Urban Climate and Monitoring Network System in Central European Cities
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The project is co-financed by the European Union Hungary-Serbia IPA Cross-border Co-operation Programme URBAN CLIMATE AND MONITORING NETWORK SYSTEM IN CENTRAL EUROPEAN CITIES Urban-Path Novi Sad (Serbia) – Szeged (Hungary) 2014 Hungary-Serbia IPA Cross-border Co-operation Programme EDITED BY Kosztolányi Éva, project manager Dr. Vladimir Marković, project manager AUTHORS Dr. János Unger, lead scientist; Dr. Stevan Savić, researcher; Dr. Tamás Gál, researcher; MSc Dragan Milošević, researcher PUBLISHED BY University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences (UNSPMF) University of Szeged, Department of Climatology and Landscape Ecology (SZTE) LAYOUT Stojkov štamparija, Novi Sad PRINTING AND BINDING Stojkov štamparija, Novi Sad ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ISBN 987-86-7031-341-5 (SRB) ...... (HU) CONTACTS www.hu-srb-ipa.com http://urban-path.hu EMAILS [email protected] (Dr. János Unger, lead scientist) [email protected] (Dr. Vladimir Marković, project manager) THIS PUBLICATION HAS BEEN FINANCIALLY SUPPORTED BY IPA CROSS-BORDER CO-OPERATION PROGRAMME (HUSRB/1203/122/166) 2 Urban Climate and Monitoring Network System in Central European Cities The project is co-financed by the European Union Content FOREWORD . 5 1 . THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF UHI . 6 1 1. Acceleration of urbanization . 6 1 .2 . Main reasons of the urban climate development . 7 1 .3 . Radiation budget and energy balance in urban areas . 10 1 4. Water balance in urban areas . 12 1 .5 . Urban temperature modification . 13 1 .5 1. Spatial and temporal features of the urban heat island . 14 1 .5 .2 . Other heat island controls . 16 1 .5 .3 . Influence of the intra-urban green areas on temperature . 18 1 6. Direct effects of heat island . 19 1 6. 1. Human comfort and health, and others . 19 1 6. .2 . Heating/cooling energy demand . 21 1 .7 . Mitigation of heat island effect and related energy savings . 22 2 . METHODS OF LCZ INVESTIGATION AND STATION LOCATION DEFINITION IN URBAN AREAS . 27 2 .1 . The Local Climate Zone classification system . 27 2 .2 . Sitting and configuration of a representative urban climate (human comfort) monitoring system in Szeged (Hungary) . 30 2 .3 . Sitting and configuration of a representative urban climate (human comfort) monitoring system in Novi Sad (Serbia) . 39 3 . REFERENCES . 49 4 . SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS (RELATED WITH URBAN-PATH PROJECT ISSUES) . 52 Urban Climate and Monitoring Network System in 3 Central European Cities Hungary-Serbia IPA Cross-border Co-operation Programme 4 Urban Climate and Monitoring Network System in Central European Cities The project is co-financed by the European Union Foreword n the second part of the 20th century the In this study we firstly review the ac- urbanization accelerated and reached celeration of urbanization. After the main Ienormous magnitude. The Earth’s reasons of the development and peculiari- urban population grows faster than the ties of urban climate (stressing the heat is- total population, therefore more and more land) are dealt with, then the tools of the people live in urbanized regions. Not only heat island effect mitigation and the re- the large cities but also the smaller ones lated energy-saving possibilities are dis- can modify almost all properties of the cussed. In the second chapter, new meth- urban atmospheric environment com- ods of defining local climate zones and pared to the natural surroundings. Thus station locations in urban areas are pre- owing to the artificial factors a local cli- sented in details. Furthermore, created mate (urban climate) develops that means urban climate monitoring network sys- a modification to the pre-urban situation. tems in Szeged (Hungary) and Novi Sad This climate is a result of the changes in (Serbia), based on new methods, in the radiation, energy and momentum pro- last two subchapters are shown. In the cesses. These changes are caused by the last part of this study, there are reviewed artificial building-up, as well as by the the five most important published scien- emission of heat, moisture and pollution tific papers related with URBAN-PATH related to human activities. project issues. In the course of urban climate develop- ment the temperature shows the most ob- Szeged – Novi Sad vious modification compared to the rural May 2014 area. This modification mainly consists of an increase which is manifested in the Dr. János Unger urban heat island. Dr. Stevan Savić Urban Climate and Monitoring Network System in 5 Central European Cities Hungary-Serbia IPA Cross-border Co-operation Programme 1. Theoretical background of UHI 1.1. Acceleration of urbanization Large development of the European set- The urbanization levels of different his- tlements started at the age of the indus- torical ages are clearly reflected in the ra- trial revolution (17-18th centuries), while tios of the urban population compared to at the first half of the 20th century the de- the total population. According to these velopment in America was the most strik- values, 2.4%, 13.6%, 33.6%, 41% and 46.6% ing. In the last decades development of of the Earth’s population lived in cities different agglomerations can be detect- in the years of 1800, 1900, 1960, 1985 and ed worldwide (Figure 1). The largest ur- 2000, respectively (Table 1). banization is in the Third World, which is Recently, the number of cities with only partly the consequence of the indus- more than one million inhabitants is over trialization, but rather the explosion-like 200, the built-up areas are continually ex- population increment (e.g. Lagos, Mexico panding and their ratios are even larger City, Sao Paulo, Mum bai, Dacca, Cairo). than 10% in the developed countries. Ac- N 800 Essen 600 Dortmund Duisburg Bochum urban population 400 Düsseldorf (%) Growth Wuppertal 200 world population Mönchengladbach Solingen 0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Time (year) σ Figure 1. Agglomeration of Ruhr-area σ Figure 2. World and urban population growth between 1950 and 2020 (1950 = 100%) Table 1. Number of urban population and its ratio compared to the total population 1950 1985 2000 Region % mill. % mill. % mill. world 29.2 734.2 41.0 1982.8 46.6 2853.6 developed 53.8 4 47.3 71.5 838.8 74.4 949.9 developing 17.0 286.8 31.2 1144.0 39.3 1903.7 6 Urban Climate and Monitoring Network System in Central European Cities The project is co-financed by the European Union cording to the Figure 2 the Earth’s pop- the urban population sevenfold by the ulation multiplies ’only’ threefold, while year of 2020 compared to 1950. 1.2. Main reasons of the urban climate development The surface and atmospheric modifica- tion, area) and structure, economy fea- tions associated with the construction tures all have significant impacts on the and operation of cities are massive. When magnitude of the developed urban/rural a new city (or a neighbourhood) is devel- climatical differences. Certain physi- oped it is apparent that a mosaic of micro- cal geographical features of its wider en- climates is being created. At the scale of vironment (e.g. (a) topography – valley, a person walking amongst the buildings, basin, slope, plain, (b) coastal location – the spatial variation of microclimates is sea, large lake, and (c) surface type – wet- huge. That person can be a sunny spot or land, desert) may intensify or moderate in shade, buffeted by swirling winds or the changes occur by the anthropogenic becalmed, in relatively hot/dry or cool/ impacts. The reasons of these changes are: moist surroundings, all just walking a • Replacement of natural surfaces by few metres from the street into a build- buildings and impermeable surfaces ing courtyard. However, within a neigh- (roads, pavements, parking lots) com- bourhood of similar building types, the bined with sanitary and storm sewer mix of microclimates tends to be repeat- systems. ed so that an ensemble climate at the local • The geometry of the urban surface is scale is created. In turn, when these are very complex, the irregularities are combined with the climates of the other varied horizontally as well as vertically urban land uses, a special climate at the (from street surfaces to different build- city scale is produced (Oke, 1997). This is ing heights) (Figure 3). the urban climate which is defined as a • Physical properties of road and build- local climate that is modified by interac- ing materials are different from the tions between built-up area and regional original natural ones. Usually they climate (WMO, 1983). have lower albedo, higher heat conduc- According to the preceding section tivity and heat capacity. about half of the human population is af- • Important factors considering the ra- fected by the loads of urban environments: diation processes are the materials re- environmental pollution, noise, stress of leased by the heating, traffic and -in the accelerated life-style and last but not dustrial processes, for example water least the modified parameters of the urban vapour, gases, smoke and other solid atmosphere compared to the natural envi- pollutants which cover the city as a ronment. This makes study of urban im- haze (Figure 4). pact on climate particularly important. • In certain cases and periods the heat The location of a city in a given mac- produced by human activities (indus- ro-scale climate zone, its size (popula- try, traffic, heating) and released into Urban Climate and Monitoring Network System in 7 Central European Cities Hungary-Serbia IPA Cross-border Co-operation Programme σ Figure 3. Skycrapers in New York σ Figure 4. Photochemical smog over Mexico City the environment can also be significant during the processes of urban planning, (Figure 5). building and space design. The boundary layer over settlements is Figure 6 summarizes the factors influ- different compared to the rural one.