of an external imposition. others working together. The roots of heuristics are to be found in the human- (i) Reflexivity istic psychology of Maslow (1956); Rogers (1977) The concept of reflexivity has been identified as aand Bruner (1957; 1967), whose ideas about the significant feature of the research process. Debate as nature of the learning context have been linked to to its essential qualitativeness versus its applicability concepts of action and involvement of the learner, to quantitative approaches has been explored else- empowerment, freedom to learn, discovery by going where and remains unresolved. However, for our beyond existing frameworks to novel reformulations, purposes, it is sufficient that there is a recognition that or as Bruner describes it, 'going beyond the informa- reflexivity is necessary to adequate research essentially tion given', and fiirther, engaging in discovery through because of the dimensions along which it operates. 'combinatorial creativity' which brings participants Firstly, reflexivity is to do with researchers being part from a range of experiences or subject backgrounds to of the social lifc they study. A central clement of the work together, achieving new insights through the concept of reflexivity, therefore, is that all social juxtaposition of their varied knowledge frameworks: research, and social life, rakes the form of participant progress in science seems to occur on the observation in that we arc participating in the social margins between fields. There is virtually no world and reflecting on the outcomes of this. Sec- research available on this type of combinatoriaj ondly, social research is reflexive in its groundedness creativity.(11runer, 1957). in common sense knowledge. Thirdly, reflexivity has All of this relates to heuristic reflexivity for us because implications for research practice in generating an it also reflects dimensions of our research focus, understanding of researcher effects rather than simply particularly in relation to the political culture of attempting to remove thcm. Finally, but most impor- worker education and research as rooted in participa- 172 RESEARCH: REFLECTING PRACTICE tion, collective action, participatory control and de- sibilities, and process. Within this an input-output mocracy; and the implications of thiswhen workers model could be employed touching on discussion, and academics with contrasting backgrounds come evidence, argument, opinion, formulation, negotia- together in collective engagement in research. tion, participation, supportive, co-operative (all as aspects of input); and, decisions, problem solving, (ii) Collaboration as part of reflevivily and problem identification, task identification, develop- as an aid to evaluation ment, motivation, skills, and meetingobjectives (all Our collaboration as a rsearch team mirrors aspectsas aspects of output). For a recentcontribution to of the culture of worker education and research discussion of analysis methodology see Drew and outlined above: where the notion of collaboration in Heritage (1992), 'Talk at Work'. research is by no means new. However, what is novel The value of our collaborative data and analysis is yet in our approach is the exploratory attempt to bring to be assessed, although, even at this early stage together the theoretical and methodological implica- benefits are apparent, particularly longitudinally where tions of reflexivity as I have discussed them, and to set we will be able to trace in detail how ourreflexive and these alongside the problematic of evaluation, par- accumulative processes are embedded. ticularly in relation co the development of both criteria and means of assessment in qualitative re- (iii) Evaluation as on-going and Democratic search. Finally, the collaborative and developing scope of our Part of the means of assessment for us is reflection on work has implications for models of evaluation. In our emergent methodology andfindings. As a group touching on the culture of worker education and we have had to develop ways to work togethereffec- research I have already indicated parallels of ideology tively. Part of our approach to this is our attempt to between this and our own approach. In evaluation systematise what might otherwise have been fairly theory this framework relates to the Democratic random and formless practice. To this end, regular Evaluation Model outlined by MacDonald (1977). and democratically organised research meetings have He identifies a number of characteristics of demo- taken place, recorded by detailed notes taken in turn cratic evaluation which he contrasts with two other by different members of the research group. Notes models autocratic and bureaucratic. The key con- would indicate for example, decisions made, how cepts of democratic evaluation areconfidentiality, tasks would be divided and undertaken, progress negotiation and accessibility, all of which rest on the reporting, and so on a practice relating co reflexiv- basic value of an informed citizenry and the 'right to ity in allowing for recorded exploration of data gath- know'. In contrast, bureaucratic and autocratic evalu- ering decisions, decisions influencing changes in fo- ation involve concepts of objectivity, efficiency and cus, discussion of theoretical biasesand assumptions, utility, and suggest a shared perspective of external the role of the 'devil's advocate' in collaboration, evaluation. The democratic approach seems to offer indeed, many of the dimensions of access outlined in the potential for a more collaborative framework Marshall and Rossman, above. bringing internal and external view points together in As meetings progressed we systematised further by a joint or negotiated assessment. using audio tape to capture more of the essence of ideas which were otherwise lost in the dynamics ofConclusion dialogue and exchange. Our collaborative method is Through reflexive processing bringing together aca- now to record regular meetings, toproduce an ab- demics and workers engaged in 'research as educa- stract of processes from a first listening tothe tape to tion', we as a research team are focussing collabora- act as notes of the meeting to becirculated to mem- tively on collaborative activity. Through this dual bers at the earliest possible time, followed by a full level approach to data gathering and analysis we hope transcript to give as close a representation as possible to sharpen focus around qualitativeevaluation, em- of the meeting as a whole. In this way all members ploying a methodology which is emergent and con- have a complete account of the meeting, representing ceptualised around the notion that in qualitative one level of collaborative data,analysis of which is a research the process is part of the evidence in the move group decision, representinganother level ofcollabo- towards the development of a 'heuristic reflexivity'. rative data. This has been a discussion outline and report on Analysis methodology is still in the process of formu- themes underlying research in early stages. Our meth- lation. A number of frameworks suggest themselves, ods of collaboration and related attempts to systema- for example from a task orientation perspective ana- tise what is usually thought of as a more spontaneous lytic dimensions would include: approaches/meth- or ad hoc process (however accu rat or inaccuratethis ods, objectives, evaluation skills/criteria, research notion may be) are still undergoing levels of refine- management issues, research/researcher team respon- ment as we encounter and tackle newdifficulties and 1 72 1 9 9 3 SCUTREA C O N F E R E N C E PAPERS 1 7 3 recognise in ourselves that working together effec- Lincoln, Y.S. & Guba, E.G. (1985) Naturalistic Inquiry, tively is a matter of continual negotiation, stating, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. clarifying and reiterating ideas, methods and objec- MacDonald, B. (1977) 'A Political Classification of Evalu- tives. ation Studies in Education', in D. 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Economic and Social Research Council, (1992) A Policy for Polanyi, M. (1983) The Tacit Dimension, Magnolia, MA: Evaluating.ESRC-Funded Research, Swindon: ESRC. Peter Smith (reprinted). Finch, J. (1986) Research and Policy: The uses ofQualitative Rogers, C. (1977) On Personal Power, New York, NY: Free Methods in Social and Educational Research, Sussex Press. Palmer. Rist, R. (1984) 'On the application of qualitative research Glaser, B. & Strauss, A. (1967) The Discovery of Grounded to the policy process: An emergent linkage', in L. Theory, Chicago, IL: Aldine. Barton and S. Walker (eds) Social Crisis and Educa- Hammersley, M. & Atkinson, P. (1983) Ethnography: tional Research, London: Croom Helm. Principles in Practice, London: Tavistock. Schataman, L. & Strauss, A. (1973) Field Research: strate- Hammersley, M. (1992) What's wrong with Ethnography?, gies for a natural sociology, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: London: Routledge. Prentice-Hall. Mak(UMW Man Papers from the annualSCUTREA conference

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Fenia Alexopoulu David J. Jones Geoff Anderson Helen Jones Paul Armstrong Alison Kaye Roseanne Benn Barbara Lawrence Dave Boud Janice Malcolm Avtar Brah Rod McDonald ..-Ae.1,- Ian Bryant Clive Millar 7.7 Rob Burton Nod Miller Malcolm Chase Rita Newton Ruth Cherrington Rebecca O'Rourke Janet Coles Kirit Patel Eileen Fitzgerald Daggett John Payne Mike Davis Moira Russon Elaine Dawson Jane Sampson Kate Day Sue Shuttleworth Chris Duke Sheila Sisto Catherine Edwards Tom Steele Richard Edwar ds Mary Stuart Keith Forrester AlistairThomson Andrew Gonczi Mary Thorpe Annette Greenland Robin Usher Paul Hager Morry van Ments Hazel Hampton David Walker William Hampton Peter Watson Geoff Hayton Linden West Joanna Highton Ruth Winterton Cheryl Hunt Alexandra Withnal I Rennie Johnston Miriam Zukas Editors: Nod Miller & David J. lones William Jones

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