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2 Imagining Gogrial ! Durham E-Theses The Making and Remaking of Gogrial: Landscape, history and memory in South Sudan. CORMACK, ZOE,TROY How to cite: CORMACK, ZOE,TROY (2014) The Making and Remaking of Gogrial: Landscape, history and memory in South Sudan., Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/10781/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 ! Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Durham University Department of History ! ! ! ! ! ! The!Making!and!Remaking!of!Gogrial:! Landscape,!history!and!memory!in!South!Sudan! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Zoe!Troy!Cormack! ! October 2014 ! Abstract This thesis is a historical study of landscape in a pastoralist region of South Sudan called Gogrial. Gogrial is known in academic studies through Godfrey Lienhardt’s ethnographic research on Dinka religion, conducted there in the late 1940s. Since that time the area has suffered extensively in two civil wars. This thesis reinterprets Gogrial’s recent past, from the perspective of those who live there. It contributes to studies of African landscapes by showing how the landscape of Gogrial has been constructed and reconstructed through periods of civil war and expanding and contracting state power. It argues that transforming the landscape is both a way of mediating insecurity and a central part of local historical narratives. This thesis informs debates on how mobile populations construct landscape; it does this by focusing on how different pathways and different centres are temporally, socially and spatially constructed. It diverges from most studies of pastoralism, which stress marginalization, to show how pastoralists create their own centres. This is a local study but it is firmly situated in a wider political context, and is attentive to how the construction landscape in Gogrial has interacted with wider political transformations in South Sudan. Therefore it is also partly a study of how pastoralists engage with the state, showing how rural populations have sought to tap the state’s power, while retaining distinct moral claims on the landscape. In its broadest sense this is a study of how people live with chronic insecurity. Despite the extreme violence this region has experienced, people in Gogrial do not see their lives and their locality as defined by violence. Instead, this thesis will show how the experience of predatory states and militaries are woven into and in some cases subsumed by local versions of the past that stress different processes and different centres. This challenges much of the historiography of Sudan and South Sudan, which has presented places like Gogrial as victimized peripheries. In contrast, this thesis will explore rural agency and the creative cultural management of insecurity through making and remaking the landscape. Table of Contents ! ! DINKA SPELLINGS AND PRONUNCIATION! 4! ILLUSTRATIONS! 6! GLOSSARY! 8! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS! 11! 1! INTRODUCTION! 16! WRITTEN HISTORIES OF CONFLICT AND MARGINALISATION! 18! NEW HISTORY! 23! SPOILING AND REMAKING THE WORLD! 25! REFRAMING THE NARRATIVE! 27! USING LANDSCAPE! 32! AN ETHNOGRAPHIC MICRO-HISTORY OF GOGRIAL! 35! HISTORY AND ANTHROPOLOGY! 35! FIELDSITES! 40! THE VISUAL RECORD! 43! ARCHIVAL SOURCES! 43! TELLING HISTORY THROUGH SONG! 44! CHAPTER PLANS! 49! 2! IMAGINING GOGRIAL! 52! INTRODUCTION! 52! A BARRIER! 54! FIERCE DINKA PASTORALISTS! 60! BRINGING PEOPLE INTO GOVERNMENT! 64! COLONIAL ATTEMPTS TO UNDERSTAND THE SOCIETY THEY GOVERNED! 70! ANTHROPLOGICAL IMAGINATIONS! 75! UNREACHED PEOPLE’: MISSIONARY REPRESENTATIONS OF GOGRIAL! 81! NOTE ON THE INVISIBLE PERIOD AND CONTINUITY! 87! WAR, FAMINE AND AID! 89! CONCLUSION! 94! ! 1! MAKING PATHWAYS…! 96! 'MARIAL'KUEI'GOES'TO'THE'CATTLE1CAMP'OF'MANYIEL'AND'THEN'TO'TUOŊ'' 3! ARRIVALS! 99! 'PADIANY'OF'MARIAL'BEK'HAVE'REMAINED'OVER'THE'LAND' INTRODUCTION! 101! MOVING ACROSS THE LAND! 103! CHANGING MEANINGS OF TERRITORIAL EXPANSION AND ARRIVAL! 104! ARRIVALS! 109! INSECURITY AND REMAKING LANDSCAPE! 111! ‘OK KAŊ RIEL’, WE CAME FIRST! 113! ‘KENE EE ROOR’, THIS PLACE WAS A FOREST! 117! ‘I WANT PANHOM IN THE CENTRE OF TOC’! 120! THE ONGOING RECLAMATION OF ROOR! 122! CONCLUSION ! 125! 4! BORDERS ARE GALAXIES! 126! 'YOU'OWN'A'PLACE'WITH'A'COW,'YOU'OWN'A'PLACE'WITH'A'PERSON'' INTRODUCTION! 128! THE DISPUTE AT MAŊAR! 129! UNDERSTANDING MAŊAR! 133! ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS! 133! BORDERS ARE GALAXIES! 138! INTERPENETRATION! 142! MAPPING! 144! DEMARCATION! 148! AUTHORITY! 150! BEYOND BORDERS! 151! CONCLUSION ! 154! 5! ESTABLISHING A HOME! 157! 'SHE'ESTABLISHED'HER'HOME'AT'THE'CENTRE'OF'THE'PEOPLE'OF'ADOOR'AT'TUOŊ' INTRODUCTION! 159! WHAT IS BAAI?! 162! LOCATING BAAI IN ACADEMIC STUDIES! 166! SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT SO FAR! 171! NEGOTIATING CHANGE! 172! THE MARKET AS A FRONTIER! 175! FOOD AS A FRONTIER! 182! MARRIAGE AS A FRONTIER! 184! BAAI AS A POLITICAL RESOURCE! 188! CONCLUSION ! 191! ! 2! 6! VISIBLE AND INVISIBLE MEMORIES! 193! 'MY'GRANDMOTHER,'APET'ANYUON'JOKTIAM'WAS'CAPTURED'BY''JUR'OF'ABDEL'MANYIEL' INTRODUCTION! 195! MAKING THE INVISIBLE, VISIBLE: MEMORIAL AT LOL NYIEL! 198! THE FIRST CIVIL WAR IN SOUTH SUDAN! 199! MASSACRE AT LOL NYIEL! 201! OTHER HISTORIES OF THE MASSACRE! 204! THE MEMORIAL! 206! MAKING THE VISIBLE, INVISIBLE: REBUILDING GOGRIAL TOWN! 211! THE FIVE BATTLES FOR GOGRIAL! 211! OLD GOGRIAL REMEMBERED! 216! REBUILDING GOGRIAL! 219! REMEMBERING KERUBINO KUANYIN BOL! 226! CONCLUSION! 229! 7! THE GEOGRAPHY OF PROTECTION! 231! 'IN'THE'FLOOD'YEAR,'EVEN'IF'THE'NUER'COME,'YOU'ARE'THE'ONE'TO'DEFEND'THE'FAR'SIDE'OF'TOC' INTRODUCTION! 233! THE LOSS OF WILD ANIMALS! 235! DEALING WITH A DIFFERENT LANDSCAPE! 242! INCORPORATING REMOTENESS! 244! NOVEL FORMS OF SPIRITUAL PROTECTION! 246! THE EMERGENCE OF MABIORDIT! 247! UNDERSTANDING MABIORDIT! 249! MITIGATING VULNERABILITY! 250! CHANGING POSITION OF BÄNY BITH! 253! THE LIMITS OF THE POWER OF GUNS! 256! CONCLUSION! 257! 8! CONCLUSION! 259! APPENDIX! 265! PRIMARY SOURCES! 289! BIBLIOGRAPHY! 292! ! 3! Dinka spellings and pronunciation Dinka orthography is not standardized and current writing practice is variable. Linguists are still debating the most appropriate way to capture the complex variation in tone, voice quality and vowel length in Dinka language.1 There are four major dialects of Dinka; Rek, Agar, Bor and Padang. Each is mutually intelligible but there are differences in spelling and pronunciation. The dialect used in this thesis is Rek. Plural nouns in Dinka are highly irregular, cases are indicated in the text where appropriate. This thesis adopts a simplified orthography common in most academic texts. The vowel quality is distinguished with a dieresis and vowel lengths are marked extra letters (short –‘a’; long, ‘aa’) but variations in tone are unmarked. Consonants The same as in English with the exception of: c ‘ch’ as in ‘chair’ and never ‘c’ as in ‘cook’ dh with nasalization, spoken with the tongue touching the back of the front teeth g hard ‘g’ as in ‘gain’ ɣ similar to ‘h’ spoken from the back of the throat with the mouth rounded and slightly open nh with nasalization, spoken with the tongue touching the back of the front teeth ny as in Spanish ñ ŋ ‘ng’ as in ‘ring r trill or rolled th as in ‘thin’ Vowels a ‘a’ as in ‘father’ e ‘a’ as in ‘date’ i ‘ee’ as in ‘meet’ ɔ ‘o’ as in ‘lot’ o ‘o’ as in ‘go’ u ‘oo’ as in ‘boot’ ɛ ‘e’ as in ‘ten’ Vowels with a dieresis are pronounced with a breathy sound. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!For!a!linguists!recent!summary!see!Ladd!Robert,!Orthographic'Reform'in'Dinka:'Some'GeneraL' Considerations'and'a'Proposal!(University!of!Edinburgh,!2012).! ! 4! When a singular noun, which ends in a vowel or a hard consonant, is followed by an adjective, a possessive, a pronoun or a noun in the genitive case the pronunciation is changed as follows:2 ‘a/e/i/ɔ/o/ɛ/ u’ is replaced (or followed by) ‘n’ ‘p’ is replaced by ‘n’ ‘th’ is replaced by ‘nh’ ‘t’ is replaced by ‘n’ ‘c’ is replaced by ‘ny’ ‘k’ is replaced by ‘ŋ’ Nouns in this thesis retain their original form in writing, even when they undergo a transformation in pronunciation. For example, ‘wut cielic’ [the centre of the cattle camp] is written here, even though ‘wun cielic’ is spoken. Dinka orthography is always used for Dinka words, with the exception of proper nouns that are commonly spelt with all English characters. For example, the name ‘Deŋ’ is written as ‘Deng’. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2!Many!nouns!undergo!more!substantial!changes.! ! 5! Illustrations PHOTOGRAPHS 1. A Dinka cattle-camp, 1868-1871. 20 2. Explaining my research to some young men near the River Jur, 2011. 36 3. Being blessed by Jiel Yuot before leaving for England, 2012. 42 4. The Union Jack flying in The Sudd, 1902. 57 5. Sudd cutters on the River Jur, 1900-1904. 58 6. Fishermen on the River Jur, from the steamer 1900-1904. 58 7. ‘Locked up by The Sudd’. 60 8. ‘A Dinka Dandy’. 61 9. ‘Dinka Profiles’. 61 10. Young men in Pan Acier, 1933. 62 11. Cover of Divinity and Experience, second edition. 62 12. ‘Chak Chak’, 1901. 67 13. The Chak Chak post, 1901. 67 14. A chiefs meeting at Tonj, c1940. 73 15.
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