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Home , 90s BC, Gracchi, Vegoia, Verism

THE

The course, covering a chronological range of approximately three centuries, aims to study from its emergence as a leading city-state in to the eventual decline of its republican system. A particular emphasis will be given to the investigation of the values that informed Roman republican society. The course will be structured as follows: the first half of the lectures will focus on the evolution and transformation of Roman society analysed in its political, economic, social and cultural aspects. The emergence of and changes in political and social values will be highlighted. The second half of the lectures will concentrate on the factors that led to the fall of the Republic, paying particular attention to the evolution of the ideas previously presented as part of an ideological system. In the classes we will analyse specific topics connected to the lecture and will have the opportunity to handle different kinds of ancient sources (literary, archaeological and epigraphical).

Lectures: Tuesday, 10.00-11.00 in Gordon House 106 Classes: Tuesday, 2-3 in Gordon Square 24, room 204 Tuesday, 4-5 in Gordon Square 25, room G10

Method of Teaching

The course will be taught in lectures and discussion classes, for a total of two terms (approximately 35- 40 contact hours). Students are required to prepare for and participate in class discussion. For each seminar session there is a minimum selection of reading stipulated in the bibliographies that will be distributed each week; for researching and writing coursework essays and preparing for the examination you MUST consult the full bibliographies provided in this document. Students may be asked to prepare brief presentations for seminar discussion once or twice a term.

Programme

Week 1 Introduction to the course and its sources

(no class)

Week 2 The Roman ‘Constitution’ and its Historical Development (the concepts of Regnum, Libertas and Res Publica) class: The XII Tables

Week 3 Rome and the Conquest of Italy ( Civile and Iura Peregrina) class: Iguvine Tablets and the Vegoia Prophecy

Week 4 : the wars against class: Representations of Romans and others in Roman comedies

Week 5 The Social Transformation of the Second Century BC: the Role of Women and Slaves class: Women: models of virtues or vices?

Reading Week Week 6 Imperium and Lex: Rome and the East class: The modern debate on Roman imperialism (the concept of imperium and government).

Week 7 Hellenism and Hellenisation, and Hellenism in Rome class: Roman portraits

Week 8 Economic and Demographic Development, the Role of Slavery, and the Concept of Libertas class: The emergence of the Roman villa?

Week 9 Imperium and Lex: Rome, the West and the Romans’ attempts to regulate themselves

(no class)

Week 10 The Battle for Equality: the Gracchi class: Arguments and oratory

Week 11 and Optimates: the Destabilisation of Roman Political Life class: The elaboration and transformation of the concept of equality

Week 12 The Social War: questions of citizenship class: The modern debate on the extension of citizenship

Week 13 Dominatio: The Empire in the late Second Century. The Sullan Regime class: Provincial Organization and trials

Week 14 Par Potestas: Pompey, , Crassus class: Concepts of potestas, dignitas and the Roman society

Week 15 From Spartacus to Clodius: 70s - 50s (Libertas and Ius) class: Roman concepts of ius, libertas, civitas, and lex

Reading Week

Week 16 The Idea of Democracy in the West class: The premises of the modern debates and the idea of democracy in the Hellenistic East

Week 17 The Late Republican religious system class: and the Roman ‘Enlightenment’

Week 18 Anarchy and Law (no class)

Week 19 Tyranny: Caesar’s Dictatorship and Death class: Caesar on Trial

Week 20 The expanded Roman state

(no class)

Course Tutor Name and address: Dr Valentina Arena, Department of History, UCL, Gower St., London WC1E 6BT Office: room 402, History Department (25 Gordon Square) Office hours: Tuesday, 3-4; Wednesday, 1-2. External phone: 020 679 2293 Internal phone: 32293 E-mail: [email protected]

Attendance

The Department requires you to attend all lectures and classes. If, for any unavoidable reason, you cannot attend a session, please let me know in advance. Illness is a valid reason, if verified by a certificate from your GP or from the Student Health Centre. If you fail to attend to the satisfaction of the teacher, you will not be allowed to complete the unit.

Examination

The course will be examined by assessment of the two essays (weighted 25 %) and a three hour end-of-year exam (weighted 75 %)

Coursework Essays Questions for your assessed coursework essays are listed below. You must choose a title from this sheet. You should submit two hard copies of each essay. Please put your name on both copies. One copy will be returned to you with corrections, along with a cover sheet of comments; the other will be retained for the use of the second and external examiners.

Essays should be handed in at the departmental Reception, with a 3-part cover sheet attached. Please ensure you fill in all the required details, including the word count of your essay. Cover sheets can be found in the corridor outside room G.06 and in the Undergraduate Common Room. Complete the cover sheet with a ball-point pen (press hard) and attach it to your essay with a paper clip. Please do not staple it.

All parts of the cover sheet and both copies of the essay will be date-stamped on receipt. The third copy of the cover sheet will be returned to you as proof that the essay was submitted. This should be retained in a safe place.

Please note that assessed coursework must be date-stamped in order to receive a mark. Without this, it will receive a mark of zero.

In addition, all coursework essays MUST be submitted electronically, via Moodle, by the relevant deadline. Deadlines For students who attend the whole year: The first essay should be handed in by Monday 16th November 2009. This is an unofficial deadline that I have set to help you to space out your essay writing assignments. You will not be penalized if you fail to meet it. However, I may not be able to provide one-to-one tutorial feedback for essays that are submitted after this deadline.

The official deadline for your first essay is 5 p.m. on Monday 14th December. You will be penalised if you fail to meet this deadline unless you have been granted an extension by the Chair of the Board of Examiners (see below).

The second essay should be handed in by Monday 15th February 2010. Again, this is an unofficial deadline and you will not be penalised if you fail to meet it. However, I may not be able to provide one-to-one tutorial feedback for essays that are submitted after this deadline.

The official deadline for your second essay is 5 p.m. on Monday 22nd March. You will be penalized if you fail to meet this deadline unless you have been granted an extension by the Chair of the Board of Examiners (see below).

Each of these essays should be c.2,500 words (including footnotes but excluding bibliography).

If either of my unofficial deadlines clash with other unofficial deadlines set by your other teachers, please bring this to my attention, and we will try to negotiate different dates.

You must achieve a pass in both your coursework and your examination in order to pass the course.

For Affiliate students leaving in December only (course codes ending in ‘A’): You should choose two essay questions from the list below. These are equally weighted, and should be submitted to the History Department Reception by the official deadline,which is 5 p.m. on 18th December. Each of these essays should be c.2,500 words (including footnotes but excluding bibliography). I strongly recommend that you submit your first essay by my unofficial deadline of Monday 6th November so that I have an opportunity to give you some tutorial feedback before you write your second essay. However, you will not be penalised if you do not meet this unofficial deadline.

For Affiliate students who start the course in January only (course codes ending in ‘B’): Choose one essay question from the list below. This essay, which counts for 40% of the final mark, must be submitted by 5 p.m. on 22nd March. The second essay, which counts for the remaining 60% of the final mark, will be a summative essay. The choice of questions for this essay will be posted on the departmental noticeboard outside room G.06 on 26th April. The essay should be submitted in person to the History Department Reception by 5 p.m. on 17th May and no earlier than 10th May. Each of these essays should be c.2,500 words (including footnotes but excluding bibliography).

For second-year History students writing the HIST2902 long essay in connection with this course: You are required to submit an approved proposal for your essay by 5 p.m. on Monday 18th January. Your final 7,500-word essay should be submitted by 5 p.m. on Monday 26th April.

Penalties Any essay submitted after the relevant deadline listed above will be penalised by 5 MARKS PER DAY LATE, up to a maximum of FOUR days, after which it will receive a mark of 0. Penalties are not applied by the teacher marking the essay, but by the Chair of the Board of Examiners, and are included in the calculation of the final overall coursework mark. Students are advised to submit essays even if they will receive a penalty mark. Failure to submit all the required assessed coursework will result in a final result for the course of ‘incomplete’. Extensions to the above deadlines can only be granted by the Chair of the Board of Examiners on the recommendation of the Departmental Tutor. He is only likely to do so in cases of serious illness, for which you must provide medical certification, or bereavement. In particular, it is normal to expect up to two weeks’ illness in the course of the two teaching semesters and applications for extensions on medical grounds received in the last two weeks of the second term, where the illness was clearly of less than two weeks’ duration, will not normally be granted. Students wishing to apply for an extension should complete a form (available from the Academic Office) and make an appointment to see the Departmental Tutor, no later than the Friday before the deadline. After this date, only bereavements and serious illnesses that occurred on the day of the deadline, or in the weekend before it, will be considered valid grounds for an extension. You should aim to get your essays in well before the deadlines listed above, not least because of delays caused by faults with computers, printers, photocopiers etc. Do not expect everything to work smoothly. You are expected to plan accordingly. If printing at home, make sure you have a spare ink/toner cartridge for your printer. Last-minute equipment or transport problems are not considered valid grounds for an extension.

Legibility All essays must be well presented and clear. Please leave wide margins and use double-spacing to allow teachers to write comments. Proof-read word-processed work carefully, and do not rely entirely on spell- checkers – they can introduce mistakes, particularly with proper names.

Plagiarism Essays, while based upon what you have read, heard and discussed, must be entirely your own work. It is very important that you avoid plagiarism, i.e. the presentation of another person’s thoughts or words as though they were your own. Plagiarism is a form of cheating, and is regarded by the College as a serious offence, which can lead to a student failing a course or courses, or even deregistration. Any quotation from the published or unpublished works of other persons must be clearly identified as such by being placed inside quotation marks and students should identify their sources as accurately and fully as possible. Please see the History Department Study Skills booklet for further guidance on avoiding plagiarism and referencing. (Students not registered in the History Department may obtain a copy from the Departmental Reception or download one from the History Department webpages.) Recourse to the services of “ghost-writing” agencies or of outside word-processing agencies which offer correction/improvement of English is strictly forbidden and students who make use of the services of such agencies render themselves liable for an academic penalty. You should note that UCL has now signed up to use a sophisticated detection system (Turn-It-In) to scan work for evidence of plagiarism, and the Department uses this software to check assessed coursework. This system gives access to billions of sources worldwide, including websites and journals, as well as work previously submitted to the Department, UCL and other universities. Abbreviantions (used in these bibliographies)

ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt CAH Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed) C&M Classica et Mediaevalia CP Classical Philology CQ Classical Quarterly CR Classical Review CRAI Comptes Rendues de l’Académie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres ESAR Economic Survey of JRS Journal Roman Studies LACTOR London Association of Classical Teachers Original Records LCL Loeb Classical Library MRR Magistrates of the Roman Republic OCD Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.) P&P Past and Present PCPS Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society ROR remains of Old (in LCL) RRC Roman Republican Coinage

N.B. Each week the most relevant works will be indicated. Further ad hoc bibliography will be also provided.

***

WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

General Accounts CAH (2nd ed.) VII.2 The Rise of Rome to 220 BC; VIII Rome and the Mediterranean; IX The Last Age of Roman Republic H. Flower (ed.), Cambridge Companion of the Roman Republic (2004) O. Murray and J. Griffin (eds.), Oxford History of the Ancient World (1986) T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (1000 - 26 BC) (1995) G. Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome. From Prehistory to the First Punic War (2005) M. Beard and M.H. Crawford, Rome in the Late Republic: Problems and Interpretations (2nd ed. 1999) P.A. Brunt, Social Conflicts in the Roman republic (1971) M.H. Crawford, The Roman Republic (2nd ed. 1992) K. Greece, The Archaeology of the (1986) H.H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to (5th ed 1982)

Sources in Translation , The Cvil Wars (LCL vols. III-IV; also as Penguin The Civil Wars); Punic; Spanish, Mithridatic Wars etc. (LCL vols. I-II) Dio Cassius, Roman History (LCL vols. I-II = Books 1-35 - only in fragments or summaries, period down to 70 BC), vols. II-V = Books 36-50 (complete for period 69-31 BC). Diodorus Siculus, LCL vol. XII = Books 33-34 (covering the ate Republican period, esp. the slave revolts in ) Livy, Books XXI-XLV (LCL vols. V-XIII; also as Penguin The War with Hannibal; Rome and the Mediterranean) , Lives (LCL in 11 vols.: N.B: vol. X Gracchi, Flamininus); some lives also as Penguin, Fall of the Roman Repubic - lives of Marius and (LCL IV), Crassus (LCL III), Pompey (LCL V), Caesar, (LCL VII) Polybius, Histories (LCL vols. I-VI; also as Penguin The Rise of the Roman Empire (selection)). remains of Old Latin (LCL vol. IV) Sallust (LCL; also as Penguin Jugurthine War; Conspiracy of Cataline) Cicero, Speeches and Treatises (in LCL, also, for example, P. MacKendrik, The Speeches of Cicero. Context, Law, Rhetoric, 1995)

Collections of Sources M.M. Austin, The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest (1981) R.K. Sherk, Rome and the Greek East to the Death of (Translated Documents of Greece and Rome, vl. 4, 1984) M.H. Crawford (ed.), Roman Statutes 2 vols. (BICS Supplement 64, 1996) N. Lewis and M. Reinhold, Roman Cavitation. Sourcebook I - the Republic (1990) K. Lomas, Roman Italy 338 BC- 200 AD: a Sourcebook (1996) Note also: LACTORS ( 3 = A Short Guide to Electioneering; 10 = Cicero’s Cilician Letters; 13 = The Gracchi to Sulla)

Reference Works Oxford Classical Dictionary = OCD 3rd ed. T.R.S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman republic (1951/2 + supplement 1986) = MRR (Magistrates and the sources for their actions) T.C. Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (2000) Cambridge History of Còassical Literature = CHCL vols. I & II (History of literarture T.J. Cornell and J. Matthews, Atlas of the Roman World (1982) C. Delano Smith, Western Mediterranean Europe. A Historical Geography of Italy, Spain and Southern France since the Neolithic (1979)

Historiography A.D. Momigliano, Alien Wisdom: the Limits of Hellenization (1975) Id., Essays in Ancient and Modern Historiography (1977) B. Frierm Libri Annales Pontificum Maximorum: the Origins of the Annalistic Tradition (1979) C.S. Kraus, Latin Historians (1997) A. Cameron (ed.), History as text: the Writing of Ancient History (1989) E. Gabba, Literatture in M.H. Crawford (ed.), Sourcs for Ancient History (1983) F.G.B. Millar, A Study on Cassius Dio (1964) A.W. Lintott, Cassius Dio and the History of the Late Roman republic, ANRW II.34.3, 2497-2523 A.M. Gowing, The Triumviral Narratives of Appian and Cassius Dio (1992) K. Sacks, Diodorus Siculus and the First Century (1990) D.A. Russell, Plutarch (1973) F.W. Walbank, Polybius (1972) Id., Selected Papers: Studies in Greek and Roman History and Historiography (1985) P.S. Derow, ‘Polybius, Rome and the east’, JRS 89 (1979), 1-15 R. Syme, Sallust (1964) D.S. Levene, Religion in Livy (1993) T.J. Luce, Livy: the Composition of His History (1994) B.A. Marshall, A Historical Commentary on Asconius (1985) A. Wallace-Hadrill, Suetonius (1983)

Website and other Electronic Resources

Primary Sources: Most, if not all, of the primary sources for this course are also available online in a variety of different translations and editions. Because the quality of online versions varies wildly, I would, however, encourage you to use them only as a last resort for preparation for class discussions, and strongly discourage you from using and referring to such versions in your coursework.

The most complete website for the study of the ancient world is: http://ancientworldlinks.atspace.com/ where you find links to all the most important electronic resources regarding the ancient world (from the Near East to the Byzantine period) usefully arranged according to the nature of the primary source (texts; ; papyrology; iconography; topology; numismatics etc.)

Secondary Reading: You may find that numerous items of secondary literature are also available online via JSTOR (http://uk.jstor.org/) or Ingentaconnect (http://www.ingentaconnect.com). Both websites may be accessed on UCL-networked computers or via the UCL library services website: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Library/database/index.shtml WEEK 2: THE ROMAN ‘CONSTITUTION’ AND ITS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

General Introduction T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995) R. Holloway, The Archaeology of Early Rome and Latium (1994) CAH (2nd ed) VII.2, 391-419 P.A. Brunt, Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic (1971) A. Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (1999) Id., ‘The Theory of the Mixed Constitution at Rome’ in J. Barnes and M. Griffin (eds.), Philosophia Togata II. Plato and Aristotle at Rome (1997)

The Senate Cornell, 245-51; 369-77 For reference: M. Bonnefond Coundry, Le senat de la republique romaine (BEFAR 273, 1989)

The Assemblies Cornell, 258-62; 370-80 L.R. Taylor, Roman Voting Assemblies from the Hannibalic War to the Death of Caesar (1966) E.S. Staveley, Greek and Roman Voting and Elections (1972) K. Sandberg, Magistrates and Assemblies. A Study of Legislative Practice in Republican Rome (Acta Instituti Finlandiae 24, 2002)

Patrician and Plebeian Families Cornell, ch. 13 Id., ‘The failure of the plebs’, in E. Gabba (ed.), Tria Corda. Scritti in onore di Arnaldo Momigliano (1983), 101 ff. M. Gelzer, The Roman Nobility (Engl. tr. 1969) R. Develin, ‘The integration of the into the political order after 366 BC’, in K.A. Raaflaub (ed.), Social Struggles in Archaic Rome, 327-52 (but see also the other studies in this volume) A. Drummond, in CAH VII.2, 212 ff. For the individual family members: see MRR II (index of careers)

Religion M. Beard and J. North, Pagan Priests (1990) M. Beard, J.A. North and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome (1998), I, ch. 1 J.H.W.G. Liebeschuetz, Conitnuity and Change in Roman religion (1979) A. Wardman, Religion and Statecraft among the Romans (1982) H.H. Scullard, Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic (1981) is a useful refernce work, but wedded to out-of-date theories

Clientship Cornell, 289-91 P.A. Brunt, in FRR, ch. 8 A. Drummond in A. Wallace- Hadrill (ed.), Patronage in Ancient Society (1989) WEEK 3: ROME AND THE CONQUEST OF ITALY (Ius Civile and Iura Peregrina)

Sources K. Lomas, Roman Italy, 338 BC - AD 200: a Sourcebook (1996)

The Peoples of Italy E. Badian, Foreign Clientelae (1958), ch.1 G. Bradley, Ancient Umbria: Sate, Culture and Identity in Central Italy from Iron Age to the Augustan Era (2000) M.H. Crawford, Coinage and Money under the Roman Republic (1985), ch. 1 (The Peoples of Italy) (see also week 4) J.-M- David, The Roman Conquest of Italy (Engl. tr. 1996), ch. 1 E. Dench, From Barbarians to New Men: Greek, Roman and Modern Perceptions of the Peoples of the Central Appenines (1995) W.V. Harries, Rome in and Umbria (1971) K. Lomas, Rome and the Western Greeks, 350 BC - AD 200 (1993) Id., Rome and the Western Greeks, 350 BC - AD 200 (1993) T.W. Potter, Roman Italy (1987) E.T. Salmon, Samnium and the Samnites (1967) J.H. Williams, Beyond the Rubicon: Romans and Gauls in republican Italy (2001)

Roman early contacts with Magna Graecia F. Sartori, ‘La Magna Grecia e Roma’, Arch. Stor. Calabria e Lucania (1959), 137 ff. R. van Compernolle, ‘Ajax et les Discures au secours des Locriens’, in Hommages ... Renard II (1969), 733 ff E. Bayer, ‘Rom und die Westggriechen bis 280 v. Chr.’, ANRW I, 1 (1972), 305 ff. La Magna Grecia nell’età romana. Taranto, 1975 (Naples, 1976) M.W. Frederiksen, Campania (1984), chs. 8-10 C. Smith, ‘, Cleisthenes, and the emergence of the polis in central Italy’, in L. Mitchell and P. Rhodes (eds.), The Development of the Polis in Archaic Greece (1997), 208-16

The Roman Conquest Cornell, ch. 15 Crawford, The Roman Republic (2nd ed, 1992), ch. 4 CAH VII.2 (2nd ed. 1989), ch. 8 (Cornell) P.A. Brunt, ‘The enfranchisement of the Sabines’, Hommages ... Renard II (1969), 121 ff.

Appius Claudius Caecus G.C. Giardino, ‘Sui frammenti di Appio Claudio Cieco’, in Poesia latina in frammenti 81974), 257 ff. M. Marini, ‘Osservazioni sui frammenti di Appio Claudio’, Riv. Cult. Cl. Med. (19885), 2 The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. II. (1982), 138-142 E.S. Staveley, ‘The political aims of Ap. Claudius’, Historia (1959), 410 ff. T.P. Wiseman, Clio’s Cosmetics (1979), Part II B. MacBain, ‘Appius Claudius Caecus and the Via Appia’, CQ (1980), 356 ff. G. Forni, ‘Manio Curio Dentato uomo democratico’, Athenaeum (1953), 170 ff.

Pyrrhus P.R. Franke, in CAH VII.2, 456 ff.

Economy and Society A. Drummond, in CAH VII.2, 118 ff. M.H. Crawford, ‘The early Roman economy’, in Mélanges J. Heurgon (1976), 197 = Id., Coinage and Money underthe Roman republic (1985), ch. 5

Roman Manpower P.A. Brunt, Italian manpower, 225 BC to AD 14 (1971) N. Morley, Metropolis and Hinterland: the City of Rome and the Italian Economy (1996), ch. 2 D.W. Rathbone, ‘The census qualifications of the assidui and the prima classis’, in De agricultura: in memoriam P.W. de Neeve C. Nicolet, the World of the Citizen (Eng. tr. 1980), ch. 2

Colonisation E.T. Salmon, Roman Colonisation (1969) F.E. Brown, Cosa: the Making of a Roman Town (1980) J.G. Pedley, Paestum (1989)

The Organisation and Culture of Roman Italy David, ch. 2 E. Gabba, Republican Rome, the Army and the Allies (Engl. tr. 1976), ch. V E. Gabba, Appiano e la storia delle guerre civili (1956) A.N. Sherwin White, (2 nd ed. 1973) E.T. Salmon, The Making of Roman Italy (1982) A. Keaveney, Rome and the Unification of Italy (1987) M. Torelli, Studies in the Romanization of Italy (1995) H.M. Parkins (ed.), Roman Urbanism (1997) CAH VIII (2nd ed. 1989), 197-243 (Rome and Italy in the second century - Gabba); 477-516 (The archaeological evidence - Morel) WEEK 4: IMPERIUM: THE WARS AGAINST CARTHAGE

Ancient Sources First Punic War Polybius, Histories, Book I (with Commentary by F.W. Walbank) Livy, Summaries of Books XVI-XIX Second Punic War Livy, Books XXI-XXX (also in Penguin as The War with Hannibal) Polybius, Histories, Books X, 220 (on ) Plutarch, Lives of Fabius, Marcellus

Timaeus T.S. Brown, Timaeus of Tauromenium (1958) A.D. Momigliano, Essays in Ancient and Modern Historiohraphy, ch. 4 L. Pearson, The Greek Historians of the West. Timaeus and his Predecessors (1987)

Polybius K. von Fritz, The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity (1954) F.W. Walbank, ‘Polybius and the Roman State’, in Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 5 (1964), 264 ff. Id., Polybius (1972) Id., ‘Polybius and the Roman State’, in Polybe (Geneva: Entreitiens Hardt 20, 1974), 1 = Selected Papers (1985) (much more relevant material by F.W.W. is collected here)

Rome and Carthage T.A. Dorey and D.R. Dudley, Rome against Carthage(1980) B. Caven, The Punic Wars (1980) S. Lancel, Carthage (1992) H.H. Scullard, in CAH VII.2, 486 ff. Id., in CAH VIII, 17 ff.

The treaties between Rome and Carthage Polybius III, 22-5, with Commentary by F.W. Walbank J. Heurgon, the Rise of Rome, 250 ff. A. Toynbee, Hannibal’s legacy I, 519 ff.

The First Punic War J.F. Lazenby, The First Punic War: a Military History (1996) B.H. Warmington, Carthage (2nd ed., 1969) M.I. Finley, Ancient Sicily to the Arab Conquest (2nd ed., 1979)

The Second Punic War J.F. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War (1978) J.F. Lancel, Hannibal’s War (1998) T.J. Cornell, B. Rankov, and P. Sabine (eds.), The Second Punic War: a Reappraisal (BICS Supplement 67) (1996) H.H. Scullard, Scipio Africanus in the Second Punic War (1930) A.M. Eckstein, ‘Two notes on the chronnology of the outbreak of the Hannibalic War’, RhM (1983), 255 ff. J. Briscoe, in CAH VIII, 44 N. Bagnall, The Punic Wars (1990) H. Devijver and E. Lipinski (eds.), The Punic Wars (1992) J. Peddie, Hannibal’s War (1997)

On Literature, Comedy and Drama Plautus, Four Comedies (The World’s Classics, 1996) Terence, Phormio and Other Plays (Penguin, 1967) E. Fraenkel, Elementi plautini in Plauto (1960) R.L: Hunter, The New Comedy of Greece and Rome (1985) E.R. Handley, Menander and Plautus (1968) J.A. North, ‘Deconstructing Stone Theatres’, in Apodosis: Studies presented to Dr. W.W. Cruickshank (1990), 75-83 N. Horsfall, ‘The pre-history of Latin poetry: some problems of method’, Rivista di Filologia e Istruzione Classica 122 (1994), 50-75 T. Habinek, The Politics of Latin Literature: Writing, dentity, and Empire in Ancient Rome (1998) A.S. Gratwick, Drama, in E.J. Kenney (ed.), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature vol. 2: Latin Literature (1982), 77-137 Id., ‘Titus Maccus Plautus’, CQ (1973), 68 ff. L.R. Taylor, ‘The opportunities for dramatic performances in the time of Plautus and terence’, TAPA (1937), 284 ff. WEEK 5: THE SOCIAL TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE SECOND CENTURY BC: THE ROLE OF WOMEN AND SLAVES

The Roman Family K.R. Bradley, Discovering the Roman family (1991) Id., ‘Writing the history of Roman family’, CP 88 (1993), 235-50 J.A. Crook, The law and Life of Rome (1967) Id., Patria Potestas CQ 17 (1967), 113-122 S. Dixon, The Roman Family (1992) J.E. Gardner, Women in and Society (1986) J. Hallett, Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society (1984) K.-J. Hölkeskamp, ‘Under Roman Roofs: Family, House, and the Household, in H. Flower (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to The Roman Republic (2004), 113-38 D.I. Kertzer and R.P. Saller (eds.), The Family in Italy from Antiquity to the Present (1991) D.B. Martin, ‘The contrsuction of the Roman family’, JRS 86 (1996) B. Rawson (ed), The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives (1986, rev. ed. 1992) Id., Marriage, Divorce and Children in Ancient Rome (1991) Id. And P. Weaver (eds.), The Roman Family in Italy: Status, Sentiment, Space (1997) R.P. Saller, Patriarchy, Property and Death in the Roman Family (1994) Id., ‘Patria potestas and the stereotype of the Roman family’, Continuity and Change, 1, 7-22 S. Treggiari, Roman Marriage (1991)

Roman Women M. Beard, ‘re-reading (vestal) virginity’, in R. Hawley and B. Levick (eds.), Women in Antiquity (1997), 166-77 R.A. Bauman, Women and Politics in Ancient Rome (1992) T. Cornell and K. Lomas (eds.), Gender and Ethnicity in ancient Italy (1997) P. Culham, ‘Women in the Roman Republic’, in H. Flower (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (2004) Id., ‘The lex Oppia’, Latomus 41 (1982), 786-93 E. D’Ambra, Roman Women (2006) S. Dixon, Reading Roman Women (2001) Id., ‘A family business: Womens’ role in patronage and politics at Rome 80-44 BC’, C&M 34 (1983), 91- 112 J.F. Gardner, ‘Women in Roman Law and Society (1986) B. Garlick, S. Dixon, and P. Allen (eds.), Stereotypes of Women in Power (1992) R. Hawley and B. Levick (eds.), Women in Antiquity. New Assessments (1995) T. Hillard, ‘Republican politics, women, and the evidence’, Helios 16 (1989), 165-82 K.L. King (ed.), Women and Goddess Traditions (1997) S.B. Pomeroy (ed.), Women’s History and Ancient History (1991) Id., Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves (1975) P. Setälä and L. Savunen (eds.), Female Networks and the Public Sphere in Roman Society (1999) M.B. Skinner (ed.), Rescuing Creusa: New Methodological Approaches to Women in Antiquity (1987) A. Staples, From Good Goddesses to Vestal Virgins (1998) R.D. Whitehouse (ed.), Gender and Italian Archaeology (1998)

Roman Slaves J. Andreau,,‘Twenty years after Moses I. Finley’s The Ancient Economy’, in Scheidel and von Reden (2002) 33-49 [trans. from French orig. in Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales 50 (1995) 947-60] R. Bentley,. ‘Loving Freedom: Aristotle on Slavery and the Good Life’, Political Studies 47 (1999) 100-13 K. R. Bradley, Slaves and Masters in the Roman Empire: A Study in Social Control (1987) Id., Slavery and Rebellion in the Roman World, 140 B.C. - 70 B.C. (1989) Id., Slavery and Society at Rome, (1994) Id., ‘The problem of slavery in classical culture’, Classical Philology 92 (1997) 273-82 Id.., ‘Animalizing the slave: the truth of fiction’, Journal of Roman Studies 90 (2000) 110-25 P. Brunt, ‘Free labour and public works at Rome’, Journal of Roman Studies 70 (1980) 81ff. Id., ‘Aristotle and slavery’, in Studies in Greek History and Thought (1993) 343-88 Deslauriers, M. ‘Aristotle on the virtues of slaves and women’, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 25 (2003) M.I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (1980; rev. B.D. Shaw 1998) Id.. (ed.), Classical Slavery (1987 = Slavery and Abolition 8; rev. ed. 1999) Fitzgerald, W., Slavery and the Roman Literary Imagination (2000) Gabrielson, V., ‘Piracy and the slave-trade’, in A. Erskine (ed.), A Companion to the Hellenistic World (2003) ch. 23 P. Garnsey, Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine (1996) K. Hopkins, ‘Novel evidence for Roman slavery’, Past and Present 138 (1993) 3-27 [repr. in R. Osborne (ed.) Studies in Ancient Greek and Roman Society (2004) ch. 9] W. Jongman., ‘Slavery and the growth of Rome: the transformation of Italy in the first and second centuries BCE,’ in C. Edwards and G. Woolf (eds.), Rome the Cosmopolis (2003) 100-22 S.R. Joshel, and S. Murnaghan,, Women and Slaves in Greco-Roman Culture: Differential Equations (1998) K. McCarthy, Slaves, Masters and the Art of Authority in Plautine Comedy (2000) E. Rawson,, ‘Freedmen in Plautus’, in R. Scodel (ed.), Theater and Society in the Classical World (1993) 215-33 W. Scheidel, ‘Quantifying the sources of slaves in the early Roman Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies 87 (1997) 156-69 B. D. Shaw (translation and introduction), Spartacus and the Slave Wars (2001) W.G Thalmann,. ‘Versions of slavery in the Captivi of Plautus’, Ramus 25.2 (1996) 112-45 Y. Thébert, ‘The slave’, in Giardina 1993 ch. 5 S. Treggiari., Roman Freedmen in the Late Republic (1969) Id., ‘The freedmen of Cicero’, Greece and Rome 16 (1969a) 195-204 Z. Yavetz, Slaves and Slavery in Ancient Rome (1988) A. Watson, Roman Slave Law (1987) Id.., ‘Roman slave law and Romanist ideology’, Phoenix 37 (1983) 53-65 [repr. Legal Origins and Legal Change (1991) ch. 25] T. Wiedemann, Greek and Roman Slavery, (1994) Id.., ‘Servi Senes: the role of old slaves at Rome’, Polis 8 (1996) 275-293 Id. ‘Fifty years of research on ancient slavery: the Mainz Academy Project’, Slavery and Abolition 21.3 (2000) 152-8 Id. and Gardner, J., Representing the Body of the Slave (2002) [also printed as Slavery and Abolition 23.2 (2002)] WEEK 6: IMPERIUM AND LEX: ROME AND THE EAST

Sources Polybius, Books XXII-XXVII (LCL vol. V ut NB we do not have a full text of these books, only selections made in later antiquity; the Penguin trans., The Rise of the Roman Empire, has a selection of the selection) Livy, Books XXXI-XLV Sherk nos. 1-18

Polybius’ view F.W. Walbank, Polybius (1972) Id., Selected Papers: Studies in Greek and Roman History and Historiography (1985) P.S. Derow, ‘Polybius, Rome and the east’, JRS 89 (1979), 1-15 J.S. Richardson, ‘Polybius’ view of the Roman empire’, PBSR (1979), 1 ff.

First Contacts R.M. Errington, Dawn of Empire: Rome’s rise to World Power (1971) E. Badian, Foreign Clietelae (1958), ch. 3 E.S. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome (1984)

The wars M.H. Crawford, the Roman republic (1992), ch. 6 CAH VIII (2nd ed. 1989), ch. 8 F.W. Walbank, Philip V of macedon (1940) E. Badian, ‘Rome and Antiochus the Great: a study in Cold War’, in his Studies in Greek and Roman History (1964), 112-39 A.H. McDonald, ‘The treaty of Apamea’, JRS 57 (1967), 1-8 W.V. Harris, War and Imperialism in republican Rome327-70 BC (1979) A.N. Sherwin White, Roman Foreign Policy in the East (1984), ch. 2

The Freedom of the Greeks E. Badian, Foreign Clietelae (1958), ch. 3 Id., Titus Quinctius Flamininus, Philhellenism and Realpolitik (1970)

The Character of Imperialism E. Badian, Roman Imperialism in the Late Republic (2nd ed., 1968) C.B Champion (ed.), Roman Imperialism: Readings and Sources (2002) M.K. Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (1978), 25-37 W.V. Harris, War and Imperialism in republican Rome327-70 BC (1979) Id. (ed.), The Imperialism of mid republican rome (1984) J.A. North, ‘The development of Roman Imperialism’, JRS 71 (1981), 1-9 J. Rich ‘Fear Greed and Glory: the causes of Roman war-making in the middle republic’, in J. Rich and G. Shipley (eds.), War and Society in the Roman World (1993), 38-68 J. Webster and N. Cooper (eds.), Roman Imperialism: Post-colonial Perspectives (1996)

Other modern views on Roman imperialism M. Holloeaux, CAH (1st ed.) VII, ch. 26; VIII, chs. 5-7 P.D.A. Garnsey and C.R. Whittaker (eds), Imperialism in the Ancient World (1978) A.N. Sherwin White, ‘Rome the aggressor’, JRS (1980), 177 ff. (review of Harris) E.S. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome (1984) R.M. Errington, in CAH VIII, 81 and 244 P.S. Derow, in CAH VIII, 290 WEEK 7: HELLENISM AND HELLENISATION, AND HELLENISM IN ROME

Droysen and Hellenism A.D. Momigliano, History and Theory 9 (1970), 139 ff. = Essays in Ancient and Modern Historiography (1977), 307-323 Id., ‘The fault of the Greeks’, in Essays in Ancient and Modern Historiography, 9-35 F.W. Walbank, The Hellenistic World, 60-78 A.H.M. Jones, ‘The Hellenistic Age’, P&P 27 (1964), 3-22

Hellenization A.D. Momigliano, Alien Wisdom (1975) F.G.B. Millar, ‘The Problem of Hellenistic Syria’, in A. Kurt and S. Sherwin White, Hellenism in the East (1987), 110-133 S.M. Burstein, ‘The Hellenistic Fringe: the case of Meroë’, in P. Green (ed.), Hellenistic History and Culture (1993), 38-66

Hellenism in Rome E.S. Gruen, Studies in Greek Culture and Roman Policy (1990) A.D. Momigliano, Alien Wisdom: the Limits of Hellenisation (1985) E. Rawson, Intellectual Life in the Late Roman Republic (1985) M. Beard and M.H. Crawford, Rome in the Late Republic, ch. 2 M. Griffin, in CAH IX (1994), ch. 18 J.J. Pollitt, The Art of Rome c. 753 BC - AD 337: sources and documents (2nd ed., 1983), 29-93 P. Veyne, ‘The Hellenization of Rome and the question of aculturations’, Diogenes 106 (1979), 1-27

On the Life of Luxury P. Zanker, The Powerof Images in Augustan Rome (1988), ch. 1 J. d’Arms, Romans on the Bay of Naples (1970), 39-72 A. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum, esp. 38-61 E. Dwyer, in E. Gazda (ed), Roman Art in the Private Sphere (1994)

On Portraiture U.W. Hiesinger, ‘Portraiture in the Roman Republic’, in ANRW I, 4 (1973), 805-15 R.R.R. Smith, ‘Greeks, Foreigners and Roman Republican Potraits’, JRS 71 (1981), 24-38 Id., Hellenistic Royal Portraiture (1988), 125-139 S. Walker, Greek and Roman Portraits (1995) J.D. Breckenridge, ANRW I.4 (1973), 826-854 G.M.A. Richter and J.D. Breckenridge, ‘The relation of early Imperial Rome to Greek art’, ANRW II.12.2 (1982), 3-23 J. Tanner, ‘Portraits, Power and Patronage in the late Roman Republic?, JRS 90 (2000), 18-50

On Myth F.-H. Massa Pairault (ed), Le mythe grec dans l’Italie antique: fonction et image. Actes du colloque international organise par l’Ecole Francaise de Rome, 14-16 novembre 1996 (1999)

On Q. Fabius Pictor M. Gelzer, ‘Römische Politik bei Fabius Pictor’, Her,es (1933), 129 A.D. Momigliano, ‘Linee per una valutazione di Fabio Pittore’, terzo Contributo, 55 ff. Id., ‘Did Fabius Pictor lie?’, in Essays, 99 ff.

On Oratory Cicero, Brutus A. Vasaly, Representations: Images of the World in Ciceronian Oratory (1993)

On Philosophy M. Griffin and J. Barnes (eds.), Philosophia Togata: Essays on Philosophy and Roman Society 1 (1989); 2 (1997) J. Powell (ed.), Cicero the Philosopher: Twelve Papers (1995) J.D. Minyard, Lucretius and the Late republic: an Essay in Roman Intellectual History (1985) E. Segal, Lucretius on Death and Anxiety (1990) D. Sedley, Lucretius and the Transformation of Greek Wisdom (1998)

On Language J.N. Adams, M. Janse, S. Swain (eds.), Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Text (Oxford, 2002), esp. S. Sawin, ‘Bilingualism in Cicero?: the Evidence of Code-switching’, 128-167 and J.N. Adams, ‘Bilingualism in Delos’, 103-127 WEEK 8: ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT, THE ROLE OF SLAVERY, ANDTHE CONCEPT OF LIBERTAS

Sources Appian, Civil wars, book I, introduction M.H. Crawford (ed.),Roman Statues I (1996), no. 2 (Engl. tr. 141-52: the lex agraria of C. Gracchus ?)

The Results of the Punic wars Appianm Civil wars Book 1, Introduction J.-M. David, The Roman Conquest of Italy (1996), chs. 3-4 A.J. Toynbee, Hannibal’s Legacy: the Hannibalic War’s Effect on Roman Life (1965) P.A. Brunt, Italian Manpower, 225 BC to AD 14 (1971), 269-277 T.J. Cornell, ‘Hannibal’s legacy: the effects of Hannibalic War on Italy’, in T.J. Cornell, B. Rankov and P. Sabine (eds.), The Second Punic War: a Reappraisal. BICS Supplement 67 (1996), 97-117

Mass Slavery A. Toynbee, Hannibal’s Legacy (1971) M.K. Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (1978), esp. 48-56 N. Morley, Metropolis and hinterland: the city of Rome and the Italian economy (1996), 122-135 K.R. Bradley, Slaves and Rebellion in the Roman World (1989) D.W. Rathbone, ‘The slave mode of production in Italy’, JRS 73 (1983), 160 ff. J.-P. Morel, in CAH VIII, 477-516, provides the most accessible account in English of the advances represented by the three volumes published by the Instituto Gramsci, Società romana e produzione schiavistica I-III (Bari, 1981)there are also long reviews in English by D.W. Rathbone, JRS 73 (1983), 160f.; C. Spurr, CR 35 (1985), 123-31

Population and Recruitment Problems M.K. Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (1978), esp. 31-37 P.A. Brunt, Italian Manpower E. Lo Cascio, ‘The size of the Roman population: Beloch and the meaning of the Augustan Census Figures’, JRS 84 (1994), 23-40 N. Morley, Metropolis and hinterland: the city of Rome and the Italian economy (1996), ch. 2 J. Rich, ‘The supposed manpower shortage of the later second century BC’, Historia 1983), 27 ff.

Agricultural Change E. Gabba, in CAH VIII, 197 ff. A. Toynbee, Hannibal’s Legacy (1971) M.S. Spurr, Arable cultivation in Roman Italy (1986) L. Foxhall, ‘The dependent tenant: land-leasing and labour in Italy and Greece’, JRS 80 (1990), 97 ff. A. Tchernia, Le vin de l’Italie romaine: essai d’histoire économique d’après les amphores (1986) D.W. Rathbone, ‘The development of Agriculture in the Ager Cosanus during the Roman Republic’, JRS 81 (1971), 10-23 P.W. de Neeve, Colonus: private farm-tenancy in Roman Italy during the Republic and Early (1984) N. Rosestein, Rome at War. Farms, Families and Death in the Middle Republic (2004)

The Evidence of Archaeology K. Greene, The Archaeology of the Roman Economy (1986), ch. 4 (Agriculture in the Roman Empire) N. Purcell, in Cornell and Lomas (eds.), Urban Society in Roman Italy (1995), 151-79 Id., JRS 78 (1988), 194-198 D. Rathbone, ‘The Italian countryside and the Gracchan “Crisis”’, JACT Review 13 (1993), 18-20 Id., ‘The development of agriculture in the Ager Cosanus during the Roman Republic: problems of evidence and interpretation’, Journal of Roman Studies 71 (1981) 12-23 [with N. Purcell review of Settefinestre in JRS 78 (1988) 194-8] Id., ‘The Slave Mode of Production in Italy’, Journal of Roman Studies 73 (1983) 160-8 WEEK 9: IMPERIUM AND LEX: ROME, THE WEST AND THE ROMANS’ ATTEMPTS TO REGULATE THEMSELVES

Expansion in the West J.S. Richardson, Hispaniae (1986) W.V. Harris, in CAH VIII, 107 ff.

Organisation of the Empire W.T. Arnold, The Roman System of provincial Administration (1914) G.H. Stevenson, Roman Provincial Administration (1949) A. Lintott, Imperium Romanum (1993)

J.S. Richardson, Hispaniae (1986) W.V. Harris, in CAH VIII, 107 ff. M.H. Crawford, ‘Origini e sviluppo del sistema provinciale romano’, in A. Schiavone (ed.), Storia di Roma II, 1, 91 ff.

W.V. Harris, ‘The development of the quaestorship, 167-81 BC’, CQ (1976), 92 ff. J.S. Richardson, ‘The purpose of the Lex Calpurnia de repetundis’, JRS 1987), 1 ff.

Imperium R. Kallet-Marx, Hegemony to Empire. The Development of the Roman Imperium in the East from 148 to 62 BC (1995) A. Giovannini, Consulare Imperium (1983) A. Lintott, ‘What was the imperium Romanum?’, Greece and Rome 28, 1 (1981), 53-67 Id., Imperium Romanum: Politcs and Administration (1993) WEEK 10: THE BATTLE FOR EQUALITY: THE GRACCHI

Sources Appian, Civil Wars, Book I Plutarch, Lives of the Gracchi Lex de repetundis, in M.H. Crawford, Roman Statutes I (1996)

General Accounts A.H. Bernstein, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (1978) D.L. Stockton, The Gracchi (1979) A.W. Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome (1968) W. Nippel, Public Order in Ancient Rome (1995)

The Gracchan Reforms M.H. Crawford, The Roman Republic, 107-122 P.A. Brunt, Social Conflicts in the Roman republic (1971) Id., Italian Manpower, 269 ff., 345 ff. E. Badian, Foreign Clientelae (1958) Id., ‘Tiberius Gracchusand the begining of the Roman Revolution’, ANRW I.I. 668-731 D.W. Rathbone, ‘The development of agrilcuture in the Ager Camosanus during the Roman Republic: problems of evidence and interpretation’, JRS (1981), 10 ff. A.N. Sherwin White, ‘The ex repentundarum and the political ideas of C. Gracchus’, JRS 72 (1982), 18-31 L.R. Taylor, ‘Some forerunnerers of the Gracchi’, JRS 52 (1962), 19 ff. See also J.W. Rich, ‘The supposed Roman manpower shortage of the later second century BC’, Historia (1983), 287 ff.

Extortion P.A. Brnt, FRR, ch. 4 A.N. Sherwin White, ‘The lex repetundarum and the political ideas of ’, JRS 72 (1982), 18 ff. M.H. Crawford (ed.), Roman Statutes

Slave Rebellion in Sicily K.R. Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion in the Roman World (1989) M.I. Finley, Ancient Sicily (1979), ch. 11 WEEK 11: POPULARES AND OPTIMATES: THE DESTABILISATION OF THE ROMAN POLITICAL LIFE

Equester Ordo C. Nicolet, L’ordre équestre à l’epoque républicaine (313 - 43 av. J. - C.), 2 vols. (1966 and 1974) M.I. Henderson, ‘The establishment of the equester ordo’, JRS 53 (1963), 61 ff. ( = Seager, Crisis 69 - 80) T.P. Wiseman, ‘The definition of the “eques Romanus” in the Late Republic and early Empire’, Historia 19 (1970), 67 ff. K. Hopkins and Burton, Death and Rewnal (1983) P.A. Brunt, ‘Nobilitas and Novitas’ JRS 72 (1982), 1 ff. E.S. Gruen, Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts, 149 - 78 BC (1968)

A.W. Lintott, ‘The leges repetundis and associate measures under the Republic’, ZSS 98 (1981), 162 ff. E. Badian, ‘The lex Thoria: a riconsideration’, in Studi in onore di Biondo Biondi (1963), 187 ff.

The army; Marius; Saturninus and Glaucia E. Gabba, Republican Rome: the Army and the Allies P.A. Brunt, FRR 257 ff. T.F. Carney, A Biography of Caius Marius (1962) J.-L. Ferrary, ‘Recherches sur la législation de Saturninus et de Glaucia’, MEFRA 89 (1977), 619 ff.

Populares and Optimates L.R. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1949) N. Mackie, ‘Popularis ideology and poular politics in Rome in the first centuries BC’, RhM ( = Rheinischen Museum) 135 (1992), 49-73 B.A. Marshall, ‘Libertas populi: the introduction of secret ballot in Rome and its depiction on coinage’, Antichthon 31 (1997), 54-73 F. Millar, ‘Popular politics at Rome in the late Republic’, in I. Malkin and Z.W. Rubinson (eds.), Leaders and Masses in the Roman World: Studies in Honour of Zvi yavezt, 91-113 C. Nicolet, Les Gracques (1971) T.P. Wiseman, ‘The senate and the populares’, CAH IX (2nd ed., 1994), 327-367 W.J. Tatum, The Patrician : (1999) C. Wirszubski, Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome during the Late republic and Early Principate (1950) N. Wood, Cicero’s Social and Political Thought (1988)

Political Life in the Late Republic M. Beard and M.H. Crawford, Rome in the late Republic (2nd ed. 1999) P.A. Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic and related Essays (1988) J. Linderski, ‘Buying the Vote: Electoral Corruption in the late Republic’, Ancient World, 11 (1985), 87 ff. A.W. Lintott, ‘Electoral bribery in the Roman Republic’, JRS 80 (1990), 1 ff. R. Mcmullen, ‘How many Romans voted?’ Athenaeum 58 (1980), 454-457 A. Yakobsen, ‘Petitio and largitio: popular participation in the of the late Republic’, JRS 82 (1992), 32-52 F. Millar, The Crowd in the Late Republic (1998) K. Hölkeskamp, review of Millar in Scripta Classica Israelica (2000) H. Mouristen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic, (2001) J.R. Patterson, Political Life in the City of Rome (2000) C. Nicolet, The World of the Citizen

Living Conditions in Rome Z. Yavetz, ‘The living conditions of the urban plebs’, latomus 17 (1958), 500-17 D. Cherry, ‘Hunger at Rome in the late Republic’, EMC 37 (1993), 433-5 B.W. Frier, Landlords and Tenants in Imperial Rome (1980) S.R. Joshel, Work, Identity and Legal status at Rome (1992) A. Scobie, ‘Slum, sanitation and mortality in the Roman World’, Klio 68 (1986), 309-433 P. Garnsey, Famine and Food-supply in the reco-Roman World(1988), 182-217 N. Purcell, ‘Rome and the Romana plebs’, in CAH IX (2nd ed. 1994), 644-88 C.R. Whittaker, ‘The Poor’, in A. Giardina (ed.), The Romans (1993) WEEK 12: THE SOCIAL WAR: QUESTIONS OF CITIZENSHIP

Sources Appian, Civil wars Book I (Penguin, 1996), 1-68 Cicero, On the Orator III.1 (Sept. 91 BC) Plutarch, Lives of Marius Sallust, Jugurthine War (Penguin) Other Sources listed in MRR II.20-22

Basically following Appian’s view: E. Gabba, Republican Rome, the Army and the Allies (Engl. tr. 1976) P.A. Brunt, ‘Italian aims at the time of the Social War’, in FRR 93-143 A. Keaveney, Rome and the Unification of Italy (1987) J.-M- David, The Roman Conquest of Italy (Engl. tr. 1996), 99-139 (with more bibliography at pp. 206-8)

Reasons for challanging Appian’s view: H. Mouritsen, Italian Unification, BICS Supplement 70 (1998)

The issue of the citizenship E. Badian, Foreign Clientelae (1958), 168-225 Id., ‘Roman politics and the , 133-91 BC, Dialoghi d’Archeologia 4-5 (1970-71), 373-409 A.N. Sherwin White, The Roman Citizenship (2nd ed. 1973), 134-49 J.S. Richardson, ‘The ownership of Roman land: and the Italians’, JRS 70 (1980), 1-11 T.J. Cornell, B. Rankov and P. Sabin (eds.), The Second Punic War: a Reappraisal. BICS Supplement 67 (1996), 97-117 R.S. Howrth, ‘Rome, the Italians and the land’, Historia 58 (1999), 282-300

The Tribunate of Livius Drusus Appian, Civil Wars, I, 34-38 Gabba (1976), 70-89; 131-41 Mouritsen (1998), 120-7

The Social War Gabba CAH IX (2nd ed. 1994), 104-28 (Rome and Italy: the Social War) David (1996), ch. 7

Italy in the Late Republic David 81996), ch. 8 E.T Salmon, The Making of Italy (1982) M.H. Crawford, ‘Italy and Rome’, JRS 71 (1981), 153-60 Id., CAH X (2nd ed. 1996), 414-33 WEEK 13: DOMINATIO: THE EMPIRE IN THE LATE SECOND CENTURY. THE SULLAN REGIME

Sources Plutarch, Life of Sulla Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum Appian, Civil Wars I, 100, 465 - end Cicero, Pro Roscio Amerino

The Empire H.A. Ormerod, Piracy in the Ancient World (1924) M.W.C. Hassall, M.H. Crawford, J.M. Reynolds, ‘Rome and the Eastern Provinces at the end of the Second Century BC’, JRS (1974), 195 ff. D.C. Braund, The Friendly King (1984) C.T. Barlow, ‘The Roman government and the Roman economy 92 - 80 BC’, AJP 101 (1980), 202 ff. J.-L. Ferrary, ‘La liberté des cités et ses limitesà lépoque répubicaine’, MedAnt 2,1 (1999), 69 ff. R.M. Kallet-Marx, Hegemony to Empire. The development of the Roman Imperium in the east from 148 to 62 BC (1995)

E. Badian, Roman Imperialism in the Late Republic (1968) A.N: Sherwin White, Roman Foreign Policy in the East (1984) J.-L. Ferrary, Philhellénisme et impérialisme (1989)

Sulla E. Badian, Lucius Sulla: the Deadly Reformer (1970) A. Keaveney, Sulla: the Last Republican (1982) Id., Lucullus. A Life (1992) R. Seager, ‘Sulla’, CAH IX (2nd ed.), 165 ff. F. Hinard, Les proscriptions de la Rome républicaine (1985) E.S. Gruen, ‘Political Prosecutions in the 90s BC’, Historia 15 (1966), 32 ff. E. Badian, ‘Sulla’s Cilician Command’, Athenaeum 37 (1959), 279 ff. (= Id., Studies in Greek and Roman History, 157 ff.) T.C. Brennan, ‘Sulla’s career in the Nineties: some reconsiderations’, Chiron 22 (1992), 103 ff. G.V. Sumner, ‘Sulla’s career in the Nineties’, Athaeneum 56 (1978), 395 ff. P.A. Brunt, ‘Sulla and the Asian Publicans’, Latomus 19 (1956), 17 ff. ( = Id., Roman Imperial Themes (1990), 1 ff.) P.F. Cagniart, ‘L. Cornelius Sulla in the Nineties: a reassessment’, Latomus 50 (1991), 285 ff. J.D. Cloud ‘Sulla and the Praetorship’, LCM 13 (1988), 69 ff. M.H. Crawford, ‘The coinage of the age of Sulla’, NC, 4 /1964), 141 ff. T.R. Martin, ‘Sulla Iterum, The samnites and the Roman republican coin propaganda’, SNR 68 (1989), 19 ff. A. Keaveney , ‘Studies on the dominatio Sullae’, Klio 65 (1983), 185-208

Settlements W. Johannowsky, ‘La situazione in Campania’, in P. Zanker (ed.), Hellenismus in Mittelitalien, I, 267 ff. A. La Regina, ‘Il Sannio’, in P. Zanker (ed.), Hellenism in Mittelitalien, I, 219 ff. E. Lo Cascio, ‘Pompei dalla città sannitica alla colonia sillana: le vicende istituzionali’, in M. Cébeillac- Gervasoni (ed.), Les élites municipales de l’Italie péninsulaire des Graques à Néron (1996), 111 ff. F. Zevi, ‘Pompei dalla città sannitica alla colonia sillana: per un’interpretazione dei dati archeologici’, in M. Cébeillac-Gervasoni (ed.), Les élites municipales de l’Italie péninsulaire des Graques à Néron (1996), 125 ff. H. Mouritsen, Elections, Magistrates and Municipal Elite. Studies in Pompeian Epigraphy (1988) M. Torelli, ‘La situazione in Etruria’, in P. Zanker (ed.), Hellenismus in Mittelitalien, I, 99 ff. Id., ‘Regio VII (Etruria)’in S. Panciera (ed.), Epigraffia e ordine senatorio, II, 257 ff. WEEK 14: PAR POTESTAS: POMPEY, CAESAR, CRASSUS

Sources Cicero, Pro imperio Cn. Pompei Id., Pro Sestio Id., de re publica (see also J.-L. Ferrary, ‘Cicéron entre Polybe et Platon’, JRS 87 (1984)) Sallust, Cataline

General Accounts M. Beard and M.H. Crawford, Rome in the Late republic P.A. Brunt, Social Conflicts CAH IX (2nd ed., 1994) H.H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero (1976) M.H. Crawford, The Roman Republic E.S. Gruen, The Last Generation of Roman Republic (1974) T. Wiedemann, Cicero and the end of the Roman Republic (1994)

Cicero M. Fuhrmann, Cicero and the Roman Republic (1992) C. Habicht, Cicero the Politician (1990) W.K: Lacey, Cicero and the end of the Roman Republic (1978). T.N. Mitchell, Cicero: the ascending years (1979) Id., Cicero: the Senior Statesman (1991) D.R. Shackleton Bailey, Cicero (1971) E.D. Rawson, Cicero: a Portrait (1983) R.E. Smith, Cicero: the Statesman (1966) D. Stockton, Cicero. A Political Biography (1971)

Pompey and Crassus R. Seager, Pompey (1979) P. Greenhalgh, Pompey (1982) F.G.B. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World (1977), Introduction von Fritz, ‘Pompey’s policy before and after the outbreak of the Civil War of 49 BC’, TAPhA 72 (1941), 125 ff. J. Leach, Pompey the Great (1978) B.A. Marshall, Crassus (1976) A.M. Ward, Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977) B. Rawson, The Politics of Friendship (1978) (see also week 19)

J.H. Collins, ‘Caesar and the corruption of power’, Historia 4 (1955), 445 ff. M.H. Crawford, ‘The lex Iulia agraria’, Atheaenum 67 (1989), 179 ff. ( = Roman Statues, I) W. Allen, ‘Cicero’s house and libertas’, TAPhA 75 (1944), 1 ff. E.G. Hardy, Some Problems in Roman History (1924) G.V. Summer, ‘Cicero, Pompeius and Rullus’, TAPhA 97 (1966), 569 ff. C. Wirszubski, ‘Cicero’s otium cum dignitate: a reconsideration’, JRS 44 (1954), 1 ff. ( = Seager, Crisis, 183 ff.) WEEK 15: LIBERTAS AND IUS : 70 BCs- 50s BC

General Accounts E.S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974) M.H. Crawford, ‘Hamlet without the prince’, JRS 66 (1976), 214 ff.

Roman People P.A. Brunt, ‘The Roman mob’, Past and Present 3 (1966), 3 ff. Z. Yavetz, ‘The living conditions of the urban plebs’, latomus 17 (1958), 500-17 D. Cherry, ‘Hunger at Rome in the late Republic’, EMC 37 (1993), 433-5 A. Scobie, ‘Slum, sanitation and mortality in the Roman World’, Klio 68 (1986), 309-433 P. Garnsey, Famine and Food-supply in the reco-Roman World(1988), 182-217 N. Purcell, ‘Rome and the Romana plebs’, in CAH IX (2nd ed. 1994), 644-88 P.A. Brunt, ‘The army and the land in the Roman revolution’, rev. in FRR, ch. 5 M.W. Frederiksen, ‘Caesar, Cicero and the problem of debt’, JRS 56 (1966), 128 ff.

Clodius A.W. Lintott, ‘P. Clodius Pulcher’, Greece and Rome (1967), 157 ff. Id, ‘Cicero and Milo’, JRS 64 (1974), 62 ff. W.J. Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (1999)

Clientship P.A. Brunt, in FRR, ch. 8 R. Morstein-Marx, ‘Publicity, popularaty and patronage in the Commentariolum Petitionis’, Class. Ant. 17 (1998), 259 ff. T. Johnson and C. Dandeker, ‘Patronage: relation and system’, in A. Wallace- Hadrill (ed.), Patronage in Ancient Society (1989) P. Veyne, Bread and Circuses (1989) A. Wallace- Hadrill, ‘Patronage in Roman Society: from Republic to Empire’, in Id., Patronage in Ancient Society (1989)

Populares and Optimates N. Mackie, ‘Popularis ideology and poular politics in Rome in the first centuries BC’, RhM ( = Rheinischen Museum) 135 (1992), 49-73 R. Seager, ‘Cicero and the word popularis’, CQ 22 (1972), 328 ff. Id., ‘Factio: Some Observation’, JRS 62 (1972), 53-8 T.P. Wiseman, ‘The senate and the populares’, CAH IX (2nd ed., 1994), 327-367 W.J. Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (1999) C. Wirszubski, Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome during the Late republic and Early Principate (1950) N. Wood, Cicero’s Social and Political Thought (1988) D. Earl, ThePolitical Thought of Sallust (1961) Id., The Moral and Political Tradition of Rome (1967) J. Hellegouarc’h, Le Vocabulaire latin des relations et des partis politiques sous la république (1963) J.R. Dunkle J.R., ‘The Greek Tyrant and Roman Political Invective of the Late Republic’, TAPhA 98 (1976), 160 ff. U. Paananen, Sallust’s Politico-Social Terminology. Its Use and Biographical Significance (1972) (see also week 11) WEEK 16: THE IDEA OF DEMOCRACY IN THE WEST

Sources Polybius, Book VI in The Rise of the Roman Empire (Penguin 1979) (Commentary by Walbank) Cicero, Commentariolum petitionis = A short guide to electioneering (LACTOR no. 3) Cicero, On the Command of Cn. Pompeius (in Penguin, Selected Political Speeches, 370)

The Traditional View M. Gelzer, The Roman Nobility R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939) H.H. Scullard, Roman Politcs 220- 50 BC (2nd ed 1973), ch. 1

M.I. Finley, Politics in the Ancient World (1983) E.S. Gruen, ‘The exercise of Power in the Roman republic’, in A. Molho, K. Raaflaub, J. Emlen (eds.), City States in Classical Antiquity and Medieval Italy (1991), 252 ff.

The Radical Approach F.G.B. Millar, ‘Politics Persuasion and the people before the Social War’, JRS 76 (1986), 311 ff. = Id., 000000 (read also the other collected articles) Id., The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic (1998) A. Yakobson, Elections and Electioneering in Rome (Historia Einzelschriften no. 128, 1999) P.J.J. Vanderbroeck, Popular leadership and Collective Behavior in the late Roman republic (ca. 80 - 50 B.C.) (1987) N. Horsfall, The culture of the Roman plebs (2003)

Moderates M.H. Crawford, The Roman republic, ch. III P.A. Brunt, FRR (chapters on amicitia and clientela) J.A. North, ‘Democratic politics in Republican Rome’, P&P 126 (1990), 3 ff. A. Astin, in CAH (2nd ed. 1989), ch. 6 M.K. Hopkins and G. Burton, Death and Renewal (1983), ch. 2 A.J.E. Bell, ‘Cicero and the Spectacle of Power’, JRS 87 (1997), 122 ff. R. Morstein-Marx, Mass Oratory and Political Power in the Late Roman Republic (Cambridge, 2004)

Some Different Approaches H. Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic C. Nicolet, the World of the Citizen, chs 7 and 8 T.P. Wiseman (ed.), Roman Political Life, 90 BC - AD 64 (1985) P. Veyne, Bread and Circuses (Engl. tr. 1989) W. Nippel, Public Order in Ancient Rome (1995)

The Idea of democracy, Freedom and the Demise of Democracy F.W. Walbank, Polybius (1972) Id., ‘Polybius’s perception of the One and the Many’, in I. Malkin and Z. Rubinsohn (eds.), Leaders and Masses in the Roman World (1995), 201-222 G.E.M. de Ste Croix, The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World (1981), ch. 5, III, appendix 4 J. Briscoe, ‘Rome and the class struggle in the Greek States, 200-146 BC’, P&P 36 (1967), 3-20 H. Aalders, Political Thought in Hellenistic Times (1975) J. O’Neil, The Origins and development of Ancient Greek Democracy (1995) A. Erskine, The Hellenistic Stoa, Political Thought and Action (1990), chs. 1, 3-4 WEEK 17: LATE REPUBLICAN RELIGIOUS SYSTEM

Sources Cicero, On Divination (in LCL) Id., On his House (in LCL) Id., On the laws (in Oxford World Classics), II. 19-22

Religion and Politics L.R. Taylor, Party Politics, ch. 4 A. Wardman, Religion and Statecraft among the Romans (1982), ch. 2 Beard, North, Price,Religions of Rome, I, ch. 3 M. Beard and J. North (eds.), Pagan Priests (1990), ch. 1 J.A. North, ‘religion and politics, from republic to principate’, JRS 76 (1986), 251-8 D. Feeney, Literature and religion at Rome: Cultures, Contexts, and Beliefs (1998), esp. 47-75 C. Ando (ed.), Roman Religion (2003)

The issue of divination J. Linderski, ‘Cicero and Roman Divination’, in Roman Wuestions (1995), 458-84 M. Beard, ‘Cicero and Divination’, and M. Schofield ‘Cicero for and against Divination’, JRS 76 (1986), 33- 65 W. Liebeschuetz, Continuity and Change in Roman religion (1979), 7-29 M. Beard and J. North (eds.), Pagan Priests (1990), ch 2

Men and Gods Dio Cassius, 43, 19-24; 44, 1-11 ROR II, 5.2b; 9.1, 2, 3 ROR I 140-149 S. Weinstock , Divus Iulius (1971), esp. chs. 17-18 J.A. North, ‘Praesens Divus’, JRS 65 (1975), 171-7 E. Rawson, ‘Hellenistic Kings’, JRS 65 (1975), 0000 S.R.F. Price, Rituals and Power: the Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor (1984)

For reference H.H. Scullard, Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic (1981) I. Scott Ryberg, Rites of the State Religion in Roman Art (1995) M. Beard, J. North and S. Price, Religions of Rome (1998),. I & II J. Sheid, An introduction to Roman religion (Eng tr. 2003) WEEK 18: LAW AND ANARCHY Sources M.H. Crawford (ed.), Roman Statutes (1996) O.F. Robinson, The Sources of Roman Law: Problems and Methods for Ancient Historians

Law and Order D. Cloud, ‘The constitution and public criminal law’, CAH IX, 491 ff. M.H. Crawford (ed.), Roman Statutes (1996) J.A. Crook, law and Life of Rome (1967) Id., ‘The development of Roman private law’, CAH IX Id., Legal Advocacy in the Roman World (1995) B.W. Frier, The Rise of the Roman Jurists: Studies in Cicero’s Pro Caecina (1985) H. Galsterer, ‘The administration of justice’, CAH X R.A. Bauman, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Rome (1996) A. Watson, Law Making in the later roman Republic (1974) A.W. Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome (1968) N. Nippel, Public Order in Ancient Rome (1995)

The A. Goldsworthy. The complete Roman army (2003) Id., The Roman Army at war, 100 BC to 200 AD (1996) L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984) A.B. Lloyd (ed.), Battle in Antiquity (1996) R.E. Smith, Service in the Post-marian Roman Army (1958) E. Gabba, Republican Rome: the Army and the Allies J. J. Wilkes (ed.), Documenting the Roman army : essays in honour of Margaret Roxan (2003)

Attitude to Failure N. Rosenstein, Imperatores Victi (1990) WEEK 19: TYRANNY: CAESAR’S DICTATORSHIP AND DEATH

Sources Suetonius, Divus Iulius Cicero, Philipps I-II Tacitus, Annals, I, 1

General Accounts R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939) A.D. Momigliano, JRS 1940, 75 ff. = Secondo Contributo (1960), 407 ff. , review of Syme F. Millar, ‘ and Principate’, JRS (1973), 50 ff. P.A. Brunt, in La Rivoluzione Romana (1982), 236 ff. (in English) M. Beard and M.H. Crawford, Rome in the Late republic P.A. Brunt, FRR (1988), ch. 1

Caesar M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968) E.D. Rawson, ‘Caesar’s heritage: Hellenistic kings and their Roman equals’, JRS 65 (1975), 148 ff. = Roman Culture and Society (1991), 169 ff. J.P.V.D. Balsdon, ‘The Ides of March’, Historia (1958), 80 ff. S. Weinstock, Divus Iulius (1971) J.A. North, ‘Praesens divus’, JRS (1975), 171 ff. E.D. Rawson, ‘Caesar’s heritage: Hellenistic kings and their Roman equals’, JRS 65 (1975), 148 ff. Z. Yavetz, and his Public Image (Engl. tr. 1983)

For the ideological issues involved in the outbreak of the civil war P.A. Brunt, ‘Cicero’s in the Civil War’, JRS 76 (1986), 12 ff. D.R. Shackleton Bailey, ‘The Roman nobility in the Second Civil War’, CQ (1960), 253 ff. E.D. Rawson, ‘Cassius and Brutus: the Memory of teh Liberators’, in I. Moxon at al. (eds), Past Perspectives (1986), 101 ff. WEEK 20: THE EXPANDED ROMAN STATE

M.H. Crawford, ‘The Romanisation of Italy’, in CAH X

The Italian elite R. Syme, ‘Caesar, the senate and Italy’, PBSR 14 (1938), 1 ff. = Roman Papers I (1979), 88 ff. T.P. Wiseman, New Men in the (1971)

Veteran Settlment P.A. Brunt, ‘The army and the land in the Roman Revolution’, JRS 52 (1962), 69 ff. ( = FRR, ch. 5) L. Keppie, Colonisation and Veteran Settlment in Italy 47 - 14 BC (1985) E.T. Salmon, Roman Colonisation under the Republic (1969) A.J. Toynbee, Hannibal’s Legacy, II, ch. 5 and 654-681

Military Funerary Monuments Studi Miscellanei, (1963-4), 10 ff.

Cultural Aspects M.H. Crawford, ‘Greek intellectuals and the Roman aristocracy’, in P. garnsey and C.R. Whittaker (eds.), Imperialism in the Ancient World (1978) M. Griffin, in CAH IX, 689 ff. E.S. Gruen, Culture and National Identity in Republican Rome (1993) J. Powell, Cicero the Philosopher (1995) E.D. Rawson, Intellectual Life in the late Roman Republic (1985) T.P. Wiseman, The World of Catullus (1985) Essay Titles

1) Was Romans’ attainment of hegemony over the Italian peninsula inevitable?

2) How democratic were the political institutions of the Roman Republic?

3) How did the ancient authors conceptualised Rome’s arrival to the world dominion?

4) What historical use is possible to make of Roman comedies? 5) ‘The Roman people has become master of all lands by defending its allies’ (Cicero). Do you agree?

6) ‘The history of women is, and always will be, the history of how men perceive women’. Discuss.

7) What abuses in their system of domestic and provincial government were of concern to second-century Romans and how effective were the attempted remedies?

8) Discuss the possible explanations for the ‘verism’ of Greek portraits of Romans.

9) Discuss the changes in the pattern of Italian agriculture in the second century BC

10) Did the Gracchi have a coherent reforming purpose and if so what was it?

11) What were the most important changes in the Roman political life in the second century BC?

12) ‘The outbreak of the Social War should not be thought to imply Italian hostility towards Rome’. Can this view be defended?

13) In what respects were Sulla’s reforms intended to improve the organisation of Italy and the Roman empire and did they succeed?

14) How far does it make sense to see Pompeius as the first Emperor of Rome?

15) What role, if any, did the people play in the political battle of the first century BC?

16) What, if anything, in the Roman republican system resembled the Greek idea of democracy?

17) In what sense, if any, was religion ‘in decline’ in the late Republic?

18) Is there good reason to argue that Roman religion was undermined by Greek philosophy in the first century BC?

19) If Roman armies of the late Republic were fundamentally mercenary, why was that?

20) ‘Caesar was seeking to incorporate Hellenistic models of power into Roman practice’. Discuss. History Department Marking Criteria Note: These guidelines are derived mainly from the History Benchmarking Statement, approved by the Quality Assurance Agency. They show the expected standard required for each mark band in terms of the following aspects of performance: structure and focus; quality of argument and expression; range of knowledge.

The actual mark awarded will reflect the degree to which the qualities required for the award of a particular class are present . First Class (70+) Structure and focus  Engages closely with the question throughout, showing a mature appreciation of its wider implications.  The structure of the argument is lucid and allows for the development of a coherent and cogent argument.  Factual evidence and descriptive material is used to support the writer's argument, and is both concise and relevant.

Quality of Argument and expression  The writing will be fluent, coherent and accurate.  The writing will go well beyond the effective paraphrasing of the ideas of other historians. It will show that the writer has a good conceptual command of the historical and, where relevant, historiographical issues under discussion.  The work will display originality and imagination, as well as analytical skills of a high order.  The work will demonstrate that the writer can move between generalizations and detailed discussion confidently.

Range of knowledge  The answer demonstrates in-depth reading and critical analysis of the texts, secondary literature and (where relevant) contemporary sources.  The answer demonstrates that the writer has a comprehensive knowledge of the subject and a good understanding of the historical period under discussion.  The writer will demonstrate an ability to evaluate the nature and status of the information at their disposal and identify contradictions and attempt a resolution.

Upper Second Class (60-69) Structure and focus  Work which displays an understanding of the question, an appreciation of some of its wider implications and tries seriously to engage with the question.  The structure of the answer will facilitate the clear development of the writer's argument. But towards the lower end of this mark band the candidate will not be able to sustain a consistently analytical approach.  The writer will deploy relevant evidence to support the argument. But towards the lower end of this mark band, the writer may not explain the full implications of the evidence cited.

Quality of Argument and expression  The answer will be clear and generally accurate, and will demonstrate an appreciation of the technical vocabulary used by historians.  The answer will deploy the ideas of other historians and try to move beyond them. It will also show some appreciation of the extent to which historical explanations are contested.  The answer may not demonstrate real originality or imagination, but the writer will present ideas with some degree of intellectual independence, and show an ability to reflect on the past and its interpretations.

Range of knowledge  The answer will display an extensive, but sometimes uneven, range of knowledge. It will demonstrate evidence of considerable reading.  The answer will demonstrate a sense of the nature of historical development.  The writer will demonstrate an ability to move between generalizations and detailed discussions, although there may be a tendency towards either over-generalised or an over-particularised response to the question.  The writer will reflect on the nature of the evidence and sources available to them, and attempt to use it critically.  The answer will demonstrate a secure understanding of the historical period under discussion.

Lower Second Class (50-59) Structure and focus  The work will display some understanding of the question, but it may lack a sustained focus and only a limited understanding of the question's wider implications.  The structure of the work may be determined largely by the material available to the writer, rather than by the demands of the question. Ideas may be stated, rather than fully developed.  The writing may include descriptive and factual material, but without the kind of critical reflection characteristic of answers in higher mark bands.

Quality of Argument and expression  The writing will be sufficiently accurate to convey the writer’s meaning, but it may lack fluency and command of the scholarly idioms used by historians. It may be clumsy in places.  The writing will show some understanding of historians’ ideas. But it may not reflect critically upon them. The problematic nature of historical explanations may not be fully understood.  The answer is unlikely to show any intentional originality, and may tend towards the assertion of essentially derivative ideas.

Range of knowledge  The answer will show significant knowledge, but it may be limited or patchy. It will be sound, but may contain some inaccuracies. The range of reading will be limited.  The answer will show only limited awareness of historical development.  The writer may show a proneness to present too much narrative or descriptive material, and may present information without reference to the precise requirements of the question.  Information may be presented uncritically and there will be little attempt to evaluate its status or significance.  The answer will demonstrate some appreciation of the nature of the historical period under discussion.

Third Class (40-49) Structure and focus  Work that displays little understanding of the question and the writer may tend to write indiscriminately around it.  The answer will have a structure, but it may be underdeveloped, and the argument may be incomplete and developed in a haphazard and undisciplined manner.  Some descriptive material will be deployed, but without any critical reflection on its significance or relevance. Quality of Argument and expression  The writing may not always be grammatical, and it may lack the sophisticated vocabulary or construction needed to sustain a complex historical argument. In places it may lack clarity and felicity of expression.  There will be little appreciation of the contested and problematic nature of historical explanations.  The answer will show no intentional originality of approach.

Range of knowledge  There will be sufficient knowledge to frame a basic answer, but it will be patchy and limited. There are likely to be some inaccuracies.  There will be some understanding of historical development, but it will be underdeveloped, and the ideas of historians and others may be muddled or misunderstood.  There will be an argument, but the writer may be prone to excessive narrative, and the argument may be signposted by bald assertions rather than informed generalizations.  Information will be employed uncritically as if it was always self-explanatory.  The answer will demonstrate only a rudimentary appreciation of the historical period under discussion.

Referral (35-39) Structure and focus  Work that displays very limited understanding of the question and in many places displays a tendency to write indiscriminately around it.  The answer will have a weak structure, that is poorly developed. There is only a limited and somewhat incoherent argument.  Only a limited amount of descriptive material will be deployed, usually without any critical reflection on its significance or relevance.

Quality of Argument and expression  The writing will frequently be ungrammatical, and will not be such as is required to sustain a complex historical argument. It will often lack clarity and felicity of expression.  There will be almost no appreciation of the contested and problematic nature of historical explanations.  The answer will show no intentional originality of approach.

Range of knowledge  There will only be sufficient knowledge to frame a very basic answer. It will contain many inaccuracies.  There will be only a limited understanding of historical development.  There will be only very limited evidence of an argument.  Information will be employed uncritically and as if it was always self-explanatory.  The answer will demonstrate only a very rudimentary and extremely limited appreciation of the historical period under discussion.

Fail (0-34) Structure and focus  Work that displays little or no real understanding of the question.  The answer will have a weak structure, which is poorly developed. There is no coherent argument.  Only a very limited amount of descriptive material will be deployed, without any critical reflection on its significance or relevance. Some of it will be irrelevant. Quality of Argument and expression  The writing will be ungrammatical. Ideas will sometimes be presented in note form.  There will be no appreciation of the contested and problematic nature of historical explanations.  The answer will show no intentional originality of approach.

Range of knowledge  There will not be sufficient knowledge to frame even a basic answer.  There will be no real understanding of historical development.  There will be little if any evidence of an argument.  It will contain little relevant information.  The answer will demonstrate no real appreciation of the historical period under discussion