Etruscan Identity and Self-Representation in the Late Republic and Early Principate Chiara Strazzulla Supervisors: Cardiff University Dr Guy Bradley (Cardiff University) Prof. Elena Isayev (University of Exeter) Presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Ancient History 2018 Acknowledgements Research might often be portrayed as a solo enterprise, but no work of research is ever truly done alone. This work would most certainly not have been possible without the help and support of many others beside me, who gave their own precious insights, directed my investigation to unexpected corners of the subject topic, and generously gave assistance when assistance was needed. My heartfelt thanks go therefore to: My supervisors, Dr Guy Bradley and Prof. Elena Isayev, who have been present at every stage, providing fundamental clarifications, encouraging me to push my limits and find my strengths, helping me shape what was a disconnected bunch of ideas about Romans and Etruscans into something concrete. Their dedication to this work cannot be understated and without it none of it would have been possible. All at AHRC and the South, West and Wales Doctoral Training Partnership, for generously funding my PhD and providing invaluable occasions for personal and professional development, debate, and sharing. The discussions had at cohort days organised by the DTP have helped guide the direction my research was taking, provided me with additional tools and given me interdisciplinary insights. My thanks in particular to Chantelle Payne and Rose Jones, for their tireless organisational work; and to all the fellow DTP students with whom I exchanged opinions and ideas, most importantly Beatrice Hitchman, Sophie Payne, Maria Tomlinson, Anna Field, James Thomas Lloyd, and Jo Bryant. The academic community at Cardiff University's School of History, Archaeology and Religion, for constantly fostering debate and creating a truly fertile environment for the growth of new ideas. I am most grateful to all that have listened to my thoughts about Etruscan ethnicity and provided their insights, be it at a formal seminar or at a leisurely pub session, and especially to Louis Rawlings, Peter Guest, James Whitley. A special thanks also goes to those who were PGR candidates at Cardiff at my same time, with whom I had the brilliant experience of organising conferences, travelling to symposia, and sharing the lack of phone signal at Gregynog Hall: Joshua Hall, David Colwill, Ulriika Vihervalli, Ioan McAvoy, Alexia Miltiadous Johansson. I like to believe that we laid the foundations not only for academic cooperation, but for lasting friendship. Those academics and PGR candidates outside of Cardiff who listened to my papers at conferences and seminars and provided invaluable comments and suggestions: the list would be long, but in particular I am grateful to Rada Varga, for her insights on onomastics and inscriptions; Beatrice Pestarino and Orestis Mitintzis, for having me at the UCL PGWiP seminar series and helping me deconstruct my haruspices; Edoardo Bianchi, Paul Burton and Arthur Eckstein, for the discussions surrounding the equation between Rome and Italy, which spawned the fortunate phrase 'the long shadow of the Social War'; Tony Corbeill, for his comments and ideas on the styling and perceptions of Etruscan diviners; Gabriel Bodard, for teaching me the foundations of EpiDoc and offering interesting ideas on digital approaches to inscriptions. Those I had the pleasure of working with in my teaching and journalism, who supported my PhD not only financially, but also with a personal care that was more that of friends than that of colleagues: Liz Mayor and Julia Evans at the Classical Education Forum, and Kay Francis at St Michael's School; Dmitrij Palagi and Silvia D'Amato Avanzi at Il Becco; Mike Smith at Art Scene in Wales. Most important, Severino Cesari, editor at Giulio Einaudi Editore, guide, friend, to whose memory I would want this work to be dedicated. My family, who even though they were far away in Italy made their support felt at every step and their encouragement heard when it was needed, and inexplicably showed an interest in my matters of Roman Etruscans that I suspect was sincere: my parents Gloria and Mimmo, my brother Andrea, my cousins Irene, Claudia, Carla, Mario and Giorgio, my in-laws Angelina, Mark and Michael. The larger, extended family of my amazing friends, those close in Cardiff and those far in Italy and other corners of the world. They kept me sane when the workload seemed to much and helped me see it from a different angle whenever it was necessary. I could not possibly name all of you nor all that you did, but I would like to thank in particular: Abbie, for believing in me to an extent that I myself would not have thought possible (and for Dragon Age); our Cardiff crowd, Katie, Chris, Bob, Darsh, Yutian, Sean, Rachel, Dave and Clare, for reminding me that there was life outside of old Etruria; Jessi, who was much more than just a housemate, for the coffee and the chats (may they never end); Kahoru and Katy, for the support and the nights out; Leonardo, for the jokes about inevitable poverty, the theatre, the weird music, and one all-important guest room in Dublin; Francesca, for being at this point more of a sister than a friend, the endless conversations on Messenger, the hiking and the fine dining, and the musing over RPG and sci-fi; Maurizio and Luca, who demonstrated that physical distance is irrelevant when there is friendship, determination, and a need to play D&D; Alice, who allowed me to crash at her flat in London, shared my obsession for martini dry and good dining, and understood when others didn't; Francesco and Davide, with whom I will never tire to discuss weird science, the oddities of human behaviour, OP roleplay characters, and all sorts of silliness; Patrick, Sam, Terrence in London, who helped propel my other writing in a promising direction; Niall and Fergus, who were always available for long-distance, dark humour about beers and bones; Joachim, who listened to my academic frustration with endless patience and cracked terrible jokes (with obscure Tuscanian references) when those too were needed; Giulia, Sharon, Sara and Vanessa, who have tolerated me for the better part of fifteen years so far and appear to still love me, for which I am flattered and happy beyond words. Last but absolutely not least, my husband, Vincent. He embarked with me in the madness of organising a wedding while I was writing a thesis, and gained himself the title of most involved groom in a wedding planning ever. He made coffee when I was on a day-long typing bender. He asked questions on my work with assiduous and, remarkably, sincere curiosity. He helped me not be defeated by despair when the result of the EU referendum made things look like they could never be fixed. He was my greatest helper and my greatest strength and believed in me and in this work when I could not believe in either. Abstract The thesis addresses the matter of Etruscan self-representation in the Late Roman Republic, down to and including the early years of Augustus' Principate, and the effect different dynamics of self- representation had on the development of Roman perceptions of Etruscans in that period. Its main focus is to investigate the degree of agency that can be attributed to individuals of Etruscan origins in actively influencing and shaping contemporary perceptions of Etruscans as a group. Individuals of Etruscan origins are identified either by continuing ties to a centre in Etruria, or by active claims to Etruscan heritage. Supporting evidence can be gleaned, with some degree of caution, from epigraphy and onomastics. Self-representation of individuals both in the city of Rome and in Etruria is considered, concentrating in particular on centres in Northern Etruria because of their higher degree of cultural conservativeness. A reflection on theoretical approaches considers different models for ethnic integration and assimilation, as well as the definition of 'ethnicity' as a concept in antiquity, that could be applied to the present period and topic. The main avenues for self-representation of individual of Etruscan origins are then identified as: active intervention in Roman politics, including the Civil Wars; contribution to religious tradition, with particular emphasis on divinatory practices; elite dynamics in Etruscan municipia; contributions by poets of known Etruscan origins to Late Republican and Augustan-period literature. Each of these is explored separately, addressing evidence from ancient sources, archeology and material culture, and epigraphy. The conclusions highlight a much higher degree of agency of individuals of Etruscan origins in shaping perceptions of Etruscan than posited in previous literature, as well as a much greater complexity in the building of multiple identities (nested or parallel), mutual acculturation between Etruria and Rome, and common stereotypes of Etruscans in Rome in the Late Republican period. Reactions to the cultural environment, as well as patterns of allegiance to Roman political factions, appear to have a high degree of variation between different communities, families, and even individuals. At the same time, evidence is present for an active contribution of individuals of Etruscan origins to commonplace ideas about Etruscans in the field of religion and cultural traditions. An active choice appears to be made by individuals to highlight or downplay their Etruscan origins, real or purported, depending on context and their current political needs. Augustan cultural policies aiming to equate Rome with Italy as a 'Roman-culture' block opposed to a generally Oriental one perceived as hostile facilitate this process, allowing for legitimisation of traditions attributed to the Etruscans that can now be perceived as part of a communal 'old- Roman' Italy-wide cultural heritage.