thethe languagelanguage teacherteacher
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The Role of Translation in Japanese Young Learner Classrooms 3 Rebecca Klevberg
Learner Intervention in the Language Classroom 9 V. Michael Cribb
Ten Years of Kokusaika: Has progress been made? 13 Judy Yoneoka
10 October, 2000 Volume 24, Number 10 全国語学教育学会 The Japan Association for Language Teaching contents The summer break is behind us, classes are in full swing, and our annual conference is just around the corner! A busy time 1 Foreword for us all, so we’ve carefully selected three articles easily di- features gested over an office lunch! First up, Rebecca Klevberg tack- 3 The Role of Translation in les that thorny dilemma we’ve all faced: how much Japanese Japanese Young Learner should we use in our classes? Following that, Michael Cribb Classrooms describes how teachers can assist learners to develop inter- 9 Learner Intervention in the vention strategies in the language learning process. Finally, Language Classroom Judy Yoneoka brings us the second in her series of articles 13 Ten Years of Kokusaika: on Kokusaika, discussing why students who are being led to Has progress been made? “international waters” are not drinking as expected! a chapter in your life 20 Kitakyushu Also, further back in this issue we’re delighted to introduce a new column, Off the Presses, in which our publishing my share colleagues will be telling us about some of the exciting de- 21 Who Wants to Be a (Grammar) velopments taking place in their companies. In this Millionaire? inaugural issue, James Hursthouse of ELT News takes us on a 22 An E-commerce Webpage Project tour of eigoTown.com off the presses 25 eigoTown.com and ELT News Looking ahead to our November issue, the TLT team is hard departments at work to get it to you all before you head for this year’s 26 Book Reviews conference in Shizuoka. Look out for us at the publications 37 JALT News desk in the Granship Centre. See you there! Malcolm Swanson 37 JALT2000 Conference News 39 SIG Focus 43 SIG News ERRATA 47 Chapter Reports 49 Chapter Meeting Special In the July issue of The Language Teacher we inadvertently stated that JALT2000 featured speaker, Dr Frank Otto, was chairman of 51 Chapter Meetings the ELT Software Store. In fact, Dr Otto is founder and chairman of 55 TLT Job Information Center CALI Inc., the publishers of the ELLIS language-learning courseware. 61 Bulletin Board We apologize for any confusion this may have caused. 62 Submissions 63 Staff List 64 About JALT 47 Advertiser Index 夏期休暇も終わり、クラスは活気にあふれ、そして年次大会も目前に迫って います。私たち全員が多忙を極めるこの時期だからこそ、今月は、オフィス・ ランチの消化にいい三つの記事を厳選いたしました。 はじめに、Rebecca Klevbergの記事では、私たち全てが直面する、どれぐら い日本語を教室で使うべきかという議論の多い問題に取り組んでいます。それ に続くMichael Cribbの記事では、いかに学習者自身の言語学習プロセスにおけ る学習プロセスへの介入ストラテジーの向上を教師が助けられるかについて述 べています。最後に、Judy Yoneokaの国際化に関するシリーズの二回目で は、なぜ期待されているように「国際化」に至らないのかについて議論をして います。 また、新しいコラム「Off the Presses」は、私たちと同じように編集に関 わっている人々が、彼らの会社の刺激的な展開について語ってくれるもので す。第一回目として、ELT NewsのJames Hursthouse氏が、eigoTown.com への旅へと私たちを誘ってくれます。 JALT2000 1 1 月号が発行されるころは、静岡での年次大会が控えています。静岡ではぜ November 2-5 ひpublications deskにお立ち寄りください。 （抄訳 衣川隆生) Granship Shizuoka
October 2000 1 2 The Language Teacher 24:10 ecently, more attention has been given to Rebecca Klevberg the use of translation in communicative En- Rglish Language Teaching (ELT), which em- phasizes meaningful use of the target language. However, the basis of the communicative move- ment as the actual “use” of the target language (L2) has been interpreted by some as a reason to shun the mother tongue (L1) completely in the ELT class- room. This is the case with most private Japanese children’s language schools, which firmly maintain an official policy of “No Japanese” in their class- rooms. However, this policy is currently the subject of much debate between corporate offices and teachers in the field because company policy does not acknowledge the pragmatic value of L1 use in children’s classrooms. This paper explores the debate by examining current corporate opinions on the subject, and The Role of compares them to what is actu- ally occurring in some English as a Foreign Language (EFL) class- rooms at one major children’s Translation in school, as reported by both for- eign and Japanese teachers. Fi- nally, some practical, yet theoretically sound applications Japanese of L1 use and translation in children’s ELT, and an experi- mental approach to translation use will be offered. Here the term Young Learner “translation” will refer to the transference of information from the L1 to the L2 and from the L2 Classrooms to the L1. Corporate Views There is currently a huge market for private English lessons for young children in Japan, and many students begin preparing for 日本のコミュニカティブ言語教育（C L T ） higher education by studying in the private sector の教室では、「日本語を使用しないで教え from the ages of three and four. Students usually る」ことが主流になっている。しかし、多 participate in one or two, one-hour classes per week, 数の教師と学校の経営者との間では日本語 with an average of 8-12 other students, often alter- 使用に対する意見が大きく異なっている。 nating between a foreign and Japanese instructor. 年少者（2歳～15歳）の教室での母語(L1)使 To research current views on the topic, inter- 用に関する調査を通して、筆者は、語学学 views were held with representatives from three of 校３校の意見と、日本人教師と外国人教師 the largest children’s private language schools in の教室で実際に行われていることを比較し Japan. All schools require no Japanese language た。その結果、教師が普段L 1 を使用してい ability when hiring foreign teachers, and the use of ることが報告され、年少者へ文法、語彙、 Japanese is strictly forbidden by foreign instructors コミュニケーションストラテジー・学習ス at all companies. Japanese instructors at one corpo- トラテジー、対照分析を教えるときには、 ration are allowed to use Japanese in limited 日本語を使用するという「常識的な判断」 amounts for emergency situations and with very アプローチが提案された。コミュニケー young students (ages 2-6). Translation is also used ションを容易にするために年少者がL1とL2 in the Japanese teachers’ junior high school (JH) を混ぜることを奨励する教授法が提唱され textbooks at the same school for high school en- ている。 trance exam preparation.
October 2000 3 Feature: Klevberg
When asked the rationale behind the “No Japa- amount of time they spent speaking Japanese ac- nese” policy, one educational director replied: cording to age group (very young learners aged 2-6 or young learners aged 7-15), and in what area they “… for 6 days and 23 hours of the week, our used it most (pedagogical – vocabulary/grammar students live in a Japanese world. instruction, or social - discipline, social conversa- For only one hour a week, they should have an tion, games). The survey results are reported in English intensive lesson. It may be their only Tables 1 and 2 below: opportunity to hear a native English speaker, so why should that native English speaker use Table 1: Japanese Teacher Results Japanese when they could be hearing perfect English?” Estimated Time spent Speaking Japanese Another director also expressed concern that if translation were allowed it would most often snow- Group A – (Ages 2-6) Group B – (Ages 7-15) ball from a few words to entire conversations in the 46% 45.75% native tongue. The same individual further com- mented that once Japanese has been used in the Purpose of Japanese Use classroom, a line has been crossed, and it becomes more difficult to maintain an ‘English Only’ envi- Group A (Ages 2-6) Group B (Ages 7-15) ronment. He also noted: #1 - Discipline #1 - Social Conversation If we are preparing students for a trip abroad or #2 - Social Conversation #2 - Grammar a home stay, how many people that they come #3 - Vocabulary #3 - Discipline in contact with in the US, Canada, or wherever, #4 - Game Explanation #4 - Vocabulary will be able to ‘help’ them in Japanese when they don’t understand? Therefore, I don’t think #5 - Grammar #5 - Game Explanation we should ‘help’ them with Japanese in the Note: In leader priority order of response classroom. Despite the strict policy however, most executives Table 2: Foreign Teacher Results are also aware of the difficulties involved with the “No Japanese” rule and the fact that it is not always Estimated Time Spent Speaking Japanese enforced at the instructor level. One executive ad- mitted that, although translation would be of help Group A – (Ages 2-6) Group B – (Ages 7-15) when explaining difficult vocabulary and grammar, most foreign teachers speak no Japanese so it is not 18% 27% an option. She also noted that “Japanese teachers are instructed not to use Japanese in the classroom. Purpose of Japanese Use However, I know this doesn’t always happen . . . I Group A (Ages 2-6) Group B (Ages 7-15) sometimes hear them speaking Japanese.” #1 - Discipline #1 - Social Conversation Despite these facts, the policy remains in effect since most companies believe parents wish to have #2 - Social Conversation #2 - Discipline their children exposed to an ‘English Only’ environ- #3 - Game Explanation #3 - Game Explanation ment. One manager explained “Upper management #4 - Vocabulary #4 - Vocabulary feels the customer is paying a lot of money, so par- #5 - Grammar #5 - Grammar ents do not want to hear Japanese being spoken to their child.” The reasoning behind the “No Japa- Note: In leader priority order of response nese” rule appears to be primarily in relation to functional limitations (i.e. low Japanese ability of foreign teachers, or lack of L1 support in “real life” The results above indicate that, despite the “No situations), and marketing or parental influences. At Japanese” policy, a significant amount of Japanese no point in the discussion did a theoretical or meth- is being used in the classroom. All teachers re- odological basis for this rule arise. ported using Japanese some of the time (answers ranging from 20% to 90% with Japanese teachers In the Classrooms and 10% to 55% with foreign teachers) with an To get an idea of the amount and type of Japanese overall average of 45.9% of the time for Japanese actually being used in classrooms, I conducted a instructors and 22.5% of the time for foreign in- survey of 20 Japanese teachers and seven foreign structors. Survey results indicate that many Japa- teachers at one corporation with over 400 schools nese teachers often use the L1 as a pedagogical tool nation-wide. Teachers were asked to estimate the for vocabulary and grammar instruction, especially
4 The Language Teacher 24:10 Feature: Klevberg with older students, as well as for disciplinary and as support for the development of new methods social purposes. Japanese teachers’ general com- and techniques that work to incorporate transla- ments included: tion and L1 use in ELT classrooms to create a more [The amount of Japanese used] depends on effective and efficient environment rather than an how long they have been learning. In [higher attitude of shame concerning its use. What I pro- levels] I hardly have to speak in Japanese, but pose as a solution to this situation is a ‘common in [lower levels] I sometimes have to yell in sense’ philosophy concerning L1 use, one in which Japanese. selective, carefully controlled use of translation and the L1 is allowed to support learning in ELT. I mainly use Japanese as a ‘prompter’. If I ask ‘When’s your birthday?’ and they look con- A Common Sense Approach fused, I’ll say ‘tanjobi’ – ‘When’s your birth- With a “common sense” approach, sound practical day?’ sense and self-control on the part of the teacher are The foreign teachers, possibly be due to linguistic applied while using the L1 to facilitate language limitations when explaining grammar and vocabu- learning. Even as the field of ELT was largely in an lary points in Japanese, appeared to view it more as a anti-translation mode in the 1950s, Chapman way to socialise and to effectively discipline all age stated: “plain common sense should indicate that groups. One foreign teacher commented: the mother tongue has its place among [all] meth- ods” (p.34) (cited in Cole, 1998, p.1). The kids learn more, they’re more at ease with Translation use has again become a topic of dis- me. I have a much better time in class with cussion in ELT classrooms with more textbooks them and we have more fun. If I knew more and methods utilising translations and compari- Japanese, I’d use it more often! sons between languages (Auerbach 1993, Weschler The attitudes of the teachers surveyed here re- 1997, Cole 1998). Some educators now realise that, flected not only the practicality of L1 use in the due to time limitations in EFL classrooms, transla- classroom, but indicated its value in relaxing stu- tion should be used as a tool or “necessary scaf- dents and provided a folding”, gradually more positive learning removed over time environment. Al- (Weschler, 1997). though such limited “. . . why should that native English ESL research also data may not be shows that the use of generalised, it does speaker use Japanese when they translation with begin- indicate that an “En- could be hearing perfect English?” ning young learners glish only” classroom critically affected later may be implausible in linguistic success and a learning situation the use of both the L1 where students are exposed to the language an av- and L2 eased the transition to English (Aurbach, erage only one hour, once or twice a week. With 1993). Such opinions and research support the use such limited exposure, communication in the tar- of translation as a bridge between languages to get language exclusively may be impossible, and provide a more efficient, comprehensible and com- attempts to do so a frustrating experience for both fortable learning environment. There are, in fact, a student and teacher. number of theoretically sound applications for Finally, when questioned about L1 use in the translation in ELT classrooms including grammar classroom, many teachers expressed an attitude of and vocabulary instruction, teaching communica- shame, offering excuses and rationalisations for tion and learning strategies and the use of contras- their use of L1. One Japanese teacher replied; “I tive analysis. know I’m not supposed to, but sometimes I slip.” Similar attitudes were reported by Auerbach (1993) Grammar and Vocabulary Instruction in a larger scale study of English as a Second Lan- The most common bond found in most literature guage (ESL) instructors in America. She reports: supporting the use of translation in ELT class- rooms is its efficiency and effectiveness with low . . . despite the fact that 80% of the teachers level students. In the current methodology pre- allowed the use of the L1 at times, the English scribed in most private English schools in Japan, only axiom is so strong that they didn’t trust one would teach a vocabulary point through dem- their own practice. They assigned a negative onstration and action; techniques similar to the value to ‘lapses’ into the L1, seeing them as Direct Method of the 1950s and 1960s strictly for- failures or aberrations, a cause for guilt (p.5). bade the use of translation. The method eventually The data and opinions above may be considered lost popularity partly due to its inefficiency, with
October 2000 5 Feature: Klevberg critics noting: Williams (1991, p. 204) stresses the importance of engaging students in strategy use noting; “. . . by . . . strict adherence to the Direct Method prin- guiding and encouraging learning strategies, ciples was often counterproductive since teach- learner-active processes, rather than relying on ers were required to go to great lengths to avoid feeding in structures for children to practice, we using the native tongue, when sometimes a may be providing them with a simple brief explanation in the far more valuable tool for self- student’s native tongue would learning.” “Learning strategies” have been a more efficient refer to unconscious or con- route to comprehension scious activities on the part of (Richards and Rogers, 1986, p. the learner that enhance the 11). learning process (Larson-Free- Direct translation to clarify man & Long, 1991). One of the meaning when a pupil does not more established areas often comprehend a vocabulary word or used in ELT is mnemonicsthe grammar point is one technique utilization of formal organiza- that may be utilised in ELT. By tional techniques to enhance using translation to ensure stu- memory (Brown, 1994). Mne- dent comprehension, a solid, monic devices such as the “key- meaningful cognitive base upon word technique,” a two part which to develop communicative mnemonic device visually asso- use of the language is created. ciating an L1 word with one in Stern (1992) also supports translation use, noting L2, are considered to result in greater recall than that translation from L2 to L1 serves an important traditional means (Gray, 1997). Although consid- role in creating a mental link between the new and ered by some to be obsolete, Gray (1997) notes, difficult and that which is familiar. The selective “The use of mnemonics may be of special advan- translation of vocabulary and grammar points in tage with North-East Asian students due to its’ ELT classrooms may provide the links necessary for strong visual approach. Their sensory learning style long-term recall of material. appears to be quite visually orientated (Lee, 1976; Brown, 1994; Reid, 1995) mainly because of the Teaching Communication and Learning Strate- pictorial nature of their written language” (p.4). gies “Communication strategies” refer to “potentially The Use of Contrastive Analysis conscious plans for solving what to an individual Contrastive Analysis (CA) refers to the concept that presents itself as a problem in reaching a particular by contrasting the L1 and L2, one can predict or communicative goal” (Faerch and Kasper cited in explain learner errors and difficulties (negative Brown, 1994, p. 118) and are now considered to be transfer), as well as successes (positive transfer). crucial in language acquisition, as well as for effec- The extreme view of CA has often been discredited tive communication (Riley, 1991). Such strategies due to its initial applications in error prediction include appeals for clarification and language and its association with the behavioristic and struc- switches. On the subject of communication strat- tural approaches (Larson-Freeman, & Long, 1991). egy use in children’s EFL, Brewster (1991) explains: However, there has been a recent resurgence in ELT defending CA’s moderated use in teaching linguis- It is important that teachers of young learners tic awareness since a teacher’s knowledge of L1 ensure that their pupils . . . begin to learn a may aid in identifying and examining beginning range of strategies required to negotiate mean- student errors (Larson-Freeman & Long 1991, ing in English, for providing feedback to show Brown, 1994). Shortall (1996) examines CA that they have understood something, asking through the perspective of Universal Grammar (the questions to clarify misunderstandings or belief that all languages have basic similarities in checking details . . . it might be possible to ask certain areas). He notes: “there does seem to be a the children afterwards what they needed to reasonably strong case for once again trying to ex- say in English but only knew in their mother amine the effects of L1 on L2 (arguably through a tongue (128). universalist prism). Most language learners make The strategy of providing eacher translations of L1 v. L2 comparisons. It may be time teachers and clarification phrases and allowing comprehension applied linguists started doing so again” (p. 8). checks in either language may serve an important Translation and contrastive analysis may there- role in helping students to understand material fore be used to make students aware of proper con- and to express themselves clearly. textual use of spoken phrases and words.
6 The Language Teacher 24:10 Feature: Klevberg
Translating overly-formal grammar use into a Japa- concerning language learning in a mixed-lingual nese informal conversation illustrates to students environment have provided more resources sup- the cold “bookish” feeling and better emphasises porting the use of mixed interlanguages. Auerbach the fact that English, like Japanese, is not a set (1993) gives an account of the ESL approach used number of formal utterances, but a changing, ani- at the Invergarry Learning Center: mated language which has different contextual and Students start by writing about their lives in situational choices. Finally, translated explanations their L1 or a mixture of their L1 and English; of structural variations between Japanese and En- this text is then translated into English with glish may serve to create student awareness of po- the help of bilingual tutors or learners and, as tential areas for error, such as English plural form such, provides a natural bridge for overcoming and article/determiner use, both common difficul- problems of vocabulary, sentence structure and ties for Japanese learners (Yamamoto-Wilson, 1997, language confidence (p. 72). This process, re- Shortall, 1996). sults in a learner willing to experiment and take risks with English due to the security and vali- The Use of a ‘Mixed’ Interlanguage—An Experi- dation of allowing L1 use (Shamish, 1990 cited mental Method in Aurbach, p.8) This final section offers an experimental use of the L1 in children’s EFL classrooms in the form of a By lowering anxiety and concentrating on mean- “mixed” interlanguage. Interlanguage refers to “a ing rather than form, one provides a more positive [language] system that has a structurally intermedi- psychological environment for learning, consid- ate status between the native and target languages” ered by many to facilitate language acquisition (Brown, 1994, p. 203). In this method, mixed (Richards & Rogers, 1986). interlanguage refers to the integration of L2 into Although research concerning spontaneous in- the L1 base language during “free conversation” formal L2 use is limited, observations have been and warm-up periods. It is not designed to replace made indicating that children’s first target lan- ‘English only’ instruction, but to supplement it and guage use among themselves often occurs in stock aid in the development of a communicative use of phrases or expressions embedded mother tongue the language with beginning students. In these pe- conversation (Bloor, 1984). In a discussion with riods, Japanese is the main language, however several foreigners teaching children in Japan, all when any previously studied words are encoun- reported occurrences of students mixing the two tered, as in the example “Watashi no okaasan wa languages in the classroom, often in an effort to san ju ni sai desu.”, the conversation is stopped facilitate comprehension on the part of the for- with the teacher feigning ignorance and asking the eigner while engaging in natural conversation. Ex- students “What’s ‘Okaasan’?” or “I don’t under- amples given included “watashi no dress wa cute stand - what’s ‘san ju ni sai’?’” At this point, the desune?” or “Waa . . . sensei no eyes wa blue!” The student or class- importance of the mates are forced to internal, social mo- translate, which tivation behind often leads to a mix- “Corporate policy . . . is presently ignoring such conversations ing of the two lan- the potential of this tool in deference to has often been in- guages, (i.e. Watashi dicated as necessary no Mother wa..”) objections often based, not on theory, but for successful lan- The next time on marketing potential . . .” guage learning “What’s ‘watashi’?” (Brown, 1994). or “What’s ‘san ju There are several ni’?” is asked, leading the child to further transla- areas that require further examination in regards to tion/recall of studied material – “My mother this approach including the long-term effectiveness wa…thirty-two desu.” Careful use and constant, of concurrent translation with children. It is of- strict modification to prevent fossilisation are of fered in brief here as an innovative area of transla- utmost importance. However, controlled incorpo- tion use with potential for exploitation in ration of such an interlanguage in the EFL class- children’s EFL for facilitating comprehension, re- room may be developed into a more natural use of ducing young learner stress, and motivating com- English than the rote phrases often taught. It municative use of English. teaches children how to use vocabulary and In conclusion, translation use may serve to facili- phrases to express themselves, not that tate EFL learning in a number of ways; increasing “I’mfinethankyou” is the single response to the cognition and recall of vocabulary and grammar, greeting phrase “Howareyou?” empowering students through its use in teaching Papers and research in the field of ESL education communication and learning strategies, and offer-
October 2000 7 Feature: Klevberg ing points of comparison and contrast when teach- Bloor, M. 1991. The role of informal interaction in teach- ing English use in context. ing English to young learners. In C. Brumfit et al. (eds) Corporate policy in Japanese children’s language Teaching English to Children. London: Longman, 127-141. schools is presently ignoring the potential of this Brown, H. D. 1994. Principles of language learning and teach- ing (3rd Edition). Prentice Hall. tool in deference to objections often based, not on Brewster, J. 1991. What is good primary practice? In C. theory, but on marketing potential and functional Brumfit et al. (Eds.) Teaching English to children. London: limitations. Contrary to this policy, the findings Longman, 115-126. reported here indicate that teachers in the actual Cole, S. 1998. The use of L1 in communicative English classrooms often find translation necessary, both classrooms. The Language Teacher, 22 (12), December, pedagogically and socially. Therefore, a common 1998. sense application of techniques such as those dis- Gray, R. 1997. Mnemonics in the ESL/EFL classroom. The cussed above is highly recommended as a possible Language Teacher, 21 (4), April, 1997. Larson-Freeman, D. & Long, M.H. 1991. An introduction solution to this conflict. to second language acquisition research. Longman. Richards, J.C. and T.S. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and Rebecca Klevberg has taught methods in language teaching. Cambridge University children and young adults in Press. Riley, P. 1991. Whats your background? The culture and the Gifu, Japan area for over six identity of the bilingual child. In C. Brumfit et al. (Eds.) years. She is now completing Teaching English to children. London: Longman, 271- her MA in Teaching English as 288. a Second/Foreign Language at Shortall, T. 1996. Language knowledge in language acquisi- the University of Birmingham, tion: Universal grammar and second language teaching. England. She is also currently In Willis J. and J. D. Willis (Eds.) Challenge and change developing a textbook series in language teaching. Heinemann. which encourages young learn- Stern, H. H. 1992. Issues and options in language teaching. Oxford University Press. ers and teachers to use their L1 Weschler, R. 1997. Uses of Japanese (L1) in the English resources to facilitate English Classroom: Introducing the Functional-Translation language learning in a task-based environment. Any Method. The Internet TESL Journal, [On-line] 3 (2). comments or questions may be sent to Available: http://www.aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj/
8 The Language Teacher 24:10 he notion of learner intervention in the lan- V. Michael Cribb guage classroom has received little attention Kansai Gaidai University T in second language acquisition literature in comparison to its counterpart, teacher intervention, over the years. In this article, I’d like to redress the balance somewhat and argue that learner interven- tion is a notion that is potentially equal in impor- tance to, if not more important than, teacher intervention. This is especially true when we consider that most theories which call for some focus on form in the classroom today eschew rigid presentation and drilling of form in favor of “consciousness raising” and “noticing” techniques. Since these theories lay emphasis on cognitive processing, it seems logical that learners should not merely react to form-focused events, but need to actively create and shape them. In the first part of the paper, I will lay out some of the theoreti- Learner cal background to the issue and extract from this a working peda- gogical hypothesis that assumes that some attention to form in Intervention the classroom is necessary. Then, I will briefly discuss teacher inter- vention before showing how learner intervention can be in the brought into play in a variety of guises to optimize this attention.
A Working Pedagogical Hy- Language pothesis Rather than simply furnishing conditions in the classroom that provide the learner with compre- Classroom hensible input (Krashen, 1982), most teachers now accept that some focus on form is necessary to optimize the second language acquisition pro- cess. For many teachers, though, there will be some doubt as to how they arrived at such a conclusion. Indeed, the debate as to whether consciously focus- ing on form does lead to L2 acquisition still rages in the literature from time to time (e.g. Sheen, 1994; Long, 1994), and our profession has yet to answer this fundamental question. 教室での言語形式の焦点化(focus on form) Most teachers who are looking to introduce some を求める第二言語習得理論は、学習者が言 degree of focus on form into their classrooms are 語形式を意識化することの必要性を強調し reluctant to go back to the “old days” of rigidly ている。この結果、広く知られている教師 drilling students with teacher-supplied grammatical 主導の概念より学習者自身の学習プロセス forms and vocabulary items introduced at the chalk- への介入の概念が重要であると思われる。 face. Thus theories such as Schmidt’s (Schmidt & 本論文では、学習者が単にメタ認知的スト Frota, 1986, Schmidt, 1990) “notice-the-gap” prin- ラテジーに反応するのでははなく、自らの ciple and Rutherford & Sharwood-Smith’s (1985) 学習プロセスに介入し、積極的に言語形式 “consciousness raising” have found favor with mod- 重視の状況を作り出すことができるよう ern, form-focused protagonists. Both of these theo- に、教師が学習者のメタ認知的ストラテ ries allow the teacher a wide degree of freedom in ジーをいかに促進できるかを論述する。 how such form-focused instruction may be brought
October 2000 9 Feature: Cribb into the classroom, yet both stress the need for purpose here is for the teacher to make particular “conscious” awareness of form as a pre-requisite for aspects of the language that are relevant to the task L2 acquisition, particularly if fossilization and back- more salient to increase the opportunity of noticing sliding are to be prevented. (Schmidt, 1990) and restructuring (McLaughlin, Schmidt’s (Schmidt & Frota, 1986, Schmidt, 1990) 1990) during task performance. notice-the-gap principle claims that learners will For the post-task component, the teacher has at begin to acquire a target-like form if it is present in his or her disposal a whole range of activities. Hav- the input and noticed. Noticing here means becom- ing just completed the exercise, the students can ing consciously aware of a form that, for a learner, attend to the form of the language more easily since will generally occur during some language learning the cognitive load of the task has been lifted. The activity. Robinson (1995) has recently expanded on teacher thus seeks to engage the students in a this and recast noticing as a process of detection teacher-centered dialogue by questioning them on and rehearsal. Rutherford and Sharwood-Smith the task outcome, modeling performance, challeng- (1985) offer consciousness raising (CR) as an alter- ing their solutions and providing additional infor- native to explicitly teaching grammar in the tradi- mation related to the content of the task. All the tional way. In CR, the teacher provides instruction time, the teacher expands, paraphrases, and corrects on grammar with varying degrees of elaboration the students’ language, thus drawing attention to and explicitness to allow students to discover the language forms that are judged to have been the target structure by themselves. most salient during task execution, and providing a Whilst there is still a fair amount of debate over model of native-like performance. these theories, I’d like to include them in a working The teacher has less opportunity to intervene dur- pedagogical hypothesis for the purposes of this ar- ing the midtask component, since by nature this part ticle. That is, I will assume that a certain degree of is student-centered. The concern then is that, in the focus on form in the classroom does lead to second absence of any teacher moderation, fluency will be language acquisition at a rate over and above that of prioritized at the expense of accuracy (and thus form) simply supplying comprehensible input. This because pressures to accomplish the task completely clearly states, then, that it is not enough for learners consume cognitive resources. The teacher can in part to simply immerse themselves in the target lan- reduce his or her presence to that of a peer and then guage and hope that L2 acquisition takes place. In- act to monitor form—surreptitiously providing cor- stead, there must be some active intervention in the rections and bridging gaps in linguistic knowledge as process, either by the teacher or the learner, which the group works towards a solution—but this can be engages cognitive learning processes to allow learn- done only in a limited way. Critics of task-based ers’ awareness of form to be raised. It is the aim of teaching point to this as the major stumbling block this article to articulate such intervention, in par- of the method, and so it is here that learner interven- ticular, that which needs to be supplied by the tion becomes paramount if we are to overcome this. I learner. In order to understand learner intervention will consider this notion next. fully, though, it is best to look at the notion of teacher intervention first. Learner Intervention If we accept as our working pedagogical hypothesis Teacher Intervention that noticing and form-focused attention do have a Teachers’ intervention in the language acquisition facilitative role in L2 acquisition, whether peripheral process can be applied most notably through selec- or central, there is no reason why we cannot bring tion and sequencing of syllabus, and implementa- learners into play and give them the means to take tion (i.e. methodology) of activities. Further advantage of this. Many commentators have la- intervention that is more closely related to the hy- mented on exasperated teachers who attempt to force pothesis takes place in the classroom. To illustrate their students to notice particular language features, this, I will consider a task where students are in- who interrupt smooth-flowing tasks to explain an volved in goal-orientated, meaning-focused activi- item of grammar, or who keep their own finger on the ties (Skehan, 1996). A typical task consists of pre- tape recorder pause button during a listening exer- and post-task components (often referred to as in- cise. But if conscious awareness of language forms is briefs and de-briefs), which are teacher-centered, such a subjective state of mind, then it seems logical and a midtask component, which is student-cen- that it is only learners who can judge when and what tered, where students work in pairs or small groups. they have noticed, and only learners who can control During the pre-task components, the teacher at- the degree of rehearsal (Robinson, 1995) for it. tempts to bring certain forms to the attention of the This subjectivity extends not just to the students learners through the presentation of instances of as a group, but also to each and every student. Even lexis, formulaic units, and syntactic rules, with vari- in a well-streamlined class, which is very rare, stu- ous degrees of elaboration and explicitness. The dents will vary in what language features prove to
10 The Language Teacher 24:10 Feature: Cribb be important to them at any particular point in quickly solve this—the teacher steps in, confirms that time. Each student will have his or her own list of the form is correct, or provides the correct form, and grammatical and lexical items that he or she has the group moves on quickly with the task. Again, a been practicing, and will vary in the depth and na- balance is important, and it’s a balance that needs to ture of understanding of these items. be taught and practiced. If students don’t realize the Learner intervention means, then, that we have to need for one then, during a task, in the absence of make students aware the teacher, there of the need to be will be a tendency form sensitive at cer- “The days of the “heroic” teacher who feels he to structure com- tain times and give munication and them the means for or she can provide all the necessary form . . . comprehension handling instances of seem to be numbered” strategies rather noticing and the like. than engaging in That is, we need to language that is give them the metacognitive learning strategies so “required to constantly stretch interlanguage and lead that features made available through teacher correc- to change” (Skehan, 1996, p.40). tion, consciousness raising and, in particular, in- Of course, it will take students time to find the stances of negotiation of form become optimally right balance between form and meaning, and it is salient. This will allow for detection and rehearsal certainly not a skill that can be taught or learnt when student attention is stretched to the maximum. within the first few days of a course. But students Giving students such means is not an easy task, since are really the only ones who can reliably introspect teachers are normally fully occupied in trying to get on their own learning process, and practice and ex- students to use their English in the classroom and perience will show them what works best: when to have little time to spare to explain notions about sec- focus on form, when to push for fluency, how to ond language acquisition. But it is important early in handle teacher corrections during task processing a course to find the right balance between teacher and the degree of rehearsal required, what to do and learner intervention in order to take the load off when they notice something, and the value of nego- the teacher later on, especially with more advanced tiating their communication. Just as importantly, groups. students need to know the amount of (off-task) Consequently, one thing I do early in my course planning and extra-curricula “housekeeping”1 they is to give all of my students a small book that fits in need to support and augment their task-based learn- their shirt pocket. Every time they “notice” some- ing. Without this degree of commitment to and thing in the form of the language in the classroom, awareness of learner intervention in the acquisition they are required to take out the book and write it process, I don’t believe language courses can be suc- down. If I see it coming out too often, then I go cessful. Learner intervention, in a way, is really a over the concept of noticing again and tell them reversal of the traditional teaching sequence. Rather that only forms that they become consciously aware than the teacher supplying students with a form, of and seem important to them at that particular asking them to learn it and then giving them oppor- time should be noted. It is impossible to completely tunities to use it in class, the students are involved define the rules for this, but for an intensive course in classroom interaction and, from this, they decide where students are in class all day, then a 10 to 20 what items are important and then learn them. item-per-day rule is a practical solution. Such sequence reversal and intervention are not Having made students responsible in part for their just limited to task-based courses though. In most own intervention, then it is important that we raise teaching environments, students who have been their “awareness about the pedagogical coherence of suitably prepared for and made aware of the need the course” and explain “the rationale underlying the for intervention can make a real difference. For ex- selection of tasks and the way they are used” (Bygate, ample, students are often called on to submit writ- 1994, p. 243-4). Some tasks may be cognitively light, ing assignments which the teacher then corrects such as a picture description exercise, and thus may and returns with the expectation that students will allow students to focus more on form than tasks that incorporate the form(s) into their interlanguage. are cognitively heavy, such as a debate. Students need Several studies (e.g., Zamel, 1985, p.81; Ferris, 1995) to understand this and be told at the beginning of have questioned the effectiveness of such proce- the task what level to expect. dures though, and teachers are often disappointed During midtask performance, there will be a great and frustrated by the amount of uptake from the degree of peer-to-peer talk. It is important that stu- students. Perhaps part of this is due to the fact that dents balance form with meaning, and in particular, what seems to be important for the teacher is not inquire into the language they are using and hearing. necessarily what the students feel is important for A right to a brief consultation with the teacher can them, even though the students recognize the error.
October 2000 11 Feature: Cribb
Further, form and its correction that appear to be dents. Real leverage, I believe, comes by getting stu- appropriately timed from the teacher’s point of view dents in on the act: making them understand how are not necessarily appropriately timed from the language learning takes place, getting them to bal- point of view of the students’ interlanguage devel- ance form with meaning, explaining the rationale opment and thus fail to become uptake. behind the course, and asking them to intervene in I regularly try to reverse the traditional procedure the language learning process by actively creating somewhat in writing assignments by asking students and shaping form-focused events for themselves. to underline three or four items in their compositions If, however, you still believe learners have no need that they have a question about or they feel to be to intervene in the process, then consider this final important. This may be a vocabulary item, a phrase, comment: Learning a language is a lifetime commit- or the use of an idiom or a whole sentence. At first, ment. Your students’ contact with you is merely a they feel awkward doing this and wonder why they transitory phase in this undertaking. Your course will need a teacher if I’m not prepared to immediately tell end soon, and the students will move on. If you don’t them where their errors are. However, if I follow this give them the means and motivation to intervene in up and give them real feedback (including further their learning process, then who will? follow-ups on the item) on what they have shown to me to be important for them, then they come to real- Note ize that they can intervene in the learning process on 1. Housekeeping is the term I use to refer to out-of-class their own behalf and should not just merely react to recording and manipulation of form by students. For form-focused events. example, the upkeep of a small book with learnt vo- Of course, I’m not suggesting that teachers should cabulary items. completely ignore errors that students make until the students inquire about them, but it does seem V. Michael Cribb currently lectures in that for a long time the traffic has been all one way, linguistics and ESL at Kansai Gaidai with teachers telling students what is wrong with University. He spent eight years teaching their interlanguage, followed by students reacting to in South Korea before coming to Japan this. Such uni-directional concern for form can last year. He can be contacted at hardly be optimal when we consider that modern
12 The Language Teacher 24:10 This is the second in a two part series of articles. The Judy Yoneoka first article, “What is a Kokusaijin?: A 10-year study,” Kumamoto Gakuen University appeared in the September TLT. okusaijin (lit. international person) is a Japa nese term with a relatively recent history that K conjures up images of a well-traveled English- speaking socialite in the minds of most Japanese. Yoneoka (2000a) found that Japanese students’ im- ages of kokusaijin differed greatly from those of US and Indian students’ images of an internationally- minded person and German students’ images of a weltoffener Mensch. Specifically, cognitive factors such as knowledge of a foreign language (especially English) and experiential factors such as living abroad and having foreign friends were stressed over more affective factors such as lack of prejudice, fear towards foreign- Ten Years of ers, or interest in world issues, peace, and the environment (Table 1). Table 1 shows 4 different sets of Kokusaika: data for Japanese students. The 1989 and 1999 +E groups were majoring in international eco- nomics and English, respectively, Has progress whereas both -E groups studied economics. Comparing these groups, two major trends can be seen. First, there is a marked longi- been made? tudinal shift in the 1999 data away from experiential attributes (such as foreign friends and study- ing abroad) and towards cognitive attributes, espe- cially foreign language knowledge. Second, the Japa- nese students with more interest in international matters (the two +E groups) show a higher level of affective attributes, such as lack of prejudice and in- terest in world peace, than did their less-interested TLT9月号のYoneokaの論文では、日本の若 peers, although the figures are still much lower than 者の外国や外国人との接触は過去1 0 年間に in any of the other three countries surveyed. 飛躍的に増加しているが、日本人の「国際 人」のイメージは偏見のなさや寛容さなど The heart-shift hypothesis の性格よりも語学力、日本や世界情勢に対 In 1989, comparison of the actual international ex- する知識、実際の体験などを重視し続けて perience of students from the four countries (mea- いるということを示した。海外渡航経験 sured in terms of international travel, 後、二度と海外へ行きたくないと思ってい communication and friendship) showed that Ger- る学生の割合が比較的高いという調査結果 many led the other countries by far (Yoneoka 1993). と日本の国際化カリキュラムでは偏見のな Indeed, with respect to the four countries surveyed, さや寛容さなどの性格育成を重視していな a mutual correlation was found to exist between いということが結びつけられ、「喉の乾い actual experience and the prevalence of affective ていない馬」シンドローム、つまり学生は attributes of a kokusaijin. Thus, the following hy- 国際化の泉に連れてこられても、期待どお pothesis was proposed: りには水を飲まないということが説明され ている。日本の教育におけるグローバル問 The Heart-Shift Hypothesis: An increase in actual 題に対する興味と、多文化に対するセンシ international experience leads to a shift towards ティビティを養成するための改善策が提案 a more affective heart-based interpretation of されている。 the attributes of a kokusaijin.
October 2000 13 Feature: Yoneoka
Table 1: Interpretation of Kokusaijin in terms of cognitive, experiential and affective attributes (from Yoneoka 2000a, Table 2)
**Jpn89-E **Jpn89+E Jpn99-E Jpn99+E *Germany *India *USA (N=105) (N=19) (N=78) (N=76) (N=32) (N=92) (N=95)
Cognitive (knowledge) 53.7 37.8 62.4 57.8 1.2 21 25 Experience 23.2 31.1 15.0 12.4 3.6 2 7 Affective (Heart) 23.1 31.1 22.6 29.8 95.2 77 68
Note. *data from Yoneoka, 1993. **data from Yoneoka, 1991.
In other words, having international experience data from the 1989 survey of students from four may lead to the realization that such experience is countries are presented in this section. neither a sufficient nor even a necessary criterion for a kokusaijin. Preliminary support for this heart- The international experience score shift hypothesis was found in the 1989 +E group, a To determine the relationship of images of kokusaijin small sample of Japanese 4th year students who had with (a) actual international experience and (b) gen- all participated in a seminar trip to China (Yoneoka, eral attitudes towards internationalization, an “inter- 1989). These students indeed showed a relatively national experience score” and “international higher percentage of affective responses than the consciousness score” (%/100) were determined for general Japanese student population sampled. each group on the basis of various conditions. The To test this hypothesis, the 1989 questionnaire conditions and figures for each score are shown in (with minor changes, see Yoneoka, 2000a for sample Tables 2 and 3 respectively. questionnaire and details on its administration) was The “international experience score” was derived by given in April 1999 to an equivalent population of multiplying the percentage of students who had (a) Japanese students in two groups. The first part of this traveled abroad by 2 (100 x 2=200) and adding to this questionnaire dealt with the question of how stu- the percentage of students who (b) had spoken with dents define kokusaijin, and was discussed in detail in foreigners; (c) telephoned, written or otherwise com- Yoneoka, (2000a). The second portion of the ques- municated abroad; and (d) had international friends tionnaire is designed to provide the background nec- (100 x 3=300). The sum was then multiplied by 2 (500 essary in order to test the heart-shift hypothesis above. x 2=1000) and divided by 10 to get a score out of 100. Specifically, the following research questions are For the four Japanese groups, the most striking discussed: result was the dramatic rise in personal international 1. As compared to their counterparts of 1989, how experience of the -E students in ten years, from a much actual international experience do a group mere 8.2% in 1989 to 36.8% in 1999. Most of this of equivalent Japanese students have in 1999, in rise might be attributed to the educational efforts— terms of travel and study abroad, interaction and the overwhelming rise in JET program participant communication with foreigners? numbers, increased numbers of school trips taken abroad, and more foreign students on Japanese cam- 2. If this actual experience has increased, does this puses. Although this score is still relatively low com- result in a shift towards a more affective inter- pared with those of other countries, it is rapidly pretation of kokusaijin and kokusaika, as defined approaching that of India. Also, comparing the two in Yoneoka, 2000a? +E groups, the 1999 group had higher percentages The results of these research questions pose several for all criteria except experience abroad (remember implications for the progress of kokusaika for Japanese here that the 1989 +E group had all been abroad on society as a whole and especially for the educational a seminar trip to China). This too shows the positive system; these are addressed in the discussion. influence of educational reforms of the past decade.
Results The International Consciousness Score Besides providing information on students’ percep- The “international consciousness score” was ob- tions of what and who a kokusaijin is, and of how tained by multiplying (a) the average self-evaluation the students saw themselves in terms of kokusaika, of students with respect to their own level of the questionnaire requested details on various facets kokusaika by 2 (100 x 2 =200) and adding to this (b) of students’ actual international-oriented experi- the percentage of students who desired to travel ence. Cross-comparisons of these data with similar abroad, (c) felt the need to become more interna-
14 The Language Teacher 24:10 Feature: Yoneoka
Table 2: “International experience score” by country and group
**Jpn89-E **Jpn89+E Jpn99-E Jpn99+E *Germany *India *USA (N=105) (N=19) (N=78) (N=76) (N=32) (N=92) (N=95)
(a) Traveled abroad (x2) 0.6 20.0 4.6 12.2 20.0 7.6 12.8 (b) Spoken with foreigner 2.0 9.0 8.1 9.7 10.0 7.6 9.9 (c) Int’l communication 0.8 5.0 3.6 7.4 6.1 7.2 6.0 (d) International friends 0.7 3.7 2.1 4.3 6.8 4.0 8.5
Total (2a+b+c+d) x 2/10 8.2 75.4 36.8 67.2 85.8 52.8 74.4
Note. *data from Yoneoka, 1993. **data from Yoneoka, 1991. tional rather or very strongly, and (d) listed their The lack of a strong rise in the “international own personal influence on their international consciousness score” was due mainly to the persis- awareness as one of the three top choices out of six tently and dismally low Japanese subjective self- possible (100 x 3=300). The sum was then multi- evaluations. Although self-evaluation has increased plied by 2 (500 x 2=1000) and divided by 10 to get slightly in ten years for both groups, Japanese stu- a score out of 100. dents continue to rate themselves (and their poor In contrast to the dramatic rise in the actual ex- fathers) much lower than any famous politician or perience scores of the Japanese students over 10 personality, including dictatorial world leaders, years, the international consciousness scores have who were rated between 1-3 by students of the increased only slightly, from 36.0 to 41.4 for –E other countries but averaged over 5 for Japanese students and from 51.0 to 57.6 for +E students. The students. These ratings are also much lower than fact that this rise occurred in both –E and +E stu- the self-evaluations of students in other countries. dents indicated that the educational milieu may be This trend towards low esteem in terms of per- responsible, rather than the simple heightened in- sonal internationalization may partially be attrib- terest and experience abroad which differentiates uted to Japanese kenson (humbleness), but it also the two groups. shows a clear continuing correlation with the ex-
Table 3: “International consciousness score” by country and group
**Jpn89-E **Jpn89+E Jpn99-E Jpn99+E *Germany *India *USA (N=105) (N=19) (N=78) (N=76) (N=32) (N=92) (N=95)
(a) Subjective self-evaluation (x2) 3.4 3.8 4.2 5.8 15.0 9.0 11.6 (b) Desire to travel 8.7 9.3 8.7 9.9 10.0 9.4 9.7 (c) Need to internationalize 3.9 8.4 4.4 8.7 7.1 7.0 7.0 (d) Personal influence on internationalization 2.0 4.0 3.4 4.4 7.2 7.6 6.2
Total (2a+b+c+d)x2/10 36.0 51.0 41.4 57.6 78.6 66.0 69.0
Note. *data from Yoneoka, 1993. **data from Yoneoka, 1991.
October 2000 15 Feature: Yoneoka pectations of cognitive and experiential over affec- 22% of the 1999 -E students—more than one in tive factors when we look at the data of the other five—who had already been abroad responded that three countries. In other words, for each country, they were not interested in going abroad again. Per- the higher the emphasis placed on knowledge and sonal communication with students who have had experience, the lower the student average self-evalu- experience abroad prior to university reveals that in ations become. On the other hand, the slight rise in most cases, this experience was in the form of a self-evaluation over 10 years in both Japanese school trip. Thus, again, these figures intimate that groups may be due to the possibility that increased school-based efforts at internationalization may be actual experience with foreigners and international backfiring, and that at least some of the horses are travel, to some extent at least, has been of some not drinking. benefit in developing increased confidence with respect to self-internationalization. Making the horses drink: training in kokusai ishiki The little-known Japanese term kokusai ishiki (lit. Discussion: The “thirstless horse” syndrome international consciousness, Ishii et al, p. 237) is The lack of confidence shown in the international defined as “consciousness of one’s thoughts, feel- consciousness scores (particularly in self-evaluation) ings and actions with respect to values, opinions can be at least partially attributed to the high em- and attitudes towards the international society as a phasis placed on the nuance of kokusaijin in terms whole and towards any of its manifestations.” This of cognitive factors, i.e. knowledge. Students may kokusai ishiki is also recognized as forming at least assume that they cannot be responsible for such a part of what kokusai rikai kyoiku (education in inter- demanding task as internationalizing oneself in national understanding) should be (ibid. p. 153). terms of knowledge and experience, especially However, we have seen from the data that kokusai when the passive aspect of the kokusaika process is ishiki is still not regarded as an integral aspect of a taken into account (Yoneoka, 2000a, Note 2). This kokusaijin by the majority of Japanese students sur- assumption then leads to a feeling of self-helpless- veyed, even with the significant rise in actual inter- ness with respect to active attitudes and participa- national-oriented experience. Rather, the role of this tion in the kokusaika process. In other words, this experience itself has been downplayed, implying could be understood as a “thirstless horse” syn- that the young Japanese in this study did not see drome: Students have been led to the international their own experience as making them much more waters, but they are not drinking as they should. internationalized. Thus, the image of a kokusaijin More evidence for this “thirstless horse” syndrome shifted more towards cognitive attributes (knowl- is seen in the percentages of students who are not edge and language ability) rather than affective at- interested in going abroad, shown below. We saw in tributes. This implies that international education Table 3 that, encouragingly, over 87% of students may do better to prepare students emotionally to everywhere want to travel abroad. However, the low- take a more active interest in international matters est figures are still among the Japanese –E students. rather than simply throwing them into interna- Turning the question around, Table 4 shows the per- tional situations and hoping they sink or swim. centages of students who replied that they were not Many Japanese may still cling to myths of unique- interested in going abroad (again), and reveals that ness, inferiority/superiority and insularity, and these nothing has changed in ten years. For both –E present major stumbling blocks in the minds of groups, over one student in ten would prefer to stay would-be kokusaijin. at home than to travel to a foreign country. There are at least three possible ways to proceed Even more revealing, and perturbing, is that fully with development of kokusai ishiki. One of these is
Table 4: Percentage of students who don’t want to go abroad
Country/condition **Jpn89-E **Jpn89+E Jpn99-E Jpn99+E *Germany *India *USA (N=105) (N=19) (N=78) (N=76) (N=32) (N=92) (N=95)
Desire to travel 87 93 87 99 100 97 97 Don’t want to go abroad 13.3 ***5.6 12.8 0 0 6.7 4.2 (% who had been abroad) 0 ***5.6 22 0 0 0 0
Note. *data from Yoneoka, 1993. **data from Yoneoka, 1991. ***N=1/19 students.
16 The Language Teacher 24:10 Feature: Yoneoka direct cross-cultural training with an emphasis on that the important thing is not necessarily lan- respect and value for human rights and the ability to guage ability, I now give myself a 6.” “be in another’s shoes.” The elementary school cross- At the very least, it is clear that some of the edu- cultural education curriculum due to be implemented cational programs meant to cultivate kokusaika in 2002 may provide an excellent opportunity for should undergo a review or quality control process. such training. The first point on such a curriculum, Especially, we need to address the problem raised however, should be to break down any notions that by the fact that 22% of the students in Jpn99-E Japanese society and people are inherently unique who had gone abroad were not interested in going and different from other peoples, or else any such again. Suggestions for improving this figure would training may end up reinforcing the very prejudices include encouraging more independence and free- and stereotypes it is meant to avoid. It should also dom of choice with respect to school trips, not endeavor to instill a healthy pride in one’s own per- only with respect to the destination, but also with sonal identity and culture that does not necessarily where to stay, what to do, and how to forge long- require knowledge of lasting friendships and minute details of specific ties. In addition, parents items of Japanese cultural could be encouraged to heritage, such as tea cer- “Students have been led to the take a more active role emony or sumo wrestling. in the international edu- It should also emphasize international waters, but they are cation of their children that language knowledge, not drinking as they should” by actually taking them especially of English, abroad themselves, and while extremely helpful allowing and encourag- in international communication, (a) is not a neces- ing them to travel abroad alone or with friends, if sary condition for development of kokusai ishiki and they so desire. (b) does not by any means guarantee the develop- ment of an individual as a kokusaijin.1 The same is Conclusion true of actual experience with foreign countries and In the past decade, thanks to the JET program, in- people. Finally, an interest in other countries, cul- ternational school trips, efforts of parents and En- tures and customs extending far beyond a simple dos- glish teachers, and advanced communications, the age of US pop culture must be instilled along with the rate of actual international experience of students motivation to continue developing international has more than doubled. Indeed, there has been a bonds, ties and friendships. marked shift away from experience as a character- A second method might be to “give the horses istic of a kokusaijin, which can be attributed to the what they think they need,” by providing a strict and increasing international experience of the students thorough education in language (especially in com- themselves. However, the answers as to whether municative competence) and world affairs in addition this increased actual international experience has to the experience-oriented education they are now resulted in a more affective interpretation of receiving. This would perform the role of a placebo in kokusaijin and improved self-evaluations towards the sense that students who have extensive experi- kokusaika unfortunately must be no on both ac- ence and language ability would perhaps come to counts. For kokusaijin, the shift away from experi- realize that something more is needed to actually be a ence has resulted more in an increase of emphasis true kokusaijin. Instruction in world affairs should on cognitive factors rather than affective at- include exposure to issues and problems such as pov- tributes. Thus, for students who feel they are lack- erty, overpopulation and environment from a world ing in such knowledge (i.e. most students), this point of view rather than a national one. puts the goal of becoming a kokusaijin in an even A third method, and perhaps the most simple and more unattainable position than it was before. Per- direct, is to reteach the meaning of kokusaijin itself. haps because of this, desire to travel abroad re- Simple presentation of the data from this series of mains unchanged, even decreasing among -E surveys should be enough to make some students students who have already been abroad. realize that they have been downplaying affective These results provide little support for the heart- factors. When students come to their own reassess- shift hypothesis discussed in section 1.1. A slight ments of these terms, they should tend to develop shift towards affective responses was indeed found an increased self-confidence in their own interna- to occur in students with more international expe- tional worth, which may lead to increased interest rience, but there was also a corresponding shift and motivation to gain more knowledge and a bet- towards emphasis on language ability. In addition, ter understanding of the world situation. As one as higher figures for affective attributes are seen in student put it, “I had originally rated myself as a 3 both the 1989 and 1999 +E students, this phenom- in terms of my kokusaika level, but after realizing enon must be interpreted as coming not from in-
October 2000 17 Feature: Yoneoka creased exposure but rather from an inherent inter- References est in internationalization itself on the part of Ishii, T. et al (1996). Ibunka kommyunike-shon handobukku these students. : kisochishiki kara oyo, jissen made (Intercultural commu- Of course, as measurement of language ability nication handbook, in Japanese). Tokyo: did not play a role in this paper (although we as- Yukaikakusensho. sume that the +E students, being foreign language Yoneoka, J. (2000a). (in press). What is a Kokusaijin?: A 10-year study. The Language Teacher, 24 (9). majors, in general have more language ability than Yoneoka, J. (1999). Towards the 21st century: goals and the –E students), we can still argue a modified form obstacles in English education in Japan. Kumamoto of the hypothesis: that increased confidence in Gakuen University Ronshu Sogo Kagaku 5-2 (p. 53-73). both language and world knowledge in addition to Yoneoka, J. (1993). Kokusaika no ime-ji;: nihon, doitsu, increased experience may push students closer to indo, amerika no daigakusei no hikaku. (Images of in- affective responses. Repeating this questionnaire ternationalization: comparison of survey responses with a group of highly advanced language students from Japan, Germany, India and the United States, in with extensive experience abroad would serve to Japanese). Kumamoto Shoka Daigaku Kaigai Kenshuron 20-2 (p. 81-95). address this argument. Yoneoka, J. (1991). Nihon to doitsu no wakamono no Finally, the problem of school-based cross-cul- kokusaika ni taisuru ishiki ya taido ni tsuite. (Student tural training backfiring and producing anti- attitudes towards internationalism in Japan and Ger- kokusaika sentiment is a real one, shown by the fact many, in Japanese). Kumamoto Shoka Daigaku Kaigai that over 1 in 5 –E students who had been abroad Kenshuron 19-1 (pp. 1-10). were not inspired enough by that experience to want to do it again. Thus, it may be that a more Note fundamentally humanistic approach to cultivating 1 As English is to form part of the 2002 curriculum, a kokusaika is needed. It is hoped that the cross-cul- potential pitfall to be carefully avoided is reinforcing tural education due to be introduced in 2002 into the equation internationalization = westernization = elementary schools may provide this approach, English (Yoneoka, 1999). If English must be taught in although care must be taken that stereotypical conjunction with cross-cultural education, it must be walls are broken down rather than built up. done so as an international language, i.e. one that can be used among Asian, African and other peoples of the Judy Yoneoka has been world, rather than simply a language to be used with North Americans, British, Australians and New teaching English language, Zealanders. linguistics, and cross-cultural education in Japan for almost 20 years. Her research interests include computers and the Internet in language education, World Englishes, and corpus linguistics. She currently re- sides in Kumamoto, Japan.
18 The Language Teacher 24:10
A Chapter in Your Life edited by joyce cunningham & miyao mariko
This month, you will read about successful formats used in Kitakyushu's chapter meetings. The coeditors of this column invite readers to submit 800-850 word reports about your chapter or SIG in Japanese, English, or a combination of both.
In Search of Ever-Better Programs by Margaret Orleans
We in the Kitakyushu Chapter have been blessed Another recent success consisted of a two-part for- with members willing to share the fruits of their ex- mat, Polishing Your Presentation. Feeling the respon- perience and research at our monthly meetings. Like- sibility to nourish more potential speakers among our wise, those who have seen a good speaker elsewhere membership, two members who are veteran present- are quick to pass on their recommendations. How- ers set up an afternoon workshop to teach ever, at the rate of twelve to fifteen meetings per year, PowerPoint and speaking skills. Those attending were even these generous sources at times threaten to dry expected to bring along a planned presentation, in- up, and so, we are always on the lookout for inven- cluding some sort of visual material. They received tive formats for our meetings and ways in which to individual help and a chance to rehearse before the encourage new speakers to step forth. regular meeting that evening, where they presented a Some of the successful alternatives to the staple twenty-minute excerpt of what they had prepared. lecture or workshop format have included My These mini-presentations were so well received that Share, Ask the Experts, and Polishing Presentation by popular demand two of them have been sched- Skills. While there are those who appreciate a uled for a full-length meeting next year. theory- or research-based lecture, most of our mem- As yet untested is our planned Overseas Study Fair, bers are looking for practical tips they can put to in which we hope to bring together embassy/consu- immediate use, and they are likely to find these at a late staff, experienced teachers, and potential stu- My Share meeting. In fact, My Share meetings have dents for a mixture of booths and lectures to answer proved so popular (perhaps because each of the pre- students' questions about study opportunities abroad. senters brings his/her own cheering section?) that Not every innovative format has been so success- we include at least one in each year's schedule. At ful. One seemingly good idea (a session at which such a meeting, four to six speakers each spend ten teachers wishing to make audio or video tapes could to twenty minutes on a stated theme. Themes we draw on a body of native and non native speaking have tried include Christmas activities, first-day ac- talent and produce the recordings in a language lab) tivities, creative evaluation options, games, hands- attracted only a dozen participants, but the small- on trial of one's favorite educational software, and ness of the audience may also have been attribut- the best thing one learned at a conference that year. able to the weather or the location. Coming later this year is a meeting on favorite One approach to programming, which has had teacher resources. Because the individual presenta- overall good results, is to work in collaboration with tions are so short, this format provides a good the larger community to share speakers, audiences, chance for a novice to get his/her feet wet before publicity, and facilities. In particular, we try each year trying a full-length solo presentation. to provide an interesting half-day program as part of Our two-part Ask the Experts program was the re- our city's International Week. For the past few years sult of observations that the Japanese and non-Japa- we have used the ongoing theme of Multicultural nese teachers of English knew little about what Families and engaged the support of an organization occurred in the others' classrooms. A panel of four of volunteer interpreters to bring individual speakers teachers, representing as wide a spectrum of teaching and panel presentations before a wider audience than situations as possible, responded to questions submit- normally attend JALT meetings. ted beforehand and from the floor at two successive Of course one can always invite in big-name monthly meetings. Actually, the meeting was entitled speakers from afar. For our chapter this has been Ask a Native, and in the first month "native" was de- possible through the cost sharing that takes place in fined as a native of Japan. Questions ranged from Kyushu Tours. These island-wide tours have brought actual classroom procedures and class sizes to how us speakers like Charles LeBeau, Laura MacGregor, the teachers themselves continued to improve their and Jill Robbins. With or without underwriting language skills. The second month's natives were na- from corporate sponsors, these speakers sweep tive speakers of English, and again they dealt with far- through Kyushu, making presentations at four or ranging questions. At both meetings, attendance was five chapters within a week to ten days. above average and discussion even more lively than For further information, please contact: Margaret usual. We feel that our goal of making the chapter Orleans;
20 The Language Teacher 24:10 My Share edited by scott gardner
My Share—Live! at JALT2000 in Shizuoka This year’s My Share—Live! will take place Saturday, November 4 from 12:15 to 1 p.m. To participate, make 50 copies of a favorite lesson or activity you have created, and bring them to the Material Writers SIG desk before the swap meet. Just sign a copyright release and you will receive an admission ticket to enter the swap meet and take lessons other teachers have contributed. Share a little fun at JALT2000!
Who Wants to Be a (Grammar) Millionaire? Shaun Gates 2. Illustrate the point of the Shiga Women’s Junior College game by referring to the black- board, and explaining the rules thus: “You and your partner have ¥1,000. If you This is a language game based on the television choose the correct answer to Question 1 your game show “Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?” It can money doubles to ¥2,000. You do the same thing be used with any type of multiple-choice exercise so from Questions 2 to 10 so if you get all the an- it is particularly useful if your class is preparing for swers right you will win ¥1,000,000. If you the TOEFL, TOEIC, or STEP. If you have not seen the choose the wrong answer you lose half your game, here is a summary. The television show is money but you can carry on playing. (This is based on the notion of “double or quits.” The con- done to encourage “losers” to keep playing.) You testant starts with £1,000. She is asked a question can withdraw from the game at any time by rais- and given four answers, one of which is correct—a ing your hands. The winners are the pair with situation similar to the student trying to answer a the most money at the end of the game.” multiple-choice item. If she chooses the right an- swer, the prize money doubles and the contestant moves on to the next question. As the game moves Figure 1 towards the £1,000,000 prize the questions get harder, and at some stage the contestant faces a 1. ¥2,000 6. ¥64,000 question she cannot answer with confidence. At this 2. ¥4,000 7. ¥125,000 point she can fall back on three lifelines: she can ask 3. ¥8,000 8. ¥250,000 the audience, she can call a friend, or she can ask for 4. ¥16,000 9. ¥500,000 two wrong answers to be removed giving her a 50/ 5. ¥32,000 10. ¥1,000,000 50 chance of choosing the correct answer. Each life- line can be used once only. The contestant can with- Three lifelines: draw at any stage in the game and keep the money 1) Ask someone in the class. she has won. 2) Use a textbook or reference book. This game can be easily modified for class work. 3) Remove two wrong answers. The chief difference is that on the television programme only one contestant can play at a time, If your answer is right your money doubles. but in the classroom version, the whole class plays If your answer is wrong your money halves. in pairs.
Preparation 3. Read out Question 1 and then the four answers. Before class make a list with ten multiple-choice test For example, if the question is: items. As far as possible, arrange the items in order of increasing difficulty. You can choose grammar I ______my leg. structures covered during course work or, if you pre- a. have been breaking fer, structures your students have problems with. b. had breaking my leg Photocopy the list. c. have broken d. was broken In Class you read, “a—I have been breaking my leg, b—I 1. Hand out one copy to each pair and give them had breaking my leg, c—I have broken my leg, five minutes to think about the answers. Students d—I was broken my leg.” can discuss answers with their partner only. While they are working prepare Figure 1 on the 4. Ask the students to choose an answer. Before you blackboard. give the correct answer, draw their attention to
October 2000 21 My Share
the blackboard again and tell them about the Some Final Points three lifelines: “When you do not know an an- You can adapt this game to any multiple-choice exer- swer you can use a lifeline. You have three life- cise, e.g. a vocabulary test, a reading comprehension lines. You can ask other pairs for advice. Or you exercise, etc. If your students can cope with a large can look at your class book/reference book for number of test items, play the game like the televi- one minute. Or you can come to my desk and I sion show. Invite a student to sit opposite you at the will point out two answers that are wrong. You front of the class and answer questions like a contes- can use each lifeline only once.” After all the stu- tant. When this game finishes, start again with a new dents have made their decisions, give the correct contestant and new questions. A Japanese version of answer and move on to the next question. this game show is on television so your students may already be familiar with the rules. 5. Don’t play the game too fast. Give your students time to think and argue about answers. They can sharpen their understanding of a grammar struc- Quick Guide Key Words: Test Preparation, Revision, Games, Pairwork ture even if they choose the wrong answer. Re- Learner English Level: All mind them about the lifelines and withdrawing, Learner Maturity Level: High School and up and ask them to update their total every time Preparation Time: Very short if using exercises from text- you give an answer. If the game finishes with book or test booklet more than one winning pair you can ask some Activity Time: About 30 minutes supplementary questions.
An E-commerce Webpage Project point, identify what services or Anthony P. Crooks, Sendai Board of Education products were on offer, and dis- cover how people accessing the pages could also contact the pro- Introduction viders of the service or obtain the advertised prod- When teachers conduct webpage construction exer- uct. I spent some time revising the students’ under- cises for ESL/EFL students, the resulting sites usually standing of basic webpage design techniques. Most concentrate on class members’ personal details and of the class had created a webpage earlier, but due interests. However, for ESP Business students, prepar- to the constant intake of students at the IEP, a basic ing rudimentary e-commerce websites can be an en- overview of the software (HotDog Express) had to gaging and valuable alternative to the more common be made for newcomers. “My Webpage” product. This article outlines a suc- Towards the end of the first session, I gave the cessful project in which students created commercial class members their primary assignment: By Week 5 websites for businesses in their neighbourhood. Even they had to advertise a local business with a website though the students involved were studying in a comprising three linked webpages and featuring Business English course at an Intensive English Pro- some of the characteristics found in the pages they gram (IEP) in Melbourne, Australia, this project could examined earlier. In groups of four, students be adapted to Japanese ESP contexts. brainstormed and compiled a list of relevant inter- view questions for business proprietors in the com- Students and Class munity close to the IEP centre. These questions The class comprised 15 Asian students who were pre- needed to gather enough information to provide paring to enter business programs at Australian uni- some background of the business and its services versities. They were in their final ten weeks of study and/or products. The responses would, in turn, be in the IEP, and had upper-intermediate level English classified and finally included on their website. For skills. They had prior experience with the Windows the following week, I asked the students to find a operating system and had also prepared a webpage in compliant business in the local area and collect ba- an earlier class at the same IEP. The class met once a sic information about this commercial enterprise. week for two hours over a five-week period. By Week 2, most students had identified a business and obtained some data. They had also arranged a Procedure time to meet proprietors to interview them about In the first session, I directed the students to exam- their respective businesses. During this second class, ine and analyse a number of commercial Internet we narrowed, refined and built on the questions gen- sites: look at webpages from a commercial view- erated in Week 1. I made it clear that the questions
22 The Language Teacher 24:10 My Share they posed had to be relevant to the business and not Conducting this project in Japan would reduce intrusive. This session also offered some further time the demand on the students to speak English, espe- to revise basic webpage design skills. cially in communication with business proprietors. Between the second and third classes, students Therefore, for the benefit of language practice, a were expected to meet with the businesses and greater emphasis would need to be placed on the gather information. Most students borrowed a dis- students’ interaction in English in class, on the pre- posable camera to take photos of the business, prod- liminary tasks and discussions (e.g. webpage exami- ucts, and proprietor. I later printed these photos nation) and the presentation of the final page in then scanned and saved them to disk. English. To a lesser extent, students could seek out With the majority of students having collected foreign businesses based in Japan and request their information from the businesses, Weeks 3 and 4 assistance in this assignment. allowed for the compiling of websites. In terms of I would also make a few other practical sugges- design, some students imitated pages we had exam- tions concerning the course. Firstly, students would ined in Week 1 as templates for their projects. Oth- be better served working in pairs rather than groups ers simply arranged the information into short, of four. This would allow far more intensive and detailed paragraphs, and with these individuals I economical computer usage in class. Secondly, as- provided design tips to move them away from the sessing the students’ technical proficiency is crucial. mundane appearance of some of their creations. The individuals involved in my project were already In our final session, Week 5, the students were confident computer users, but less technically adept given an hour to tweak their pages before they were students should be given a longer course (perhaps critiqued by other class members. In the critiquing ten weeks of classes, two hours a week) to be intro- process, the students had to assess the pages based duced to the Internet, to be shown commercial on a set of criteria that I had established. As was webpages and critique them, to have enough time expected, the students were relatively fair with their to locate willing businesses for website profiles, and assessment of their work, but some individuals of- to develop familiarity with a basic webpage de- fered some insightful critiques for the others. In signer. Finally, I would recommend utilizing feedback I received, the students were satisfied with freeware webpage designers such as CoffeeCup Free their exercises in basic e-commerce websites, and HTML or Arachnophilia (available at even though the sites were not uploaded to a host,
Discussion Quick Guide The exercise worked well in that the students were Key Words: Internet, Writing, Webpage Design, engaged in a wide range of language acts—students E-commerce had to read (webpages, business brochures), speak Learner English Level: Lower Intermediate to Advanced and listen (to each other, to business proprietors), Learner Maturity Level: Adults, College and up and write (their own webpages). They worked Preparation Time: Varies according to teacher’s and stu- dents’ familiarity with webpage design collaboratively in English towards products of Activity Time: Ten hours (five two-hour classes), plus which they were genuinely proud. student research/interviews outside of class
My Share—Live! at JALT2000 in Shizuoka
This year’s My Share—Live! will take place Saturday, November 4 from 12:15 to 1 p.m. To participate, make 50 copies of a favorite lesson/activity you have created, and bring them to the Material Writers SIG desk before the swap meet. Just sign a copyright release and you will receive an admission ticket to enter the swap meet and take lessons other teachers have contributed. Share a little fun at JALT2000!
October 2000 23 24 The Language Teacher 24:10 Off the Presses edited by malcolm swanson
Teaching and the materials we use have always been closely intertwined. Each needs the other, but so often in academic publications, commercial interests are relegated to positions of paid advertising only, leaving com- panies with little opportunity to let us know about news, events, or material releases in print. This month we begin a new column, Off the Presses, which offers our publishing colleagues a chance to tell us some of the exciting developments taking place in their companies. We start with an article by James Hursthouse of eigoTown.com and ELT News. For further inquiries about this column, please contact
eigoTown.com and ELT News “Off the Presses”—an appropriate name indeed for US (and other English-speaking countries), includ- this new TLT column, given the fact that the first ing the experiences of other Japanese people in Cul- company to be featured publishes almost exclu- ture Cafe. High-profile interviewees have included sively without going anywhere near a press. “Off the Hollywood actress Kudo Yuki and Apple Japan Presi- Presses and onto the Internet!“ dent Harada Eikoh talking about the difference that Still, publishing is publishing, and I’m very happy English skills have made to their lives and work. to take up TLT’s offer of an opportunity to let you She can find a language school in Japan for a know about developments at ELT News and its par- little extra English practice before she goes. Our ent company, eigoTown.com. Our company’s over- “Studying in Japan” Database lists over 9000 all goal is to provide a wide range of solutions, schools, which are all searchable by location and combining the Internet and multimedia technology type of program. with English education, to meet both learners’ and She can find practical guidance to help her pre- teachers’ needs. I’d like to explain a little bit about pare for traveling overseas in Ryugaku Plaza, which how we’re going about this. includes information about visa requirements and Many of you will already be familiar with ELT financial matters. Sample application letters to News (www.eltnews.com). The site is visited by schools and home stay families help make sure the thousands of ELT professionals weekly, and we have trip gets off to a good start. If she can’t find the in- over 10,000 subscribers to our free email newsletter. formation she needs, she can “Ask the Expert” for A “one stop” information source for those interested the USA, who will provide the answer that she in building or enhancing an ELT career in Japan, needs by email. ELT News includes teaching ideas, interviews with She can use our lively Message Boards to ask oth- luminaries in the ELT world, message boards, a jobs ers who have been to the States, perhaps even to the board, and of course, regularly updated news from same school, for advice. She can find an American the ELT world. e-Pal, and exchange emails. She can buy a book or video about the US, along eigoTown.com—Japan’s premier Website for anyone with a couple of English novels for the flight over, interested in English from eigoStore. What you may not be aware of is that ELT News is When she gets back to Japan, she can find a job part of a larger environment called eigoTown.com, that requires her newly improved English skills in an Internet-based community designed to be the our Jobs Section. There is also advice on application nexus of everything related to English in Japan. procedures and issues related to working in interna- Launched in March of this year, the site has quickly tional environments. established itself as the place that Japanese people can turn to for a wealth of information about such Language school owners—register your school for things as studying English, teaching English, and free in the Database traveling to English-speaking countries to work or to I’d like to invite any TLT readers who run lan- study or simply to have fun. guage schools to register their services in our Data- Let’s imagine that one of your final year English base. It’s free to register and it makes sense to have majors is planning a trip to the US to study for three your school appear when an eigoTown.com visitor months after she graduates. How can she make use searches for courses in your area. Also, don’t forget of eigoTown.com? that an ad on the ELT News jobs boards is a proven, She can practice English in eigoCollege. Interac- cost-effective way to recruit native speaker teachers. tive daily quizzes, including one relating specifi- Contact me at
October 2000 25 Off the Presses
Mac G4 Cube—the computer that proves that good Kenny Hong on free phone 0120-050-815. things really do come in small packages. ELLIS at JALT2000 The ELT Software Store Dr. Frank Otto, Founder and Chairman of the Board The third company in the eigoTown.com “triumvi- ofs CALI Inc. (the publishers of ELLIS), is one of this rate” is the ELT Software Store, currently representing year’s featured speakers for the JALT2000 Confer- over one hundred language-learning products. Our ence. Dr. Otto has over 33 years of experience in the flagship product, ELLIS (English Language Learning application of technology in language learning. and Instruction System), is a comprehensive interac- Come to his featured speaker workshop on the after- tive language-learning solution for learners at all lev- noon of 2nd November to find out how technology els. It combines graphics, full-motion video, digitized and language training have come together to create sound, voice recording, and animation in a user- opportunities for both teachers and learners. friendly environment. For more details, contact James Hursthouse
Departments
Book Reviews how words and grammar can be used” (pp. vi-viii). edited by katherine isbell and oda masaki Elsewhere, she reminds us that the themes of liter- ary texts are closely tied to how they are written, and there is an excellent table of contents at the A Window on Literature. Gillian Lazar. Cambridge: beginning of the book showing the relationship Cambridge University Press, 1999. pp. viii + 88. between the two. ¥1920. ISBN: 0-521-56770-X. Two units deal explicitly with literary language; but in the other units, the literary focus is more implicit. Many EFL teachers are discouraged from using liter- According to the author this is because “students at ary texts in their classrooms because the word lit- the early to mid-intermediate level need to feel free to erature is often equated with boredom and consists experience and enjoy the creative language of litera- of an interpretation of the text by an authority or a ture, without being overloaded by literary line-by-line translation activity. It may also be metalanguage” (p. vii), and I think she accomplishes overwhelming to introduce the difficult language such a goal. The texts are read in a variety of accents of literary texts to the learner who is still grappling appropriate to the feelings of the characters on the with basic vocabulary and grammar. On the other cassette, which accompanies the text. hand, I frequently find beginner-level students are Altogether, there are ten poems, four play ex- not motivated by some textbooks that aim for tracts, two short story extracts, and one complete communicative competence because of the simplic- short story. The complete text by Janet Frame, “The ity of the content as well as language. Lazar’s col- Birds Began to Sing” is especially powerful. I have lection of authentic literary texts solves both one regret about the textbook, and that is because problems. The selections are linguistically simple, of the brevity of the extracts, it may be difficult to yet they deal with mature and up-to-date topics get students to interpret some stories. For example, such as charity and hypocrisy, the difficulty for in Unit 5, using an extract from Harold Pinter’s “A people to communicate with each other, and the Slight Ache,” the students are asked to infer what treatment of the elderly. will happen next in the play, and although the The book is comprised of twelve units, and each Notes section at the end of the unit includes infor- unit has a language focus as well as a thematic fo- mation about the author that may help, the task cus. Most of the language work is focused on gram- seems very challenging for a nonnative speaker. mar with the exception being Unit 7. Here the This is partly because the full context of the play language focus is sociolinguistic, and the unit ex- cannot be grasped, but then again, perhaps it is the amines how language is used to gain power in con- selection of the playwright that is the problem. On versation. One strength of the textbook is that the whole though, I highly recommend A Window grammar work is not isolated as it often is in other on Literature as a textbook. It is well balanced with textbooks. Lazar claims, “by exposing students to writers from a wide range of ethnic backgrounds. the rich language of the text, we can expand their Reviewed by Kayo Ozawa language awareness, their overall knowledge of International Christian University High School
26 The Language Teacher 24:10 Book Reviews
Using Newspapers in the Classroom. Paul photocopiable texts, and at the same time, it is Sanderson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, also appreciably more expensive than Grundy. 1999. pp. xxii + 275. ¥4720. ISBN: 0-521-64526-3. The ideas, nonetheless, range from language to cultural aspects, and many can be used in general This book contains 131 different teaching activities English classes. The bibliography and appendices for using newspapers in the ESL classroom. The are undoubtedly beneficial. They contain clear sum- chapters are divided according to the sections that maries of the stylistic and structural features of make up a newspaper. For example if you want to newspaper English as well as an almost up-to-date work on headlines, a glance at the contents page list of websites for some of the major newspapers in will tell you that the first chapter has 16 ideas for Britain, Ireland, and America. Unless you already using headlines. I found these divisions clearer and have Grundy’s book and do not want to buy a simi- more helpful than those which start from a peda- lar one, I would certainly recommend Using Newspa- gogical base, such as Building Confidence and Fa- pers in the Classroom. miliarity, or Project Work, two of the chapters in a Reviewed by Tim Knight similar resource book by Grundy (1993). The author Ferris University suggests what level each activity is designed for, how teachers should prepare, and how to guide stu- Reference dents through the activity. Some of the activities Grundy, P. (1993). Newspapers. Oxford: Oxford University seemed to require a lot of time-consuming cutting Press. and pasting that would be tedious for a class of 20 or more. Many, however, are immediately user- Street Talk: Essential American Slang & Idioms. friendly and adaptable. One to challenge the more David Burke and David Harrington. Studio City: advanced students is to ask them to select a story Caslon Books, 1998. Student book: pp. vii + 136. from a Japanese language paper and then rewrite it ¥1980. ISBN: 1-891888-09-9. as a brief news story for English news media—as a foreign correspondent might. Another, for lower The title of this vocabulary textbook is perhaps levels, is to use the list of world temperatures from misleading. Street Talk does not replicate nor expli- the weather section to practice understanding num- cate the English used on the streets of most Ameri- bers. can cities (at least not the streets of the New Jersey Sanderson’s book is part of the Cambridge Hand- city where I grew up). Also, Japanese college stu- books for Language Teachers series, which has a dents eager to understand rap lyrics or movies like focus on the practical, but is grounded in theory. In “Pulp Fiction” are bound to be disappointed. Nev- the introduction, therefore, the author argues the ertheless, Street Talk does offer an entertaining in- case for using newspapers in language teaching. troduction to common, if not essential, American Even those teachers who are already convinced of slang and idioms. the benefits of this will find the guidelines on pages Street Talk consists of ten lessons, each of which 12-14 helpful. Here the author explains why news- focuses on a set of slang words and idiomatic ex- papers should be used with pre-intermediate stu- pressions related to a common theme, for example, dents—not only advanced—and how newspapers on vacation or at a restaurant. Each lesson opens can be made more accessible for these learners, with a getting started activity, which introduces the quoting the well-known language teaching maxim, expressions by means of humorous illustrations and “Grade the task—not the material” (p. 15). One a paraphrasing exercise. Next, a dialogue demon- thing he advocates in general is using lots of short strates how the expressions are used in conversa- news items rather than a few long articles. By fol- tion. The following section, Real Speak, gives lowing this advice, I have found students are able to pronunciation tips such as the slurring of going to experience the many different parts of a newspaper, into the colloquial gonna. Practice the Vocabulary choose items that interest them, and build their consists of a listening activity that requires the Street confidence in using newspapers before embarking Talk cassette tape (ISBN 1-891888-11-0) which I did on longer, perhaps more difficult, reading tasks. not have so I cannot comment. A speaking activity The academic background of the book also means in the form of pairwork or a group game follows, it contains interesting quotations from and refer- and finally, the expressions are reviewed in the final ences to other books about newspapers and journal- section. ism English in the main body of the text where the The illustrations in this text are perhaps its stron- activities are described. This strength, however, can gest feature. The expression tie the knot is depicted be a drawback to teachers who might want to use by a bride and groom with their arms tied in a neat the book purely as a fast resource. I found the infor- bow. A bedridden basset hound with a thermometer mation rather densely presented. In addition, com- sticking out of his mouth shows us what it’s like to pared to the Grundy book, it lacks many be sick as a dog. These illustrations, though not al-
October 2000 27 28 The Language Teacher 24:10 Book Reviews ways etymologically accurate, provide vivid and bridge: Cambridge University Press and Edition Helbing, humorous images of the expressions, and this 1998. makes the expressions memorable. One shortcoming of Street Talk’s style of presenta- Course Books !Innovations: an intermediate/upper intermediate tion is that it implies that all of the vocabulary in course (student’s, teacher’s, workbook, cassettes). Dellar, each set are of the same register or have the same H., & Hocking, D. Hove: Language Teaching Publica- level of appropriateness. For example, I might tell a tions, 2000. woman sitting next to me on an airplane that I am Language in Use ( student’s, teacher’s, cassette, self-study a frequent flyer, that I had been bumped from a previ- workbook, self-study cassette). Doff, C., & Jones, C. Cam- ous flight, or that I had jet lag. However, if she bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. looked ill, I might hesitate to offer her a barf bag. Although I was able to incorporate a lesson from Business English !Management Matters 2 (CD-ROM). Tomalin, B., & Street Talk into my university English Conversation Aspinall, T. Essex: IBI multimedia, 2000. class with reasonable success, I find less need for a vocabulary text containing dialogues, listening ac- Readers tivities, and pairwork and more need for a general Mystery and Murder in Australia: Australian Reader conversation text which includes a generous por- Collection. Harris, C. Sydney: NCELTR, 2000. tion of slang and idiomatic expressions. However, for those learners who have a special interest in col- Supplementary Materials loquial English, Street Talk can be a helpful guide. !Idioms Organizer: Organized by Metaphor, Topic and Keyword. Wright, J. Hove: Language Teaching Publica- Reviewed by Gregory Bornmann tions, 1999. Kibi International University
Recently Received compiled by angela ota The following items are available for review. Over- seas reviewers are welcome. Reviewers of all class- room related books must test the materials in the classroom. An asterisk indicates first notice. An ex- clamation mark indicates third and final notice. All final notice items will be discarded after the 31st of October. Please contact Publishers’ Reviews Copies Liaison. Materials will be held for two weeks before being sent to reviewers and when requested by more than one reviewer will go to the reviewer with the most expertise in the field. Please make reference to qualifications when requesting materials. Publishers should send all materials for review, both for stu- dents (text and all peripherals) and for teachers, to Publishers’ Reviews Copies Liaison.
For Students
Children Join In Starter (student’s, teacher’s, cassette). Gerngross, G., & Puchta, H. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and ELI, 2000. Join In 1 (student’s, teacher’s, cassette). Gerngross, G., & Puchta, H. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and ELI, 2000. Join In 2 (student’s, teacher’s, cassette). Gerngross, G., & Puchta, H. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and ELI, 2000. Playway to English 1 (student’s, teacher’s, cassette, activ- ity book, cassette). Gerngross, G., & Puchta, H. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press and Edition Helbing, 1998. Playway to English 2 (student’s, teacher’s, cassette, activ- ity book, cassette). Gerngross, G., & Puchta, H. Cam-
October 2000 29 JALT News
tions about the journal submitted online. The JALT News position will begin in May 2001, after publica- edited by amy e. hawley tion of the May issue of the journal, and the ap- plicant will work closely with current Webmaster This month’s JALT News Column contains four items. The and Incoming Editor Nick Jungheim to facilitate first, a reprint from last month’s column, is a call for three the transition. JALT Journal positions. The next is the letter that was sent by Interested applicants must: (a) be a JALT member Thom Simmons, JALT National President, to the Sapporo in good standing, (b) be resident in Japan, (c) have a High Court in regards to Gwen Gallagher’s unfortunate dis- missal from her university position. It is followed by a finan- computer that can read and write MS Word files, (d) cial report from our Director of the Treasury, David be able to design and upload webpages, and (h) be McMurray. The column concludes with further good news able to make a commitment of three years. about support from the FBC. Those interested in any of these positions should submit a curriculum vitae and cover letter to the current editor, who will also answer questions about Three Position Announcements the positions: Sandra Fotos, EdD, Editor, JALT Jour- for JALT Journal nal; School of Economics, Senshu University, 2-1-1 Higashi Mita, Tama-ku Kawasaki-shi, Kanagawa-ken 1. Associate Editor 214-0033, Japan;
30 The Language Teacher 24:10
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34 The Language Teacher 24:10 JALT News
We wish to present a perspective based on what with practise. After years of practise and increased we know about Professor Gallagher that also seems knowledge of the students’ environment, a compe- to be reflected in the court’s decision although the tent professional will in fact become far more valu- conclusion does not seem to have taken the follow- able to any tertiary education institution than ing into consideration. That opinion is this, Gwen when they first started teaching. We feel justified has mastered not only communication with her in saying that her status at any professional educa- compatriots, but she has also become skilled in tion institution should reflect her qualifications, communication in the international community experience and her prestige among her peers. On which by definition includes Japan. my bookshelves here in my apartment are books I would like to ask if the Court would consider on learning the Japanese language written by re- why I make this statement about Professor spected Japanese teachers in the USA. They are val- Gallagher’s qualifications. We know that Professor ued for their linguistic competence in Japanese and Gallagher has learned how to function in a Japa- their ability to communicate in the USA. And so, as nese society as a good citizen and a competent is true in any truly professional institution, rather teacher. Reason dictates that if she has learned to than being dismissed for becoming too communicate and live in Japan she is in fact ca- “Americanised,” they are valued members of their pable of learning how others see themselves and academic communities. their culture and adjusting her behaviour accord- Encouraging foreign nationals in Japan to partici- ingly. Consider also that we have observed that she pate and become constructive members of society has developed a highly astute ability to compare can only enrich Japan. For a teacher, it means that her culture of origin with her adopted culture. How their work and their efforts are valued. And as val- does this effect her ability as a teacher? By seeing ued members of society, their work as teachers will the same culture from different perspectives, we continue to improve and contribute to the quality can learn more than if we never learned to com- of education in Japan. pare our environment with other cultures. Learn- I urge the Court of Appeals to consider very care- ing about how to live in Japan has in fact made her fully Professor Gallagher’s appeal. more competent to teach about the culture she Sincerely, comes from. Dr. Thomas L. Simmons How do we know this is true? Professor Gallagher President (2000-2001) has evinced her skills in communicating with the NPO Japan Association for Language Teaching diverse international community that is JALT and the Asahikawa Court decision has confirmed that she has learned to communicate in Japan with Japa- Good Financial News nese. Having mastered communication in two dis- In a non-profit language teacher organization like parate societies, that of her native community and JALT most members usually prefer to stay as far that of her adopted community, reason dictates that away from numbers and income statements as they she is what she purports to be, a professional lan- can. But this year is different, because after six guage educator and an expert in communication. straight years of financial losses due to difficult Professor Gallagher has proven she is wonderfully economic times, JALT finally earned a small profit. suited to provide comparative insights to her stu- TESOL Inc. (Teaching English to Speakers of Other dents a “fureshu gaijin” would be unable to do. This Languages) based in the US with over 14,000 mem- can only be reasonably construed to mean she is bers worldwide for example recently reported a net truly qualified to teach young students about her loss of $150,000 (¥15,750,000) for the year ended own native language and culture. March 31, 2000. Furthermore, in my experience, all professional Our approximately 3,000 teacher-members of education organisations work to advance the im- JALT and the many supporters in the school, uni- provement of a teacher’s communication skills and versity and book publishing industry must now be ability to deal with the student’s culture. This is wondering, “Just how did JALT manage to break done in the belief that these are necessary to pro- even during the 1999/2000 year?” vide the highest quality of education. This im- JALT took several major steps last year to ensure provement can only come with time and it met the financial goals its members wanted, experience. It is only natural that this would be namely to stop spending more than it earned. Post- exemplified by one who has adapted to life in their poning one of its academic journals was a difficult community. From this we must conclude that Pro- decision that was made to keep expenditures under fessor Gallagher is in fact qualified to fulfil the mis- control (which was mitigated by adding extra ar- sion goals of any professional educational ticles to its May 2000 Journal), but one of the most organisation. successful measures JALT took was to boost its sales It is the nature of any professional to improve and fundraising initiatives. Over twenty new do-
October 2000 35 36 The Language Teacher 24:10 JALT News/JALT2000 nors pledged to help the 25-year-old association, including embassies, testing organizations, founda- Conference tions, and small book publishers, and by the end of the year they contributed nearly 4.5 million yen News toward JALT’s many fine programs. edited by l. dennis JALT’s full-time Financial Manager Motonobu woolbright Takubo reported a ¥2,114,492 profit for the year ended March 31, 2000. Revenues totalled ¥81,121,294 and expenditures were ¥79,006,802. Are you looking for a iob? JALT’s elected Director of Treasury David Are you looking to make a career move? Are you McMurray notes these figures will be audited by curious about what kinds of teaching jobs are the firm Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu but says confi- available? Would you like to live and work in an- dently, “the fact that JALT was able to turn a profit other area of Japan? Or, are you an employer look- to March 31, 2000, however small, constitutes a ing for the right person to fill a teaching position new and welcome development to the association.” at your school or company? Come and visit the A full report will be made to the annual general JALT Job Information Center and we’ll do our best meeting of members at the next conference to be to help! held in Shizuoka from November 2-5, 2000. The Job Information Center (JIC) is an informa- Congratulations to JALT on a very special finan- tion exchange center and meeting place for poten- cial year. tial employers and teachers. The JIC posts job The NPO JALT Director of Treasury is David listings for teaching positions in a wide variety of McMurray who may be contacted for more infor- schools in all areas of Japan. The JIC staff is happy mation about finance at
October 2000 37 38 The Language Teacher 24:10 SIG Focus
The SIG Hong Kong to lead a workshop on Action Re- Focus search. We’ve also collaborated with IATFL’s column Teacher Development SIG for past retreats. At offers a JALT2000 the SIG will sponsor two presentations: SIG Focus chance for a closer look one by member Tim Knowles on Action Research at one of and the other a workshop by Jack Millet, The JALT’s Special School for Int’l Training, on Reflective Practice. Interest Groups. The Teacher Education SIG website is Each month we
October 2000 39 SIG Focus students at a high level, not only by varying his hand, “Are they going to mess up my lesson plan?” method of presentation or his instructional materi- “Will I be able to keep order?” and “Wouldn’t it be als but also by giving his students a sense of secu- nice if nobody showed up?” are questions that should rity, success and achievement” (p. 23). put us on our guard if they become habitual. (I doubt The implied “planning for motivation” by the if there’s any full-time teacher who never harbors teacher seems to be a bit of a red herring in that thoughts like these!) the factors that go into the creation of learner mo- And how can we made [sic] sure these indicators tivation—interest, energy level, relevance, rapport, of our motivation continue to manifest themselves preoccupations, to name but a few—are highly per- in our conscious minds? The only answer suggesting sonal and individualistic and therefore, by defini- itself with any degree of regularity and universality tion, will vary from class to class and even from is, “By interacting with other teachers.” Participants moment to moment in the same class. If we “plan” in the teacher-training course I am involved with learner motivation, we must assume that the fac- almost without exception identify interaction with tors I’ve just mentioned are comparatively constant the other participants and with the course tutors the and predictable, thus denying the learners their most motivating aspect. To mention a few ex- individuality and idiosyncrasies. That gets us into amples: “It energized me,” “The interaction moti- what I call the “bell curve syndrome,” where vated me to try out radically different approaches,” achievement is measured numerically and standard [and] “Without a chance to discuss in depth my deviation is the norm. It’s a world where teachers teaching and new ideas, the course would have been go into a new class with the rallying cry of the no different from my college classes.” Great Demoralization. “Well, here we go again,” The important difference between this type of and the end of a class is marked with the words interaction and “Let’s talk about our classes and the equally indicative of desperation: “Ten down, three problems we have” is that the former is focused and to go.” Their practice exemplifies one definition of structured by peer observation and by specific obser- insanity: doing the same thing over and over while vation topics, such as “teacher talk,” “correction,” expecting different results. “affective factors” and “materials.” Another crucial And then there are teachers who walk into their difference is the purpose of the interaction: not to first class of the new term with adrenaline pumping, get some neat ideas for your next class, but to get and for whom the end of a class may bring euphoria recharged as a teacher, to change from “What shall I or deep reflection, but hardly ever a sigh of relief. do for my next class?” to “What adventure awaits What accounts for the difference between these me in my next class…and the one after that, and two types of teachers? Motivation. Not motivation of the one after that!” It’s the interaction that creates students but of teachers. If teachers themselves are the motivation, not the other way around. As Paulo not motivated, no manner of methods, approaches or Freire (1987) puts it: “Motivation takes part in the techniques is going to create motivation among their action. It is a moment of the very action itself. That students on a continuing basis. We are all familiar is, you become motivated to the extent that you are with the very successful and seemingly motivating acting, and not before acting” (pp. 4-5). “one-off,” whether it is a substitution or demonstra- This is what I hope to be one of the main foci for tion lesson. But the nagging question always remains, the Teacher Education N-SIG: an action forum for “What would the twenty-third lesson be like?” This the focused and meaningfully structured exchange question does not arise with the motivated teacher; of ideas on teaching and learning to help us develop we know that student involvement and energy levels as teachers. Once the process has started, we will will remain high, that success does not depend on a become motivated to enhance our teaching and particular technique or activity, but on the invest- thus to…develop further—which will reinforce our ment by the teachers in their students. motivation and so on, hopefully ad infinitum, or at How do we as teachers know whether we are moti- least until an end is put to our teaching. Whether vated? By verbalizing the questions that go through we consider that end merciful or regrettable will our minds as we prepare for teaching. When we can depend on how much we have been motivated as a honestly say that such thoughts as, “I can’t wait to teacher—a motivation that is directly related to our find out what the students are going to do with this active participation in our own development. activity,” “What am I going to learn from and about my students?” “Will there be some unexpected devel- References opments that can lift the lesson far beyond what I Riley, P. (1985). Discourse and Learning. London and New have planned?” and “Am I going to be challenged to York: Longman. critically examine some ideas I have taken for granted Finocchario, M. & Bonomo, M. (1973). The Foreign Lan- too long?” recur regularly during lesson planning and guage Learner: A Guide for Teachers. New York: Regents. before we enter the classroom, we can take it as a Shore, I. & Freire, P. (1987). Pedagogy for Liberation. New solid indication of being motivated. On the other York: Bergin & Carvey.
40 The Language Teacher 24:10 SIG Focus
Donald Freeman: An E mail Interview often differ from the dominant or prevailing ex- with Andy Barfield planations in their work settings. In other words, reflective teaching involves coming to talk differ- AB: Dr. Freeman, thank you for agreeing to do this ently about your teaching so you make new sense interview….One theme that underlies our SIG’s ef- to a new group of people. This process of becom- forts is “cooperation” and another is “reflective ing articulate in these new, what I would call practice.” I’m wondering what themes you find counter-settings is directly tied to fostering change prominent in your work at the moment. in teaching practice. Put another way, you need someone to talk to about your work. . .and in that DF: I am working on three notions right now that process, you explain your work so that it will make come from my experience as a teacher educator as sense to him/her. But this changes the work itself: well as the research I have been doing into how By putting words on to (or into) it, you are making people learn to teach. The three ideas are “articula- it different. So if you say, “The students are shy,” tion,” “explanation,” and “community of explana- that casts the work in one way. If you say, “The tion/practice.” They may sound abstract, but they material’s too hard for them,” that casts it in a are really quite simple and concrete. Articulation different way. In this case, one way points your refers to the process of putting ideas into language thinking towards the students while the other (either oral or written), explanation to what we points towards lesson planning and the choice of put into language to make sense of what we do. In material. And you might find that the first is fatal- other words explanations are the phrases or ideas istic—“That’s just the way they are. . .” leaves you which we use to describe what we do or happens with little to do about it. While the second is more in the classroom. instrumental—“You could try a different tech- So if you tell me, “Those students are shy because nique,” leads you to explore options. they’re only freshman,” that is your explanation for My point is that explanation shapes practice; the why they may not talk a lot in your class. The act of way you define it shapes what you do about the telling me is articulation. Now I may or may not issue. And likewise new ways of making sense breed share your perception of shyness or of what those new forms of teaching. students are capable of, so your explanation will—or won’t—convince me. AB: I’m wondering what new forms of sense-making AB: . . . and if we don’t share the same explana- you might have in mind here, and how they might tion, then what? be sustained... DF: That is where the third concept—community DF: My work and interest have been in formulating of explanation/practice—comes in. The commu- a descriptive theory of teacher learning, so I am not nity of practice describes the group of people that advocating any particular new form of teaching or does the same things; the community of explana- new way of explaining things. In my mind, that tion describes the group that shares the same ex- form would, in fact, depend on the community of planations for things. So if you take the teachers’ explanation into which the teacher seeks to enter. room for example, the group there is a community So for a beginning teacher, the new form of sense- of practice since everyone teaches at the same in- making would probably be the socialization of the stitution. However it is not one single community host school environment. . .for an experienced of explanation, since different people may share teacher, it might be the community of a new form different reasons for why things are the way they of practice that s/he runs into in a workshop. You are in teaching. So when you make the same state- see, sustaining new forms of explanation is prima- ment, “Those students are shy because they’re only rily a matter of belonging. It depends on walking freshman” in this group, perhaps the old-timers the walk and talking the talk of that community of will agree with you—and thus they share in your explanation. You remain connected to that group community of explanation—while the newcomers because you are sustained by its explanations. . .and may not. They may have another explanation, like vice versa. The group makes the explanations work “that material was too hard for those kids,” or for you. whatever. AB: So are you talking about belonging to one This is a rather quick synopsis of some of the key group—or community of explanation—or many of ideas in my work.... them... AB: Does this relate then to how teachers talk to DF: Well, that’s just it. We all are connected to each other about reflective teaching for example? many communities of explanation simultaneously, DF: Yes, it does. In reflective teaching, when teach- so the strength of this belonging (or allegiance, as I ers interact, they are creating new communities of call it) varies. In teaching, we have explanations explanation (in my lingo). These communities that come from our tacit experiences as students,
October 2000 41 SIG Focus/SIG News
from our formal training, from our workplace, doing in teacher education is really at the base of from our professional peers, and so forth. And how we operate. It is the Cartesian premise that we many times, these various explanations will con- can “give” people ideas and then they will act on flict. them...you know, “theory informs practice,” You see, I am working on the notion of explana- “research should shape teaching,” “textbooks tion as the “unit” of teacher education (whether it is drive the curriculum” and so on. teacher self-education, as in reflective practice, or for- This transmission notion of education is largely mal training). For me, “explanation” connotes two shaped by the context of higher education. It has things: 1) something that needs explaining and 2) lead to the whole notion that there is theory and someone(s) to explain (or make sense of) it there is practice and that they are separate, or that to...which I am calling the community of explana- teachers’ words and their actions are separate. And tion. So in a sense your identity as a teacher depends I’m not convinced that this is true or even useful to on your explanations making sense to your students, pursue since, for example, talking is a form of ac- your peers/colleagues, and the work setting in which tion, and when you talk to someone that shapes you practice. Likewise, teacher education programs— what you say. I think it may be more productive to whether they are formal MA programs, a RSA Certifi- take both thought and action as forms on a con- cate or a reflective self-development group—all tinuum of social definition so that what you say depend on explanation. This links the individual to and what you do as a teacher need to fit in (or as I the group and vice versa. It is the social fabric of the have said, make sense) for a particular group and group that sustains the explanations. setting.... AB: Presumably this has lead you to examine closely how teachers construct and develop what they know, believe or do as teachers. What has struck you as particularly important here? DF: Three things...First that the conventional Special Interest Groups dichotomy between thinking and doing, on which much of teacher education operates is probably not News useful, and second that the unit of teacher educa- edited by robert long tion and change is probably not the individual but the group. And third that, if our aim is to trans- Interested in learning more about your SIG? Please feel free to form teaching, we cannot do so via working on contact the coordinators listed after this column. behavior; we need to account for sense- making…for how people situate themselves in—or CALL: The CALL SIG has many events planned for belong to—their contexts. I could elaborate any or JALT2000. Stop at our table to get more informa- all of these ideas...what suits you? tion. Now we are looking for CALL users to present at our forum in Shizuoka on November 4, AB: The second point is clear—the first more or less 10:15-12:00. The forum will run on a software fair so, but it still merits some clarification.... and poster session model with people showing DF: Well, the dichotomy between thinking and and/or explaining their favorite software or
Make sure The Language Teacher moves with you. A Language Send the following information to the JALT Central Office, Urban Teacher Edge Building, 5th Floor, 1-37-9 Taito, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0016 tel: 03-3837-1630; fax: 03-3837-1631; [email protected]
Name: ______New Address: ______Moving? ______Tel. ______Fax ______Email ______New Employer ______
42 The Language Teacher 24:10 SIG News
projects. Presenters will need to bring their own College and University Educators—Alan laptops to show software. For more information Mackenzie; t/f: 03-3757-7008(h); visit
edited by robert long Forming SIGs Bilingualism—Peter Gray, t/f: 011-897-9891(h); Pragmatics—Yamashita Sayoko; t/f: 03-5803-
October 2000 43 44 The Language Teacher 24:10 Chapter Reports
English phrases during the discussion. This mate- Chapter Reports rial provides the basis for lessons after the discus- edited by diane pelyk sions. For older students, written reports can also be added to balance oral skills. Gifu: June—Creative Activities for Teaching Writ- Reported by Renée Gauthier Sawazaki ing by Sean Gaffney. Gaffney demonstrated a mul- titude of activities that teachers can use in the EFL Matsuyama: April—Varied Second Language classroom to teach communicative writing. His Teaching by Che Jong-Hi, Kamie Kenji, Maria Ines emphasis throughout the presentation was on Toriishi, and Danielle Kurihara. Jong-Hi gave a demonstrating activities that can be used to en- detailed presentation on how to generate general courage students to write creatively and freely, communication abilities in a Korean class for first- without worrying about spelling and grammar year university students. One weakness of stan- mistakes. Gaffney maintained that students usu- dard Korean textbooks was their reliance on ally receive so much correction from other teach- katakana to help with reading new Korean words. ers that he usually refrains from correcting student The lecturer also stressed that her job was not just writing. Instead, he uses it as a medium for to provide conversational play for her students but teacher-student communication and encourage- also to teach the fundamentals of grammar, read- ment. Among some of the ideas presented to ing, and the language in general. stimulate creativity and idea generation from the Kamie presented a lecture on his pioneering ef- students were the use of videos, journals, readers, forts using computer technology to allow students pictures, and storytelling. to teach themselves German. These days, student Reported by Paul Doyon motivation is often lacking, and traditional texts lack the power to inspire students. His answer is to Gunma: June—Pair Discussion: Contextualizing combine new technology with the interests of stu- Communication by Barry Mateer. Both adoles- dents to increase participation and learning. The cents and adults are intellectually capable of using students create html pages in German on a wide complex linguistic structures. However, what is range of topics and present their work to the class the benefit to students of teaching phrases such as in groups. In addition, the students create indi- “Walk straight for two blocks and turn left,” when vidualized pages introducing themselves and other students are not yet able to make simple requests interests in German. Completing the pages with for clarification such as “Did you say...?” or “Do graphics, the students take a lot of pride in creat- you mean...?” Challenging his teaching with ing their own work. these sorts of questions, Mateer has created an Toriishi gave an introductory class in Spanish. effective way to aid students in developing clarifi- The aims of her first class are to cover the five cation, confirmation, and discussion skills that he following areas: (a) pronunciation and spelling, calls “pair discussions.” (b) masculine and feminine genders, plus plural Mateer consciously finds communication op- and singular forms in nouns and adjectives, (c) portunities in the class- learning how to estab- room using real lish first contact with occurrences, and re- others, (d) the present quires students to use indicative of the irregu- confirmatory and clari- lar verb ser (to be), and fication questions and (e) reducing student phrases to communi- fears. A video highlight- cate what is happening ing basic Spanish by or being talked about. native speakers in real For discussions, Mateer world situations provides topics that grabbed the attention of pertain to students’ the students. It is cer- lives such as “things I tainly worthwhile to use am proud of” or video material to “things my parents supplement more staid don’t care about.” Using student-generated ideas, textbooks. When students are relaxed and enter- he prepares handouts for the students to use as a tained, they will want to learn. base for their short discussions. Students tick off Kurihara presented a lecture on her pioneering ideas that apply to them and add three of their efforts in teaching French to first year university own. Although Japanese is not allowed, students students. Although they may be serious, defiant, are free to write Japanese words in the context of or giggly, all the students are basically afraid of
October 2000 45 46 The Language Teacher 24:10 Chapter Reports
speaking, especially in front of others. By laying viewing notes within 24 hours, knowing how to down strong rules and being able to explain in- separate main ideas from supporting details, and structions in Japanese, Kurihara creates an atmo- reviewing notes by reciting them aloud. sphere in which students clearly know what is Newfields further suggested various timesaving expected of them. For the first half of a typical devices including the elimination of vowels and lesson, she teaches grammar and expressions. creation of personal abbreviation systems. He Then for the remainder of the class, the students noted that there was no optimum approach to must practice a dialogue. Before students can note taking but that students should be encour- leave, they must practice the dialogue to the re- aged to find their own styles, the most important quired standard. By being forced to cooperate point being that the notes should make sense to with a partner and act out a dialogue for the in- the person taking them. structor, students realize they can speak. In the second half of the presentation, Reported by Paul Dalley Newfields compared his experience of teaching English in Japan to teaching in Taiwan. There are Nagasaki: June—Culture and Education in Japan obvious similarities. Both Taiwan and Japan place by Ushijima Youichirou. Ushijima brought his a great emphasis on students achieving good many talents and experiences to this interesting grades in order to enter good universities. Teach- workshop. He is the director of the Chikyukan ing tends to be exam oriented and, consequently, International Center in Nagasaki, as well as the students spend a great deal of time at cram coordinator of the International Association, schools. However, unlike Japan, the prevalence of former math teacher, and current part-time col- cable TV and English language radio programs lege instructor. He began by organizing us into an gives the Taiwanese students more exposure to identity and values clarification activity. Partici- English. Therefore, they tend to be at a much pants had to mark off sections of a card and con- higher level of competence. In addition, univer- sider places they wanted to go, expectations they sity textbooks for science, economics, and other had of their students, why they became teachers, subject areas are usually written in English, since and a favorite word or proverb. Then we were many Taiwanese academics in various disciplines seated in concentric circles in the middle of the have completed their academic training in En- room and did pairwork with a succession of part- glish-speaking countries. ners. Reported by Bob Jones Then we worked in larger groups and shared ideas about the development of our students. We were asked to summarize each of our colleagues’ ideas. Finally, we were assigned bilingual topic sentence cards about Japanese culture in general and asked to agree or disagree with the opinion. Advertiser Index We then formed a group consensus and com- pared notes with rival groups. Topics included IFC = inside front cover, IBC = inside back cover student motivation, human rights, body language OBC = outside back cover and emotion, volunteerism, and school rules. Reported by Tim Allan Cambridge University Press ...... 2 Council ...... 58 Nagoya: July—Creative Note-Taking Skills and English Teaching in Taiwan by Tim Newfields. Eigotown ...... 24 Effective note taking is an active process involv- EFL Press ...... 19, 36, 44 ing thought and creativity. Newfields maintained that part of this process involves guessing and Macmillan...... 48 predicting content before the lecture takes place. Nellie’s ...... 38, 50 This predicting stage has several advantages. It lightens the memory load and helps note takers Oxford University Press ...... IFC, IBC, 46 determine the relative importance of various sub- Pearson ...... 31, 32, 33, 34 ject matter during the lecture. By having some idea of the key concepts, note takers can be en- School Book Service ...... 18 couraged to develop their own abbreviations for Seido ...... 28, 60 recurring items. TEL Bookfair ...... OBC Newfields also gave out a questionnaire to help participants reflect on their own note-taking Thomson ...... 54 practices. Good practice was seen to include re-
October 2000 47 48 The Language Teacher 24:10 Chapter Meetings
Chapter Meeting Special Nagasaki—Teaching Speaking: Renewing Our Perspectives Through Discourse Saturday, October 28, 18:30-20:30; Nagasaki The Four Corners Tour 2000 Shimin Kaikan; one-day members ¥1,000
Each year, prior to the JALT National Conference, Kagoshima—Teaching Speaking: the main speakers of the conference, who have Renewing Our Perspectives Through generously agreed to sharing their precious time Discourse Sunday, October 29, to participate in The Four Corners Tour, travel 19:00-21:00; IM Building Iris across the nation to visit various JALT chap- Kyuden Plaza; one-day members ¥500 ters. This tour enables local chapter members, some of whom are not able to attend the Miyazaki—Teaching Speaking: Renewing National Conference, to get a share of Our Perspectives Through Discourse Tues- JALT2000. Since the speakers will take part day, October 31, 18:00-20:00; Miyazaki in local events, those who attend will be International College (MIC); one-day mem- fortunate enough to get in closer contact bers ¥750 with the speakers in a more intimate setting. It also gives the invited Summary for the Action Research topic: speakers a better opportunity She will discuss where action research came to gain an understand- from, and why it is becoming popular in the ing of the teaching TESOL field. Different approaches taken to situation in action research will also be considered. Her Japan. argument will be that collaborative approaches are most likely to bring about changes in practice. The Four Corners Tour Coordinators, Robin Summary for the Speaking topic Nagano, Tim Allan, and Joy Over the last ten years there has been a growing Jarman-Walsh, have been working interest in how speaking can be taught from a very hard to plan and schedule this year’s discourse-based perspective. This approach uses tour. The result is the ex- citing schedule outlined insights from discourse analysis, which examines below. Two of the main speakers, Dr. Ann Burns language beyond sentence level; and as it is used in and Dr. In Lee, will be visiting chapters courtesy of natural speaking context. This workshop considers Tuttle Publishing, Inc., sponsor of this year’s tour. some of the implications of a discourse perspective We hope many of you can come and take part! for English language teaching. There will be oppor- tunities for participants to design activities for learners at different levels based on a discourse Dr. Anne Burns approach. (NCELTR, Macquarie University) Niigata—Teaching Speaking: Renewing Our Dr. In Lee Perspectives Through Discourse Tuesday, (Chongju National University) October 24, 19:00-20:30; Niigata Women’s College (Kenritsu Niigata Joshi Tanki Daigaku); Nagoya—Tuesday, October 31, 18:30-20:30; one-day members ¥1,000, students ¥500 Nagoya International Center, lecture room # 2, 3F; one-day members ¥1000 Hiroshima—Teaching Speaking: Renewing Our Perspectives Through Discourse Chiba—Sunday, October 29, 13:00-17:00; Over- Wednesday, October 25, 17:00-19:00; Interna- seas Vocational Training Area (Reception Hall, tional Center, Crystal Plaza 6F; one-day members Wa), Makuhari Hongo; one-day members ¥500 ¥500 Dr. In Lee, winner of the JALT Asian Scholar Award, Kitakyushu—Beyond Intuition: Getting Started will present on a topic that relates to new trends in in Action Research the teaching of English in South Korea. He will Friday, October 27, 19:00-21:00; Kitakyushu focus on instruction at the pre-university level in International Conference Center (near Kokura public education. The presentation will be in both Station), Room 31; one-day members ¥500 English and Japanese.
October 2000 49 50 The Language Teacher 24:10 Chapter Meetings
Prefectural University (contact Mary Burkitt to con- Chapter Meetings firm the time and place). edited by tom merner Kanazawa—Motivating Japanese Students To Be Active Communicators by David Paul, David En- Akita—We will have a monthly meeting in Octo- glish House. The presenter will suggest two main ber. The final and detailed information will be reasons why we are failing with these students. provided later. The first is that we cling to traditional methods Gifu—(1) Split Storytelling by Tim Murphey and which only work for a small percentage of learn- Brad Deacon, Nanzan University, (2) Using Email ers. The second is that we use imported ideas to Increase English Learner Motivation by which were developed for completely different Suzuki Yuko, Nanzan University. The Split Story learning situations. Implications of these observa- technique involves breaking up stories and pro- tions for the classroom will be examined and viding motivating tasks to take advantage of stu- teaching options explored. Sunday October 15; dents’ natural curiosity to increase learning. In Shakai Kyoiku Center (3-2-15 Honda-machi, this workshop, participants will experience live Kanazawa). Split Stories and video examples taken from the Nagasaki—Reading With Pause, Prompt and presenters’ classes. In the latter presentation, a Praise: A New Way to Help Students With Read- key-pal project currently being conducted at a ing by Steven Donald and Mario McKenna, junior high school in Nagoya will be introduced. Nagasaki Junshin Catholic University, with Sunday October 22, 14:00-17:00; Dream Theater, Alison Kane, OUP. Pause, Prompt and Praise Gifu City; one-day members 1000 yen. (P.P.P.) was developed in New Zealand in the late Gunma—English As a Multicultural Language by 1970s to help students who were experiencing Honna Nobuyuki, Aoyama Gakuin University. reading problems to catch up and to become in- The speaker will discuss the various aspects of dependent readers. Studies show children make present day English and how English reflects a reading gains in comprehension, accuracy, and diversity of disparate cultures. Details can be fluency as well as in improved behavioral skills. found at:
October 2000 51 Chapter Meetings
loween and Thanksgiving. All age students enjoy Tokyo—Correction Techniques: Just What are We learning about the cultural holidays of their for- Doing and Why? by Jim Smiley, The ELEC Insti- eign teachers and are motivated to read, write, tute. A talk and workshop on correction tech- listen and speak on holiday customs, songs, and niques. The speaker will present various methods cuisine. Sunday October 29, 13:30-16:00; Nagoya of correction for discussion about their effective- International Center 3F meeting room 1; one-day ness, theoretic basis, how the correction method members 1000 yen. chosen highlights the teaching goals, and how to Nara—Reaching an Agreement by Parrill Stribling. express this to the student to ensure a better This three-hour workshop focuses on assisting learning environment. Saturday October 21, 14:00- students and teachers to reach a mutual under- 17:00; Sophia University (Yotsuya Stn), the Kioi standing concerning course goals, accountability, Building (opposite the New Otani Hotel), Room 108; and grading standards. Participants will be given one-day members 1000 yen. practical experience in setting and reaching Toyohashi—Achieving Authentic Communication agreement on writing, speaking, listening, and in the Language Classroom by Jean Simionian, reading goals. This presentation’s objective is to Martha Robertson and Kristi Joba. Use of video in nurture a mutual appreciation of course goals and the classroom, peer response groups for composi- evaluation standards. Saturday October 21, 14:00- tion classes, and video exchange programs will be 17:00; Tezukayama University, Gakuenmae Campus discussed as ways that go beyond games and ac- (Kintetsu Gakuenmae Station). tivities to achieve authentic communication. The Niigata—Fun, Communicative Grammar for Kids! approaches presented will be applicable to all Greg Cossu, co-author of SuperKids, and Sugiyama ages and proficiency levels. Sunday October 15, Keiko. Can children learn to speak natural En- 13:30-16:00; Aichi University, Toyohashi Campus, glish? Can they answer as well as ask questions? Building No. 5. This presentation will focus on the value of West Tokyo—Intercultural Communication Expe- teaching grammar in a fun, communicative way riential Learning Seminar. All JALT members are through grammar activities, pairwork, and gram- invited to participate in the SIETAR JAPAN Mini mar songs. Let’s help our students communicate Seminar on Experiential Learning. The focus will in a way in which they can be understood. Sun- be on sharing practical teaching know-how about day October 15, 10:30-13:30; Niigata International instructional activities for intercultural communi- Friendship Center; one-day members 1,000 yen. Look cation training, including how to conduct a for information about the Four Corners Tour simulation game and how to debrief it. On-site coming to Niigata in the next newsletter! contact: 070-5369-1894. Saturday & Sunday Octo- Okayama—Engaging Teachers in Professional De- ber 7-8, 10:00-17:00; Obirin University (Machida, 5- velopment and Cross-Cultural Discussions by minute bus ride from north exit of Fuchinobe Station Ian Nakamura, Hiroshima Kokusai Gakuin Uni- on JR Yokohama Line); 3000 yen per session. On versity and Okayama University. Guided teacher Saturday at 18:00-20:00, there will be a joint discussions offer us new ideas. Two types of dis- JALT-SIETAR meal at a Machida restaurant. cussions and related issues will be introduced. Yamagata—London in Terms of History, Culture, The first example will examine the process of be- Education, Language, etc. by Paula Stapley, coming a reflective teacher. The second example GEOS Language System. The presenter, who is a will explore cross-cultural observations and inter- Londoner, will give a presentation on London, pretations by comparing two films, Tampopo and focusing on foreign language acquisition and in- Eat, Drink, Man, Woman. Venue is yet to be an- struction. Sunday October 22, 13:30-16:00; Kajo nounced. Kominkan (t: 0236-43-2687); one-day members Omiya—Motivating Adults and Teenagers to 1000 yen. Communicate by David Paul, David English Yokohama—Basic Strategies for Using Textbooks House, author of many texts for children and by Tim Cupp, Oxford University Press. Sunday adults. Why is it that so many Japanese students October 8, 14:00-16:30; Gino Bunka Kaikan, 6F, in fail to learn to communicate in English, even af- Kannai. ter studying for many years? What have we been doing wrong? The presenter will try to answer these questions. He will suggest that the only suc- cessful methods are those which specifically ad- dress the particular psychological and emotional needs of Japanese learners, and he will propose many techniques which aim to achieve this. Sun- day October 22, 14:00-17:00; Omiya Jack, 6th floor (near west exit, Omiya station).
52 The Language Teacher 24:10 Chapter Meetings
Chapter Contacts
October 2000 53 54 The Language Teacher 24:10 JIC
90-minute koma of English conversation. Salary Job Information Center and Benefits: 26,500-31,500 yen per koma, de- edited by bettina begole pending on experience and education. Applica- tion Materials: current CV including passport-size Don’t forget to visit the Job Information Center next month at photo and a self-addressed, stamped envelope. the conference. For more information, please check your confer- Deadline: October 31, 2000. Contact: J. W. Casey; ence supplement, or look at the JALT News column in this issue Keiai University, 1-9 Sanno, Sakura-shi, Chiba-ken of TLT. 285-0807;
October 2000 55 JIC
allowance, paid vacation, relocation allowance, tors to teach in its intensive English Program in and research allowance are provided. Application Yamato-machi in 2001. The program is nine Materials: CV/resume; letter of introduction in- weeks long: eight days of orientation and de- cluding information about what the Christian briefing, and eight weeks teaching. The program faith means to the applicant and why they want dates have yet to be finalized, but will probably to work at a Christian college; photo; and three run mid-July to mid-September. Qualifications: letters of recommendation. Contact: Marie MA or equivalent in TESL/TEFL or related field; Clapsaddle; Hokuriku Gakuin Junior College, 11 experience with EAP, intermediate students and Mitsukoji-machi, Kanazawa-shi, Ishikawa-ken 920- intensive programs highly desirable; experience 1396;
56 The Language Teacher 24:10 JIC
course, limited to five pages, based on the follow- health insurance; two-year contract with two one- ing description: fifteen weeks in a semester, 200 year extensions possible. Application Materials: students for each academic year divided into resume, publications, reference(s), photo, cover classes of approximately 20 students, 45-minute letter. Please write “Application for the post in the unit with two units taught in a 90-minute class Faculty of Economics” on the envelope. Deadline: with a five-minute break between units, units to October 31, 2000. Contact: Norio Yoshida, Dean; be repeated three times a week and taught in con- Faculty of Economics, Daito Bunka University, 1- junction with one or two other teachers. Please 9-1 Takashimadaira, Itabashi, Tokyo 175-8571; t: limit all documents to A4 paper, printed on one 03-5399-7326; f: 03-5399-7342. side only. Documents will not be returned. Dead- Tokyo-to—The English Department at Aoyama line: October 31, 2000. Contact: Faculty of Socio- Gakuin University is seeking part-time teachers to information and Communication Studies; Seijo teach conversation and writing courses at their University, 6-1-20 Seijo, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 157- Atsugi campus. The campus is about 90 minutes 8511; t: 03-3482-2101; from Shinjuku station on the Odakyu Line, and
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October 2000 57 58 The Language Teacher 24:10 JIC/Bulletin Board
ongoing. Contact: PART-TIMERS; English and American Literature Department, Aoyama Gakuin Bulletin Board University, 4-4-25 Shibuya, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo edited by brian cullen 150-8366. Short-listed candidates will be contacted for interviews. Contributors to the Bulletin Board are requested by the Web Corner column editor to submit announcements of up to 150 words written in a paragraph format and not in abbre- You can receive the updated JIC job listings on the viated or outline form. Submissions should be made by 20th of each month by email at
October 2000 59 60 The Language Teacher 24:10 Bulletin Board
future? Will he/she incorporate the new result (#4) Other Announcements or will he/she stick with the original method (or whatever)? Submission deadline: November 30, CUE Conference Proceedings & Publications 2000. Information:
RO RO RO COMP PROOF FINAL Essay Collection—What is it like for native speak- ers in TLT UGH UGH UGH ers to profess English in Japan? A proposed collec- style, for- tion of essays aims to gather a wide number of mat, and individual examples across many different organi- operations. zational and institutional sites. Some issues that Apprentices begin by shadowing experienced might be addressed include reasons for teaching in proofreaders, rotating from section to section of Japan and their relationship to teaching, the as- the magazine until they become familiar with sumptions held prior to arrival and the approaches TLT’s operations as a whole. They then assume to the realities subsequently encountered, and the proofreading tasks themselves. Consequently, nature of English in Japan. Contributions should when annual or occasional staff vacancies arise, be twenty to thirty pages, double-spaced, clear, the best qualified candidates tend to come from and follow the conventions of the personal essay. current staff, and the result is often a succession The purpose of the collection will not be practical, of vacancies filled and created in turn. As a rule, but instead personal, as well as theoretical. For TLT recruits publicly for proofreaders and transla- more information, contact: Eva Bueno; tors only, giving senior proofreaders and transla-
October 2000 61 Submissions
The editors welcome submissions of materials editor by the 15th of the month, 3 months name. For specific guidelines contact the concerned with all aspects of language educa- prior to publication, to allow time to request Chapter Reports editor. Deadline: 15th of the tion, particularly with relevance to Japan. a response to appear in the same issue, if month, 2 months prior to publication. Materials in English should be sent in Rich appropriate. TLT will not publish anony- 地方支部会の会合での発表の報告です。長さは原稿 Text Format by either email or post. Postal mous correspondence unless there is a com- 用紙2枚から４枚。原稿の冒頭に (a) 支部会名、(b) 発 submissions must include a clearly labeled pelling reason to do so, and then only if the 表の題名、(c) 発表者名を明記し、(d) 発表がいつ行わ diskette and one printed copy. Manuscripts correspondent is known to the editor. れたかが分かる表現を含めてください。また、(e) 文 should follow the American Psychological As- The Language Teacher に掲載された記事などへの 末に報告執筆者名をお書きください。締切は、掲載 sociation (APA) style as it appears in The Lan- 意見をお寄せください。長さは1,000字以内、締切 をご希望になる号の発行月の2 カ月前の1 5 日に guage Teacher. The editors reserve the right to は、掲載をご希望になる号の発行月の3カ月前の15日 Chapter Reports 編集者必着です。日本語の報告は edit all copy for length, style, and clarity, に日本語編集者必着です。編集者が必要と判断した Chapter Reports日本語編集者にお送りください。 without prior notification to authors. Dead- 場合は、関係者に、それに対する反論の執筆を依頼 Chapter Meetings. Chapters must follow lines indicated below. し、同じ号に両方の意見を掲載します。 the precise format used in every issue of TLT 日本語記事の投稿要領：編集者は、外国語教育に関 Conference Reports. If you will be attending (i.e., topic, speaker, date, time, place, fee, する、あらゆる話題の記事の投稿を歓迎します。原 an international or regional conference and and other information in order, followed by 稿は、なるべくA 4 版用紙を使用してください。ワー are able to write a report of up to 1,500 words, a brief, objective description of the event). プロ、原稿用紙への手書きに関わりなく、頁数を打 please contact the editor. Maps of new locations can be printed upon ち、段落の最初は必ず１文字空け、１行2 7 字、横書 言語教育に関連する学会の国際大会等に参加する予 consultation with the column editor. Meet- きでお願いいたします。１頁の行数は、特に指定し 定の方で、その報告を執筆したい方は、日本語編集 ings that are scheduled for the first week of ませんが、行間はなるべく広めにおとりください。 者にご相談ください。長さは原稿用紙8枚程度です。 the month should be published in the previ- The Language Teacher は、American Psychologi- ous month’s issue. Announcements or re- cal Association (APA) のスタイルに従っています。 Departments quests for guidelines should be sent to the 日本語記事の注・参考文献・引用などの書き方もこれ My Share. We invite up to 1,000 words on a Chapter Meetings editor. Deadline: 15th of に準じた形式でお願いします。ご不明の点は、The successful teaching technique or lesson plan the month, 2 months prior to publication. Language Teacherのバックナンバーの日本語記事をご you have used. Readers should be able to 支部の会合のお知らせです。原稿の始めに支部名 参照くださるか、日本語編集者にお問い合わせくださ replicate your technique or lesson plan. Send を明記し、発表の題名、発表者名、日時、場所、参 い。スペース等の都合でご希望に沿い兼ねる場合もあ submissions to the My Share editor. 加費、問い合わせ先の担当者名と電話番号・ファク りますので、ご了承ください。編集者は、編集の都合 学習活動に関する実践的なアイディアの報告を載せ ス番号を箇条書きしてください。最後に、簡単な発 上、ご投稿いただいた記事の一部を、著者に無断で変 るコラムです。教育現場で幅広く利用できるもの、 表の内容、発表者の�介を付け加えても結構です。 更したり、削除したりすることがあります。 進歩的な言語教育の原理を反映したものを優先的に 地図を掲載したい方は、Chapter Announcements 採用します。絵なども入れることができますが、白 Feature Articles 編集者にご相談ください。第1 週に会合を予定する 黒で、著作権のないもの、または文書による掲載許 English. Well written, well-documented ar- 場合は、前月号に掲載することになりますので、ご 可があるものをお願いします。別紙に、英語のタイ ticles of up to 3,000 words. Pages should be 注意ください。締切は、掲載をご希望になる号の発 トル、著者・所属機関のローマ字表記、200ワード程 numbered, new paragraphs indented (not 行月の2カ月前の15日にChapter Announcements 度の英文要旨を記入し、My Share 編集者にお送りく tabbed), word count noted, and sub-headings 編集者必着です。 ださい。締切は、掲載をご希望になる号の発行月の (bold-faced or italic) used throughout for the ２カ月前の15日必着です。 Bulletin Board. Calls for papers, participa- convenience of readers. The author’s name, tion in/announcements of conferences, col- Book Reviews. We invite reviews of books affiliation, and contact details should appear loquia, seminars, or research projects may be and other educational materials. We do not on the top of the first page. An abstract of up posted in this column. Email or fax your publish unsolicited reviews. Contact the Pub- to 150 words, biographical information of up announcements of up to 150 words to the lishers’ Review Copies Liaison for submission to 100 words, and any photographs, tables, or Bulletin Board editor. Deadline: 15th of the guidelines and the Book Reviews editor for drawings should be sent in separate files. month, 2 months prior to publication. permission to review unlisted materials. Send all material to Robert Long. JALT以外の団体による催し物などのお知らせ、 書評です。原則として、その本の書かれている言 日本語論文です。400字詰原稿用紙20枚以内。左寄 JALT、あるいはそれ以外の団体による発表者、論文 語で書くことになっています。書評を書かれる場合 せで題名を記し、その下に右寄せで著者名、改行し の募集を無料で掲載します。JALT以外の団体による は、Publishers Review Copies Liaison にご相談 て右寄せで所属機関を明記してください。章、節に 催し物のお知らせには、参加費に関する情報を含め ください。また、重複を避け、The Language 分け、太字または斜体字でそれぞれ見出しをつけて ることはできません。The Language Teacher 及び Teacher に掲載するにふさわしい本であるかどうか ください。図表・写真は、本文の中には入れず、別 JALTは、この欄の広告の内容を保証することはでき を確認するため、事前に Book Review 編集者にお 紙にし、本文の挿入箇所に印を付けてください。フ ません。お知らせの掲載は、一つの催しにつき一 問い合わせください。 ロッピーをお送りいただく場合は、別文書でお願い 回、3 0 0 字以内とさせていただきます。締切は、掲 いたします。英語のタイトル、著者・所属機関の JALT News. All news pertaining to official 載をご希望になる号の発行月の2 カ月前の1 5 日に ローマ字表記、150ワード以内の英文要旨、100ワー JALT organizational activities should be sent Bulletin Board 編集者必着です。その後、Confer- ド以内の著者の和文略歴を別紙にお書きください。 to the JALT News editors. Deadline: 15th of the ence Calendar 欄に、毎月、短いお知らせを載せる 原本と原本のコピー２部、計３部を日本語編集者に month, 2 months prior to publication. ことはできます。ご希望の際は、Conference Cal- お送りください。査読の後、採否を決定します。 JALTによる催し物などのお知らせを掲載したい方 endar 編集者にお申し出ください。 Opinion & Perspectives. Pieces of up to は、JALT News 編集者にご相談ください。締切は、 JIC/Positions. TLT encourages all prospective 1,500 words must be informed and of cur- 掲載をご希望になる号の発行月の2 カ月前の1 5 日に employers to use this free service to locate the rent concern to professionals in the lan- JALT News 編集者必着です。 most qualified language teachers in Japan. guage teaching field. Send submissions to Special Interest Group News. JALT-recognised Contact the Job Information Center editor the editor. Special Interest Groups may submit a monthly for an announcement form. Deadline for 原稿用紙10～15枚以内。現在話題となっている事 report to the Special Interest Group News submitting forms: 15th of the month two 柄への意見、問題提起などを掲載するコラムです。 editor. Deadline: 15th of the month, 2 months months prior to publication. Publication does 別紙に、英語のタイトル、著者・所属機関のローマ prior to publication. not indicate endorsement of the institution 字表記、英文要旨を記入し、日本語編集者にお送り JALT 公認の Special Interest Group で、毎月の by JALT. It is the position of the JALT Executive ください。締切は、掲載をご希望になる号の発行月 お知らせを掲載したい方は、SIGS 編集者にご相談く Board that no positions-wanted announce- の２カ月前の15日必着です。 ださい。締切は、掲載をご希望になる号の発行月の2 ments will be printed. Interviews. If you are interested in interview- カ月前の15日に SIGS 編集者必着です。 求人欄です。掲載したい方は、Job Information ing a well-known professional in the field, Chapter Reports. Each Chapter may submit Center/Positions 編集者にAnnouncement Form please consult the editor first. a monthly report of up to 400 words which を請求してください。締切は、掲載をご希望になる 「有名人」へのインタビュー記事です。インタ should (a) identify the chapter, (b) have a 号の発行月の2カ月前の15日に Job Information ビューをされる前に日本語編集者にご相談ください。 title—usually the presentation title, (c) have Center/Positions 編集者必着です。The Language Readers’ Views. Responses to articles or a by-line with the presenter’s name, (d) in- Teacher 及び JALTは、この欄の広告の内容を保証す other items in TLT are invited. Submissions clude the month in which the presentation ることはできません。なお、求職広告不掲載が JALT of up to 500 words should be sent to the was given, (e) conclude with the reporter’s Executive Board の方針です。
62 The Language Teacher 24:10 Staff List
JALT Publications Board Chair — Gene van Troyer JALT2000 News — L. Dennis Woolbright t/f: 0582-79-4050; [email protected] t/f: 093-583-5526; [email protected] Immediate Past Editor — Bill Lee Conference Calendar — Lynne Roecklein Faculty of Regional Studies, Gifu University, Faculty of Regional Studies, Gifu 1-1Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193; f: 058-293-3118; University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193; [email protected] t: 058-293-3096 (w); f: 058-293-3118 (w); [email protected] Editor — Malcolm Swanson Job Information Center/Positions — Bettina Begole c/o Kyushu Junior College of Kinki University, 1-5-30 436 Kuwabara, Aoya-cho, Ketaka-gun, Komoda-higashi, Iizuka 820-8513; t: 0948-22-5727 ext 57; Tottori 689-0529; [email protected] f: 0948-24-8591; [email protected] Associate Editor — Robert Long OCCASIONAL COLUMN EDITORS 3-26 Sensui-cho, Tobata-ku, Kitakyushu 804 Educational Innovations/Creative Course Design — Daniel t: 093-883-5022, f: 093-884-3400 (w); [email protected] J. McIntyre, Bonheur Higashi Azabu #402, 3-3-3 Higashi Japanese-Language Editor — 衣川隆生(Kinugawa Takao) Azabu, Minato-ku, Tokyo 106-0044; [email protected] t/f: 0298-53-7477 (w); [email protected] Net Nuggets — Larry Davies, Future University, Hakodate; [email protected] Japanese-Language Associate Editor — 小野正樹 (Ono Masaki) t/f: 0298-53-7372 (w); [email protected] Working Papers — Joseph Tomei, Kumamoto Gakuen Univer- sity, Faculty of Foreign Languages, Oe 2-chome 5-1, Assistant Editor — Paul Lewis Kumamoto 862-8680; t: 096-364-5161 (ext. 1410) (w); f: t/f: 052-709-1307 (h); [email protected] 096-372-0702 (w); [email protected] TLT Online Editor — Bob Gettings Hokusei Gakuen Women’s Junior College, EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD t: 011-613-2488 (h); t: 011-561-7156 Torkil Christensen (Hokusei Women’s Junior College); (w); f: 011-513-7505 (w); [email protected] Steve Cornwell (Osaka Jogakuin Junior College); Michael Furmanovsky (Ryukoku University); COLUMN EDITORS Ron Grove (Mejiro University); John C. Herbert (Kwansei A Chapter in Your Life — Joyce Cunningham Gakuin University); Wayne Johnson (Ryukoku Univer- & Miyao Mariko sity); Steve McGuire (Nagoya University of Arts); Joyce Cunningham: Faculty of Humanities, Ibaraki Laura MacGregor (Sophia University); University, 2-1-1 Bunkyo, Mito 310-0056 Daniel J. McIntyre (Tokyo University); t: 029-228-8455; f: 029-228-8499 Tonia McKay (Osaka Jogakuin Junior College); English: [email protected]; 日本語: [email protected] Miyanaga Chieko (Kyoto Tachibana Women’s Univer- My Share — Scott Gardner sity); Tim Murphey (Nanzan University); Jill Robbins t/f: 086-281-9105; [email protected] (EnglishDotCom.org); Lynne Roecklein (Gifu University); Book Reviews — Katharine Isbell Sakui Keiko (Kwansei Gakuin University); Shiozawa Miyazaki International College, 1405 Kano, Kiyotake-cho, Mayumi (Ashiya Women’s Jr. College); Craig Sower Miyazaki-gun 889-1605; (Shujitsu Women’s University); Tamara Swenson (Osaka t: 0985-85-5931 (w); f: 0985-84-3396 (w); [email protected] Jogakuin Junior College); Takahashi Sachiko (Okayama Notre Dame Seishin Women’s University); Publishers’ Review Copies Liaison — Angela Ota Gene van Troyer (Gifu University of Education) West Park Communication Services, Funakoshi 957-6, Gosen-shi, Niigata 959-1805; t: 0250-41-1104; f: 0250-41- 1226; [email protected] PEER SUPPORT GROUP Letters — Malcolm Swanson (See Editor) & Koarai Mikiya Coordinator — Andy Barfield t/f: 011-614-5753 (h); [email protected] Foreign Language Center, Univ. of Tsukuba, Tennodai 1-1-1, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken 305-0006; Bulletin Board — Brian Cullen & Saito Makiko [email protected] Brian Cullen: Shoken 2-1-15-10001, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya Members: Andy Barfield, Wayne K. Johnson, Wilma Luth, 464-0082 Jill Robbins, Sandra Smith, Craig Sower English: [email protected]; 日本語: [email protected] SIG Focus — Aleda Krause 和文要旨作成協力者 — 阿部恵美佳 t: 048-776-0392; f: 048-776-7952; [email protected] (Japanese abstracts — Abe Emika) SIG Reports — Robert Long t: 093-883-5022; f: 093-884-3400 (w); [email protected] PRODUCTION Chapter Reports — Diane Pelyk & Nagano Yoshiko Proofreaders — Scott Gardner, Aleda Krause, Beverley Elsom Renace Beppu 102, 6 Kumi, Ogura, Beppu, Oita Lafaye, Robert Long, Amanda O’Brien, Steven Snyder, t/f: 0977-6690 English: [email protected] Kinugawa Takao, Ono Masaki, Tsukahara Maki 日本語: [email protected] Design & Layout — The Word Works Chapter Meetings — Tom Merner t: 045-314-9324; f: 045-316-4409; [email protected] 1-55-17 Higiriyama, Konan-ku, Yokohama 233-0015; t/f: 045-822-6623 (w); [email protected] Printing — Koshinsha Co., Ltd., Osaka JALT News — Amy Hawley & Sugino Toshiko JALT Central Office — Urban Edge Bldg. 5F, 1-37-9 Taito, Amy Hawley: 205 Summer House, 91-2 Zenzamachi, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0016; t: 03-3837-1630; Shizuoka-shi, Shizuoka-ken 420-0842 f: 03-3837-1631; [email protected] t/f: 054-248-5090; [email protected] Sugino Toshiko: [email protected] TLT Online: www.jalt.org/tlt
For information on advertising in TLT, please contact the JALT Central Office: OctoberUrban 2000 Edge Bldg. 5F, 1-37-9 Taito, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0016; t: 03-3837-1630; f: 03-3837-1631; [email protected] 63 Membership Information JALT is a professional organization dedicated to the improvement of language learning and teaching in Japan, a vehicle for the exchange of new ideas and techniques, and a means of keeping abreast of new developments in a rapidly changing field. JALT, formed in 1976, has an international membership of over 3,500. There are currently 39 JALT chapters and 1 affiliate chapter throughout Japan (listed below). It is the Japan affiliate of International TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages) and a branch of IATEFL (International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language). Publications — JALT publishes The Language Teacher, a monthly magazine of articles and announcements on professional concerns; the semi-annual JALT Journal; JALT Conference Proceedings (annual); and JALT Applied Materials (a monograph series). Meetings and Conferences — The JALT International Conference on Language Teaching/Learning attracts some 2,000 participants annually. The program consists of over 300 papers, workshops, colloquia, and poster sessions, a publishers’ exhibition of some 1,000m2, an employment center, and social events. Local chapter meetings are held on a monthly or bi-monthly basis in each JALT chapter, and Special Interest Groups, SIGs, disseminate information on areas of special interest. jalt also sponsors special events, such as conferences on testing and other themes. Chapters — Akita, Chiba, Fukui, Fukuoka, Gunma, Hamamatsu, Himeji, Hiroshima, Hokkaido, Ibaraki, Iwate, Kagawa, Kagoshima, Kanazawa, Kitakyushu, Kobe, Kumamoto, Kyoto, Matsuyama, Miyazaki, Nagasaki, Nagoya, Nara, Niigata, Okayama, Okinawa, Omiya, Osaka, Sendai, Shinshu, Shizuoka, Tochigi, Tokushima, Tokyo, Toyohashi, West Tokyo, Yamagata, Yamaguchi, Yokohama, Gifu (affiliate). SIGs — Bilingualism; College and University Educators; Computer-Assisted Language Learning; Global Issues in Language Education; Japanese as a Second Language; Jr./Sr. High School; Learner Development; Material Writers; Professionalism, Administration, and Leadership in Education; Teacher Education; Teaching Children; Testing and Evaluation; Video; Other Language Educators (affiliate); Foreign Language Literacy (affiliate); Gender Awareness in Language Education (affiliate). JALT members can join as many SIGs as they wish for a fee of ¥1,500 per SIG. Awards for Research Grants and Development — Awarded annually. Applications must be made to the JALT Research Grants Committee Chair by August 16. Awards are announced at the annual conference. Membership — Regular Membership (¥10,000) includes membership in the nearest chapter. Student Memberships (¥6,000) are available to full-time students with proper identification. Joint Memberships (¥17,000), available to two individuals sharing the same mailing address, receive only one copy of each JALT publication. Group Memberships (¥6,500/person) are available to five or more people employed by the same institution. One copy of each publication is provided for every five members or fraction thereof. Applications may be made at any JALT meeting, by using the postal money transfer form (yubin furikae) found in every issue of The Language Teacher, or by sending an International Postal Money Order (no check surcharge), a check or money order in yen (on a Japanese bank), in dollars (on a U.S. bank), or in pounds (on a U.K. bank) to the Central Office. Joint and Group Members must apply, renew, and pay membership fees together with the other members of their group. Central Office Urban Edge Building, 5th Floor, 1-37-9 Taito, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0016 tel: 03-3837-1630; fax: 03-3837-1631; [email protected]
JALT（全国語学教育学会）について
JALTは最新の言語理論に基づくよりよい教授法を提供し、日本における語学学習の向上と発展を図ることを目的とする学術団体です。1976年に設立さ れたJALTは、海外も含めて3,500名以上の会員を擁しています。現在日本全国に39の支部（下記参照）を持ち、TESOL（英語教師協会）の加盟団体、お よびIATEFL（国際英語教育学会）の日本支部でもあります。 出版物：JALTは、語学教育の専門分野に関する記事、お知らせを掲載した月刊誌The Language Teacher、年２回発行のJALT Journal、JALT Ap- plied Materials（モノグラフシリーズ)、およびJALT年次大会会報を発行しています。 例会と大会：JALTの語学教育･語学学習に関する国際年次大会には、毎年2,000人が集まります。年次大会のプログラムは300の論文、ワークショップ、 コロキアム、ポスターセッション、出版社による展示、就職情報センター、そして懇親会で構成されています。支部例会は、各JALTの支部で毎月もしく は隔月に１回行われています。分野別研究部会、N-SIGは、分野別の情報の普及活動を行っています。JALTはまた、テスティングや他のテーマについて の研究会などの特別な行事を支援しています。 支部：現在、全国に38の支部と1つの準支部があります。（秋田、千葉、福井、福岡、群馬、浜松、姫路、広島、北海道、茨城、岩手、香川、鹿児島、金 沢、北九州、神戸、熊本、京都、松山、宮崎、長崎、名古屋、奈良、新潟、岡山、沖縄、大宮、大阪、仙台、信州、静岡、栃木、徳島、東京、豊橋、西東 京、山形、山口、横浜、岐阜［準支部］） 分野別研究部会：バイリンガリズム、大学外国語教育、コンピュータ利用語学学習、グローバル問題、日本語教育、中学・高校外国語教育、ビデオ、学習 者ディベロプメント、教材開発、外国語教育政策とプロフェッショナリズム、教師教育、児童教育、試験と評価。 JALT の会員は一つにつき1,500円の会費で、複数の分野別研究会に参加することができます。 研究助成金：研究助成金についての応募は、8月16日までに、JALT語学教育学習研究助成金委員長まで申し出てください。研究助成金については、年次 大会で発表をします。 会員及び会費：個人会員（¥10,000): 最寄りの支部の会費も含まれています。学生会員（¥6,000): 学生証を持つ全日制の学生（大学院生を含む）が対象 です。共同会員（¥17,000): 住居を共にする個人2名が対象です。但し、JALT出版物は1部だけ送付されます。団体会員(1名¥6,500): 勤務先が同一の個 人が５名以上集まった場合に限られます。JALT出版物は、5名ごとに1部送付されます。入会の申し込みは、The Language Teacher のとじ込みの郵便 振り替え用紙をご利用いただくか、国際郵便為替（不足金がないようにしてください）、小切手、為替を円立て(日本の銀行を利用してください)、ドル立 て(アメリカの銀行を利用してください)、あるいはポンド立て（イギリスの銀行を利用してください)で、本部宛にお送りください。また、例会での申し込 みも随時受け付けています。
JALT事務局: 〒110-0016 東京都台東区台東 1-37-9 アーバンエッジビル５F Tel. 03-3837-1630; fax. 03-3837-1631; [email protected]
64 The Language Teacher 24:10