Disease and Social Disruption 2 Connect-the-Dots: Making Meaning from Historical Evidence Chris Edwards 5 Yellow Fever in Philadelphia, 1793 (Book Review) Sandra W. Moss 9 World War I Posters: Thinking Critically about History and the Media Tom Carty 16 On the Trail of an Epidemic: Yellow Fever in New Orleans, 1845-1860 Supplement to National Council for the Social Studies Publications Number 31 January/February 2008 www.socialstudies.org Middle Level Learning 31, pp. M2–M4 ©2008 National Council for the Social Studies On the Cover: Nurse wearing a mask as Connect-the-Dots: protection against influ- enza. September 13, 1918. In October of 1918, Congress approved a Making Meaning from $1 million budget for the U. S. Public Health Service to recruit 1,000 medical doctors and Historical Evidence over 700 registered nurses. Nurses were scarce, as their proximity to and interaction with the disease increased the risk of death. Chris Edwards Source: National Archives, “The Deadly Virus: The Influenza Epidemic of 1918,” www.archives.gov/ exhibits/influenza-epidemic/ (Western Newspaper Union). It is often lamented that exciting historical scholarship rarely trickles into the In the case of Pizarro’s conquest of the secondary classroom. I define my job as an eighth grade history teacher as being a Inca’s, I present five dots in this order: bridge between historical scholars and my students. For example, I believe that part of my work is to read a Pulitzer-winning book like Jared Diamond’s Guns, Germs, • Several species of large animals and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies and make its basic insights accessible to were domesticated in Europe, Asia, middle school students, to show how Diamond’s thesis connects to aspects of history and Africa, providing humans with covered in the curriculum.1 I call what I do “the connect-the-dots method,” and the mechanical power and food. goal is to make the study of history exciting Diamond argues that the physical labor Day 1: Presenting a Puzzle and steady food supply provided by Here is how I use the connect-the-dots domesticated animals allowed Western method to break down some of the ideas civilization to develop: human energy in Diamond’s book in the beginning of was freed up for pursuing such inven- the school year. First, we watch a brief tions as writing, mathematics, science, excerpt from Stephen Spielberg’s War of and the arts. the Worlds, in which alien pod-walkers Diamond states that the foundations rise up from the New Jersey streets and of Western civilization rest on surpris- start zapping an awe-struck populace.2 ingly few species of big terrestrial her- In short order, a comparatively few pod bivores: cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and walkers are able to easily dominate a city horses.5 (159) Sheep have a wild ances- with millions of human beings. tor from West and Central Asia. Goats My students then read aloud Diamond’s originated in West Asia. Cattle come summary of Pizarro’s conquest of the Incas from ancestors in Eurasia and Northern in Cajarmarca, Peru, in 1532. Diamond Africa. The pig descends from the wild begins his book dramatically with this boar, which also comes from Eurasia and fascinating clash of cultures, in which North Africa. Thus, all originated in the 168 Spaniards on horseback, with guns “Old World.” and swords, were able to crush a field of Now it’s time for some dots. In this thousands of Inca warriors. I then chal- teaching method, the “dot” is a discrete • Many human diseases evolved from lenge my students to draw comparisons fact—for example, a scientific observation diseases in domestic animals. between the fictional movie and the his- or a constraint on people that might be torical reading. I ask a question to get the geographic, economic, or social. A “dot” There was a dark side to this human- students wondering, “Why were such a might be a statistic about a key resource, animal relationship. Humans in Europe, small number of Spaniards able to con- like the amount of whale oil needed by Asia, and Africa entered an evolution- quer the Inca Empire?3 There are many U.S. industries in 1800. A “dot” might be ary contest with microscopic disease reasons for this conquest, but we start by a historical document, or even a belief, organisms that arose from these same examining a main one—disease. such as “kings have a divine right to rule.” domesticated animals. 2 January/February 2008 Diamond illustrates time and again the immune systems that allowed them, sent his men to meet Spaniards without that many disease organisms that infect unwittingly, to survive a recurrence of a weapons, thinking that his reputation people first appeared as in domestic ani- disease. would grow if he could scare the enemy mals and then “jumped species,” adapt- away without arms. ing (through small changes in anatomy • There were few domesticated ani- For a concluding activity and assess- or molecular structure) to infect and mals on the American continent ment to this lesson, I present an excerpt thrive within the human body. The before 1492. from a primary historical document and major killers of humanity through- ask my students to tell me what it means. out recorded history–smallpox, flu, Some Native Americans bred fowl, Can they now “connect the dots?” tuberculosis, malaria, plague, measles, such as the turkey, and some hunted with I challenge my students to analyze what and cholera–are infectious diseases dogs. But the benefits of owning large they have just learned, use it to compre- that evolved from diseases of animals, domesticated animals (such as free time hend a new piece of information, and according to Diamond.4 (p. 196-7) In a to pursue technological innovation) as then communicate their new understand- table “Deadly Gifts from Our Animal well as the risks (such as animal-borne ing to me. This activity is both an assess- Friends,” he lists measles, tuberculo- illness) were generally unknown in pre- ment and a learning activity. It is the heart sis, and smallpox as arising from cattle; Columbian America.5 of the connect-the-dots method. influenza evolving from strains in pigs For this assignment, I hand out a por- and ducks; pertussis coming from pigs • Part of the Columbian Exchange tion of a letter from 1634, in which John and dogs; and falciparum malaria origi- was the passing of disease between Winthrop, governor of the Massachusetts nating in birds. (Interestingly, about 20 populations. Bay colony, wrote to a friend:8 years, we witnessed a disease agent in monkeys, simian immunodeficiency Along with the exchange of new food But for the natives in these parts, God virus or SIV, “jumping” to the human crops from the Americas to Europe (ex. hath so pursued them, as for 300 miles species in the form of human immuno- potato, peanut, tomato, corn, and straw- space the greatest part of them are swept deficiency virus or HIV.) berry) and from Europe to the Americas away by the smallpox which still contin- Diamond also points out that ani- (ex. wheat, oat, coffee, and sugarcane), ues among them. So as God hath thereby mal domestication in Europe meant there was an exchange of disease organ- cleared our title to this place… that people had a more settled lifestyle isms.6 The result was especially disas- than did their hunter-gatherer forbear- trous for Native Americans, since their If the students have been able to con- ers. In an early agricultural society with populations did not have the centuries to nect the dots, then this brief quote should domesticated animals and stationary develop immunity that results from living set off a chain reaction of “light bulbs” in shelters, people were likely to come into along side domesticated animals over their minds, illuminating a bigger picture contact with their own sewage as well as generations. Some of the diseases car- that is a backdrop, a context for these that of the animals they raised. Increased ried from Europe that devastated Native words. contact with sewage led to easy transmis- Americans were measles, bubonic plague, Although students are eager at this sion of disease. Thus, chronic disease tuberculosis, and smallpox. point to discuss their insights, I assign and periodic plagues became part of to them a writing task. I tell them to social history. Day 2: Assessment while Learning devote 20 minutes to writing a paragraph To begin the second day of the lesson, or more about the possible meanings of • European populations developed we briefly review the previous day’s this historical quotation. I ask aloud a some resistance to these diseases. “dots,” and then I repeat the initial ques- few leading questions, not for them to tion, “Why were such a small number answer in sequence, but to stimulate their Those who survived a plague often of Spaniards able to conquer the Inca thinking and to help them organize their did so because some aspect of their empire?3 I ask students to “connect the composition: immune system afforded them protec- dots,” to speculate on various answers to tion. Maybe a virus molecule could not this question, with the use of information • What are some of the reasons that enter their cells, or maybe their immune presented in the lesson so far. Then I share a colonial governor in 1634 might cells learned to control the disease within with students some of the reasons favored write a statement like this? the body. by historians (and some of the contro- • What might Native Americans These survivors might pass on to their versy surrounding the topic).