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^IIJS :":^110.11 ":0 A :,: V;^V :^:SI":NIH;> KillLS!ill^110.1 0 Dull^: (81) I'he^I 1010f: Cldd O. LLl EARCll RELLOWS OF THE PRE-PROJECT PRE-PROJECT LEADER, ZENG LINGHAl VICE-LEADER: HOU YUANZHAO D CTOR Or PRE. PROJECT OFFICE S WANG HONGFENG KEY STAFF : XIE Ll ^ ZHONG WE A. YANG ZHONGYANG EXECUTING AGENCY GUANGDONG ACADEMY OF FORESTRY CHINA, GUAlqGGONG, GUANGZHOU, LONGDONG, 510520 TELs 86-020-87035645 FAXs 86-020-8703/245 E-mail: zlinghai@263. net C ESE ACADEMY OF FORESTRY CHINA, BEIJING, BEHIND YIHEYUAN, 100091 TEL 86-010-62889731 FAX, 86-010-64960575 Abbreviations and Acronyms...... , . , . , . . . , , , , ...... I I The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China...... ,...... ,....,...... 2 Ab stract ...... ,...... 2 Introduction ...... ,...... ,...... 2 I . Method ...... *.....,...... 3 2. Tropical region and tropical forests in China ...... 4 2. I Tropical region ,..,..,..,.,..,..,...... ,..,..,..,..,..,...... ,..,. 4 2.2 Tropical forests of China ...... ,...... , . .,. .,. .,. . ,. . ,.. ,.. ,...... 7 3. The types of China' s TSF ..,....,...... ,...... 9 3 . I Definition of SF ...... ,..,..,..,..,..,...... ,.....------..,'.,"""""""" ' 3.2 Come into being of China' s SF ...... , . .,. .,. .,. . ,. . ,...... , ...... 10 3.3 The area of TSP and degraded forest land .. ,...... ;...... , . .,. .,. .,. .,...... , 12 3 .4 Types of the SE, ..,..,..,..,.,...,.,,.,..,..,..,....,...... ,..,..,..,..,..,...... I 2 4. Conclusions ...... ,..... 17 U Current Situation and Techniques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China ...... 18 Abs tract ...... ,...... ,, Introduction ...... ,...... ,...... *18 I. The characteristics of tropical forests of China ...... ,...... 19 2. Relative policies and regulations of Chinese Government...... ,...... 19 3. The current situation of TSFs in China...... ,...... 21 3 . I C}IFA ...... ,..,..,..,..,..,..,.,..,...... ,..,...... ,.....,..,.., 2 I 3.2 Establishment of ER district on^) ...... ,. .,. .,. .,. .,. . ,. . ,...... 21 3.3 Conducting Natural Forest Protection Project of government ,..,..,..,..,...... 23 3.4 Ecological Forests (EF) management . ., . ., . .,. .,. .,. .,. . ,. . ,. . ,...... 23 4. The management techniques of TSE ...... 24 5. Major achievements and experiences ...... 26 5 . I Major achievements ...... ,...... ,..,..,.,,..,..,..,..,...... 26 5 . 2 Minor experiences ...... ,..,..,..,..,..,..,..,....,.....,...... 27 6. Conclusions ...... ,...... 28 in Analysis of Documents Concerning Research of Management of '11.0pical Secondary Forests Outside of China...... 29 Abstract ...... ,...... 29 Introduction ...... ,...... 29 I. Research process of management of global TSEs ...... ,...... 30 2. Types of TSF ...... 31 3. The development of TSF ...... 31 4. The composition of species and construction of forest stand in TSF ...... ,..... 32 5. Change of tree species during TSF succession ...... ,....,...... 33 6, Plant species of TSF and land use intensity...... ,...... 34 7. Effect of artificial stands to secondary succession ,...... 35 IQ AC^!;I, '03 M I oq ^. 8. TSF and armnal...... ,...... e...... ,...... ,....,...... 36 9. TSF succession and environment ...... ,...... ,...... 36 10. ' Biomas s and productivity of TSF...... ,....,...... 38 I I . Nutrient cycling in TSF ...... ,...... ,...... 39 12. Soil of TSF ...... ,...... ,...... ,...... 40 13. Conclusions and recoinmendations ...... 41 IV Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China...... "...... ,...... 42 Abstract ...... ,...... ;...... ,....,....,...... ,...... ,.. 42 introduction, ...... ,....,...... ,....,...... ,...... ,...... 42 I. The tropics and forest resources in the world. ..,...... ,...... 43 I. I Tropical nations and their population. ,...... , ...... ,...... ,. .,. .,. .,..,..,.. .. 43 1.2 Distribution of forest resources in the tropics ...... 43 1.3 Status of tropical forest resources ...... ,. .,. .,.,,.. ..,,...... 44 2. TSF status in the world...... ,...... ,....,....,... 46 2.1 The area and distribution of TSE, . .,. .,. ...,...... ,...... ,. .,. 46 2.2 Basic types of SE, ,.,..,...... ,..,..,..,..,.,...... ,..,.....,.... 47 2.3 Main characteristics of TSF ...... ,. .,.,..,...... ,. ... .,...... 48 3. Study and present management status and experiences of TSF in the word ...... 49 3.1 Present nunagement status of TSF in the world ,.,..,..,..,..,...... ,..,...... ,...... 49 3.2 international experiences for TSF management...... ,...... ,...... 50 4, importance of TSF management .,..;...... ,....,.... 55 4. I Importance of TSP ...... ,...... ,..,..,..,..,..,.....,...... 55 4.2 ProbleiusofTSF ...... ,..,..,..,..,...... '...... ,..,....,..,...,... 5 5 5, Conclusions and recoinmendations ...... 57 V Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary reorests andTheir Chief Technology Design. ..,....,....,...... 58 Abstract ...... ,...... ,....,...... ,..... 58 introduction...... ,....,...... ,....,...... ,...... 58 I, The potential productivity of TSF in China...... *....,..... 59 I . I The present productivity status ,. .,. .,. .,. .,...... ,...... ,. .,. ., 59 I 2 Potential productivity ...... ,...... 62 2. Man management models and associate techntcal designs ...... *....,...., 67 2. I Model I : CMCF Mode ...... ,..,..,....,..,...... ,..,.....,...... 67 2.2 Model 2: MIEPS Mode ...... ,...... ,:...... ,...... 69 2.3 Model 3: MRRNF Mode ...... ,..,..,.,...... ,..,..,.....,..,..,...... ,...... , 74 3 . Conclusions ...... ,...... ,...... ,...... ,...... 76 Main References ...... ,...... ,.....,...... 77 Attachment: Pictures of Secondary Forest and Degraded Woodland in China. 122 Abbreviations and Acronyms CMCF Mode The mode of complex management of coinmunity forest MinPS Mode The mode of management of intercropping of econonxic plant species MRI^F The model of management of rehabilitation and Reconstruction of natural forests SF Secondary forest TSF Tropical secondary forest C}IPA Closing hillsides to facilitate afforestation NR Nature reserve NFPP Natural forest protection project EF Ecological forests As Aeroplane sowing L InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 Investigation Report The Distribution* Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China Abstract This paper expounded the distribution, types and area of the TSF in China thiough analyzing the management and statistics materials of China's tropical forests and field investigation results during the project implementation. The China's tropical forests mainly distributes (except for Taiwan) in Guangdong, Haitian, Guangxi, Yunnan, and some parts of Fujian and Tibet, including 124 counties or cities and part areas of 50 pounties or cities. According to the authorized statistics, the tropical woodland area of China is 11,2566 Thinion ha, among which 10,7449lulllion ha are woodland and the area of SE is 5.44 lulllion ha, accounting for 48.33% of the area of China's tropical forests and 50.63% of the area of woodland in China. The actual areas of China's tropical woodland and SF may be 6% higher than these estimated, because the forest vegetation especially tropical forest vegetation was recovered quicldy in recent years, since the Chinese government laid emphasis on forestry construction. The major types of China tropical forests are: tropical rain forest (including humid Tan forest and mountain Tan forest); tropical seasonal rain forest (including half-evergreen seasonal rain forest, deciduous seasonal rain forest, limestone seasonal rain forest); south sea coral island vegetation; coast mangrove, From the view of forest management, the China's TSF can be divided four types: co secondary broadleaved forests, including secondary evergreen broacheaved rim forest, secondary seasonal rain forest and secondary monsoon evergreen broadleaved forest; (ii) secondary shrub-wood; (lit) secondary coniferous forests; (iv) secondary mangrove and coral vegetation. introduction China is the country occupying a vast expanse of tropical forest in the world, with the tropical forest area of 10,7449lulllion ha (except for Taiwan), ranking at the 18'' in the world. Except for the little original tropical forests in Haman and south Yunnan, the others are the SF or the poor forests. Most of them were regenerated by closing binsides for facilitating afforestation. In the item titled "China's tropical forest resources valuation and its national economy accounting" (ITTO PD 39198 Rev, 2(M)) tropical forest area of China was estimated, but there was not specific study on them. For a long time, due to undeveloped economy and rapid population growth, people had damaged tropical forests seriously, caused forests resources decline and species being reduced increasingly. The TSE account for 50.63% of the woodland, but their productivity are low and biodiversity becomes poorer and poorer, and are damaged repeatedly or changed into non-woodland. Therefore, it is necessary to get knowledge of the distribution, types and area of TSF, and to conduct the study regarding TSF management based on the knowledge, so that enhancing their ecological and 2 ITrO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China econorrtic benefits, which is important not only for tropical forest protection and development, but also for survival needs of resident living in SE region in a populous and backward country with vast SF, I. Method According to the work plan of the pre-project PP030/01(F), the study work was undertaken by literary analysis and field investigations. Literature infonnation collection: From May 2002, we had extensively searched the infonnation on TSE by internet and in Beijing State Library, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Guangzhou Library, Guangdong Forestry Research institute, Library of South China Agricultural University, South China Botany Research institute. 27 domestic and international publications, 1045 articles, government associated documents and production reports had been collected. Field survey and investigation: From June to October 2002, OUT expert team investigated SE several times in Guangdong, Haman, Guangxi and Yunnan, The method of field investigation combining with typical observation was used. Visited places included government adjntnistration, research institute, survey and design institute, and typical TSE area of above four provinces. The field investigation was carried out in following typical areas: disturbed gully rain forest in Gridou State-owned Forest Farm of Xinhui, Guangdong, which was forested by Closing binsides for facilitating afforestation in HGShan, Guangdong; limestone SF in Zhaoqing, Guangdong; abandoned agricultoral land in Yuiifu, Guangdong; collectively-owned forests in Liariping and Heping, Guangdong; forested after Closing hillsides for facilitating afforestation in Tongza and Sariya, Haman; restored vegetation on stone-deserted mountain in Batse and Pingxiang, Guangxi; mountain vegetation restored from slash and fire in Xixiongbanna, Yunnan. Research methods included field observation and sample plots investigation. Major research items included the type of SF, species composition, succession stage, management measures, ecological and econorhic effects. in addition, supplement investigation was taken by integrating specific topic analysis. The experts' symposiums in different scale were held to discuss the types, present status, management techniques and current problems of TSF in China. Based on above studies, basic views consisting with stipulations of the Pre-project were fonned. 3 InO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 Investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China 2. Tropical region amd. tropical forests in China 2.1 Tropical region Since 1950's, China's scientists, including experts in meteorology, geography, pedology, vegetation and forestry fields, had been studying the tropical region of China. These scientists from different fields proposed different division standard and boundary for the tropical region. However, vegetation distribution was ' considered to be the key factor of the division principle because it comprehensiveIy represents chinate, soil, topography position and geographic location. Generally speaking, the boundary between tropics and subtropics is not a curve since the wide transition band exists between climatic bands. The rumual accumulated temperature derived from daily mean temperature being ;=:; 10'C, the mean temperatune of the coldest month and maximum nitnus temperature were considered the major indices for the division factors of pedology, i. e. thennal variation is the basis for dividing basis between tropics and subtropics. We adopt the view from several authoritative botanists (e. g. Hou Xueyu) and forestry scientists (e. g. WU Zhonglun), and the authoritative books such as "China vegetation", "China Forests", "China Forestry Division" and "Vegetation Map of P. R. China", collfirining that nomi edge of the tropical region ranges between 21 ' and 24' latitude (but some parts in the river valley of east -south Tibet reach between 28 ' and 29 ' latitude); East line is about 123 ' longitude, west line is located on 86 ' longitude, which includes: the Haman island, south sea islands, Taiwan island, some regions of Guangdong, Guruigxi and Yunnan which are located southern part of the Tropic of Cancer, south end and south coast of Fujian; the low valley of yaluzhangbut river in east-south Tibet. It covers 124 whole counties and cities, and some parts of 50 counties and cities, the total area is 30,8053 lulllion ha, accounting to 3.2% of the china's total land. However, the north edge in central and east Guangdong moves forward south because of cold wave; it moves forward to 24" north latitude in South Guangxi because of monsoon; the north edge moves to 26' latitude in East-south Fujian because of ocean climate; the north edge has moved to 25 ' latitude in West-south Yunnan because of hidian monsoon. The tropical vegetation distributed in South-east Tibet reaches 28 ' -29 ' latitude because the Indian moist and warm current from monsoon is blocked by Hemalaya, resulting in a rich water and heat environment being created. It is noted that GIS and GPS were not successful on the tropical edge division, Figure I is the map of tropical forests land distribution in China, which is not quite accurate and for reference only. 4 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 Investigation Report The Dimrlbution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China Mop of topicol forest 10nd distribution in Chino Hellongjlong .""bln ,,,, 0010/10S *,. O Jjlin a ^B, , ,in Q lion 11 xif"rig D . Qinhoi . rin Jlnon Char. o hon Durian 10 95u enon 10 rig SIChuon . . Hube, nhui LEIo, CaOngd. , hon. . \ ' Hunon ' ' rig ,,, . UIZho Cholla \0' I , ,, CPICOl U \109 F' ,_ oncer G ----- !!. r!eon ^ ^^,, Ikm, H S Engiondoiv ^ Foie, I ^ Shiublor" ^ woodlor, d aru, woodiond Map I I Tropical Forest Land Distribution of China InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 Investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Foresis in the Tropical Regions of China Table I I Tropical region in China Provin whole-covered areas part-covered -ce Areas >Oarigqiao, Chaoan, Yaoping of Chaoatiou: Chaoyang, Chenghai, Guang Nanao of Sh^110u; Rongcheng, Puning, liedong, liexi, Hurlai of -dong heyang a The city zone, Lufeng, Luhe, Halfeng of Shariwei; Huicheng, Dayawan, Huiyarig, Huidong, Boluo, Longmen of Huizhou; Sherichen; Dongguan; Zhongshan; Xiangzhou, Doumen of ZnOuhai ; Baiyun, Panyu, Huadu, Conghua, Zengcheng of Guangaliou s Shunde, Nanhai, CaOming, Sanshui of EUshari s Dinghu, Gaoyao, Sthui of Zliaoqing ; Pengjiarig, Jianghai, Taishan, Xinhui, Kaiping, Hethan, Anping of Jiangmen ; Jiangcheng, Halting, Yangchun, Yang, ,i, Yangdong of Yangjiang; Maorian, Shuidong, Xinyu, Gaozhou, Huazhou, Dengbai of Maoriting ; Donghai, Bitou, Mazhang, Liangjiang, Wuchuari, Latchou, Shuixu, Xuwen of Zlianjiang etc. 80 counties (or cities). Guang Napo of Batse, Jinxi, Debao, Tiandeng, Longan, Dadn, Tianyang, timidong, Longaliou, Nitignting, Zorigzuo, Fusui, Pingxiang, Nanjing urban, Pingguo, Shangtin, ~XI. Namig suburb, Funing, Wuiiimg, Belhai urban, Hepu, Bingyang, Hearian, Fangchengguang urban, Guangkou, Fangcheng, Shangsi, Yizhou, Xingye, Dongxing, Qinzhou urban, Qinnan, Qinbei, Lingshan, Pubei, Fumen, Beniu etc. Bobai, Luchuan etc, Fujian Changle, EUqimg, Pingtan, Annan, Jiniiang, Huian, Qianzliou, Luoyitari, Liarijiang, Zhangzhou, Changtai, Naniiri, Heping, Longliai, Zhangpu, EUaliou, Yongtai, Yunxiao, Dongshan* Xiamen, Tongan, Zliaoan. Putian, Xianyou, Yongchun, Anxu, Huann, Longyan Yongding etc. Haman The whole island and all islands of the south sea. Yunnan Deheng Dai & Jingpo-autonomous prefecture, Longling, Zhenkang, Gengma Dai & Wa-autonomous county, Cangyuan Wa-autonomous county, Ximeng Wa-autonomous county, Lancarig Ladu-autonomous county, Menglian Dai, Latin&Wa-autonomous county, SinTao, Jiangcheng Ham & Yi-autonomous county, Xishuangbamia Dai-autonomous prefecture, Luchun, Yuanyang, limping Miao, Yao & Dai-autonomous county, Hekou Yao-autonomous county, Pingbian unao-autonomous county, Magnan, Malipo, Funing, Yuan'ian Haul, Yi & Dai-autonomous coun etc, Tibet Chaou, Momio, Yaluzliuangbujiang low river in the south of Dawan , aroundYadon and Niolarnu. Taiwan The whole province. Hou Yuanzha0 (2002) 6 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China 2.2 Tropical forests of China 22.1 The area of the tropical forests in China According to the above division of China's tropical region, combining with the data from other sources, China's tropical woodland was collfuTned to be 11,2566 nullion ha, among which 10,7499lulllion ha were the forested land, with natural forests of 6,0738 lulllion ha and plantation forests of 4,6711 lulllion ha, the total stern volume of these tropical forests was about 660 nitilion in'. Table 12, The Distribution of tropical forests of China Unit, 10000ha Province Forestland' Forested of. which= - .;;,.- - :... . Voluune - Land ,.,, , ,... . (ibido, a, NatUtal'-' Artificial:: 't - . ,.. . .,. Haman 181.52 L46.80 61.08 * 85.72 9028. ,5 *. ; *j ,:,-,. . : ,,.','. * *-- 4.4 , Yunnart 242.98 234.80 176.60 58.20 2144.6 , . , ..,. J ,. , .., Guangdong ' 383.04 306.57 L37.50 169.07 9000. , O -. , -.. I, .. I*.., Guangxi 395.85 240,16 128.87 1:1 I. 29 8455,7 ,..- 4;; . .=, ,;:: '- ' . .. Fujian 159.89 118.46 75.63 42.83 2461.5 Hou Yuan"ha0 (2002) in addition, the tropical forests in Tibet are distributed in the south of east filmalyia and the low River of Yaluzhuangbujiang. They are growing in the bottom of steep river valley and low mountains at the elevation of 500~1100 in, with annual mean temperature of 20~25.5 'C ,The rimfall of south canyon in east Himalayia reaches 4494/1un. The majority of forests are tropical huntdity rain forests and a little of half-evergreen seasonal rain forests. The estimated area is less than 7000 ha. The forest area and forest cover of Taiwan are 2.1024lulllion ha and 58.53 9'6, respectively and main forest types are half-evergreen seasonal rain forests, deciduous seasonal rain forests and mountain rain forests. The estirnated area of coral vegetation in Haman Island and coast mangrove in Guangdong, Guangxi, Haman, Fujian and Taiwan do not exceed 50000 ha. Among them, there are 5000ha, 9600ha and 14700ha mangroves in Haman, Guangxi and Guangdong, respectively. 7 ITFO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China Because tropical forest resources were not separated to count in China's fifth forest resource inventory survey, the figures of the tropical forest area were based on the statistic data by Hou Yuanzhao at al. , which were authorized by the Dept. of forest resource, Ministry of Forestry, Due to the time difference in statistics, the data were not quite accurate, but the large-scale survey could not be conducted in a short-limited time, these latest authoritative data were adopted. in fact, the current area of the tropical forests in China is larger than that mentioned above, because the statistics data came from the forth national forests inventory survey (1989-1993)(tropical forest land of 11,873 Thinion ha and tropical forested land of 9,5256 Thinion ha), the figure of the area was concluded from the general information survey, According to Chinese government's the forestry development report announcement of China in 2000, Forest area of China increased 18.7% in the fifth national forest inventory survey compared with that in the forth forest Inventory survey. The area of China tropical forests increased more quickly in recent years' For example, the forested area of Guangdong increased 1.02 times from 1985 to 2000, which was the achievement of the forestry rapid development in recent years in China. Because of time himting, this Pre-project could not undertake survey and the data could not be renewed. 2.2.2 The 'T^, pes of tropical forests of China China's tropical region is situated on the north edge of global tropics; the types of tropical forest are diverse. Mainly incuded: Ttropical forest, which can be divided into huntid rain forest and mountain rain forest. Tropical rain forest, which is divide into (a) Evergreen seasonal rain forest; co) Half-evergreen seasonal rain forest; (c) Deciduous seasonal rain forest; and (d) Limestone seasonal rain forest. Coast mangrove and vegetation of south sea coral island. In Haman, there are tropical rain forest, evergreen seasonal rain forest and mountain rain forest in the central and east Haman, half-evergreen seasonal Tall forest in north Hail}an, . deciduous seasonal rain and savarina in west Haman. Coral island vegetation consists of evergreen arbor and brushwood. Vegetation type is quite unique with simple flora. Being affected by the warin current of the Bengal Bay, the tropical forests of south Yunnan include burntd rain forest, seasonal rainforest, half-evergreen seasonal rain forest, limestone seasonal rain forest and mountain rain forest* in the Guangdong, Guangxi and Fijian, the tropical regions are in the southern parts of tropic of cancer of Guangdong and Guangxi, and the part between east-south coast and 26 ' latitude of Fujian. These regions were frequently visited by typhoon, types of natural forests are half-evergreen seasonal rain forest and limestone seasonal rain 8 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 Investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Re ions of China forest, where the vegetation features were not as diverse as Haman and south Yunnan, sometimes they were called "monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest'. The tropical forests of Tibet are tropical humid rain forest in majority and half-evergreen seasonal rain forest in Thinor. They distribute in the bottom of stee liver rally in isolation and pieces in east Himalayas, the estimated area is less than 7000 ha, there are annual average temperature of 20~25.5 "C, rainfall of 4494 nun in this region. The main types of Taiwan tropical forests are half-evergreen seasonal rain forest, deciduous seasonal rain forest and mountain rain forest. In addition, there are coral island vegetation in South Sea Islands and man ove of the coasts in Guangdong, Guangxi, Haman, Fujian and Taiwan. 3. The types of China's TSF 3.1 Definition of SF There were several definitions of SF. The following defiiittions in the box U wer most accepted in China. Box I I, About The Definition of SF Definitions . ITT0 (2002): Woody vegetation regrowirig on land that was largely cleared of its original forest cover (i. e. remaining less than 10% of the original forest cover). Secondary forest commonly develop naturally on land abandoned after shiftin cultivation settled agriculture pastore, or failed tree plantations. . Sist at a1. < 1999 ) z The secondary forest is woody vegetation regrowin on the land which 90% forest cover was destroyed by human being or nature factors. . Chinese forestry dictionary: Natural vegetation regenerating by natural forces, from the original forest cover or plantations destroyed by human beln or nanrral factors without reasonable management. Similarities and differences . similarities = The first, second;Iry forests regenerated from the original forest cover or failed tree plantations disturbed by human being and natural factors; the second, the regeneration depends upon natural; the tintd, the second connnunity is different from original forest coriumunity, it has establishment species, specific forest environment, canopy, spacing and density. . differencess The borderline of disturbance degree the secondary forest develo in on are not clear; and the ex lariation of failed tree Iantations. Through the activittis of this Pre-project, it may be more fancitousness if define SF as: Secondary forest is a type of woody vegetation re rowim mainly depending on nature conditions on land that was largely destro ed b human being and natural factors of its original forest cover or failed tre 9 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China plantations, which has lost characteristics in forestry features and species composition. The definition delimits: (a). Damage degree is fixed, the forest is regenerated naturally from positive to negative succession after the original forests was destroyed by human being or natural factors, to a great extent. (b). Shifting land and abandoned agricultural land are resulted from original forest damage, and nature of artificial forestation in any place is the same, (c). Natural development and regeneration are major, but not excluding reasonable and unreasonable human management measures in some places. 3.2 Come into being of China's SF Based on the literature analysis and field investigation, the diagram for SF development is gotten as Figure I 2. Degraded Primary forest rimary forest 91epeated disturbance Further heavy disturbance Heavy damage Secondary Natural Secondary bold 10nd regener0 10n forest Planting re eneration Plantation Reasonable Plantin management fai u re Figure I 2 Forming Courses of SF Figure I 2 shows that a dynainic process exists among different forest types. With degraded primary forest can change to degraded forest, even deteriorated land, SF or plantations. The SF with good management for adequate time can succeed to the climax community, which has slimlar functions as original forest. Long darnage history of original tropical forest of China is the same as other zonal forests. Currently there is a little amount of original forests in China, whereas most forests are SF and deteriorated wasteland. 10 InO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 Investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China Box 128 History of Guangdong TSE' The book of "Guangdong Forests"(T997) recorded that more than 1000 years A. D, ago, the whole Guangdong was covered with dense forests, which gy'ew in the coastal plateau, Pearl River delta, low and wet land of Chaozhou plateau. The wood wreckages, rbcently excavated under several meters deep of agricultural field in Sanshui, Sthui and Gaoyao of the northwest Pearl River Delt, were detected to be age of 2380 years through C" test. This indicates that there was primary forest existence at that age around the district. ItI years A. D. ago, west-Han emperor suppressed south China, Han's army and persons started to invade Guangdong and exploited the coastal forests, the damage of primary forests initiated in Guangdong During Song dynasty (10th to 14th centuries), Guangdong entered exploitation time. Southern nitgyation of south Song speeded up the development of the coasts, Pearl River Delta and Chaoshan plateau. in the coast of west Guangdong and Leiatibu Peninsula, ' the forest 'area was reduced gradually due to the population increase. At trial age, there were no elephants in Pearl River Delta, whereas there were some elephants in nom! Guangdong, Xijiang River and Chaoshan plateau. This indicates that the forests were damaged more. seriously ' due to more resident population. From the late 16th to early 20'' centuries, Guangdong's development_reached .peak. Agriculture, man-made industry and commerce grew quitldy, Quicldy increasing population made plateau fertility land use up and had to ruin forests for crops. Forest resources declined significantty. Up to the late half 18'' and early 20th centuries, except for mountaliis of east-north Guangdong and the remote areas of central and west Guangdong where there. were. some .dense f 11 ITFO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 Investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China Box I 3 : Development of Haman Secondary tropical Forests Because Hamari is an independent island, and in the early time the transportation was not developed as well as the population was low, its primary forests were exploited later than Guangdong. im the early 12th century (south Song dynastic), Song emperor entered Haman, the population in coastal plateau and tableland rose, which resulted in many forests mined into crop land, but dense and huge forests still gi'ew in central mountains and west"south Haman. During the early 26th and late 17th ceriumes, there were still a lot primary forests in Lim!Inng, Wuzliishan and northeast Himan. Up to 18th and 19'' centuries, the Haman primary forests had been damaged conthiuously. It was recorded that Li and Han nationalities united against Qing dynasty. After suppresed by Qing dynasty, constructing the road to Wuzliishan destroyed a lot of forests by logging and mug. By the late Qing dynasty, the forests in coastal plateau, tableland and near-mountain had been cut up, only the primary forests in the central mountainous region was left, Dimng the early half 20 century, invasion of Japanese and the Republic of China government made the forests damaged. After }949, due to econointc construction demand, the local goverinnent exploited forests and established wood-harvested enterprises in Diaoluoshan, namenglingf and Bawanghng, meanwhile tree plantations were established on harvested land, and the original forests were decreased quicldy. Until2001, the Chinese goveniment launched natural forest protection project (NFPP) and Haman's natural forests are under-protection now. SF came into being of Guangxi, Yunnan, Fujian etc. was slimlar to Guangdong and Haman. 3.3 The area of TSF and degraded forest land Among tropical natural forests of 6,073 lulllion ha in China, there is nearly 34000 ha in Haman, 600000 ha in south Yunnan, the others are the SF with a area of 5.44 lulllion ha, accounting for 48.33% of the total forest land of China's tropical region, and 50.63% of the forested land of China's tropical region. There was not accurate statistics for degraded forest land of China because some local governments did not bring their degraded land into forestland. For example, waste land and open-forested land cover 3.332lulllion ha in the tropical region of Yunnan, according to the paper of Prof. Zhang Yunong, the director of Yunnan Academy of Forestry Science, (among them open-forested land covers 750000 ha, brushwood pasture covers 2 nitllion ha), amounting to 33.9% of the total tropical area of Yunnan. it plus the land from fanning back forest, the area will be larger. 3.4 Types of the SE 3.4. I The principle of SIR division Secondary tropical forests is related with zone, vegetation, exploitation history, and 12 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 investigation Re ort The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tr I R shows complicated diversity, how to classify second tro ical f t complex problem. The classification methods of TSF nit ht be diffe t 'itI dif uses and objectives* generally, there were several division methods f 11 : (1) By succession time, it can be divided into early-stage rind-stage or late-sta e SF. (it) By management measures, can be divided into tending type, jin rove t t , andandut'Ii utilization and improvement type. t' d' ' ype, (in) By disturbance degree, can be divided into light disturbance, Tmddle di to b , heavy disturbance type; (Iv) By the forest characteristics such as tree species, ecological and forest type to divide, (v) By stand origination, for example, regenerating derived from disaster o h etc. to divide, (vi) By topography and landfomn to divide, such as Kesiteci second ve at ti f Guangxi tropical region is a type of China-featured SF. The objective of SF division is to arrange reasonable based on classification. For the management of SF, an b I ' ' method does not satisfy the management requirements. 3.4.2 The major types of China's secondary tro ical forests Considering for easy to organize management of SF, it was divid d b type in this. pre-project. Which implied the division rinci to of , also integrated with china's situation. 3.4.2.1 Secondary broad-leaved forests Secondary broad-leaved forests derived from disturbed t I vegetation and experience a long-time succession, and then dov I h with clear zonal community feature and major composition of broad-I d Because of long-time succession after disturbance, stable coin ^ and rich biodiversity, this type of secondary vegetation belon s t t f stable SF. Based on the zonal forest vegetation characteristics bef d' b and disturbance degree, they can be further divided into followin t : (i) Secondary evergreen broad-leaved rain forest The main characteristics of distribution and coinmunit of th' ki d f The natural forest, except for the original forest of Bawan Ii , D' I , Limushan and Wuzhishan in Haman Island, bolon s to this t e f f . Th species are quite complicated. The secondary evergreen broad-leaved rain forest of Guan don d' titb plateau, tableland and low hills of the south part alon Yan ' ' , M 13 ITTO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 Investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions o 'na Liarijiang. Donxinant tree species of the forest are Ficus, Melia azedarach, Antioris toxicoria, Radennaher" sinec", Sch Secondary seasonal rain forest distributes in Haman and Yunnan, its comumunity characteristics are as follows: The early pioneer species of Haman secondary seasonal forest are q"i arm si , Aporos@ chiensis, Syjygiz, in hancei, Trem" orte, It"lis, Pterospemi"in e erop y etc; the shrub species include Memecytom Jigi, $3tjfoli"in, Rapaneo lienjfo a, Rhodomyrt"s tomentoso. The secondary seasonal rain forest of Yunnan mainly consists o e : half-evergreen, deciduous seasonal rim forest and limestone mountain rain ores . flora are Menacede, Marczceoe, Bomboce@e, Sterc"tracede grid Leg!, miltos"e e species consisting different forest coloniunities include Fir!, s a tissima, lab"long, Mewcz fared, CdSia siame", Bombczx malab"tico, A1bizio c mensts, 7:2n"malta myriocciypo, Erythrina stricta, Proti"in serr@turn, asta"opsis y , BCwhini" variegata, Terraineles itI'd!flora, Gurug" forrestii etc, Ficus antsstmo an Ch"kr@siC tab, ,lang have developed-root system, sprout of CdSsio staine" is g On limestone mountain land, the SF consist of Bowhinio variegata an o o north, ,rid@ are regenerated from the damaged broadleaved seasonal rain ores consists of Tetromeles n"dinora and Gay, ,go for restit, mixed with deciduous seasonal rain SE consist of Cantcorpo arboreo, Grewio centd!folio, Cro!oxy un cochinchi, lensis etc. tin) Secondary monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest Secondary monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest distri utes in Guangdong, 14 InO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 Investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China Yunnan and Guangxi, its community characteristics are as follows: The species of the secondary monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest of Guangdong are sintilar to these of the low and Tmddle mountain secondary rain forest of Haman. Due to the difference of topography, rainfall and temperature, it generally can be divided into two types: one is located on the north boundary of the tropics between The ITopic of cancer and 21* 50'. Its major representative tree species include: Costanopsis kowokamii, Cryprocorpy" concinnn, C. Chinensis, Cartanopsts frysirix, Schima SMPerba and Syz), giwm; Another is located in the south of 21' 50' latitude, growing on tableland and hilly land. Its main arbor species are Ficws, Antidesmo bunt, !s, Sterc, ,I^^ lanceo!ata, Pithecellobiwm lucidum, Endo$peruz"in chinensis, C. hysir"c, Photi, lid pr!,"!fond etc. The secondary monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest of Yunnan is developed from the disturbed monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest donitnated with Cast@no sis, Lithoccipws, ACiinodophne, Machil"s, Schim" and Annesleo etc. This type of forests in Yunnan distributes in the tropic of cancer and high elevation. It has the followin groups: (a) the SE dominated with Cos!an opsis hys!n^, C. india, C. trib"!oides, Schim" won^^hit. The arbor and shrub coppice dormnated with Cas!"ito sis h strix, C. Inburntdes, C. mekongensis, C. camth;fomtis, ACronychia pertz, ,ICHIoto and A. frogrons. ff repeatedly disturbed it will be replaced by Pinus simao or slumbwood, this succession is usually found in southwest Yunnan. (b) The sprouting Liihoc"pus and C. cold!h!formis SF developed from the monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest donitnated with C. 1:21, DJi, L, trimcai!, s, C. labrii, C. cal"thjfonnis, distributing in the east and south of central Yunnan. (c) Betula @1noides SF, its seed is small with characteristics of easy-dispersing, good gemtina!ing, well-sprouting, and it regenerated by itself, usually mixed with C. cal"thjformts, Choerospondios ori!torts, 8,334j^OS tz"in, ,, Schima wallichii, Heirct"formosa"a, The major dormnant species for the monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest of Guamgxi include C. chinenrir, C, caneinn", Benschmiedia pergamet@eco, B. cathayensis, C. CMspidczia, C. hystrix, C. chinensis, C. labri, S. wall^^hit, C. lissa, Choerospondos grindris, Sch 15 InO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 Investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China pedi!nc"IQfa, Menecylon Jigwstrjfolii, in, Glycosmis croibii vor glabra, Groto. x}, 10n cochinchienense, Macorang@ denticwlote, Crolon cosctzrilloces, A1chonie" jino 3.4.2.3 Secondary coniferous forest Secondary Coniferous forest is the most typical SF in China, especially in Guangdong, Guangxi and Fujian. After original vegetation is destroyed, coniferous species are usually developed at first and the species have free-dispersing seeds and easy growing trait. Pinus mossoniano is a typical species. co Secondary Pinus massoniana forest The area of secondary Pinus massonicin" forest of Guangdong, Guruigxi and Fujian is the largest, accounting for 40% of the total area, it is characterized by urineat stand appearance, uneven density, varied size, poor stand quality and low increment. The under storey shrub and weed species growing in near the north tropical edge on the litUy lands are Rhodomyrtus tomentos", EIJIyc, japonica, Glochidion puber"in, Boecke" frutescens, Melastoma candidum and Dicrnnopteris dichotomo, Melasiom@ coatditm, Ischoemi!in ciliare etc; Eyemochlo@ ciliaris and Endchne panescerts growing in flat and low hilly lands and south coasts where is the boundary of pinus mosso, Ionic distribution, so that it is poor growth and early wilting, (Ii) Secondary CMnninghomio lanceolntn forest Secondary Cunninghorni@ lanceolota forest mainly distributes in Guangdong, Guangxi and Fujian, growing on the nitddle and low slope, and gully valley with adequate moisture and nutrients. Its area is relatively small. (111) Secondary coniferous jinxed forest Secondary coniferous Tinxed forest distributes in Guangdong, Guangxi and Fujian, dormnated with Pinus massonicino, nitxed with Rhodomyrt, ,s tomentosci, EMU?" japonica, Glochidioi, puber"in, BCieckea 17wtescens, Melastoma candidum and Dicrnnopteris dichotomo, Melastoma codid, ,in, Ischaemz!in ciliqre etc. (iv) Miscellaneous secondary coniferous forest In southeast Fangcheng city of Guangxi, there is small area of Pinus totter tingson, it jinxed with S. hencei, Pschotri" rabra, Desmos chinensis, Rhodomyrti4s tomentoscz, Ischoemwm aristat, ,in etc to fomi the secondary conrrnunity. The coniferous SF of 16 Trio PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.1 Investigation Report The Distribution, Types and Area of Secondary Forests in the Tropical Regions of China Yunnan is pure Pinus stingo forest developed from the destructive monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest, or the nitxed forest with C. flewryi, Schimo wantchii, Chukrczsio lab"!arts, Coinptotheco CCWminaio etc. 4, Condusions (a) Extensive area of TSF in China, it occupy about 50.6% of the forested land. (b) The tropical region of China is~ situated on the north boundary of tropics, due to the cold current from the north, the subtropical flora are inlaid within the tropics. The tortuous and complex geographic change of the north tropical boundary and the climate difference between east and west make topical forest ecological system of China unique and complicated. It put up a typical transition and inlaying and is not the same as TSF of other regions in the world. (c) Diverse types and rich species of the original. Species and types of TSF account for 113-112 of total plant species and 25.8% of the total ecological system types in China, respectively. (d) Because of long tenn Distorbance and destruction, most of SF are with simple species composition, poor growth, weak ecological functions and low econorritc value. Average stem volume is less than 70 M'/11a, accounting for 60% of average level of the world. (6) No matter what topical forests of China are considered to be in sensitive and weak stage from ecology, economy and society views. 17 ITTO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.21nvestigation Report Current Situation and Techniques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China 11 Current Situation and Techniques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China Abstract This paper SUITunarized management policy, present management status and management technique of TSF in China through analyzing the data regarding TSF management in China and field survey of key point or typical managements in Guangdong, Haman, Guangxi and Yunnan. TSF management of China was proposed initially after the People's Republic of China established soon in 1951, but the purpose was wood use with main management method of C}IFAltom 50 s to nitddle of 80's in 19 centuries. Up to late of 80's, large-scale management activities from timber production converting to ecological silviculture began in relative econonxical prosperous regions, such as Guangdong, and the construction scale of natural protect district enlarged. After serious flood and waterlogging took place in 1998, the central government enhanced ecological environment construction with forestry theme, TSP began to get protection, and ecological construction was characterized by main management method of eco-public-benefit forest and natural protection project in this stage, Except for Cl{FA, management technique was stressed on return cultivated land for forest* increasing species biodiversity and exploiting local trees of regions. However, TSE management of China could not always break away from both extremes of timber make use or ecological protection, lacking sustainable management technique and practice for increasing ecological effect as well as econointc effect satisfying demands of resident existence. Introduction The purposes of studying present status and technology of TSF of China were to sum up and study sustainable management modes increasing ecological effect as well as economic effect. Wood utility was stress in early SF management, and then ecological effect was emphasized from 80's last century in China. In 1993, "A Demonstration Programme of Sustainable Utilization of Tropical Forests by Means of Differentiated Management in Haman Island, China" subsidized by ITTO (FD 14/92) got many research results of forest classification management. However, it is still lacking in research and practice of SF management concerning how to increase ecological effect as well as economic effect, namely realizing SF protection, promotion and increase as well as obtaining economic output and material demand for residents living forest regions at present. The purposes of this paper were to try studying management modes of TSE of China increasing ecological and economical effects by analyzing and summarizing present status and technology of TSF of China, and solving continuously declining of SF resources and backward in rural economy for long time and satisfying continuously increasing demand of all social fields by demonstration, improving 18 Trio PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.21nvestigation Report Current Situation and Techniques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China and popularizing. I. The characteristics of tropical forests of China Besides unique in chinate and landfonn, the TSF regions of China have several other characteristics: . Most of them distribute in a scattered pattern, in alluvial plains, platforms, low hills and offshore islands where are densely populated. Especially in vast rural area where economy is generally backward, and forest damage is the most serious, lack ecological and econointc effects. Faniiers have no econointc foundation as well as technique experience for forest management. However, in relative economy prosperous cities and their nabe, the greater part of SF near cities has been included in city forests for environmental protection or management as landscape forest, since environmental protection and utilities began to be emphasized in recent years' . The ownership of forest and woodland is complex. The individual and collective ownerships occupy a big proportion. For example, collective-owned land accounts for 92.8% of the total forestry lands in Guangdong, resulting in forestry lands being quite scattered. On the other hand, the woodlands owned by the nation are mostly vast stretched lands. State-owned forest farms were established from 50's to 60's of last century and most of them were converted to artificial plantation for timber production. . Water and thermal resources are rich. There are many tree species grow prosperously* also fruit and medicinal resources are rich. Therefore, tropical region is regarded as a mysterious place, . Tropical regions, especially Haman and Yunnan provinces, are the traditional inhabiting areas of some Chinese Tmnorities. They have many traditional living customs as well as production and management methods. 2. Relative policies and regulations of Chinese Government After P. R. China was established soon, nation and local Governments began to set up a series of policies and regulations concerritng SE protection and management. The achievement of SF protection and management in China mainly depended on policies and regulation of nation and local Governments 19 ITrO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.2 investigation Report Current Situation and Techniques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China Boxll I: The main policy documents of China Goverirrnent conceniiiig SF and management . 1951, The State Councilissued . 1963, The Mittsiry of Forest further issued "Some decisions on the probleius of SF remaking" in 1962. On the conference of state-owned forest fanns, The Ministry of Forest decided state-owned forest farms conducted the polices of "forestry being main, combing forestry with sideline, synthetically management, sristatiiable work'. . 1981, The Ministry of Forest further issued 'The decisions of some probleius concerning protection forests and development forestry". . 1984, Standing Coinimttee of the National People's Congress issued {Forest law of P. R. China> and the law was revised, "Policies of forestry construction based on sitviculture, universal protection forests, giving energetic support to afforestation, combining logging with reproduction, sustainable utihty" were definitively stipulated in the law. . 1994, . 1996, 20 ITTO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.21nvestigation Report Current Situation and Techntques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China 3. The current situation of T'sFs in China In China, the economy in most of tropical regions except for cities is un-developed for long time. Local people cut timber from SF to get income and cut various vegetations as their energy resources, whereas there is almost not management activity for protecting and promoting SF growth and development. The afforestation activity of production and management units is mainly to cut woods and to plant artificial plantations or econtical forests such as fruits in relative even and fertile lands. SF management depended mainly on unity plan and fund support by province and nation governments. Main management activities are as follows: 3.1 ClllRA CHFA is to culture forest by the way of utilizing natural force for vegetation restoration, which has been one of important methods for restoring SF vegetation in China for 50 years' This method is simple, econoiincal and effective. There are many types of CHFA, such as long-tenn, short-tenn, in turns and half-opened. Long-term CHFA is mainly adopted in remote places with great area. For example, the central natural forest area of Haman began to CHFA from 1984, and now good benefits are obtained, resulting in an area increase of 420,000 ha in its natural forest. People could not be seen in Pinus mossoiziono SF in the first three years after CHFA due to their lush and green fonned by vigorous growth. CllFA is taken turns in mountainous area of east Guangdong. This practice considers the need of local residents for firewood, also protects young saplings and cultures forest. in the hilly areas with a tradition of managing nori-wood forest products, half-open C}{FA is usually practised; only planting of medicinal plants under trees and collecting resins under the condition of no damaging trees are allowed for the econointc sake of local residents. Government has a complete set of rules and regulations to manage CHFA. 3.2 lBStabhshment of NR district (Nan) NRDs are regions under special protection and management by law. Locate at land, water system of inland or coastways, they usually are representative natural ecosystems, natural aggregation areas of precious and being in initntnent dangerous wild animals and plants, natural relics of special significance, Large areas of tropical forests are usually contained in NRs for management because of their abundant plant and animal resources and richness in biodiversity, as well as magnificent landscape. 3.2. I Types of Nun NRD in tropical regions, in general, are comprehensive natural resource protection areas, but there are also some special fauna and flora reserves. lifengling NRD of Haman is not only a forest ecosystem reserve, but also a tropical forest landscape park. Dinghushan NR of Guangdong is a demonstration spot for forest ecosystem restoring, maintaining and developing, and also a scenic resort with historical relics. Both Dinghushan and Xishuangbangna NRDs are included in the international biosphere protection network. Mangrove forest NR in Dongzai of Haman is on the name list of international major wetlands for protection. Nanwanmonkuy NR of Linshui, Haman, Bangxi deer Nan of Baisha, Haman* and Xisha island Nun are all special 111^s. . 21 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 12/11vestigation Report Current Situation and Techniques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China According to scales and importance, NRDs are classified into national NRD, provincial NRD and county NRD. Generally, national NRD has greater scale, higher importance, and more financial support as well as better management than provincial and county levels. Some Thini NRDs are also established in Guangdong, 3.2.2 Establishment situation of Nun Chinese Government has paid attention to forest resource protection as early as 1956. The suggestion of "establishing harvest-forbidden districts in national nanrral forest areas to reserve natural resources for scientific research" from scientists had been accepted. The first national NRD was established in Dinghushan, Zhaoqing, Guangdong, Soon afterwards another NRD was established in Jiangfengling, Haman, A NRD began to set up in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan in 1958. Until the later stage of 1985, many 11'1^s began to be constructed. Box112s Construction of NRDs in several maim provinces Guangdonge By 2002, there were 142 Nuns were established in Guangdong with an area of 550,000 ha, which is almost 9 funes as that in 1985, and occupies 3.1% of the total land of the province. lv addition, there were 38,800 Intrit-reserves with an area of about 236,000 ha. The total area of NRDs, Inim-reserves and forest parks was 1,206,000 ha, accounting for 6.78% of the province's area. Haman : Up to 1998, the number of NRDs increased to twenty-five, including Jianfengling, Diaoluoshan, Bawangfing, Litnushan and Mihoufuig, with a management area of about 156,700 ha. Among them, the first two are national parks and the rest are provincial parks. Yin, mains Before 1985, there were 10 in^s in Yunnan with an area of about 8,331,400 ha, 50% of which was tropical forest Nan. By 2000, there were 121 Nuns with an area of about 2,400,00 ha, which accounts for 6.1% of the land of Yunnan province, The province goverirrnent plans to add 9 other NRDs by 2005 with the total area of 800,000 ha. By that time, the area of Nuns will be about 8% of total land of Yuiman. Guamgxi= There are 53 in^s in the Gumigxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, and the area of Nuns is about 1,730,000 ha, covering 7.28% of total area of Guangxi. 3.2.3 Management situation of NRDs The admiitistrative organizations responsible for protection and management were set up in all the NRDs established according to the establishment procedures, Extensive plant and aminal resources surveys have been conducted before any establishment of national or provincial NRDs, so the background inforrnation is quite clear. Before a NRD or forest park is set up, its feasible report must be proved, and then a plan is carefuUy drafted report to superior authorities for getting their approval. In order to raise the management level of NRDs, and give their full play to scientific, 22 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.21nvestigation Report Current Situation and Techniques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China econontic and ecological functions in nature protection, technical supporting institutions are also arranged for national and provincial key NRDs and they are responsible for scientific researches in reserves. 3.3 Conducting Natural Forest Protection Project of government In order to protect natural forests, mainly SF, the state and local governments implement forestry sustainable development plan by means of carrying out forestry engineering projects. The NFPP is the biggest forestry project in China history. A total fund of 200.7 hundred nitllions has been invested, among them center government invested 178.2 hundred Thinions and local goverrmient invested 22.5 hundred Twillions from 1998 to 2001. According to plan a total fund of 962 hundred Thinions will be invested in future 10 years, Meanwhile each local govenmient also enlarged its own forestry protection and development project range, The core of NFPP is to protect and develop natural forest resources, and to protect ecological environment so as to improve people's living environment, Its construction should follow the principle of "emphasizing the keys, implementing step by step and from the easier to harder and paying attention to practical effects " The implementation should be based on suiting measures to local conditions and classification guidance. Its management should give priority to ecology and integrated ecological, econorntc and social benefits. The management should also depend on science and technology, and adopt the goal-responsibility system. The tropical primeval forests and SF in Yunnan and Haman are included in this project. Haman part mainly includes 4 state-owned companies of forest industry named Jianfengling, Dinoluoshan, Bawangling and Limushan and 7 municipal forest farms and their total area is about 459,000 ha, in which area of natural forests is 319,000 ha and SE account for 80% of the total; areas of open stand and brush, non-grown up plantation, forested land, non-forestry land and other lands were 10,000 ha, 5000 ha, 70,000 ha, 6,700 ha and 55,000 ha, respectively. Yunnan is a ke province in implementing NFPP, The project covers 66 counties and 17 state-owned forestry bureaus, and their total area is 24,026,000 ha, accounting for 60.98% of land of Yunnan province, It is reported that the forest area in Xishuangbanna alone will increase 300,000 ha by 2010, and the forests covering rate will increase from 64% in \ 1999 to 75% in 2010. \ 3.4 EcologicallBorests (Err) management According to Forest law of P. R. China, EF consist of shelter forest such as water conservation forest, soil conservation forest, windbreak and sand fixation forest, mangrove forest, agriculture and pasture shelter forest; and special used forest such as forest for national defense, experimental forest, seed forest, environment protection forest, landscape forest, forest in historic relics, forest in NR. EF is the outcome of forest classification management in China, and it has stricter scientific meaning compared with the forests contained by NFPP, whereas the latter is 23 ITrO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.2 investigation Report Current Situation and Techniques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China an emergent measure of stopping cornnierce logging of natural forest due to current environment problems derived from forest overcutting. Guangdong is the earliest province to put forward and carry out forest classification management and its construction scale of EF is biggest and construction measures are the most efficient, and fonnally enacted (The ways of construction, management and benefit compensation for Guangdong eco-public-benefit forests> in 1998. Now the amount of compensation fund of Guangdong Govermnent is 4.08 hundred nitllions Chinese yuan (120 Chinese yuan/11a), and concert fund of local Groveminent is 1.2 hundred Thinions Chinese yuan. Most tropical forests of Guangdong have been divided and managed as EF. In fact, the construction of EF had begun at many places from 1970's in different extents, but its range is small and mainly at the places where natural disaster was serious. Until end of 1990's, the construction of EF developed fully, with its classification and management according to different ranks of nation, province and city. 4. The management techniques of TSE There were few coriumunity management activities for tropical secondary management in China, except that Governments conducted by adjntnisttation method and being included the government plans as engineering development item. Production units and residents of forest region only launch some small scale econointc activities using good SF, such as planting medicine materials, barnboo, rattan, rattan* econonitcal forest and fruit tree etc. The management methods of these econonitc activities very varied with different econonitc development levels and traditional habits. Because lacking in total progranmiing and technique foundation for the coriumunity management, these management methods usually did not promote but damage SE development, such as logging tree for planting econointcal crop or hurting tree and vegetation during management process. Management activities of governments were conducted by drafting management programs under overall plan principle and purpose of these activities is strong. The management techniques of these activities primarily include the following contents: co Vegetation recovery Vegetation recovery of sparse SF is conducted primarily by air sowing and introducing new plants by artificial planting, causing and promoting fomiation of the environment, which is suitable to tree growth. Original region species can be recovered naturally by these methods. On the other hand, the species with good ecological or econoTntc values can be introduced by artificial method. After air sowing (As) first got success in Wuchuan, Guangdong in March 1956, this way is main method of vegetation recovery up to the end of last century. Vegetations recoveried by As got good results in Haman, Guangxi and Yunnan. After success that 24 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.2 Investigation Report Current Situation and Teclimques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China seeds were handled using drug for preventing from bird and rat damages, aeroplane sowing has become a simple, effective and econonxic method. (ii) Forests remaking SF damaged seriously is usually very poor in quality with simple species composition, such as about 40% of SE of Guangdong and Guangxi is mainly dontinated by Pinus massonion@, half of which is poor stands with serious diseases and insect pest. The forest area damaged by Dendrolim"s punctot"s is annually 45,000 ha, since Hemiberlesia pitysophil@ occurred in 1982* they have spread over 17 cities and 58 counties with a damaged area of I. 11 lulllion ha. Generally forest remaking is used for such forests. Forest remaking includes artificially clearing disease and insect pest plant, amenorating stand environment by introducing native broadleaved tree species, increasing biodiversity, preventing the occurrence and spread of the disease and insect pest and promoting the growth of secondary. Main way of forest remaking in city is to cut defective trees and introduce landscape tree species with strong view and adjiitre, and the cost is usually great. Forestry Bureau of Guangdong Province divided EF into tree grades according to their tree species, forest type and canopy density. Among them, the first-class and second- class forests make up 16.7%, 47.2%, respectively, the rest is third-class forest. Management method for second-class and third class-forests is to replant and remake, promoting them to convert to first-class forest with many tree species, suitable forest features and structure, good environmental functions. Replanting or remaking are conducted in pitch or strip method to avoid damaging original vegetation. At the same time, native broadleaved tree with good ecological effect should be used to promote remaking forest to fonn conifer and broadleaved Tinxed forest or convert into regional forest-monsoon green and broadleaved forest (in) intercropping economic forest species Many forest species gained from their non-wood products grow in most regions of south China, such as bamboo, austral shade fruit tree and medicine plant etc. By intercroping Phy!lostochys pubescens, bamboo shoots can be harvested in spring and autoimi of every year, Moreover, bamboo material can be gained by intermediate cutting. All annual income over 10,000 Chinese yuan/11a can be gained from forest managed properly, and fertility of woodland also can be improved continuously. (iv) Intercropping under forest In fertility site, intercroping econointcal species and Chinese herbal medicine material, such as morindo Qincin"lis, Am Qin"in, Panax, Trochycoi;pus fortwnei, cane etc, may obtain econoTntc income. According to the investigation in Haman, an annual income of 12,000 Chinese yuan/ha was gained by intercroping rattan under forests. There are traditions of intercroping cash plant species, such as intercroping medicine plant in Guangdong, tea in Yunnan and Amomiim under Cussio stained forests. However, techiitque intercroping medicine plant did not confonn to the standard yet, so that the 25 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.2 investigation Report Current Situation and Techniques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China technique, in most cases, did not promote understorey growth, but darnaged them, resulting in soil erosion and even damaging trees. 5. Major achievements and experiences 5.1 Major achievements (i) The major part of TSF' gaming protection From the World Environment and Development Conference in 1992, Chinese Government has paid more attention to the basic function of forest sustainable management in delennining the sustainable development of social economy, and launched a series of forest ecological engineering projects for constructing and protecting ecological environment, which directly promoted the construction of SF in tropical regions, For example, the forest area included in NFPP in Yuanan is 240,026,000 ha, which accounts for 60.98% of its land area. The area of tropical natural forest and SF of Haman included in the NFPP is 459,000 ha. In Guangdong, all tropical natural forests with an area of 1,370,000 ha have been divided into EF for management in 1998, and tropical forests and SF were mainly included in the NFPP. It is demonstrated from above exainples that protection of Chinese TSF has been brought into the track way of national and social macro-management. (ii) initial effects generated from the management of TSE The management of TSE in China has galled initial achievements, though it is different in starting time and in developing speed, Since natural forest cutting stopped and CHFA was conducted in Haman in 1996, the increasing area of SF has reached 42,000 ha, When the natural forest protection program started in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan in 1998, natural forest cutting was stopped and C}IFA was conducted in forests of 29,200 ha, and artificial promoting natural regeneration was implemented in forests of 10,000 ha and fanning land of 41,700 ha was returned to forestry land, resulting in area of SF increased substantially. Guangdong province has done a lot of work to improve the quality of SF, including remaking and promoting ecological function of EF, re- introduction low-class EF using Casio, lopsis hystrix, Schima superba, Michelin maccl"ret, Cast@nopsisjissa and other dozens local broadleaved tree species, and by nitxing coinfer with broadleaf tree converting them into regional evergreen broadleaf forest. For example, YU Zuoyue at al. got success in nitxing broadleaf trees with pioneer tree species such as Pinus massoni0?10 and Eucalyptus. (in) Rational understanding to importance of SF' management Management of SF has undergone a long course in China, which can be divided into tiffee stages: perceptual stage, exploring stage and rational stage. Perceptual stage ranges from 1950's to 1960's, C}IFA was proposed considering the effect of area of SF on national forestry production, and SF was managed based on perception understanding. Exploring stage ranges from 1970's to 1980's, people explored the 26 ITTO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 1.21nvestigation Report Current Situation and Teclimques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China occurrence, development, econonitc value and management of SF, and began to realize that a good management and utilization ' of SF can be achieved only we understand innate laws of SF development. At rational stage from 1980's to 1990's, the succession laws of SF and south subtropical plant communities were systematically SUITmiarized, which laid a solid the oretic foundation for SE management. Hence many ecological construction projects started from the rinddle and late stages of 1990's were all based on the succession theories of regional plant climax community and forest plant community. Therefore, the measures and techritques based on specific vegetation, site condition and succession stage are generally effective for the management of SF. (iv) The goals of management are working out. Because SF covered a big proportion of forest area in China, they were regarded as a preparatory resource for cultivation so as to increase stern volume of forest; On the basis of this consideration, the purpose of SF management was thought to be obtaining timber, while its functions in protecting environment and preserving biodiversity were placed in less important position. This management thought had lasted from 1950's to 1980's. Henceforth, international and domestic environment changes, especially natural disasters being severer and severer aroused Chinese to think retrospectiveIy. SF management was excessively devoted to ecological function with overlooking its econoTntc effect. Now scientists realize ecological function of SF management is the same important as its econontic effect. 5.2 Major experiences China is a developing country, and reviewing the course of its SF management can know that in regions lacking developed economy, it is impossible that regional residents effectiveIy conduct SF protection and management, since they lack in fund as well as techniques. Adequate food and clothing is the first target they seek. In developing countries, governmental effect and international aid are very important for tropical secondary protection and management. Government made a success in tropical secondary protection and management in China and several experiences are as the following: (1) Governmental effect is very important for TSF protection, utility and development, From late period of 1980's, govenrrnental EF construction, NFPP, returning fanning land to forest and CHFA realized the achievements for TSF protection and development in China. (11) The ways and methods that can fit the regional society and ecoomy development must be sought. As a non-developed country with backward economy and technique, the best way is using CHFA and project protection to protect the resources, and then effective 27 Trio PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Oucout 121nvesiigation Report Current Situaiion and Techntques in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests in China management is gradually developed. (in) The management without econointc effect is non-sustainable management Due to low industrialization degree and lack in tertiary in mountain region, residents highly depend on forest resources. If econonxic effect of SF lacks, it will be darnaged whether government takes what measures to protect them. Only ecological as well as econonitc effects are promoted, sristaliiable management of SE can realized. Two experiences were gained during conducting the NFPP in Haman: first experience is to divided forests into national forest and collective forest as resources property and distinctiveIy manages them distinctiveIy. The former lays emphasis on ecological protection and is divided as protective region, and is protected by professional tealn, whereas latter has intimate relation with villagers and is managed using contract responsibility system of forest management duty region; Second experience is to give fully play to resource superiority, which includes developing tropical famous fruit and cash forest, aquaculture, rosin and other forest products, opening up tourism, exploiting good TwineTal spring for drinking and hydraulic electt'ogenerating, planting medicinal plant, tropical flowers, paim and rattan etc. Developing non~wood products can increase econointc income of residents living forest region and realize sustainable management. 6. Conclusions (a) Compared with most tropical nations and regions, the TSF of China is generally poor in quality, biodiversity and lacking in ecological and econonitc effects. (b) China is a country with a large population, and the economy of its most regions is riot developed yet. It TSE mainly distribute in mountainous regions and local residents highly depend on SF. Promoting ecological and econonxic effects on SE management has become the urgent demand for ecological enviromnent protection and improving villager' life and living conditions. (c) China has gained many experiences and achievements for SF protection and development from late of 1980's, but techniques of management are still backward, and techniques, methods and practices containing both of ecological and econonitc effects are lacking. (d) Spontaneously conducting SF protection and management is little, since most residents living SF regions are poor in economy and lacking in technique support. 28 InO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.1, Investigation Report Analysis of Documents Concerning Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China 111 Analysts of Documents Concerning Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China Abstract TSP own enormous potential and ecological function due to its vast area, and are an increasingly important component of the forest resources in the tropics. This paper reviews main research outcomes of TSE outside of China. It' s reduce to: Soil-stored seeds significantly contribute to the devdopment of SF, increased levels of incident light temperature stimulate seed gennination, whereas remnant vegetation and seed predator have strongly negative influence on the rate of initial colonization. Species and number of SE generally increase with succession process. Early successional species are generally shade-intoIerant while late successional species are shade-tolerant, Time frame that plant species richness in SE approach old-growth values varies considerably depending on forest type, type and intensity of past land use, and environmental conditions. Artificial plantation can accelerate gemitnation and growth of seed by improving the light, temperature and the degree of huntdity of soil surface layer, so that they greatly accelerate processes of plant succession. Most herbivores feed in SE because pioneer species in SF do have little or no mechanical or chenitcal protection against herbivores and many early and late seral tree species in SE produce edible fruits in large quantities. Environment and fire have some effects on SF succession, In early succession, relatively more biomass is allocated to resource acquiring tissues (leaves and fine roots) and in later stages more is allocated towards structural materials (woody stems and coarse roots). The nutrient cycling of SF is quick during approximately the first 15years of succession and it decreases as forests age, That the loss of soil organic matter and N due to deforestation and burning decreases soil fertility of SF. Introduction In the world' s tropical region, many tropical forests were changed into SF or degraded to wasteland, because of ruining wood for crop and forest business derived increasing population. According to the In'O material, TSF or degraded wasteland accounts for 60% of tropical forest area (In'0,2002). TSF owns enormous potential because of its strong plasticity and vast area. Meanwhile, the TSF can improve environment, prevent pollution, fix the CO2 (Fearnside & Guimaraes, 1996), provide the forest instauration modes (Lug0, 1992), provide the sanctuary of biological diversity and has various outputs at the same time (Chazdon & Coe, 1999). In the tropics, people's exploitation to the TSF is more than primary forests. Great majority of collecting fuel wood, pasturing, vacillant agriculture, collecting non-wood forest products, etc. and production exercises which are closely-related with the life of local people living in forest regions and nearby the regions are conducted in SF (FAO, 1996; Dotzauer, 29 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.1* Investigation Report Analysis of Documents Concenitng Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China 1998). With the progress of city and industrialization, the area of TSF will increase in this century (Thornlinson et at. , 1996). Therefore, enhancing research of SF has' important meaning for promoting its management and econoimc potential, In order to sum the management and research experiences of SF in the world's tropical region and to provide technique supporting for research and production management of SF in future, his summarization totally inspects 605 related papers of TSF. Among them, there are 306 papers of forest ecology, including vegetation characteristics"~"' dynarnic of TSFt100-2461 forest regenerationt196-2121 succession""~"" dynaintc of construction and function""""' and reproductive ecology""~"" seedling regeneration""~"" individual ecology""~"" recove ecology"""" moisture dynanitc"""" cheThical element cyclin , adjcularl carbon cycling"""" ecology and function aspect of SF"""" and protection biology""~"" etc; 67 papers of forest zoology and low organisms, pmnarily including constitution of animals of TSE, biodiversity""~"" and the correlation between biodiversity and plant""~"" and researches on low organisms in TSF""~""~ 95 papers of forest soil" '''"' 81 papers of forest management"""" and 56 papers of SilViCulturet'49-6051 The objectives of his review are to SUITrrnarize changes during SF succession and to present questions requiring further research, I. Research process of management of global TSFs There were many researches on plant conimunity, succession process and nische of TSF from ecology viewpoint. Study on TSF began from 1950's in the world. The earliest study of SF is Greig-Slimth's ecological investigation on tritee of stands structure of SF in Reggae islands Tnnidad in 1952. Afterward, Bartholomew at al, (1953) reported biomass and nutrient contents of 2 to 18-year SF developed from huntd tropical forests after being slash-and-tire in the Congo; Ross (1954) studied stand structure of 5 to 17-year SF developed from dry tropical forests being slash-and-fire 23-year ago in Nigeria; Zhang and Warig at a1. (1995) reported that composition, distribution and community structure of green and broad-leaved forest in southern subtropical zone in Guangdong, China; Feng (1995) studied community dynainic of 40 to 400-year main tree species representing different succession stages of evergreen and broad-leaved forests in southern subtropical zone in Guangdong, China. Guruig (1996) studied biomass, pmnary production, litter-fall and nutrient of monsoon evergreen broadleaved forests growing buried wasteland in Hong Kong and Guangdong, China; Zillunerman at a1. (1996) sunnnarized themfluence of land use on SF developed from tropical lowland rain forests being fanned, herded or selective felled in Puerto Rico; Feng (1998) reported an 12-year fixed position's observed results of even degree and diversity in over 400-year evergreen and broadleaved forests of southern subtropical zone in Guangdong, China. The study range of SF became more and more widely and more and more papers were published in recent 30 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.1, investigation Report Analysis of Documents Concerning Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China more than 20 years' 2. Types of TSF Analysis the types of TSF in the world, there are five malli types can be concluded as follows: . Postextr@ction SF. Forests regenerating after significant reduction in the original forest vegetation through tree extraction at a single point in time or over an extended period, namely forest - harvest - regeneration, . Swtdden follow SF. Forests regenerating in woody fallows of swidden agriculture for the purpose of restoring the land, for cultivation again, namely forest - clear - bum - crop - fallow - clear. . SF gardens. Considerably elmched swidden fallows, or less intensiveIy managed smallholder plantations where substantial spontaneous regeneration is tolerated, maintained, or even encouraged, namely forest - clear - bum - crop ~ considerably elmched fallow. . Post:/iru forests. Forests regenerating after significant reduction in the original forest vegetation due to one human-induced fire or a fire of succession, That is forest - fire - regeneration. O Rehabilitated SF. Forests regenerating on degraded land, often aided by rehabilitation efforts, or the facilitation of natural regeneration through measures such as protection from chronic disturbance, site stabilization, water management and planting, namely forest - degraded land - rehabilitation + natural regeneration. 3. The development of TSF Development of SE starts from seed dispersion and genntnation from root stake. Seed dispersion contributes to the development of SF. However, the share of soil-stored seeds to forest regrowth pears more important (Garwood, 1989), Even though the density of soil-stored seeds is reduced when the site has been burned, its contribution to mumediate post-disturbance regrowth is usually much more than that of recently dispersed seeds for most species (Young, 1987). Increased levels of incident light temperature stimulate seed gemtination (Ranch and Gong, 1990). Intensity of land use increases, the potential of SF to regenerate from soil-stored seeds concurrently dinvinishes. Caveliev (1994) suggested that in severely degraded grasslands in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Mama, Colombia, Forest regeneration from seed bank is of jinnimal importance. intensity of land use also influences the floristic composition of the seed bank that may originate a given plant community after site abandonment. Usually, the vegetation that develops right after clearing of old-growth forest tends to be poorer both in tenns of species richness and abundance than that arising from 31 ITFO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.1, investigation Report Analysis of Documents Concerning Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China cleared sites previously supporting successional vegetation (Young, 1987). The donxinant type of land use in the surroundings influences floristIC composition and density. For example, the floristIC composition and density of soil-stored seeds in SF close to agricultural or otherwise deforested land is known to contain large amounts of light-demanding shrub and herbaceous species, whereas the soil seed banks of SF show a smaller proportion of herbaceous (Dupuy & Chazdon, 1998). Birds and other ammais contribute to forest regeneration as seed dispersers (Oberhauser, 1997). Rerunant vegetation can strongly influence the rate of initial colonization trough its effects on seed dispersal, In extensively deforested area, spatial constraints to seed dispersal emerge as one of the critical barriers to succession. Aide and Cavelier ( 1994) quantified virtually no dispersed seeds in pastures at only 20 in away from the nearest forested patch. Parrotta (1993) has observed a significant negative correlation between seedling density distance to nearest possible seed source. After seeds are dispersed, another important obstacle to tree establishment can be seed predation. Seed removal was higher in abandoned slash-and-burn farms than in adjacent forest in the upper Rio Negro, Venezuela (Init, 1987). NGpstad at a1. (1996) reported in Paragonxinas, Brazil, more than 80% seed removal within 20 days for six out of I I tree species exaihined. In their study, the probability of seed arrival into pastures was higher for smaller seeded species, but the probability of seed predation in the pasture was lower for larger-seeded species. Small-seeded species were not as dispersal limited as large-seeded species, but these on the contrary, had a greater chance of getting established. In contrast, Holl and Lulow (1997) observed no obvious correlation between seed size and seed removal rates in an abandoned pasture of Costa Rica. This discrepancy is perhaps due both to differences in conrrnunity composition of seed predators between localities, and to differences in the extent of site degradation and type of plant cover 4. The composition of species and construction of forest stand in TSF Forest succession is characterized by changes of species composition and coriumunity structure. Species and number of SF generally increase with successional process. Keliman (1970) discovered the plant species number of SF was annost the same as that of nearby mature forests. Some researches found younger SF have more tree species than old ones. For exainple, Laska (1997) pointed out in analyzing 12-year and 25-year SF in Costa Rica, the younger forest growth is richer and has more plants per plot than 25-year old forest. in general, old growth forest tree assemblages are more diverse than secondary growth tree assemblages in the tropics. Younger secondary growth forest has a more open canopy structure than older growth forests, allowing higher levels of light at shrub layer which may result in shrub assemblages of higher diversity than adjacent old growth forest. Amazonian slash-and-burn succession is strongly influenced by the combination of proximate seed sources. in extensive abandoned cattle pastures, or in severely degraded areas, successional 32 InO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.1, Investigation Report Analysis of Documents Concerning Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China trajectories are likely to differ, and the recovery of ecosystem structure and function is expected to be much slower cohl at a1, , 1988). 5. Change of tree species during TSE succession Early successional species are generally shade-into1STant while climax or late successional species are shade-tolerant, being found under their own canopy or that of early successional species. Cain and SheIton (2001) found that early successional tree species was shade-into10rant pine during secondary succession in Arkansas, USA. With successional progressive, the importance of the shade-into16rant pines declined and that of the more shade tolerant hardwoods increased, especially the oaks. Through fune, the canopy becomes multi-layered with the into16rant pines occupying the upper-most layer followed by the oaks and other canopy species, which are mostly interniediate in tolerance. A nitd-canopy also develops with the most shade-tolerant members of the collununity, and these species do riot have the growth potential to attain dormnant canopy positions. Achievement of donitnant canopy by the oaks and other canopy species inhibited by the pines until they begin to lose dormnance due to individual mortality from seriesconce or collective mortality fonn catastrophic disturbance. First decade of forest succession after site abandonment in the lowland moist and wet Neott'opics is characterized by vegetation donitnated by grasses, shrubs, and forbs, which are eventually shaded out by short-lived, light~demanding "pioneer" tree species. After this period, the canopy is dormnated by long-lived, taller-statured, but nevertheless light demanding tree species, and sometimes much larger-sized and even longer-lived species. Because most of these tree species are unable to grow and/or reproduce under their own shade, their canopy dormnance is constrained to early colonization after site abandonment. Eventually, the canopies of these secondary stands may be replaced by other shade tolerant species characteristic of old-growth forest that usually gerntinate and establish during early succession (Guariguata at al. , 1997; Denslow and Guzman, 2000). in India, when a forest is converted to farmland, perturbations due to fire, the introduction of crop species, weeding and other disturbances during crop harvest all result in a large reduction in the number of the species. During secondary succession, the number of species increases gradually (Toky and Ramakrishnan, 1983). The change in community structure was very marked at the low altitude, from the initial weedy herbs, to a bamboo forest and, finally, to a nitxed broad-leaved forest (Ramadishnan and Kushwalia, 2001), Species composition of SF is closed to that of primary forests after secondary succession for few centuries. For example, Saldarriga at a1. (1988) observed a small seedling with species characteristic of primary forest became donitnant species for no longer than 60 years, With successional process, forest basal areas tended to increase and total individual density decreased, individual with DBH>10 cm increased (Lugo, 33 TFTO PPD 30/01 Rev, I(F) - Output 2.1, Investigation Report Analysis of Documents Concerning Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China 1992). Young stands chill{ICterize higher tree densities, lower basal areas, and shorter canopy heights compared 10 old growth forest (Aide at a1. , 1996; Denslow and Guzman, 2000). Tree species characteristics change with succession stages. Compared with late successional tree species, early successional tree species attain a narrow crown form with rapid extension growth from the main axis, a faster rate of branch production of different orders, a rapid extension of the first-order branches at the expense of the others, stronger correlative growth inhibition with apical control over the growth of the others, stronger correlative growth inhibition with apical control over the growth of the branches beneath, and branch orientation. This enables the early successional species to grow fast, capitalizing upon the high light availability in a transient environment; the early successional species have a higher rate of leaf production, faster turnover rate, and the consequent larger proportion of younger leaves to older ones. This enables the fourier category to be opportunistic in their strategy for light capture and faster photosynthesis, compared to the conservative strategy of late successional species; Root architecture and the consequent ability 10 exploit different profiles of the soil for early successional species is different that of late successional species. With the rapid accumulation of nutrients in the surface layers of the soil after the clear cutting of a forest, the early successional species, with a largely surface feeding root profile distribution, again exhibit an exploitative or OPPorrurntstic strategy towards nutrient uptake, With nutrient depletion in late successional soil environment and its more unifonn distribution in the soil profile, the late successional trees have a better-developed root system with more uniform distribution down the profile (Ramakrishnan and Kushwaha, 2001). 6. Plant species of TSF and land use intensity Though plant species richness in SE can approach old-growth values within a few decades after site abandonment, Tetunting to a species composition slimlar to old-growth forest will be a much longer process, particularly for canopy trees due to their slow turnover time (Finegan, 1996). This time frame will vary considerably depending on forest type, type and intensity of past land use, and environmental conditions. Under light-to-moderate land use intensity, and when seed sources are nearby, plant species richness rapidly increases during the first years of SF succession, and it takes no more than a few decades after abandonment to reach values coinparable to old-growth forest. However, as intensity of past land use increases, slower recovery of species richness is expected due to soil compaction, propagation himtation, and fire occurrence (NGpstad at a1. , 1996). In montane area, recovery of canopy composition with respect to old-growth forest may be reached much more rapidly than at low elevations (01ander at a1. , 1998), Past land use intensity not only affects the rate of species accumulation after site abandonment, but also the composition of early colonizers. In wet Costa Rica, e. g. , when land abandonment 34 Trio PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.1, investigauon Report Analysis of Documents Concerning Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China mimedlately follows forest cutting there tends to be a notable reduction in abundance of typical short-lived species. Tree collmiunity composition is dormnated by light-demanding but longer-lived species (Guadguata, 1999). The absence of exposed nitneral soil, and the presence of residual vegetation and litter may make it difficult for very small-seeded, short-lived pioneers to gemitnate and establish (e. g. Putz, 1983). In Puerto Rico, Cecropi" could not colonize abandoned pastures the first decades post-abandonment (Aide 61 a1. , 1996), in spite of being the most common tree invader after landslides. The type of past land use may also affect species composition following abandonment. Zillmiemnari (1995) found that in 60-year-old abandoned coffee vs. abandoned pasture sites, tree and shrub species diversity was slimlar but floristIC composition was nevertheless greatly different, and that even a strong huntcane that had affected the forest 5 years earlier was not able to erase the effect of land use type on species composition. Rivera and Aide (1998) reported that SF on abandoned pasture sites had sinitlar species richness in comparison with those on abandoned coffee sites, but that compositional differences were marked among these land use types. 7. Effect of artificial stands to secondary succession Plantation monocultures established on degraded tropical sites can greatly accelerate processes of plant succession. Artificial plantation can accelerate gennination and growth of seed by improving the light, temperature and the degree of huntdity of soil surface layer (Parrotta at a1. , 1997). Plantation monoculnires established on degraded tropical sites can greatly accelerate processes of plant succession and rates of biomass and nutrient accretion in vegetation and soils. In comparison with adjacent control areas, 4.5-year-old A1bizi0 18bbek plantation stands showed an 11-fold increase in aboveground plant biomass, a 7-fold increase in root and forest floor biomass, and marked differences in aboveground and belowground structure (Parrotta at a1. , 1997). Otsam0 (2000) found that In Riam Kiwa region, Indonesia, seedling established on land dontinated by Imperuta grass was significantly lower than lands without vegetation or land donitnated by shrub. Planting artificial plantations with suitable foreign species, such as Acacia inarigii, in, Gineiin" arboreo, Partisericr, Ithes iaicot"namay accelerate natural regeneration of local tree species. Plantation species had a considerable influence over understorey seedling/sapling density and species richness, which was highest in the A. indrigium stands with an average of 3,042 seedlings of 29 species per hectare, Therefore, only successful plantations with good growth and early canopy closure can act as initial steps in the secondary succession of Imperato grasslands. Otherwise the stands will remain uneven, the amount of Imper@tci grass will be very high and secondary succession will be as slow as it is in grassland areas. Lug0 (1992) compared the structure and dynaTinc of SF with those of paired Pmws cartbaea and Swietenio macrophylla plantations of sinxilar age. Although the little unmanaged plantations had a lower number of species in under story than paired SF, 35 L TITO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.1, Investigation Report analysis of Documents Concerning Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China the under story of the older plantations developed high species richness, including many of native tree species. After 17 years, native tree species invaded the overstory of plantations. After 50 years the species richness in the understory of a S, macrophyl!c plantation approached that of its paired SF. Oberhauser (1997) studied four Pinus kesjyo plantations, aged 7, 12,21 and 28 years, growing on abandoned agricultural areas. Results of the study revealed a high number of vascular species in the plots. Increasingly complex forest structure could be observed as nitd- and low-level canopies had developed and other species replaced pines in the overstorey. increasing numbers of antimal dispersed tree species became established in the older plantations. Recovery of woody veg'etation was faster in plantations than in areas not atforested with F1 kesiy@. Over fune, the basal stem area of f! kesiy", which had died or had been cut was replaced by the basal area of other tree species. It appears that F1 kesiyo plantations can enhance establishment of nitxed forests. , 8. TS^' and animal Conversion of primary forests to SF has a negative impact on the populations of arboreal mammals, because it alters their habitat and decreases food supply (Kartawinata at a1. , 2001). Some SE near high forests may help in maintaining high wildlife diversity because high forests provide most of the required habitats for wildlife, but SF contains more foods for antimals. Pioneer species that are coininon in SF do have little or no mechanical or chenxical protection agalTist herbivores and this may be one reason that most herbivores feed in SF. Also, many early and late seral tree species in SF produce edible fruits in large quantities. These are reasons why most herbivores like to find foods in SF (Perera, 2001). The situation for browsing animals may be improved by the luxuriant SF regeneration. Some species of birds require a large area of relatively undisturbed forest to maintain breeding populations or mature trees for nesting, whereas colonizing birds prefer to feed in disturbed forest and their numbers increase in SF (Kartawinata et a1. , 2001). Natural SF was a better habitat for forest birds than the plantation. Compared to the plantation, there were most tree species in SF, and both bird density and the number of breeding species were much high. Some researchers found that bird species diversity is correlated with the vegetation complexity in a habitat (Kwok and Corlett, 2000). 9. TSF succession and environment Environment has some effects on SF succession. Leak (1991) reported that successional attributes of SF in New Hampshire, USA: (1) Successional direction varies by site. Fine till soils tend toward beech, sugar maple, and associated hardwoods; sandy tills toward a predonitnance of beech; shallow or dry sites toward hemlock and spruce; (2) Five ecological species roles are evident. Donitnating climax species increase significantly over time. Stable climax species remain constant and 36 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.1, investigation Report Analysis of Documents Concerning Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China abundant over time. Minor climax species occupy small areas of unusual habitat. Persistent successional species are into16rant or interniediate species that persist over time through repeated disturbance. Temporary successional species decline significantly over time; (3) Succession generally follows the pattern that successional process consists of changes in dormnance of species already present at the outset; (4) Old, uncut deciduous and coniferous stands in the Battlett area contain at least 70-80% tolerant climax species. In Amazonia, moisture linttations are likely factor to constrain SF growth (Johnson et a1. , 2000), particularly where there is a pronounced dry-season (NGpstad at a1. , 1994), Rivera and Aide (1998) found in studying the karst region of Puerto Rico that species diversity of trees greater than I cm DBH was high in abandoned pastures in comparison with abandoned coffee plantations. The higher diversity in the abandoned pasture sites may be due to the presence of both light demanding and shade tolerant species that co- occur at this stage of forest development. The unique topography of the karst region may be most important factor contributing to the rapid recovery of SF. Karst topography includes long narrow valleys surrounded by hill with steep slopes. This topography protects the valleys from strong winds during hurricanes and tropical stonns. in addition, the accumulation of soil and organic matter in the valley bottoms creates better conditions for plant growth. The long narrow valleys will be more protected from direct sun light and less soil erosion. Aboveground Tmcrohabitat differences influence early plant composition during secondary succession (Uhl at a1. , 1981) but also small-scale variation in soil nutrients has the potential 10 affect the distribution, composition, and growth of colonizing species. Harcombe (1977) found in exantining successional trajectories that herbs dormnated fertilized plots, while shrubs and trees donitnated unfertilized plots during the same time period. FloristIC and life-fonn composition during SF succession are influenced by the availability of soil resources, Species with high growth rates may be disproportionately favored under ample resource levels which leads to their over dominance during early succession because slow-growing species tend to be less responsive to enhanced resource levels (Chapin at a1. , 1986). Species composition of a site is not only influenced by soil resources, it also can affect the availability of these resources to other species and thus further affect successional trajectories. Local variation in soil fertility can affect riot only structure, but also the distribution of tree species. Henera and Finegan (1997) reported that spatial distributions of libchysia Ierrwgineo concentrated on steeper slopes with acid soils, while Cordio dinodoprci were more abundant on gentler topography with more basic soils. Moreover, these within-stand differences in canopy dominants were found to significantly influence understory floristIC composition and species richness. Fire influences the development of SF. SE are very prone to fires because they dry more quic}aty and therefore bum more easily than primary, nitxed-lowland dipterocarp forests. The availability of seed is particularly important for the development of post-fire SF. Because most pre-existing seedlings and saplings may be killed by fire 37 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.1, investigation Report Analysis of Documents Concenitng Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Foresis Outside of China and the soil laid bare, post-fire SF are often poor in species diversity and in upper-canopy species (Dennts et a1. , 2001). 10. Biomass and productivity of T'sF Typically, SF succession is characterized by shifts in the biomass allocation of the plant conimunity. In early succession, relatively more biomass is allocated to resource acquiring tissues (leaves and fine roots) and in later stages more is allocated towards structural materials (woody sterns and coarse roots). Fine root (<21nm diameter) biomass accumulates at a slower rate than leaf biomass, but its recovery can still be quite rapid. SE can also have sinitlar or higher fine root biomass than old-growth forest after I to 10 years post-abandonment (Cavalier at a1. , 1996). SFs are generally sinks of biomass as they re-vegetate, and thus they are also sinks of atmospheric carbon (Lugo and Brown, 1992), 111 general, SF rapidly accumulated up to 100tha of biomass for about 15-20 years after abandonment (Brown and Lug0, 1990). Above ground biomass usually shows an asymptotic pattern with time, although factors such as climate and past land use tend to affect the rate of accumulation. TSF develop maximum biomass of 100 una in their first 15-years' After 15-years, forests diverge in the amount of biomass accumulation. Few of the forests accumulated more than 200 t/ha by age 80-year. Most TSF reach leaf biomass peak by age 20-year and then remain steady or decrease slightly, their root biomass increases slowly with age, whereas their wood biomass increases rapidly dufuig the first 15 to 20 years, followed by a steady but slower rate until maturity (Brown and Lug0,1990; Lug0, 1992). Lug0 (1992) reported that Pinus canbaeo and Swieteni@ macrophylla Plantations had higher above ground biomass and net aboveground biomass production than paired SF. Higher root densities and biomass were found in SF as were greater depth of root penetration, and more nitcrosites where roots grow, than paired plantations (Lug0, 1992), SF that originated after shifting cultivation grew faster than SF developing in abandoned pastures (FearTiside and Guimaraes, 1996). In general, SFs have relative high productivity, which is why they are often suggested as good wood resources. In early forest development (e. g. <20 years), leaf litter production, represents more of the total net primary productivity than wood production. Productivity of wood can be low until leaf and root systems are fully developed, but after tints period short-tenn estimates of wood production can be higher than estimates for old-growth forests. Rates of wood productivity of TSP in the first 20 years range between 2-11 tiha a, which are higher than those tropical mature forests (I~8 tiha a). For older SF (>40 years), rates of wood productivity range I~:!-. 5 t!ha a Net productivity of leaves continued increase for about 12-15 years and there is animt at about 12-13 tlha a(Brown & Lug0; 1990). Yoneda at a1. (1998) found that after low mountain rain forests were logged for several years, primary productivities of SF developed from logging land reached their peak and then remain steady, There is no significant difference on primary productivity between the rain forests and the 38 Trio PPD 30/01 Rev, I(F) - Output 2.1, Investigation Report Analysis of Documents Concerning Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China SF. 11. Nutrient cycling in 'rSF With plant tissues grow they absorb nutrients and as these tissues die they return some of the nutrients to the soil, The vegetation of SF serves as a nutrient sink that quickly accumulates biomass and nutrients into leaves and roots daring approximately the first 15years of succession (Brown& Lug0,1990). Such rapid nutrient accumulation is accompanied by fast rates of nutrient turnover that can be more rapid than plantations (Lug0, 1992). As forests age, however, most of the biomass is allocated to woody tissue and the turnover rate of nutrients decreases. The general pattern of nutrient cycling in SF appears to be fast rates of nutrient accumulation in leaves and roots and fast turnover of these nutrients during the early portions of succession, and a shift to slower rates of nutrient turnover during the later stage of succession. While land use history, climate, and soil type certainly affect the rates of these processes, the same basic pattern of nutrient cycling appears to be occurring in many SF (Brown and Lugo, 1990). A remarkably liner relation existed between species diversity and litter production and net primary productivity daring the first to 20 years of succession in swidden fallow SF in India, With the rapid transfer of nutrients from the soil to the vegetation during the early phase of fallow, rapid depletion of nutrients occurs in soil even though losses by Ieaching and runotf are greatly reduced. It is only after about 10 years of fallow that transfer of nutrients back to the soil through litter fall becomes important and soil fertility recovers (Rainakrishnan and Kusbwalia, 2001) MCDonald and Healey (2000) found in studying primary and SE in Jamaica that rates of nutrient loss in runoff and eroded sediment in SF were low. Basal area had recovered to 81% of primary forest levels and rates of litterfall were high. Soil fertility had recovered well in the SF. In the rinddle of steep slopes, following the cessation of agriculture, tight nutrient cycling and soil condition and fertility were effectiveIy restored after 20 years of secondary succession, Johnson at a1. (2001) compared nutrient concentrations and stocks in aboveground vegetation and soils between SE (10-, 20-, and 40-year-old stands subject to repeated cycles of slash-and-burn agriculture) and a primary forest fragment in the Bragantina region of Brazil. There were no significant differences in median foliar tissue concentrations of N, P, K, Ca. or Mg between the SF and the primary forest. In woody tissue, the primary forest had a lower median Mg concentration than all SF plots and a higher median N concentration than the 40-year-old SF. Fomar nutrient stocks were higher in the SF than in the primary forest due to higher foliar biomass estimates for those plots. Above ground woody nutrient stocks were the greatest in the primary forest with the exception of Mg. Soil concentrations of eXchangeable Ca decreased with increasing stand age; soil Concentrations of eXchangeable Mg were higher in all secondary plot soils than in the pmnary plot soil. Labile P stocks were greater in the 39 I_ ITTO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.1, investigation Report analysis of Documents Concerning Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China primary forest soil than in all SF soils. Lug0 (1992) Reported that understory plant tissue, particularly leaf litter, had higher nutrient concentration in pine plantations than in paired SF. SF recycled nutrients much faster than the plantations, which tended to store the nutrients. Litter of the SF had a faster nutrient turnover than plantation litter, though plantations Tetranslocated more nutrients before leaf fall than did SF. Montagiiini at a1. (1995) studied the soil conditions of a 25-year SF and a primary forest in Brazil. Their results show that soil pH, C, H, P* Ca and Mg were higher under SF than under primary forest. Litter accumulation on the forest-floor was greater in secondary than in primary forest. Soil condition in the SF may have improved as a result of the impacts of the donimant plant species in the regrowth, 12. Soil of TSF Soil properties can affect the growth and species composition of colonists on deforested land. Many dramatic changes in soil properties occur after deforestation and bunting. One of the most significant impacts is the loss of soil structure, as evidenced by increases in bulk density and decreases in soil porosity. A variety of chentical changes also occur after land conversion, but it is more difficult to generalize about the directionality of these processes. The loss of soil organic matter decrease the water-holding capacity of soils and energy source for soil decomposers; as well as soil fertility caused by decreasing holding organic fomns of nutrients and its cation eXchange capacity. The role of nitrogen in secondary succession deserves special attention because of its potential for loss in tropical ecosystems (Vitousek at a1. , 1989). During land clearing, 1.1 is lost mainly through biomass removal, volatilization during burning, denitrification, and leanhing. However, levels in the soil can be increased after deforestation. For example, after felling and buntng Costa Rican pre-montane wet forest, N03 and NH4 levels increased and persisted for 6 months at levels much higher than adjacent SF. SF keep the balance of amount of nutrients in the soil by storage of nutrients in biomass, turnover and decomposition of the biomass which adds nutrients to the soil, and Ieaching of nutrients out of the zones accessible by plant roots (Silver at a1. , 1996). The recovery of soil to its previous functions varies with forest type (Netll at a1. , 1997). For instance, SF that were fomierly pastures have a faster recovery of soil carbon than fonneT agricultural fields (Silver et a1. , 2000). Fourier agricultaral fields subjected to fertilization may have greater amounts of nutrients than SF that regrow after other land uses (Brown and Lug0,1990)., Despite these variations, once plants begin to colonize a site trough the processes described before, a variety of soil-plant feedback processes facifitate the recovery of soil functions, 40 InO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.1, Investigation Report Analysis of Documents Concerning Research of Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China 13. Conclusions and recoinmendatioms Population increases, quick development in industry and construction of large-scale foundation facilities cause large-scale forest land pertirrbations including intensive logging, Twining, conversion of forest lands to large-scale plantations and agriculture, as well as construction of dams, roads and other infrastructure. The number and area of SF tend to increase. TSF as an important fonn of tropical forests have received the international social extensive concern in recent years, TSF become an important research content. Ecological, silvicultural and SOCio-econorntc knowledge regarding degraded and SF exists to a certain extent, and there is an increasing volume of research available regarding forest restoration, rehabilitation and SF management. However, study on TSF focus on foundation study, especially ecology aspect with relative few papers of forest cultivation and management, and researches on the linkages between biophysical and social processes are scarce. Although some examples for management of TSF exist, there are not unity modes, also existing experiences have yet not been fed into policy development, whereas management of TSF need to consider not only biology characteristic of the forest, but also their social background characteristic and econoTritcs characteristic. We need to consider new and emerging ecological paradigms that effectiveIy link ecological processes with social processes and to take more integrated approach to the study of SF for effective management of the remaining natural resources. Understanding how forests recover after clearance is still a current research topic (Brown and Lug0. 1990; Lug0, 1992; HD11, 1999). The structural characteristics of the developing secondary forest are studied, and occasionally functional characteristics. Much of the emphasis in secondary succession has focused on which species or group of species dormnate which stages of succession (Finegan, 1992). Fixed position study, the study on changes of nitcroorganism, animal or other abiotic factors with forest succession is little. Basic researches about successional mechanism, such as interspecific relationship, species niches and plant physiology and ecology characteristic during successional process are lacking. There has been little scientific integration of the structural and functional characteristics and processes that occur during secondary succession. These contents remain to make progress in future study of TSE. 41 , ITTO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.2* investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China TV Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Forests Outside of China Abstract SF is becoming an increasing component of forest cover in the tropics, they are important for a wide range of goods and ecological function. Despite their large extent, rapid growth and increasing importance, there is a general lack of their management modes, This paper discussed the distribution of forest resources in the tropics, their main types, main characteristics and present management status, and proposed twelve management modes, and these modes include establishing nature conservation region, eco-public-benefit forest management, extravisme, Iinfiting logging and regeneration after logging, logging three and remaining seven method, tropical shelterwood system, sylviculture douce, whole cultivation method, specialized cultivation method, strip clearcutting method, developing tree species of lacking noted and nature regeneration* C}IFA. Moreover, forest classification management, namely implementing management by dividing SF into coriumercial forest, ecology forests and multi-function forest according to mall purpose of management, was suggested. The problems of TSF were analyzed and some measures solving the problems were recoinmended. Introduction With destruction of primary forests and other human activity, SFs comprise a large and growing proportion of forest cover in many tropical countries as regrowth following deforestation. There are about 120 tropical nations and regions in the world, distributing extensively in each big continent except for Europe. The land area of the tropics accounts for more than 1/3 of the global land, whereas the tropical forest area accounts for more than 1/2 of the forest area in the world. ITTO experts coining from the group of 5 international organizations estimated that the total area of SE and degraded lands of 77 tropical nations is about 850 lulllion ha in the year 2000, accounting for more than 60% of the total tropical forest area (ITT0,2002). SF are an increasingly important component of the forest resources in the tropics, providing the production of timber, wood and non-wood forest products, nittigating pressure on primary forests. FurthennoTe, they fulfill Ginviroimiental functions and can play a useful role in biodiversity conservation. Because the tropics mainly belong to the developing countries, the pressure of population, economy and resources make many tropical forests convert into SF or degraded lands after they are damaged. Demand on SE or degraded land due to continuously increasing on population and society's requirement makes ecological 42 ITTO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.2* Investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China function of SF weaken and land productivity descend gradually. In the world, some scientists have already paid attention to study of SF or degraded woodlands. For example, in the beginning of 70s of last century G6mez-Pompa and V6. squez-Yanes (1974) suggested, " we were in the era of SF vegetation", WadswoTth (1983) proposed, "Success or riot of tropical forest management in the future was possibly decided by whether we have enough cognition to SF ecology". Meanwhile, many countries developed various production practices of SF, For instance, Southeast Asia adopts "inorocyclic system" and "polycyclic system". However, knowledge and expertise regarding the study and production practices of protection or increasing ecological benefits and biodiversity of SF is still Iinxited since the main purpose of their management is timber management and utilizing. In order to promote the sustainable management of SF, it is necessary to understand present management status and to develop management modes for SF. This paper analyzed present management status of SF and proposed their main management modes, The objectives of the paper was to discuss adaptive management practices for conserving and enhancing production capacities of SF, so as to promote their sustainable and equitable management, and make them develop along desirable management strategies. I. The tropics and forest resources in the world 1.1 Tropical nations and their population There are about 120 tropical nations and regions in the world, and 1850 willion people live in the tropics, including 1000 Thinion in Asia, 500 Thinion in Africa, 50 lulllion in Australia, 100 lulllion in North kinetica, 235 million in South America, Population density is the densest in Asia, especially in the peninsula of India, hido-China, Philippines and the Java island of hidonesia, where there is more than 200 people in each square kilometer. Population density is often more than 200 people per square kilometer in Caribbean region, north, northwest and east coastal regions of South kinetica, population density is also high in coastal regions, West Africa, whereas it is often less than one people per square kilometer in the desert district of southern part of the Tropic of Cancer, desert district of Australia, the rain forest area of Annaz6nia region, South America, desert district of Arabian Peninsula, Papua New Guinea, and Mandan rain forest area of Asia, The population density of the other the tropics ranges 10~200 people per square kilometer (Hou at a1,2002). 1.2 Distribution of forest resources in the tropics According to equator as axis, global tropical forests present zonal distribution, which generally extend southward and northward to tropics of 23'30'. Global forest area is estimated by FAO to be 3,454 lulllion ha, accounting for 25% of land area, in which 43 FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.2, Investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China tropical forest area of Asia, Africa, Latin-American is about 1,900 Thinion ha, accounting for 40% of tropical land area, and tropical forests of Oceania also occupy an important position (FAO, 2001). North and south boundaries of tropical forests do not coincide with tropics completely, some places do riot extend tropics, whereas others probably extend beyond tropics, for exariiple, tropical forests distributing in lateral river valley of the southeast of the Himalayas, China extend the place 28~29' of north latitude. The distribution of tropical forest in the world can be seen from Map nil. 23' 30' 23' 30' . ^,. At. ICO . ton . 0.00",. . Euro~ . "on, ., d C. ".'., A. ^ 80"", fun"rea Map in/ I Distribution of tropical forests in the world 1.3 Status of tropical forest reso Tropical forests in the world are abundant, which serve for providing material wealth and environment to the human life and production continuously, However, tropical forests have long been simply regarded as producing place of timber and raw material, the woodland has also been used as farmland source, resulting in forest decrease extensively and many species disap ce. According to statistics of FAO, forest disappear rate is 0.9% each year in 87 tropical forest nations tropical (FAO, 2001), which is 0.9%, 0.8% and 1.2% for Latin-American, Africa and Asia, respectively, and the forest disappear rate of Asia is the highest. InO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) Output 2.2* Investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China .-:.,-., I. " , ' '\ "*~, , \ I F I , ;i'* , ... ^. I *\ L , * . . * , ,I' \ . I41' I ^ >," ""... r ". I , I , ^ ...,.,~"..",.-. , ' I" ., I Map IV2 Annual disap rice rate of forest area in the world Table in/ I Distribution or tropical forest resources jin all countries Nation or region Number Territory area Forest area Covering rate Annual change of nation (ha) (ha) of forest (%) of forest and (1990.2000 re on I hat Asia (except for 17 771,852 286,218 37.08 -2,654 China Africa 42 2,372,882 643,351 27.11 -5,301 America 40 1,652,274 912,882 55.25 4,414 Ocean state* 19 210,000,000 46,000 21.9 404 Total of tropical 1/8 5,619,305 2,032,128 36.16 -10,384 zone World 217 13,063,900 3,869,455 29.62 -9391 (FAO, 2001) Main pressures that forests faces are population merease, poor, backward management level and forest fire in Asia; They are population increase, poor, lack of forest management policy, unsteady politics, city expansion in Africa, and insufficient food, city expansion, incoherent government policy in America, and timber trade in Oceania. Consumption of fuel wood is the main method of forest exploitation for resident of forest region, but the main reasons of forest decline are wood' s excessive logging and vacillating agriculture. InO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.2, Investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China Box IVl: Tropical forest resources of South Asia region South Asia region includes 6 tropical nations and regions, its forest area and forest covering rate are 74,304,000 ha and 22.13%, respectively. Average annually forest decrease area is estimated to be 59,000 ha during L990-2000 years' Man pressures that forest resources face are high-speed population increase, poor and no effective forest management. The region's population accounts for 22% of the world population, but its forest resources only occupies 2% of the world forest. Fuel wood depletion is mall method of exploitation forest for the region's resident. Box TV2: Tropical forest resources of Western African region Western African region includes 16 nations and regions, its forest area and forest covering rate are 85,079,000 ha and 11%, respectively. Annually forest decrease area is estimated to be 1351 ha during 1990-2000 years' Mani pressures that forest resources face are high-speed population increase, economy development, poor and no effective forest management policy. Mall reasons. of damage forest are to convert forest to agricultore land, logging, city expansion and rinimg. Fuel wood depletion is main method of exploitation forest for the region's resident, which accounts for 85% of energy utilization. Though nori-timber forest product is important for native resident, relative data is very lime. Box IV3: artopical forest neourees of Caribbean region Caribbean region including 22 nations and. regions is roamly islands, its forest area and forest coveting rate are 5.7T1,000 ha and 25.0%; respectively. Armually forest increase area is estimated to be 13,000 ha daring 1990-2000 years' The forest ecosystem of the region is complicated and diversity, forest species is abundant, and toutism income is the important reason for maintai-wing forest. Here, forest protection is not only relative to society, culture and environmental policy, but also to economy. Forest is an important resource of ecological tour, and it is of urniost importance to environmental protection. (FAO, 2001) 2. TSF status in the world 2.1 The area and distribution of TSF In 90's of 20 centuries, annual logging area of tropical natural forests is estimated to be 15.2 lulllion ha, among which 14.2 nitllion ha were converted to use for other purposes, Of course, it is Gsmnated to be I lulllion ha of non-timber forestland (especially agriculture land) being restored to forest because of the nature proliferation of forest (TIT0, 2002). The report concerritng TSF was published on ITT0 32nd fune meeting in May 2002, which was cooperativeIy subnittted by five international organizations, including The 46 InO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.2* Investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China International Tropical Timber Organization (InO), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), The Center for International Forestry Research (CIEOR), The World Conservation Union (IUCN), and the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO). Based on data in 2000, the area of degraded woodland and SF in 77 tropical nations estimated by expert group was 850 lulllion ha, which accounts more than 60% of the tropical forest area. Table in/2 = Estimation of area of degraded area of woodland and SF in Asia, America and Africa Unit: I lulllion ha* in year 2000 ) Type Asia AnIerica Africa Total ( 17 nations) (23 nations) (37 nations) Deeraded primary forest 145 180 175 500 and SF Do raded woodland 125 155 70 350 Total 270 335 245 850 (ITF0, 2002) 2.2 Basic types of SF Main reason causing SE is the animopogenic disturbance or natural disaster. There are primarily five SF types as follows: . Post-ex!rociion SF. Forests regenerating after significant reduction in the original forest vegetation through tree extraction at a single point in time or over an extended period, namely forest ^ harvest ^ regeneration. For example, dipteTocarp-donitnated forests transfonned into forests donitnated by Macoranga spp. and Tremo spp. , among others in East Kanmantan following intensive logging (Abdulhadi at a1. , 1981). Pent"clethra macrolobo - donxinated forests in the wet lowlands of Costa Rica transformed into SF of the same species but with altered structure following clearcutting (Guariguata et a1. , 1997). . Swiddenfallow SF. Forests regenerating in woody fallows of swidden agriculture for the purpose of restoring the land, for cultivation again, namely forest ^- clear ^- bum ^ crop ^- fallow ^- clear. For example, tropical rainforest of Terminalto dincizonio transfonned to forests dormnated by Trem" intor"ntho and He I^^corpus appendic, ,lotus in the'Chinantla, Mexico following swidden cultivation (van der Wa1,1998) . SF gardens. Considerably elmched swidden fallows, or less intensiveIy managed smallholder plantations where substantial spontaneous regeneration is tolerated, maintained, or even encouraged, namely forest ^ clear ^ bum ^ crop->considerably enriched fallow. For example, dipterocarp-donxinated forests 47 TFTO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.2, investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China transfonned into jungle rubber systems after swidden cultivation in Kanmantan (Penot, 1997) . Post-fire forestr. Forests regenerating after significant reduction in the original forest vegetation due to a human-induced fire or succession of fires, namely forest ^- fire ^- regeneration. For example, white spruce (Pieeo glauca) stands transfonned into aspen (Populus trem"/oider) and paper birth (Betula popyrty'era) following fire in boreal forests of Alaska orbelan, 1995). . Rehabilitated SF. Forests regenerating on degraded land, often aided by rehabilitation efforts, or the facilitation of natural regeneration tlirough measures such as protection from chronic disturbance, site stabilization, water management and planting, namely forest ^ degraded land + rehabilitation + natural regeneration. For example, native plant species recruitment in North Queensland following rehabilitation efforts on degraded forestlands. Most common species regenerating were Omol@, Ithws 110vog"meensis and Cryptocory" trip!men, is (Tucker and Murphy, 1997). 2.3 Main characteristics of TSF Gennan Agency for Teclmical Co-operation (CTZ) explains characteristics of SF as: SF is a kind of forest successional vegetation, having the following characteristics: . Human interference is its fomiation cause; . Deriving from very widely damaged primary forest (at least more than 90% of forest area); . Displaying a major differences in species composition, forest structure and dynainic compared with primary forest due to change of Tmcroclimate and difference in regeneration factors for the both; . Original vegetation is not recovered. GTZ standard is fonned on the basis of Latin-Airierican experiences, among which some definition criteria are adnxitted in Asia and Africa (Dotzauer, 1998), which make people understand SF being forest vegetation in successional process, its successional result may finally attain to close original forest. However, GTZ does not fully express standpoint of SF being caused by nature disaster. From the viewpoint of ecology, SF is a successional result after forest is darnaged, it may be in different successional stages, and the succession is basically divided into progressive succession --- new vegetation developing toward original vegetation and rett'ogressive succession --- original vegetation Tetrograding toward new vegetation. The ecology and economy benefits of SF are usually very low, so that it is often neglected and receives little concern. Though SF cannot functionally replace pmnary forest, it has huge management potential and should be regarded as buffer district solving contradictory between community development and natural forest conservation, 48 Trio PPD 30/01 Rev, I(F) - Output 2.2, Investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China SF is a most easily managed ecosystem, because it is in the region that native residents easily arrive and is also the main location that native residents collect articles for daily use. 3. Study and present management status and experiences of TS^' in the word Forest researchers and ecologisis pay attention to TSF study very much Because of its biodiversity and important effect on human environment. However, management of SF has long been ignored, which may be the results from lacking of developed economy in the tropical forest regions and low ecological function and econonitc value of TSF, Study and production practice of TSF management was not valued until suggestion of 'launching unifying or special item acting to management step of present status, producing potential and sustainable development of TSF" had been proposed at the 11th World Forestry Congress in 1997, 3.1 Present management status of TSE' in the world Because the differences in historical background, political system, economy, culture, national habit and production mode in the tropics, management pattern, depth and width degrees of TSF are very different. Though SF management has been concerned recently and some management actions have been conducted gradually in some nations, and these nations have attached importance to policy about SF management, the concern and actions are stiU small-scale and less effective. SF management in the world can be basically divided . into two types: One is eco-public-benefit forest management for ecological environment protection, and eco-public-benefit forest emphasizes water and soil conservation, fannland and coast protection, city defenses and biodiversity. Another is a coriumodity forest management with timber production as main purpose, and its purpose is to produce timber and other forest products as far as possible under the status of ecosystem maintenance. Coriumodity forest management may be basically divided into two types: inorocyclic system or uniform system, nannely felling all big trees in once operation, and then killing non-conrrnodity trees with poison, and finally new forest is fomied by depending on natural young trees; Polycyclic system or selective system, namely choosing to fell mature trees, and remaining half-grown adolescents for preparing next logging. Morocyclic system does large hurt to forest and logging interval is long (regression of dipterocarp forest need to spend 70 years generally), but the operation is convenient and blank is large, benefiting to tree growth. Polycyclic system remains more trees, so that blank is small, which is not favorable for tree growth, but can be felled again with 20-40 year Interval. Morocyclic system was widely used in Indonesia and Southeast Asia, and has been using in sabah, where the forests almost are dipterocaTp forests. Polycyclic system is 49 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.2* Investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China used as main pattern of tropical forest management in Asia, which pattern is basically slimlar to those in Africa and Latin America. Business and source management departments of government favor polycyclic system because its selection logging can be conducted many times and the system adapts to market for large-size timber. Bunna successfully used polycyclic system many times for more than 100 years' recton" grandis forests of Bunna may be rotation-logging with 20-40 year interval after polycyclic system is used, and the forests of Pegu Yomas locating north of Rangoon are in the third or fourth rotation-logging period, in Indonesia, after developing for many years, polycyclic system has evolved into a management mode combining choosing logging with cultivation, and is briefly called TFTl mode. In view of ecology standpoint and technique angle, conducting in orocyclic system and polycyclic system are fully practicable for realizing sustainable utilization of natural forests and keeping timber penmanent utilization. However, The World Conservation Union (rocN) recently pointed in a research paper of Indonesia that though wide and sustainable forest management plan is practicable, it usually fail to implement. The reasons are very complicated, such as government lacks long-terni encouragement way for forest renter; Forestry section has no control method for preventing effectiveIy from destruction; For lower carry cost, timber production company often harm seedlings, young trees and remaining trees when transporting logs Meanwhile, the research paper thinks that the reasons for natural forest is difficult to sustain being not due to forest construction weakness, but due to politics, society and econointc reasons. Chinese government may be the most powerful nation for TSF protection in the world. The government will invest 9,620 willion dollars to use the natural forest-protecting project in the coning 10 year, and has completed to invest 286.9 Thinion dollars up to 2002. TSF has been strictly forbidden to fell in Haman Province and Yunnan Province, and the government adopts finance subsidy way as compensation of forest protection, meanwhile establishing a series of relative policy laws. Guangdong Province put greater strength for forests protecting, from the beginning of 1985 TSF has been completely managed using promoting management, and about 113 of TSF area was divided into local ecology forests for management. The government used finance subsidy for compensating, the compensation fee increased from 37.5 Chinese yuan/11a in 1999 to 120 Chinese yuan/11a in 2003. Meanwhile, compensation rule of eco-public-benefit forest construction and management of Guangdong Province and other relative local laws were issued. However, this TSF management only lays stress on resource conservation and ecological benefit, whereas econonxic benefit management is neglected, and that if sustainable management can be attallied still needs time to test. 3,211itermationalexperiemces for TSF management 3.2. I Maim modes for TSF management 50 Trio FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.2, investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China Some methodology or management patterns of conservation and utilization of the tropical forests have almost been developed in each country after the Second World War. Hou Yuanzha0 (200 I) once summarized that the methods or patterns can' be classified into two categories, one is suitable for the situation that the original tropical forest ecosystems have been subjected to destruction, the others for that the tropical forest ecosystems was basically existing at present. (i) Establishment of plantation forests It is collnnon that, under different management intensity, plantation forests are established on suitable sites where the original natural forests were destroyed. It can binig about considerable econontic benefits to establish fast-growing and high-yielding commercial plantations or grow cash-tree crops on the quality sites. (ii) Establishing a balance in countryside between agriculture, forestry and husbandry In some regions where the originally natural tropical forests have been destroyed and the landuse has been altered into agriculture and animal grazing, it is not necessary, or aimost impossible, to return the land for forestry. In such situation, it is suitable to establish forest belts, nets or stretches which are managed in combination with the development of agriculture and husbandry to emerge stable ecosystems with mosaic deployment of land for agriculture, forestry and animal grazing, The subsystems of agriculture, forestry and animal grazing can all be managed intensiveIy or differently according to the site quality, investment and technical level. There is a great potential in this management pattern to meet the differently sodoeconoihic needs and to prevent from nibbling at forestland. In Europe* this type of ecosystems was once established after the temperate forests had been removed. However, food has been surplus at nowadays so that the pattern started to transit to forest ecosystems, (in) Natural restocking Experiments indicate that tropical forest ecosystem can be recovered gradually with acceleration of artificial measures after it is destroyed, This procedure of natural restocking proceeds usually in a sequence: herb plants-shrubs-intoIerant tree species-tolerant species (biodiversity recovered). This procedure takes several hundred years to reach the status of the original forest vegetation. In the tropical parts of China, especially in Haman Island, particular attention is paid to natural restocking, which is tenned Closing hillsides for facilitating afforestation vast tropical forest vegetation has been successfully recovered in Haman Island, (tv) Restricted felling and regeneration Felling is restricted in a certain amount and generation must be done after cutting in a certain period, which is a practical method widely used in tropical forest management. Such activities are also internationally implemented, for example, the establishment of labeling system for sustained yield and against imports of tropical timber. (v) Exploiting less-known species 51 L __ InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.2, investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China Traditionally, a small number of tropical species are commercially used, most of tree species remain less known, however, there is potentially considerable values in these species. It is necessary to carry out studies in the utilization of the less-known species. (vi) Extractionism Extractionism is a popular concept in Amazon area, it referrers that harvesting timber and collecting fruits, fibre, resin, tannin and medical herb and other forest products and hunting can be done only under preconditions without damaging to the forest ecosystems. Extractioiitsm is conceptualIy different from the extractive forestry, the fonner benefits the local residents and regional markets* however, is not able to keep out the considerable requirement for wood by the modem industry and the huge press of population to the natural forests. (vii) Establishment of NR Establishing NR is also a coriumon method to protect tropical forests, the area of NR is being enlarged in many countries. However, the management of NR is still a problem to be resolved, especially for developing countries, the NR must find out some way in which the reserves become econoThically independent, the govenmient investinent is in fact quite Iinxited. (vin) "Supporting" type of SIIviculture To aim at objective species, many measures are adopted to promote the growth of the objective species. The "supporting type" of silviculture can be divided .into many sub-methods. "Standardized method", for example, is that stand composition of tropical forests can be arranged like selective cutting of temperate forests. "Selective method" is to select and mark the candidate trees, and makes the remained individuals evenly distributed in the stands. "induced method" is to modify the species composition through deliberated regeneration to replace the stands with unwanted species. "Special method" by which one or several special species deterrimned to be "supported" will work out the optimum environmental conditions for different development phases of the species. For example, this method has been successfully used in Gabon in the silviculnire of teak and mahogany. (ix) "Restraint* type of SIIviculture What to do with the species that should be supported is not clear yet, it is not wise to do what is known at least. This method is to list the existing species in the forest, and rank the species in descending order of species econonxic value, the growth vigour of trees in bad stem foam will be reduced to simplify the forest ecosystem until the species upper ranked start to compete between species, This method is applied in Latin America and Africa, nevertheless, is not utilized in the forests, which is donxinated by Dipterocarpaceae in southeastem Asia. This method is considered to overall forest ecosystem, not to a few special species for which optimum conditions is created for growth. (x) Entirety silviculture 52 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Ouiput 2.2, investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China Dealing with the whole ecosystem, the concept of "entirety SIIviculture" was developed to make ecosystem succession proceed gradually without doing any harm to a certain species. However, this method must be based on better understanding of the ecosystem mechanism and its response to external disturbance. (xii) Belt-shaped clear felling Experiment was carried out in tropical forest in Peru that trees were all cut over within a plot which was shaped in belt with a width of 100-300 in, the distance between belts was 150 in, the felling area accounts for 46% of that of the stands, it took advantage of biodiversity of the left belts to reoccupy the clear cut area, the rotation was designed to be 30-40 years, The result indicated that of the naturally regenerated saplings 87% was from seedlings and 13% from coppices, respectively, so that this system was considered very hopeful. (xii) "Three cut and seven left" method in Haman Island, China, adopted is another method by which 30% of standing volume per unit are was harvested and 70% left in order to reduce the compact to the forest ecosystem. The left volume plus restocking will be cut by the next rotation in the same way, Another method of "five cut and five left" was also tried, the former was found better. CHFA is to forbid people and livestock to enter the region which is planed to recover vegetation nanrrally, guaranteeing vegetation growing naturally without interference. Sometimes, promotion method of air seeding or artificial replanting is also adopted to increase density of young tree. In the place of SF being damaged seriously, even natural forest ecosystem is basically damaged. CHFA is still a simple and valid method. In China, this method has been applied very maturely, being an important measure for extensive forest vegetation recovery. However, if positive promoting measures for CorA were lacked, forest succession progress would be slow. Moreover, it is longer for the progressive succession process started by CLIFA, there is no econoiulc income daring the process. Therefore, CHFA just is a method fitting the early stage of forest recovery. Difference in SF management is large due to differences in production mode, tree species and environment. However, through using forest classification management, nannely implementing management by dividing SFs into connnercial forest, public-benefit forest and multi-function forest according to main purpose of management, makes same type forests have common characteristics, which may realize the biggest management effect, being basic strategy of SF management and applicable to different nations in the world. For example, in some protection districts, forests are managed after they are divided into forest types with public-benefit forest, including water and soil conservation forest, water-conserved forest, windbreak and sandbreak forest, environmental protection forest, natural conversation district, forest park. In New Zealand locating Oceanian, 3/4 of state-owned natural forest is protected 53 Trio PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.2, Investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China as national parks and national land safety forests, and private owned natural forests accounts for 25% of natural forests, and- 4/5 of which is protected, whereas artificial plantations (1.5 lulllion ha) occupying 5% of forests can produce 99% business timber. In regions with suitable site property, developing high intensive artificial plantations combines with processing industry, foimng modem forestry industry stoictore, is successful experience of Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia and many other nations. This development usually combines with more extensive nation development plan, its meaning is already far beyond forestry category. On the other hand, most SF are forest ecosystem with multi-function exploitation, and they act on both ecological benefits and econointc benefits. Artificial ecosystem consisting of agriculture, forestry and herding is a pattern hard developed by all nations. The multi-function forestry is usually called comumnity forestry. A basic principle of the cornmunity forestry is to attain purpose of forestry sustainable management by community resident participating, and its advantage is to combine forestry management with social culture, ' to pay attention to relationship between people and forestry, to contact farmer, forest and tree, and its most basic purpose is to meet demands. The coriumunity forestry has been widely practiced in some nations. In Nepal, government pays attention to coriumuiitty forestry and promotes forest resource protection and management by adjusting policy continuously, In india, farmers first participated national forest management and gained benefit from management, thus integrating national interests, collective interests and villager interests. The community forestry is gradually valued at some developed nations, for example, agricultural forestry policy is used in Australia, 32.2 Nation and region policy Since 1990, almost all tropical nations passed official national forestry policy except for Columbia. However, Columbia have adopted . authentic measures to improve its forest management, including critical exaniination to forest chartered right agreement and rule and regulation frames, and canceling 12 chartered right agreements of total area being more than 2 Tmllion ha. ITTO member states obtained obvious advance in refonnation and establishing of policy and law, and promulgated many new forestry laws to support these policies. Meanwhile, all countries established new forestry development strategy and total prograimning according to their own national condition, which creates good conditions for realizing sustainable development of their national forests. in Africa and Latin America, the perfection of policy and laws has urged reformation and reorganization of forestry management sections. China put strong power in forestry policy establishment and perfection, having established and modified more than 80 national forestry policy laws, which have extremely important function to forest management and forestry development. 54 InO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 2.2, Investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China 4 Importance of TSF management Mr. Freezailah, the fomner director of International Tropical Timber Organization (In'0) (1991) said, the sustainable exploitation of tropical forests is very important problem, and the nations solving the problem will make historic contribution to mankind. 4.1 importance of TSF TSF occupies more than 60% of tropical forest area, on a certain meaning, only TSE are managed well, can sustainable management of tropical forest realize. Importance of TSF mainly reflects as follows: 4.1. I strategic environment value Tropical forests are the lung of the earth and the treasure house of global biodiversity. There have been a lot of discussions on these contents. TSE occupy corpus position of tropical forests (account for about 60%). If we talked the importance of tropical forests on the condition of avoiding this corpus, most portions of tropical forests would be lost. If forest is a key for protecting the environment of our star, among which tropical forest is a core in the key, whereas TSF is the most important part of the core. Therefore, TSF have strategic environment value. 4.1.2 Supporting the living of tropical community residents It is estimated that 1,850 nitllion people live in the tropics* and 3/4 of which count on fuels and other traditional energy as their life energy, among them 100 nitllion people can get the energy of the lowest lintt, and I, 000 lulllion people get their needful energy by excessive exploiting forest. in developing countries, for satisfying the lowest energy requirement* annual lack of timber is 400 lulllion in at least. The more population concentrate, the more SF are usually damaged. If we want to amieliorate the population life and environment conditions, SE management is very important, because their living usually depend on forests. SF are basic resources for satisfying local fuel, fodder, fruit, eatable plant, construction material and medicine material, and are helpful to decrease risks from crop management failure and other disasters. 4.2 Problems of TSE Tropical forest occupies more than 1/2 of world' s forestland. Whereas SF and degraded woodland occupie 60% of tropical forest area, Twenty years ago, human environment meeting of the United Nations appealed: "we only have an Earth". After 20 years, that the world faces crises, such as resource lack, environment worsening and disaster aggravation are not nittigated. Global land resources are accelerating degradation, the foundation that mankind rely on existence become more and more weak. Tropical forest, especially SF management problem has already been widely concerned issue. 55 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(in - Output 2.2, Investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China . Conttnwoi{s increase in the Qreo of TSF According to statistics of relative data, there is about 7.5 nitllion ha tropical rain forests being damaged every year in the world, which about account for 0.62% of total area of tropical forests (Hou at al. , 2002). Large-area forest vegetation around damaged forests therefore encountered repeated bum and cultivation, excessive grazing, excessive exploitation, which brought a series of problems such as environment worsening, etc, . A decrease in economic bendii of SF The poor populations living extensive TSF region are hard to use resources in their hand, which have become an important problem that can't be neglected for community development and forestry sustainable management. in many regions, especially population intensive regions, secondary woodlands are easily converted into highly intensive artificial plantations, which will further reduces biodiversity. We should find out the management and exploitation way that not only can protect and promote SF growth, but also make local residents continuously acquire benefits of management and exploitation incomes in near period. . Many environment problems rerult from degradation of SF Degradation of SF brings many environment problems, for example, "versa effect" resulting from Himalayan forest damage brings endless disasters. Flood and drought alternately occur in large regions of India, Pakistan and Bengladesh year by year. According to the estimations of current forest disappearance rate and SF degradation rate, 4-8% of tropical rain forest species will disappear and extinct up to 2015. Especially the precious species of high mountain region have high-disappeared rate. . Many in determination factors for SF management SF are often located in regions where forestry competes with agriculture and heronig for lands, their protection and management have highly particularity, which more involve indeterlintnation factors, such as economy and society, etc. . Lack^rig of protection and development policy countering SF TSF seem to be forget coincidently in the past in the world. There are lacks of valuing for SF management and government supporting as well as social funds in all countries. . Most past management modes (for example, 12 items mentioned in the preceding of this text) are designed considering timber growth target. These modes should be Teevaluated on the prenitse of considering ecological value fully, and be adjusted if necessary, . Environment value of TSF did not be described fully, thus did not be declared to the whole world, which needs to launch, especially on this foundation further studying internalization problems of environment benefit for TSFs, among them study primarily how to pass market way to realize some values of SF. 56 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. Ior) - Output 2.2* investigation Report Current Situation and Experiences in the Management of Tropical Secondary Outside of China 5. Conclusions and recommendations SF management is not only different from intensive management of artificial plantation, but also from primary forest protection. If properly managed, restored or rehabilitated, SF have the potential to generate significant environmental and livelihood benefits. Despite ecological, silvicultural and SOCio-econointc knowledge regarding SF exists to a certain extent, and researches of SF management are increasing, they are riot afforded adequate pronitnence in forest management, use and conversion. SF management problems include a decrease in economic benefit of SF, many environment problems resulting from degradation of SF, SF management being affected by many in deterrinnation factors, such as competing with agriculture and herding for lands, lacking of protection and development policy countering SF, most past management modes being designed by considering timber growth target, environment value of TSF not being described fully. In order to solve above problems, taking some measures is necessary, which include promoting local-level and value-added from production and processing of wood and non-wood forest products on the basis of conducting cost-benefit analysis of the various management strategies applied to SF; the management of SE should be based on sound ecological and silvicultural analysis and knowledge, so that utilization of forest goods and services from SF avoids degradation; SF should be incorporated into land use planntng to avoid compete with agriculture and herding for lands; legitinxizing protection and development of SF at national level; conducting forest classification management and developing awareness regarding the characteristics, importance and management options for SF. TSF management must follow ecology laws and fully Tmx ecological benefits with econonitc benefits, Only stressing ecology management and only considering econoimc benefits should be prevented, SF management target is to provide forest products as much as possible without hindering its ecological service function. In order to attain this target, we should control SF succession direction, regulate its succession speed, scientifically choose management modes and methods according to local reality, maintain or improve quality and yield of timber products and non-timber products on the basis of maintaining and improving ecological environment. Only these have been done, can the purpose of sustaliiable management really realize. 57 Trio FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 3.1 investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design V Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests andTheir Chief Technology Design Abstract After completing analyses for related data of present status and management of TSP in China and field investigation of key regions, we thought that TSF display good ecological effects in conserving water, holding water and soil and maintaining soil fertility compared to artificial plantations, whereas their functions of absorbing CO2, releasing 02 and improving soil were strong and fixing soil and retattiiig water effects were weak. Because of poor management, timber production ability of SF was low, their mean stem volume per unit area was only 78 in'/11a, being 68% of mean stern volume of forests in the world. SF of china have relative great ecological and econonxic potentiality and development space if properly managed. Because Chinese economy, especially its rural economy, is still backward, and it's environmental protection and existence problems are outstanding. Therefore, only choosing the management mode considering both ecological effect and economic effect, can SF protection and sustainable development realized By investigation of the Pre-project, according to Chinese SF management tradition and present status, we summarized three popular modes, they are The Mode of Complex Management of Coriumunity Forest (CMCF Mode), The Mode of Management of Intercropping of Econonitc Plant Species oninPS Mode) and The Model of Management of Rehabilitation And Reconstruction of Natural Forests (kin^RNF Mode). Introduction Up to now, China still could not break tlirough traditional development model in some fields, especially in forestry field, due to its long-tenn underdeveloped economy and large population. In the field of forest management, lots of traditional methods and ways are still to be maintained, which remain to be revised and improved. The problems of Chinese forests mainly include low quality, poor ecological function, low biodiversity and little econoThic output. Stern volume per unit area Chinese forests is estimated to be only 78.06 in'/11a, accounting for 68.5% of the average stem volume level of the world. The TSF in China were repeatedly disturbed over a long period, resulting in poor ecological function and low biodiversity index. The management of TSF was always not valued due to low economitc output of these forests, and many of them developed toward retrogressive succession. So far, the area of TSF accounts for more than 112 of that of tropical forests in China (may be 213 if the degraded forest lands were included). Meanwhile, The tropical regions of China often characterizes very heavy population and poor economy, while the survival and development of the 58 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. Iru) - Output 3. I hivesjigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design local residents are closely related to the management of forests. Therefore, the problem of TSF management in China has become a very pressing and important issue. The key for solving this problem is to seek an effect management approach which enables not only the TSF to develop toward progressive succession but also local people to get econoiulc benefits. This task required to be solved seriously. This Pre-project, being aimed at this issue, has been subsidized by ITTO in last year, and several decades' researchers took part in the Pre-project, It focused on the investigation of this global issue and its purpose is to propose sustainable management modes of TSF, and to popularize these modes by establishing denimostrations. I. The potential productivity of T'SF in China 1.1 The present productivity status The TSF are the main parr of forest resources of tropical regions in China. From 50's to the end of 70's of the 20th century, China faced on great pressures of population and econonitc development, New China needed to recover economy and develop production, food and daily necessities increased exponentialIy with an exponential growth of population. During 32 years from 1949 to 1981, Chinese doubled from 0.5 billion to I billion. Timber, steel and cement became "three primary materials" of national economy, and timber production plan was regarded as rigid target to complete, and over fulfilling production was encouraged. Forestry activity became timber utility centered and timber production was the first task. Consequently some serious problems occurred, including uneven distribution of forest resources, low quality and low stem volume per unit area, unreasonable age structures, inadequate available forest resources, the great soil erosion of woodlands, an increasing trend in timber consumption and over-felling. Up to 1990's, with econointc development of China and interest in environment in the world, CllFA became main management method. TSF management of china did not enter promoting management stage from beginning to end, and sustainable management theory and practice considering both ecological effect and econointc effect is specially lacking, resulting in low production ability of TSF. 59 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Ouiput 3.1 investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design BoxVl: The result of the fifth national forest resources inventory survey of China (from 1994 to 1998) In China, each person owned an average forest area of 0,128 ha , being about 1/5 of average value of the world; The forest cover rate of China was 16.55%, representing 60% of average value of the world; its stem volume per unit area was 78.06 in'/11a, accounting for 68.5% of average value of the world; The forest area with a canopy density of 0.2~0.3 accounted for 20.1% of the total forest area; Young and middle forests accounted for 71.1% of the total forest area; The felled area and feUed stem volume of young and rinddle forests accounted for 78.5% of total forest felled area and 57.7% of the total felled stem volume, respectively. Available felling resource continued to decrease; witlini 5 years, totaled 10.81 lulllion ha of forest lands had become non-forest lands due to their changes in use, and woodland area changed for other use annually increased with a speed of 27.7%, The rapid damaging of tropical forests caused these forests with rich biodiversity and healthy recycle ecological system to convert into the SF with fragile ecological functions, simple species and poor econoiinc effects, which were the results of agriculture expanding and forest over-felling in the past several decades years, 1.1. I Fragile Ecological functions By the early 80's of the 20 century, TSF in China had been in a degraded process; their ecological functions had become very fragile; disastrous diseases and insect pests expanded rapidly; Soil and water erosion were very serious. According to the statistical data of Guangdong province, non-forested land have been still increasing continuously for 8 years from 1993, and reached 567,000 ha by 2000, which is 2966 ha more than that in 1999. in 2000, average stem volume per unit area was less than half of average level of nation, and annual increment of stem volume was 1/3 less than average level of nation, and there was still 1,400,000 ha of lands being in soil and water erosion, Up to 2002, the first-class and the second-class forests accounted for 16.7% and 47.2% of SF, respectively, while others were residual and inferior stands without ecological and econoimc benefits. 1.1.2 Forest productivity By an investigation on 20-30 year-old SF formed by a natural succession after being felled at Gutoushan* Xinhui, Guangdong using the sampling survey method, the plant groups and their growth were gained as shown in Table V I . 60 Trio PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Outyut 3.1 Investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design Table V I , The productivity of 20-30 years-old SF community formed by a natural succession at Gutoushan, Xi"h"i, Guangdong Plot Number of arbor and rattan Nunn. of Num. of Species No Management species DBH>3 cm height > 5 in nUm, Sprouting Seedling Rattoii Total Largest Total Highest of arbor -plants -plants and (cm) (in) (clumps) (inch. ual) Bamboo (clumps) 30 yrs. closed forest 53 42 5 31 13 36 10 59 2 30 yrs. closed forest 14 48 5 26 21 25 14 64 3 20 yrs. closed forest 14 52 4 17 7 10 6.5 47 4 20 yrs. closed forest 47 6 18 19 17 11 49 Table V I shows that there were a big difference in productive forces, and relative differences in the numbers of arbor species, sprouting-plants and seeding-plants, and their diameter at breast height and tree height in 20-30 year natural succession SE. These differences were closely related to the forest condition before being disturbed, disturbed intensity and frequency. The results in TableoVl also indicate that timber production capacity of the SF was low. In 30-years natural succession SF, Trees with diameter at breast height being more than 3 cm was only 31% of the total trees and trees with height being more than 5 in was 36% of the total. The highest tree height was 10~14 in and the largest diameter at breast height was 13~21 cm in the forests. If these SF are used for the timber, the output value of the limber production will not be enough to compensate for the felling costs. The survey on the productivity of the vegetation developed from afforestation failure shown that the survival rate of Pinus massoniona and Pinus enjotti was very low after atforested due to the lack of well management. The abundance and the cover degree of natural regeneration species in the community surpassed those of the atforested tree species, and the vegetation mainly fonned by natural regeneration. The alitorested tree species, Pinus massoniono and Pinus enjotti', only remained 10 trees per loom' 15 years after afforestation, and afforestation survial percent was 34%. Average tree height and dialneter at breast height were 3.9 in and 4.5 cm for of Pinus massonian" forest and 6.3 in and 7.5 cm for Pin!, s enjoi!I' forest, respectively, so that they were difficult to give full play to their ecological and econointc benefits. The ground vegetation consisted mainly of fern species including Blechnum onebt"Ie and Dicr"itopteris dichotoma, whereas rattan species were very few. The natural regeneration shrubs and weeds played an important role in the forests, and sprouting-plants accounted for 24% of total plants, while others were natural seedling-plant species. The average plant height and diameter of sprouting plants and natural regeneration plants were I in and only I cm, respectively. 61 ITrO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 3.1 Investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design Above two types of sampling plots have certain representative characters in tropical area of China, and they reflect the current productivity of SF. 1.2 Potential productivity In tropical areas* for local people utilizing SF were far more than utilizing primary forests. This is a fact without commercial significance and being long ignored by the international coriumunity. The production activities that have close relation to life of residents living in forest region and its periphery regions, such as collecting fuel wood, grazing, nomadic and reclamation agriculture, and harvesting non-wooden products etc, are mostly conducted in SF (OTA, 1984; Sanhasri, 1978; sardjono, et a1. , 1995; Fa0, 1996; Brown, 1996). in addition, the timber productivity of SF has not been concerned enough, SF have not been played attention to their timber production potential, their important role in primary forest protection, recovery and the reconstruction of lost biodiversity has not been assessed officially yet (Brown, 1996; Dotzauer, 1998). 12.1 The Analysis of the potential ecological benefits We can assess the ecological benefits of SF based on two aspects: One is the class of existing ecological functions of SF and the level achieved after management improvement; Another is how well SF can perform their functions as compared with plantations and primary forests. 1.2.1.1 The Enhancement of the potential of existing ecological benefits A paper published recently on Guangzhou Daily reported that the forest type and tree species of the EF system had been optiiinzed significantly and their ecological function had getting stronger annually in Guangdong province 4 years after the implementation of CHFA, directed breeding, restricted felling, structural adjusting and integrated exploiting; The ability of water conservation by the forests was equal to that of more than 1000 reservoirs with the storage capacity of loontillionin' for each, equaling 15 times the input of the same period if functions such as water and soil conservation, wind breaking and sand binding, air cleaning, climate adjusthig and environmental beautifying were considered; And the comprehensive output was up to RMB 30 billion yuan and 02 yield alone was more than 26 billion kg during 4 years, 62 ITrO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 3.1 Investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design Table V 2 The output of the EF in Guangdong province during 4 years Econoinic Ecological Economic Items Ecological benefits Items benefits benefits benefits (bill. (lulllion Yuan) Yuan) Solidified CO2 ) 35 lulllion ) 2.9 Gained from ) 3000 ~900 tons Conserved lulllion in water Generated 02 ) 26 million ) 18 Forest Tourism) 8 ) 800 tons landscape lulllion erson-times Increase value of ) 27 million ) 67 Reduced soil ) 200 tons )6 stem volume in3 and nutrition losses Since most SE in China are located at backward and remote mountain areas, they are commonly not well managed and protected and the levels of their ecological function and econorntc productivity are very low. If SF were invested properly and managed rationalIy based on scientific research, their great potential must be displayed, 1.2.1.2 Comparing with plantations and primary forests According to the survey done by the Chinese fir research center of Fujian province, in the plantation one year after reforestation by burning mountains, the amounts of runoff and solid runoff were respectivdy 11 times and 88 times more than those in the plantation with nori-burning mountain; the losses of total nitrogen, phosphate and potassium were respectively 2 times, 17 times and 11 times more than those in the plantation with non-burning mountain. Due to simple component of tree' species and poor biodiversity of plantation, even in the vigorous growth period, its resistances to bad environment and other aspects were far inferior to those of SF being well managed. The complex structure of SF has made up a very good ecological system, which enhanced strongly the stability and ecological balance of forests, speeded up material cycle and increasing the cycle channels, increased self-fernhzing ability of the forests, improved physical and cherrtical properties and biological characteristics of the forest soils, and enhanced their ability of water conservation and fire resistance. According to the information observed by the fixed ecological station of tropical forests at Jianfengling, Haman, SF, in comparison with primary forests, had greater benefits including CO2 fixation, 02 release and soil improvement by litter-fall, while soil and water conservation efficiency was inferior to that of primary forests. More details were listed as follows: . CO2 fixation benefits: CO2 amount absorbed by tropical primary forests was 1.36 tiha. a, absorbed CO2 was 13 una- a for natural regenerated SF. 63 L TFTO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 3.1 investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design . 02release benefits: 02 released by tropical primary forests was 9745,1904 kgftia a, and released 02 was 13891.0464 kg/ha- a for natural regenerated SF. . The benefits of soil improvement by litter-fall: The litter-fall annount of tropical primary forests was 9,117 tiha- a, and that of natural regenerated SF was 9,323 t/ha- a. . The benefit of soil holding: The difference between soil loss of woodland and non-woodland washed by rains was considered as the benefit of soil holding, Compared to non-woodland, tropical primary forest reduced 7.5 t/ha of soil losses, which was 4.5 tlha for natural regenerated SF. . The benefit of water holding: Woodland like a natural reservoir was able to storage large amounts of rainfall; and the average amounts of water conserved by tropical pmnary forests and nanrral regenerated SF were 2250 in'/11a a and 1351 in Ina- a, respectively. 1.2.2 Analysis of the material production potential of SF As we had analyzed the practical productivity of SF, the main reason caused SF being long ignored was that the material productivity of SF or the econonitc output was lower, On the contrary, SF themselves had greater space for increasing production and potential because of being poor managed. 1.22. I Potential of the timber growth of SF The local hardwood trees in SF were traditionally considered as slow growth species. It can be seen in Table Vl that in SF fonned by 30 years nanXEal succession, height of the highest tree was only 14m and diameter at breast of the largest tree was 21cm; annual average increments of dialneter breast height and tree height were 0.7cm and less than 0.5m, respectively. This year we camed out a survey on the ecological landscape forests developed from improving managed SF at Fenghuang Mountain, Shenzhen. The result shows that there was. a great growth potential for native tree species, because average tree height and diameter at breast of 4510cal hardwood tree species respectively reached 3.75 in and 6.55 cm 3 years after forest remaking. The comparison between the productivities of well-managed and non-managed forests shows that tree growth of well-managed forest was 2.1 ~5.2 times of that of non~managed forest, 64 ITrO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 3.1 Investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design Table V 3 The survey on the growth of 3-year old trees in SF at Fenghuang Mountain, Sheinzhen, Guangdong 2003.2.20 Ave. Ave. Ave. Diame Ave. chaine No. Tree species hei -ter No. Tree species height -ter in cm in cm A1bizzia Iaicataia Peltophor, Jin I Linn. 6.74 11.10 24 Ingmze 3.20 7.01 Ale"ri!es Eineoco, pus 2 moil{cca"a 6.60 14.25 25 hairiernensis Onv. 3.15 4.78 Magnolia Trtstanio corefe, t" hamanensi. , 3 R. Br. 6.43 4.90 26 Dabd 3.13 9.34 Castortopsis 4 h strix A. DC 5.53 4.86 27 Delonix re in Raf. 3.10 4.56 Rndermocher" Hyd"ocoip"s 5 hamanensis 4.80 7.75 28 arithelminiica 3.00 4.70 Ade"arither" Heritier@ 6 avonin" L. 473 6.58 29 arut off" 3.00 4.35 Camptoiheca fortc" "strotrich" 7 dewmt, lord Decne. 4.62 7.90 30 Hancce 3.00 4.78 Mytriori@ 8 toose"sis Lec. 4.60 10.35 31 Michelin malldioe 2.96 4.90 Michelin Mytilaria inttCCl"yet var 9 more"sis Lee. 4.50 10.51 32 SUIonec 2.95 2.79 CdSsia slaine" Emit""lid 10 Lain. 4.46 8.12 33 cam a Li"It. 2.85 6.85 Melia azedarach Sterc"!in nobilis 11 L. 4.45 7.48 34 Smith 2.80 3.50 Gineiino Bomba;c 12 ham"nensis Onv. 4.32 10.38 35 mamboric, ,in DC. 2.75 5.41 Lystdrce rhodosteg^a Preroc@rpus 13 Hance. 4.20 6.69 36 suntanni, s 2.70 573 C!eistoc@Iyx Dracon!omelo, I 14 o erc, ,lait, s 4.18 8.85 37 duo 2.57 6.05 Spathode" nilotica Gordoni@ 15 B eauv. 4.00 8.49 38 drillaries 2.55 1.43 Bischqj7ajavanica 16 Bl. 4.00 10.19 39 AISto"i@ scholaris 2.50 6.37 Eineoc@mus CdSianopsis 17 a ic"inn's Mast. 3.98 6.69 40 e rel 2.50 2.94 Cabcz pent", Idrc, 18 Gaertn. 3.98 9.24 41 Prunus am do!"s 2.48 3.44 Artocai:pus hteterophyll"s Cmn"momwm 19 lain. 3.88 7.25 42 cain horn Litm. 240 4.14 Erylhrophloe"in 20 Cast""o sisn $3" 3.58 9.87 43 fordii 011v. 2.28 5.22 Liq"idambar Lagerstoemi@ 21 formos"rin Hance 3.45 5.18 44 S eC, OS" 2.27 5.10 AntiQris mindws Trec, Ssp. 22 jin nanensis 3.43 8.81 45 Podoc@r Msn" i 2.25 0.00 23 Sariianea s"moil 3.30 7.96 Total avera e 3.75 6.55 65 TFTO FFD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 3.1 Investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design 1.2.2.2 Economic potentials of plant species in the period of succession In regional coriumunity of tropical areas in China, many important plant species with high econoTntc value can be exploited, and these plants include arbor, shrub, rattan and herbaceous species. For example, rattan plants are common species in regional vegetation, such as tropical rain forests, seasonal rain forests and monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forests; they are of high econonitc value and high ability in soil and water conservation, and able to produce econontic benefits at a short time. Some of shrub and herbaceous plants are raw materials of expensive traditional Chinese medicines and healthy foods. The southern medicinal plants are traditional medicinal materials in China, and they are of a large variety of species and of high econointc value. The medicinal materials collected in the natural forest are all top grade stuffs. The leaves of natural Errgelhcrdtio leftzella are one kind of healthy food and have been exploited as a tea product and have great market prospects. Many specialists suggested that utilizing the special ecological environment fonned by SF and bringing the superiority of special ecological niche of some plant species into full play to develop standardized scale cultivation of traditional Chinese medicinal plants. From tree-dimensional management point of view, fully utilizing woodland space and conducting multilevel tree-chinensional management for forest and medicine are the technological method to implement supporting long-terni benefit with short-tenn benefit, combining long~tenn benefit with short-tenn benefit and multiple exploiting. 1.22.3 Overall production potential of forest stands The SE trough the natural succession fomis the multi-species and multiplayer rillxed forest, which is a kind of forest structure that can fully utilize soil and the sun energy, so that its production potential is higher than plantation. The production capacity of forests is mainly influenced by the utilization percent of sun energy, the availability of soil moisture and nutritional elements. The cycle of nutritional elements in nitxed forests is faster and the availability of effective nutritional elements in soils is also better than those in pure forests. Roots of different tree and plant species in forests interacted each other, the distribution of their roots in soils is in mosaic pattern with more unifonn, wider and deeper, and denser as well, which improve plants of Tmxed forests to absorb water and nutrition of soils, so that nutrition and moisture supply of the plants is increased. The utilization of sun energy by forest stands depends on the components of plants in forests and their spatial distribution pattern. The utilization of system sun energy in plantations is low due to less species of arbor, shrub and herb, fewer layers, short crown canopies, same absorption characteristics to sun energy for all trees, greater crown density, and less sun energy available for undergrowths in forest stands. On the contrary, the utilization of sun energy in nitxed forests is higher due to more diversity of plant species, different characteristics of absorbability to sun energy among many species, complementary sun energy utilization and more layers in forest stands. In tropical areas of China, there are great production potentials for SF exploitation and 66 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 3.1 Investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design management though their management has been ignored due to their serious degradation caused by overexploitation. 2. Maim management models and associate technical designs The International Tropical Timber Organization (In'0) thought that the sustainable management of forests was a process for attaining one or many definite and specific management targets, and this kind of management aimed to develop forest products and serviced continuously under the consideration of the preintse that it neither can reduced excessively their intrinsic value and future productivity nor had undue and hannful impacts on the natural and social enviroimient. The management mode of SE is a complicated issue and it involves in many disciplines including ecology, econonxics, forest management, pedology, environmental science and agronomy and so on. The traditional custom, land ownership and production mode of the nation and cornmuixity are also important factors, and a successful management model of SE should come from the combination of natural science and social science. By SUITunarizing the experiences in the traditional management of TSF in China and combining them with Chinese condition and social and econoihic characteristics, we think that the following management models are relative suitable models at present for TSE management in China. 2.1 Model I: CMCF' Mode The development of cornmunity forest has close relation to state economy and people's livelihood. When management plan of TSE in rural region is drafted* bringing agriculture and antimal husbandry productions into community development plan, and making community residents widely join, these actions will cause the best management effect, In 1978, the Eighth International Forestry Conference held in Yajiada, Indonesia went into discussion on the issues of developmental strategy of forestry in underdeveloped countries. The conference emphatically pointed out that the ecological environment was getting worse due to the less resource of the global forests and the forest crisis of underdeveloped countries, and appealed to the people of the world to make contributions to forest protection, forestry development and environment improvement, and put forward "forests serve for the people'* as forestry guiding ideology, which included overstepping the traditional forest management model in which the forestry separates from the development of rural areas, paying attention on the combination of forestry and agriculture, and forestry and coriumunity services in rural areas, changing the closed management model of forests; absorbing the involvement of social forces and numerous farmers and masses. The coriumuiitty forestry is playing more and more positive roles in the cultivation and protection of forest resources, ecological environment maintenance and elmtinating poverty* and 67 ITTO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Oucout 3.1 Investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design makes the rural areas, agriculture and farmers being benefited. The aim of CMCF Mode is to promote Agricultural bumper harvest by forest development, to increase villager income, to improve residing environment and to promote rural economy development and forest protection. Its core is population, resources and environment and characteristics are sustainable management mode with the joint participation of the community residents. This model is applicable to most woodlands of rural area, including collective woodland, national woodland and private woodland. Agricultural bumper harvest Social sustainable Rural areas and farmers Secondary forest development management Econo"inc development Ecology and environment Figure V I The technological process chart of CMCF Mode . Design principle: (A) SF will be protected and developed, and forest quality is improved gradually. (B) Farmers are able to gain of income source for life necessities by SE management. (C) Promoting agricultural bumper harvest by improving cultivation condition, (D) Management cost is low with easy technological operation and easy popularization. . Management designs and plan Using connnuiitty (village, tribe) as the management unit evaluates the rationality of modem agriculture, forestry and aminal husbandry from the angle of ecology and 68 L TITO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 3.1 Investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design economy, and assesses the utilization modes of the existing lands according to the provisions of state and local law and policy, and conduct to adjust rationalIy if necessary. Plan contents include the plans of community development, agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and so on. The designs as well as technological route of CMCF Mode can be seen in Figure V 2. Secondary forest protection and promotion Protecting and promoting good forests Secondary forest reconstruction and recovery ^ = q, Artificially promoting and restoring ^ ^ forests disturbed seriously 6.1 e^ = e^ Z; ^ Shelter forest region < ^ co -^ q. > ^. I $-I o Supplying protection for farmland, river -. FL. I and reservoir, and decreasing disaster > I^ ;^ I^I ^ = Z o o intercropping management region of ^ @., <. 9 co nori-wood production species Intercropping palm, rattan, high rosin pine, shoots-used bamboo, medicinal plant and economical forest Supplying good seed and seedling Nursery for production management Suggestions of agricultural structure fineness Figure V 2 The technological route of CMCF Mode 2.2 Model2: 1v^usPS Mode The key idea of the MusPS Mode is to enhance the ecological benefits of SF, and to utilize lands and environment of SF. The management objects are the woodlands with abundant plant species, good site status and SF at the rinddle stage of succession. This management model is suitable to peasant farmly, and can be a composition part of comprehensive management of coinmunity. 69 ~ F~ InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 3.1 Investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design Rattan species introduced from abroad, such as Calamus dioic"s Lour, Daemonorps jeekinsiano (Grim Mart. , C. inarii!lensis Oilart) H, A. Weridl and C. caesi"s BL perlomned very well in China, while other species of rattans were very poor In co tolerance or drought resistance, . Main techniques of cultivation Soil preparation: slightly preparing land is conducted by dig holes around big trees or large stumps, and these holes are few and scattered and distribute irregularly. Planting: 20 cm high seedlings are transplanted into planting holes; or were sowe seeds directly into the planting holes with 3 to 6 seeds per hole, and then covering t e seeds with earth of 2 to 3 cm fuck, Management: a simple sanitary clearing is used in plantation and also the impact o people activities on rattan seedlings are avoided. Harvesting: after 6 to 10 years of planting, the rattan can be harvested when it is to 7m long. 1/3 of the rattans are selectively cut each year, big rattans and small rattans are harvested in an interval of 3 to 5 years' (in) The cultivation of plants for medicinal uses and healthy foods in regional cornmunity of tropical areas in China, many species of shrubs and herbaceous plants are valuable materials of Chinese medicines and healthy foods. In order to obtain econonitc benefits in a short time, we should take advantage of the special ecological niche of SF and introduce these medicines-used plants as the nitddle and lower layers of vegetations and breed rationalIy. Large-scale cultivation of medical-used and healthy food plants in SF is still in an experirnental stage in tropical areas of China, and the associate management techniques remain to be sununed up and discussed, But forestland managers, government and enterprises have been drawn their close attention on this management model, From three-dimensional management point of view, fully utilizing woodland space and conducting multilevel tiffee-dimensional management for forest and medicine are the technological method to implement supporting long-tenn benefit with short-tenn benefit, combining long-tenn benefit with short-16nm benefit and multiple exploiting the economy of mountainous areas. For instance, the Yunnan Botanical Research institute successively set up the three-dimensional management model of traditional Chinese medicinal plants. . The selection of species and varieties The medicinal-used plants are very abundance in tropical areas of China, among them many species can be cultivated in SF. These species include as follows: Kosdsi4r" longjped"rec"I"t", Mahonio oiwokensis, Sarcandra glabra, Port"Iac" oleracea, Oenothera drummondii, Aqwi!aria sinensis, Gy, 10siemmo pentaphyll"in, Combretwm aly'}'edit, Croton jigliitm, Iteu chinensis, Roscz I"evigoto, Cossio tor", 72 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 3.1 Investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design Myrica rubra, Morus alba, Brucea javanica, fingelhardti"Ienzelii, Rehderodendron kipo, Igtwngense, Lig"strum joponici, in, Sinilax china, Sinn".:c 810bro, Dioscorea benihamii, Loph"theydin grrrcile Brongn, BaphicQc@nthi, s CMsia (Nees) Bremek, Sel@ginelln tornorisicino, A, longingwinre T L. W!,, A!pinto galango (L. ) Wind, COM1ir Spatholobt, F10s Lonicerae, Alehorne" tre"jotdes, Qwisq"o11s indica L. , Onceria yunn@nensis K. C. Hsio, Dincaena cambodi"no Pierre at Gagn, Piper long"n L. , Homolomen@ occulta, Oro;q, 111m indicwm, Mayten!{s hookeri Loes. , Moyienws uusiroy!, rindnensis and so on. The selection of cultivating species should give first place to the traditional-cultivated species and species of being regional industrialization donxinance in order to guarantee product market. Exotic species should be tested unough the introduction trials and evaluated ititough feasibility studies on marketing. The selection of any cultivating species should be based of fine varieties so as to ensure the product competitive ability in market. . Main cultivation techniques Medicine plants and healthy foods are cultivated mainly by means of interplanting in forests, but different species are cultivated according to their biological characteristics and the level of intensive management. (ith) The management of other non-wood products High-yield resin pine trees and bamboos for bamboo shoots use are fine varieties giving play to their ecological and econointc benefits in SF management. In Guruidong Province, the tree owner can gain a Tent income of RMB 4.8 Yuan by renting one tree of high-yield resin Pinus masoont"rid to resin harvester. Annual rent income can be up to RMB 1800 to 2160 Yuan per hectare if 375 to 450 high-yield resin Pinus masooni"rid trees were interplanted or . ,planted per hectare in SF. This not only increases the ecological benefits of SF, but also makes farmers galli great econontic incomes. Shoots-use barnboo has a strong renewable ability and high nutritional value, and if properly cultivated and managed a high econoTntc output and income can be gained. 73 InO PPD 30/01 Rev. I(F) - Output 3.1 Investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design Box V 3: Econoiimc benefit estimation of lingli-yield resin Pin, ,s masso"mina Resin yield of fine varieties of high-yield resin Pinus ", asso"tono trees bred by the Guangdong Forestry Research Institute was 20. I% more man general varieties; and their timber yield was 10% more the latter. Cultivation cost of Pinus massoni""" trees was valued for RMB 3750 Yuan per hectare (including fees of seedlings, clearing mountain, digging holes, planting, fertilizing, and successive 3-year fostefuig or nurturing), the trees go into resin harvesting period 10 years after afforestation and go into rotation felling period 20 years after afforestation, By estimating resin price is R^11B 2500 Yuan per ton and timber price is B^11B 500 Yuan per cubic meter, if planting I ha high-yield resin Pinus musso"tang with a density of 1500-1650 trees/ ha we can estimate annual income by resin harvesting as follows: Analysis list of the gain of high-yield resin Pm"s mossont@rid stands Unit: year. ha Itemn of the am Estimated Items Resin Timber Out at of ordin varie 3000k 9m The gain of high-yield resin 20 10 varie'e (%) The increment of output of 0.9 in hi h- ield resin variet 600 kg The output of high-yield resin 3600 kg 9.9 in vane Annual increments of income 1500 450 ( Yuan ) minual income dining resin 9000 harvestin onod ( Yuan ) Total income daring the period of 90000 resin harvestin ( Yuan ) The output of timber during the 198 rotation ( in ) The income of funber daring the 99000 rotation ( Yuan ) Total income of 20 rs ( Yuan ) 189000 2.3 Model3: MRRNF Mode The tropical forest vegetations of China have become a variety of degraded ecological systems with low biodiversity and inferior functions due to long over-felled, farming and SE management being long ignored as well. Because of big area of the degraded ecological systems* their rehabilitation and reconstruction is a very huge engineering. For such a basic project without benefits in a short period, it is unpractical that the reconstruction depends on the poor forest regions. Therefore, the government and social forces should be the leading force in supporting this management model It is impossible to make the ecological system rehabilitate to the state before 74 InO FFD 30/01 Rev, I(F) - Ouiput 3.11nvestigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design being damaged. The ecological system rehabilitation aims to protect the biodiversity of the local regional ecological systems and the structure and dynamic properties of the ecological system. The biodiversity is most important in the ecological system. It is not only the expression form of the key components and structures of the ecological system but also the guarantee for bringing functions into play and the dynamics for existence and succession of the ecological system, The lost and the degradation of biodiversity inevitably lead to environment degradation and degeneration of the structure and function of the ecological system. Forest rehabilitation and the reconstruction of ecological systems involve in broad contents. At population level, there are the hereditary and individual variation, aggregation, colonization, growth and succession, the strategy of species life history and inter-specific relationship, and so on; at community level, there are the process of community succession, growth law, problems of fragility and stability, and so on; at ecological system level, there are production force, structure and function, the material production process of ecological system and service function of ecological system, and so on; at landscape level, there are regional spatial heterogeneity, regional pattern and adjulnistration, and so on. . Key problems associated with the technical designs of The Model of Management of Rehabilitation And Reconstruction of Natural Forests include as follows: (a) The ecological reconstruction of nude lands: primary and secondary nude lands, such as rocky hilly areas, secondary nude lands with soil erosion and losing soil cover; (b) The rehabilitation of cut-over land and burned land: vegetation rehabilitation of being felled and disturbed conditions involves forest regeneration and afforestation techniques, and so on; (c) The rehabilitation of abandoned cultivating lands and returned lands from farming lands: rehabilitating ways and techniques for abandoned cultivating lands, especially returned woodlands from farming lands; (d) The rehabilitation of sandy lands and abandoned mine lands: the possibility of rehabilitation or reconstruction of hilly areas and abandoned mine lands and corresponding measures and strategies; (6) The improvement of degraded SF and so on. . The principles of technical designs: (a) The principle of native species: that is, try to use more regional nature species, especially local broadleaved woods; (b) Biodiversity principle: there are a variety of species including shrub and herbaceous plants; 75 unO FF0.30/01 Rev, I(F) - Output 3.1 investigation Report Potential Productivity and Some Management Modes of China's Tropical Secondary Forests and Their Chief Technology Design (c) The principle of improved varieties: the plant species introduced for the rehabilitation and reconstruction should be selective improved varieties; (d) Benefit principle: in rural areas, precious local broadleaved tree species with strong soil and water conservation and high economic value should be selected as main tree species, meanwhile economic plants managed as non-wood products, such as palm trees and rattans, high-yield resin pines, shoots-used bamboo, fruits, medicinal plants and so on should be planted, so that farmers are able to get long-term economic income for life necessaries; in urban areas, the main tree species should be tree species with strong pollution resistance ability and good landscape effect. Air sowing, CHFA, artificial replacement replanting and sound management of woodlands are important approaches for forest rehabilitation and the reconstruction of ecological systems. . Major forestation techniques The reconstruction of nude lands is implemented by imitating mainly regional vegetation to selecting tree species and to dispose econontic plants, The improvement of degraded forestlands can be carried out through replacement replanting using nurse method, that is, to foster and manage the available sound vegetation, and introduce excellent local tree species and economic plants managed properly, 3. Conclusions (a) Most TSE of China are characterized by poor quality, weak ecological functions and low economic benefits due to being long-time damaged; (b) TSF of China lacked technological management, so that they have relative great improvement and development space and production management potential; (c) in undeveloped countries, most peasants still live in relative difficult conditions. When conducting SF management, we should lay stress on econontic benefit based on improving ecological benefit, thus living and development problems of rural and peasants can be solved, and ami of sustainable development can be realized. The management without econonxic benefit is finally unsustainable development; (d) China is a nation giving first place to collective ownership, suitable degree of comprehensive management of community model is relative high; (e) On the basis of ecological utility, exploitation of timber and other non-wood products is important aspect as well. 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I^ ^;^, ,^^, ^^^. ^,. ^,<. ^., ^* ,^n ^ I^. ^* *^ Pictures of Tropical Secondary forests and Degraded Land in China . ^*:. ^ I;^ 9+ ^*. Secondary Broadleaved Forests i^I^ii^{+^;^.^'^ia, f^i*k Secondary evergreen broadleaved rain forest (Tongzhai, Hai"a"} ,, , ,, , fit ^ j^ ^- I^ *h ^!! Secondary evergreren valley rain forest ( Xinh"i, G"angdong) ^I ,;^, ""; ^.^. I'd11:Lib it labor , (^uop8"Brio ' "IU!A) SIS3. "I p3A"31p"0. q U3, .8.3A3 "o0suou A. "puooaS ' +" 154 ^ \t' ^ ;^. 1:1 ^ ^! -^- \ I (auop8UBnO '!rillU!X) Ise. o1 u!eJ Iruos"as AJ"p"o3aS 4*k ^E! ^; '^7 ^? ^. I^ ^, ^ O ^^:I ^; ^^; * ^*^. Serumdary ^h, "bun"d ^!!-^;, . ,,,, , , , . A. , . it; -^:- i^ A L 51^ 44 ^' "^ ,I 71^ I^ ^I i^ 71< 41* alit, I 11't!c plantations ingfu, Guangdong ) , :I' , \ ., ., Q , . , ^. * :^;.. e , A^^^- I . I -. , . , ., , L , ,, , .. r' ^a, f \ * * r . q * . , L ^.. . *" t. , ~J .". I~ ^5 15' ^ ;^ in ^+ ID ^ I* }^ ^; ^I i ' 4< 14, . Shrub\NIOd being of rock hill*, fter cl"sing hillsides to facilitate afforestation(B:, Ingxi Gum^g\i ) " \*. " , ;^:.' "I'I ,^ * *' 21/02/ 7131 2;011.1 I~ I^: t!^ I^. 71< ^. I^ ^. ^. i^ 7^ ^\ Shrubw""d In the area orsoilerosion ( Daqi"g, Guangdong) I' I^: -^:' i^ .^. ^!; '^ ^:. ^ ' 7^ O ^^:; ^. ^"I ^I' **. Secondary conifero"s forests I' ;i: -^:~ i^ tic ^:. ^ ^, I^ *k Secondary Masson Pine (Yinfu, Guangdong) ^,." ** , * I 3i; -^- i^ ;t ^. ^+ ,h *k Secondary conifero"s forests (Yinf", Guangdong) .. , ~, ' 20:1:!/'o113 3:37p, ; - . -.- - . , . . =^ , ^ .. ,t . ~ * ^. ^ ~ ~ * ~:.= ^ \ ~ t -. .~ .. ^ a. ^ .a*.,* ,:99^^;^^ *Q, . ..., ^'Ie:. ,;, a. .. ip.. ' .".,:.;a';,~., ,*+*'- ,,;: b, ..*,2, .'I"...* ' ,.C. *... %?.. 'L4" ,:^ ... '=. .. -a. . ; .,.. ..,;. ' :3*~"r, se, ',: '.~ . g^ys '~. . .,,;'^' ',:', ':':'.,"~''*.'~ ' ^ ' ^,' '~. A1. ',*<., ' '; ' , ~ * ' " "ty', '. ~ " . . . _ . ^. . . ' ., e ' .. .I' .. ~"~. '=.%*,,, ,',' .' ".,. .. .,, .. '.:. '<"'e""'~."";""'L" "it. ,;^**""""" ' p'l*,:" '* '. , *' " F, :*;34!,,',.;^*?!,:*'a :":. s: ,<,.*;,, , ^?<.. :,'$' " ^ . * , ,^^ ,' " ,,; :,:^>,.,,:.,,,,:;~, :.,..*.....~ .. .". ~,,^"~ .,,, e. ,. =:.,'t'. * I:. ,."';.' ' ,'\~'.,' ~ " ~ *g, ~, .FA, : I ,. r I * 'F ., '-~** .. E?'*:^;;^: .. .,, ,. ,.,. -'*:^~ I- ,, ', , I' .,,.,',^>' ';.--r .^ , "... ', ..~" '".. ,L~'-. ,. I , L ,. ^ ^,, . 48 . . . ., EC \ = _^3'~: _ , v, ., ==. , ^ A I ?i: -^- i^ if; :^. I, * ,} ^ *t ^^: ^: {^ *! ^I ,,^,,\ Small rou" .' rill ^,/^^/ in^ I 3i; -^ i^ ^ t^; I^. ^I i^ I, , ^ *I; j" ^ * .^, , Small round timbers were logged -.=. (Y" nfu ,Guangdong) ,. 7, , -..=,-. .=,- Using woodlnad was unreasonable . .., . ^!..., 4, ^. J~ .~? ,~ t~ V, ,^ , ,. ,- * Dr' .. * ~ JP@^ .:i^r. : .?, a'. ;^^,. . . ~. ~^ , ,<> .^ .~ , 4 ,~ ,^.,^.,,. ^=* ' ^,^. , ^ .^,,. ~ .^^ .. . , -^- I^ ^ .^ I^ ^ ^P f> ^: ^. *k C^, 2 *,. . I^: fi^. T :^. 11 !^ }^ . , ,, .^ Turn into agric"Iture land , .~. ~.,,. * "^ (Xishua"bang"a, Yu"ang) \. ,9. I I 31< -z:- I^ if: ^^. I, k *^ a^: I" ', I^ ^' A r. *k ~ Used as artificial formation of wood of E, "ropthyll" 10 .:!^ ( Y""fu Guangdong) ^.- ^;. .^- ^" -^' ^F- ,^n ,., ,, ,. ,. , ,. ,, ,. ,. ,. ,. , The management of secondary forestsi" tropical regions for the purpose of e"manei" economic and ecological benefits. ^,,^^. ^,^. ^,~,,^ F ,. , 11^ I^' ^!. -:a' I^ I^ I^ I^: ^ A ^ 11^. 1'1 ^ I; ^. *k a^ ^ ^: ^' BC"b"s@ rexrilis Mc. Cl"re were re-introduced in r"cky , ino" "trains(Baishe, Gua"gxi) *^ -,^^* !^ ^^, ^. *, A :r. ^I A I^ ^^' "^ ^- .L. I^ ^" Re-introduction of hardwood species (un"!BH'!"z8"0L) ISO. o1 A. rpuo, as aq! u! palUBjd a. am "", 1311 ^;! ^* ^ *r ., ^ ,, S=, ~ , \\ I ':, t- ^ J, , J. *.., ...... ^ . ^. 4. \:. ID, ,, 1111/11, ^I', I 11 * , , I" ., , , I ', , ,," \ . I' , .. ,, , . , . ., , {!x8uB"o aru!""BN) 100.0, A. IFp"000S "! pal"Bid aJ g ey""fur, y Minor"our' I I^' ^ ^I ^! ^* =L *^ ,^ ^! ^ ^,, ^~:!:. I "^i. . 4~ ^^;^;^! ^.. I ^a>. ^, ^ ^^i^. ^:^ ^. .\ I^;" ^/ ^ , *,\ \, I^I *I I^I I' a^ 77 .!^ !^, *^ ^ .,, Let" . High-yield resin Masson Fine were inter- , planted in secondary forest to get income a .. , ~.,, o1no"-wood production of resin. ^.. F1:,.* , . .. . '**,. , . , . *. a >. , ^ I'~ 11* ^. 11.1 I^ ,I. .I;k ^ ;iF ^:I' Feeding bees in the secondary forest (Taishan, Guangdong} ^, ^, I