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The Royal Hunts of Alexander the Great: Engaging with Local Traditions of Kingship Throughout His Empire

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The Royal Hunts of Alexander the Great: Engaging with Local Traditions of Kingship Throughout His Empire The Royal Hunts of Alexander the Great: Engaging with Local Traditions of Kingship Throughout his Empire James Stephen Mullen Doctor of Philosophy School of History, Classics and Archaeology July 2019 Abstract This thesis considers the role of the royal hunt as a means for Alexander the Great to engage with the varied traditions of kingship and royal ideology throughout his empire. This offers a new approach to Alexander studies which traditionally focus on the king’s attempts to legitimate his rule in the eyes of the Persian nobility. This thesis argues instead that Alexander’s royal hunts served to legitimate his position as king simultaneously within established political frameworks of Macedonian, Greek, Persian, and wider Near Eastern tradition. The Introduction identifies the models of court societies established in modern scholarship, their application to studies of ancient monarchy and the position of the hunt as an extramural royal court. It sets out the basis on which this thesis develops the dominant paradigms of Persianisation and Orientalising for Alexander’s engagement with local elites in his empire and establishes an approach for the examination of multiple types of evidence from chronologically and geographically diverse societies. Chapter 1 examines the palatial imagery and texts of the neo-Assyrian empire as a case study for the significance of the royal hunt in kingship ideologies across Near Eastern societies. Chapter 2 identifies the role of hunting in Achaemenid representations of royal power and conceptions of authority. The combination of evidence, statements of kingship on Achaemenid monuments, glyptic from the Achaemenid heartland and from around the empire, and the Greek accounts of the Achaemenids allows the hunt to be considered confidently within the context of the court. Chapter 3 highlights the traditions in Greece for the hunt as a source of legitimate authority from Homer to the fourth century. It suggests this allowed Alexander to justify his power over Greeks in their own terms. Chapter 4 provides the necessary context for royal hunting in Argead Macedonia to determine whether Alexander adapted his practices to appeal to local traditions throughout his empire. Finally, Chapter 5 examines the evidence for Alexander’s own use of the royal hunt and his development of court hunting practices to engage with the traditions discussed in previous chapters. This thesis concludes it is possible to identify an evolution in Alexander’s royal hunts as he progressed through Asia. These developments began before the adoption of Achaemenid court ceremonial and indicate a broader strategy of appealing to local traditions of aristocratic virtue and royal legitimacy from Macedonia, Greece, Persia and the wider Near East. i Acknowledgments Thanks are owed to all my supervisors for their support and guidance in the research and writing of this thesis. I would especially like to thank Joe Skinner for his seemingly infinite patience from the very start of this project, and John Holton who has been a welcome addition to the team. Equally helpful have been Sally Waite and Don Miller who have constantly been willing to provide assistance. Completing this project would have been quite impossible without the constant support of my family, most of whom now claim to have an allergy to Alexander. Special mention must therefore go to Patrick and Fleur for their unwavering devotion. ii iii Table of Contents Page List of Tables and Illustrations vii Quotations and Abbreviations ix Introduction ………………………………………………………………………. 1 The Royal Hunt of Alexander in Historiography ……………………………. 6 The Royal Court and the Royal Hunt ………………………………………... 7 Engaging with Local Traditions of Kingship ………………………………... 13 Orientalising ………………………………………………………... 18 Persianisation ………………………………………………………. 23 Hunting in the Middle Ground ……………………………………………….. 30 Structure of Thesis ……………………………………………………………. 33 Chapter 1. The Near Eastern Background …………………………………... 36 1.1. The Significance of the Assyrian Royal Hunt ………………………………... 40 1.1.1. Conquering Chaos: hunting as part of royal ideology ……………… 40 1.1.2. Evidence for the court in the Assyrian royal hunt …………………… 54 1.2. Fertility and Prosperity ……………………………………………………….. 55 1.3. Royal Foundations ……………………………………………………………. 62 1.4. Sport and Spectacle …………………………………………………………... 63 1.5. Conclusions …………………………………………………………………... 65 Chapter 2. The Achaemenid Royal Hunt …………………………………….. 66 2.1. Royal Ideology in Achaemenid Art …………………………………………... 67 2.2. The Royal Hunt ……………………………………………………………….. 77 2.2.1. Greek and Old Persian literary evidence …………………………….. 77 2.2.2. Glyptic ………………………………………………………………... 81 2.2.3. The numismatic evidence ……………………………………………. 86 2.3. Greco-Persian: The Significance of Hunting Throughout the Empire ……….. 88 2.4. The King as Gardener ………………………………………………………… 91 2.5. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………. 94 iv Chapter 3. The Role of Hunting in Legitimating Authority in Greece …. 96 3.1. Homeric Rulership ……………………………………………………………. 108 3.1.1. The relevance of Homeric epic ……………………………………. 108 3.1.2. The significance of heroic ἀρετή in the Iliad and Odyssey ………... 110 3.1.3. Hunting as a demonstration of ἀρετή in epic ……………………… 116 3.2. The Continued Association of Hunting and Ἀρετή in Greece ………………. 119 3.2.1. Hunting as a source of ἀρετή in Attica …………………………….. 120 3.3. Conclusion: Ἀρετή as a Source of Legitimate Authority in the Fourth Century ……………………………………………………………………….. 134 3.3.1. The continuing significance of ἀρετή ……………………………… 135 Chapter 4. The Macedonian Royal Hunt ……………………………………. 141 4.1. Macedonian Tradition of the Royal Hunt …………………………………….. 142 4.1.1. Argead legend ……………………………………………………… 144 4.1.2. The numismatic evidence for the royal hunt in Macedonian tradition 149 4.2. Vergina Tombs ……………………………………………………………….. 164 4.2.1. The barrel vault …………………………………………………….. 166 4.2.2. The cremated remains ……………………………………………..... 169 4.2.3. Hunting frieze ………………………………………………………. 171 4.2.4. Identifying the male occupant of Tomb II …………………………... 176 4.3. The Macedonian Royal Hunt: Conclusions …………………………………... 177 Chapter 5. The Hunts of Alexander …………………………………………... 180 5.1. Macedonians Hunting in Asia ………………………………………………... 180 5.2. Broader Near Eastern Traditions ……………………………………………... 185 5.2.1. The Alexander sarcophagus ………………………………………… 185 5.2.2. Hephaestion’s pyre …………………………………………………. 203 5.3. Evidence of Achaemenid Style Hunting and Engagement with Iranians …….. 204 5.3.1. Ephippus …………………………………………………………….. 208 5.3.2. The nets of Philotas …………………………………………………. 213 5.3.3. An Achaemenid style ring hunt at Bazaira ………………………….. 215 5.3.4. Peucestas’ bear hunt ………………………………………………... 219 v 5.4. Macedonian Tradition ………………………………………………………… 221 5.4.1. The Hermolaus incident …………………………………………….. 221 5.5. Greek Tradition ……………………………………………………………….. 227 5.5.1. Ἀρετή and Alexander’s royal hunt ………………………………... 227 5.5.2. Ephippus again ……………………………………………………... 232 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………................ 237 Plates ………………………………………………………………………………... 244 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………… 245 vi List of Tables and Illustrations Figures Page Figure 1. Ivory panel from north-west palace at Nimrud. Lioness mauling an 44 African. Figure 2. Assurnasirpal battle scene north-west palace at Nimrud. 46 Figure 3. Assurnasirpal lion hunt north-west palace at Nimrud. 46 Figure 4. Assurnasirpal lion hunt with geometric schematic. 50 Figure 5. Panels B18-20 north-west palace at Nimrud. 51 Figure 6. Plan of Assurnasirpal’s north-west palace at Nimrud. 53 Figure 7. Assyrian sacred tree from north-west palace at Nimrud. 59 Figure 8. Spectators to a lion hunt from Assurbanipal’s north palace at 64 Nineveh. Figure 9. Cylinder seal, Darius I lion hunt. 83 Figure 10. Seal of Cyrus I (PFS 93*). 85 Figure 11. Seal of Irdabama (PFS 51) 85 Figure 12. Achaemenid coinage Types I-IV. 86 Figure 13. Achaemenid coins Types II-IV. 87 Figure 14. Aristocratic activity. Attic black figure lekythos. 125 Figure 15. Greek hunting party. Attic black figure hydria of Leagros group. 128 Figure 16. Greek hunting party. Attic black figure amphora of Leagros group. 129 Figure 17a. Chigi olpe. 130 Figure 17b. Lion hunt. Detail from Chigi olpe. 130 Figu.re 18a. Persians hunting. Xenophantos lekythos. 132 Figure 18b. Persians hunting. Xenophantos lekythos. 133 Figure 19. Macedonian hunter wearing a kausia. Detail from Vergina Tomb II 151 frieze. Figure 20. Macedonians bearing arms and armour. Detail from Agios 152 Athansios tomb frieze. Figure 21. Mounted warrior. Detail from the Çan sarcophagus. 155 Figure 22. Macedonian iron cuirass from Vergina Tomb II. 155 Figure 23. Macedonian gorget from Derveni Tomb II. 156 Figure 24. Coins of Alexander I. 157 Figure 25. Macedonian spears. 159 Figure 26 Coins of Perdicass II. 163 vii Figure 27 Coins of Archelaus. 163 Figure 28 Coins of Amyntas III. 164 Figure 29 Gold plaque from the Oxus Treasure. 186 Figure 30 Panther hunt. Detail from the Alexander Sarcophagus. 187 Figure 31 Alexander charging a Persian. Detail from the Alexander 189 Sarcophagus. Figure 32 Alexander charging a Persian. Detail from the Alexander Mosaic. 189 Figure 33 Silver stater of Mazaeus. 195 Figure 34 Sidonian coins. 197 Tables Page Table 1. Recorded hunts of Macedonians in Asia. 184 Plates Plates follow the Conclusion. Plate I. The hunting frieze from Vergina Tomb II. Plate II. Agios Athansios tomb façade. Plate III. The frieze from Agios Athansios. Plate IVa. Macedonian from Agios Athansios. Plate IVb. Macedonian
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